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Kritiikin Lupaus. Näkökulmia Frankfurtin Koulun Kriittiseen Teoriaan

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Kritiikin Lupaus. Näkökulmia Frankfurtin Koulun Kriittiseen Teoriaan T OIM. OLLI-PEKKA MOISIO ”Olkoon tämän instituutin ohjaavana impulssina lannistumaton tahto palvella totuutta järkähtämättömästi.” – MAX HORKHEIMER [SoPhi] KRITIIKIN LUPAUS Näkökulmia Frankfurtin koulun kriittiseen teoriaan 4.11.2003, 09:31:50 SoPhi Jyväskylän yliopisto Yhteiskuntatieteiden ja filosofian laitos Juha Virkki PL 35 (MaB) 40351 Jyväskylä puh. 014-260 3123, fax 014-260 3101, e-mail [email protected] http://www.jyu.fi/sophi SoPheja myy: Kampus Kirja PL 377, 40101 Jyväskylä puh. 014-2603157, fax 014-611143, e-mail [email protected] sekä tasokkaat kirjakaupat. ISBN 951-39-0422-9 ISSN 1238-8025 Copyright © Olli-Pekka Moisio, kirjoittajat ja SoPhi 1999 Paino Jyväskylän yliopistopaino, Jyväskylä 1999 Kansipaino ER-Paino Ky, Lievestuore Kansi Tuija Tarkiainen Taitto Juha Virkki SISÄLLYS Saatteeksi .................................................................................................... 7 Olli-Pekka Moisio ja Rauno Huttunen Totuuden ja oikean elämän kaipuu. Max Horkheimerin perustus Frankfurtin koulun kriittiselle teorialle ........... 9 Rainer Funk Erich Fromm Frankfurtin koulussa. Psykoanalyyttinen sosiaalipsykologian käsite ........................................... 44 Päivi Moisio Kasvattamisen vaikea taito. Erich Fromm kasvattamisen luonteesta .................................................... 71 Saila Anttonen Kasvatus, sivistys ja yhteiskunta. Kriittisen teorian sivistysdiskursseja .......................................................... 95 Jürgen Matthies Joko olemme kaikki kriittisiä ekologeja? Kriittinen teoria ja ekologinen ajattelu ................................................... 126 Jussi Kotkavirta Omantunnon huono omatunto. Adorno, etiikka ja negatiivinen moraalifilosofia ..................................... 157 Martin Jay Onko kokemus edelleen kriisissä? Ajatuksia Frankfurtin koulun kaihosta ................................................... 177 Leena Kakkori Walter Benjamin ja kodittomat taideteokset ...........................................197 Ilona Reiners Heikot, onnelliset ja vainotut. Theodor W. Adornon antisemitismitulkinta ...........................................215 Sami Pasanen Valistuksen valossa piilevä hämärä. Fasismin historiallisesta asemasta teoksessa Dialektik der Aufklärung ........ 236 Douglas Kellner Herbert Marcuse ja radikaalin subjektiivisuuden metsästys ...................265 Jari Hoffrén Rationaalisen demokratian paluu? Jürgen Habermas Frankfurtin koulun ohjelman demokratisoijana ...........285 Kirjoittajat .............................................................................................. 