DOCSLIB.ORG

Diagnosing Distortion in Source Reporting: Lessons for Humint Reliability from Other Fields

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Diagnosing Distortion in Source Reporting: Lessons for Humint Reliability from Other Fields DIAGNOSING DISTORTION IN SOURCE REPORTING: LESSONS FOR HUMINT RELIABILITY FROM OTHER FIELDS GEORGE P. NOBLE, JR. A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Mercyhurst College In