310 Omistettu äidille ja isälle, Ritva ja Kauko Moisiolle 6 SAATTEEKSI uosituhat henkii viimeisiä henkäyksiään uuden pyrkiessä ottamaan paik- Vkansa julmalla täsmällisyydellä. Maailma odottaa henkeään pidätellen 2000-luvun lyöntiä peläten samalla teknologian luoman suojaverkon mur- tumista ja sen aiheuttaman mahdollisen kaaoksen purkautumista. Kuluvan vuosituhannen viimeiset 10 vuotta ovat todistaneet muutosten tuulten puhallusta kaikkien järkähtämättöminä pidettyjen rakenteiden läpi. Vapai- den markkinoiden talous näyttää saaneen viimein niskaotteen selättäessään sosialistiset projektit, jättäen jälkeensä torsoutuneita entisten supervaltojen jäänteitä. Maailma saa todistaa niiden kohduissa kyteneitä ristiriitoja tyrmistyttävällä tavalla. Ympäri maailmaa kasvava hätä ja kärsimys tunkeu- tuu entistä tehokkaammin joukkotiedotusvälineiden kautta olohuoneisiimme meidän tuijottaessa niitä niin kuin urheilukilpailuja asiantuntijakommentaat- toreineen. Olemmeko passivoituneet ja käpertyneet omahyväiseen onnel- lisuuteemme ja lakanneet kuuntelemasta kehoamme, joka kertoo, ettei kaik- ki ole hyvin ympärillämme? Kulutusyhteiskunta ja ”markkinavoimat” pitä- vät ihmisiä entistä tiiviimmin otteessaan tunkeutuen yhä syvemmälle ihmis- yksilöiden yksityisyyteen. Missä on kritiikki? Missä ovat ihmisjoukot ka- duilta? Missä on voimakas oppositio? Tässä utooppisten energioiden ehty- misen ja näköalattomuuden maailmassa on ehkä hyvä pysähtyä hetkeksi miet- timään vastarinnan ja kritiikin mahdollisuuksia niin teorian tasolla kuin käy- tännössäkin. Tämä kirja ei kuitenkaan voi ottaa ansiota edellä esitettyihin ongelmiin vastaajana. Se voi vain vaatimattomasti toimia avauspuheenvuorona Suomessa toivottavasti viriävään keskusteluun, jossa pohdittaisiin ns. Frankfurtin koulun kriittisen teorian avaamia mahdollisuuksia ja rajoja sekä tieteelliselle että yhteiskunnalliselle keskustelulle uuden vuosituhannen aattona. Kirjassa kes- kitytään Frankfurtissa sijainneen (ja edelleen sijaitsevan) Sosiaalitutkimuk- sen instituutin (Institut für Sozialforschung) ympärille muotoutuneen ”tutkija- yhteisön” ensimmäisen sukupolven keskeisimpien edustajien ajatuksiin. Kir- jan ulkopuolelle jäävät kuitenkin monet kriittisen teorian kehittymisen kan- nalta tärkeät ajattelijat. Heidän (esim. Friedrich Pollock, Franz Neumann, 7 Otto Kirscheimer, Leo Löwenthal) ajatustensa tarkempi tarkastelu jää mate- riaalisten rajoitteiden vuoksi tulevaisuuteen. Tämän kirjan tarkoituksena on kuitenkin tarjota suomalaiselle lukijalle mahdollisuus tutustua tähän syvälli- sesti länsimaalaiseen tieteelliseen sekä muualla yhteiskunnassa käytävään kes- kusteluun vaikuttaneeseen tutkijaryhmään monesta eri perspektiivistä kä- sin. Samalla se toivon mukaan toimii jo pidemmälle ehtineelle aihealueen tuntijalle uusien näkökulmien avaajana. Haluan kiittää kaikkia kirjoittajia ennakkoluulottomasta suhtautumisesta kirjaprojektiin osallistumiseen. Uskon, että kaikki kirjoittajat jakavat yhtei- sen luottamuksen Frankfurtin koulun tradition edelleen kehittelyn ja tutki- misen tärkeyteen. Kiitos kuuluu myös SoPhille ja Juha Virkille. Ilman hä- nen panostaan ja ohjaustaan kirjan toimitustyö olisi ollut monin verroin hankalampaa. Haluan myös kiittää Ilona Reinersiä ja Jussi Kotkavirtaa kään- nösten tarkistuksesta ja korjausehdotuksista. Suurin kiitos kuitenkin kuu- luu vaimolleni Päiville, joka on ymmärtänyt toimitustyön harmaita hetkiä ja omalla olemuksellaan tehnyt niistä toivon täyttämiä sinisiä hetkiä. Jyväskylässä syksyllä 1999 Olli-Pekka Moisio 8 Olli-Pekka Moisio ja Rauno Huttunen TOTUUDEN JA OIKEAN ELÄMÄN KAIPUU Max Horkheimerin perustus Frankfurtin koulun kriittiselle teorialle Frankfurtin koulun institutionaalisen perustan synty rankfurtin koulun historian alkuna voidaan pitää sitä, kun viljamiljonäärin F poika Felix J. Weil ryhtyy organisoimaan sekä taloudellisesti tukemaan saksalaisen vasemmistoälymystön erinäisiä projekteja. Yhdessä Karl Korschin kanssa Weil organisoi kesällä 1923 Erste Marxistische Arbeitswoche -tapahtu- man, johon osallistuivat muun muassa Georg Lukács, Béla Fogarasi, Fried- rich Pollock, Karl A. ja Rose Wittfogel sekä Richard Sorge1 . Seminaariviikolla paneuduttiin erityisesti Korschin (1966) julkaisemattoman käsikirjoituksen Marxismus und Philosophie2 käsittelyyn. Seminaarin onnistumisesta huolimatta toista seminaaria ei koskaan tullut, vaan suuret odotukset keskittyivät Wei- lin merkittävämpään projektiin. Hänen varsinaisena tavoitteenaan oli perus- taa marxilainen tutkimusinstituutti, jossa marxilainen näkökulma olisi toi- saalta radikaalimpi kuin perinteisessä saksalaisessa akateemisessa ”katederi- sosialismissa” mutta toisaalta myös avoimempi kuin maanalaisessa Saksan kommunistisessa puolueessa. Vastakaikua pyrkimyksilleen Weil sai talous- tieteen professorilta ja Sosiaalipoliittisen yhdistyksen (Verein für Sozialpolitik) asiantuntijalta Kurt Albrecht Gerlachilta. Weil ja Gerlach olivat ottaneet yh- teyttä jo vuoden 1920 lopulla Preussin opetusministeriöön ja Frankfurtin yliopistoon tutkimusinstituutin perustamiseksi. Weilin isä lupautui lahjoit- tamaan vuosittain 120 000 Saksan markkaa tulevan instituutin toiminnan kulujen kattamiseksi. Sosiaalidemokraattien johtamassa Weimarin tasavallassa Frankfurtin yli- opisto sekä opetusministeriö suhtautuivat myönteisesti tähän ”lahjoitus- professuuriin”.3 Saksan sosiaalidemokraatit olivat ideologisessa tienhaarassa ja samaan aikaan heidän piti löytää käytännöllisiä ratkaisuja massiivisiin so- siaalisiin ongelmiin. Saksan tulevaisuus oli avoin, ja kysymyksiä oli enem- 9 män kuin mahdollisia vastauksia. Ajan henki kuvastuu hyvin Weilin vuonna 1920 julkaistusta väitöskirjasta (Weil Wiggerhausin 1995,11-12 mukaan): Asiat eivät voi jatkua samalla tavoin kuin tänään. Liikemiehillä ei ole tarvitta- vaa rohkeutta tehtäviensä suorittamiseen. Tämä johtuu lakoista, korkeista pal- koista, veroista, työläisneuvostoista, molemminpuolisesta epäluottamuksesta ja yhteiskunnallistamisen pelosta. Näistä syistä Saksan taloudellinen elämä kuih- tuu kokoon. Takaisin vapaisiin markkinoihin vai eteenpäin sosialismiin? Siinäpä vasta kysymys. Weilin ja Gerlachin suunnitelmat näyttivät vastaavan ajan haasteisiin. Vuo- den 1923 alussa – instituutin tilojen rakentaminen aloitettiin maalliskuussa – opetusministeriö antoi valtuutuksen perustaa Frankfurtin yliopiston osak- si Sosiaalitutkimuksen instituutti (Institut für Sozialforschung), joka sai myös opetusvelvoitteita. Instituutilla oli kuitenkin huomattava autonomia suhteessa yliopistoon. Weil kieltäytyi hakemasta instituutin johtajan paikkaa, vaikka hän olisi ollut sekä muodollisesti että asiallisesti pätevä johtajaksi: olihan opetusministeriö jopa ehdottanut instituutin nimeksi ”Felix Weilin sosiaali- tutkimuksen instituuttia” (Jay 1996, 8). Luonteva ja akateemisesti meritoi- tunut ehdokas johtajaksi oli instituutin toinen perustajahahmo Kurt Albert Gerlach, joka oli jo edellisenä vuonna kutsuttu professoriksi Frankfurtin
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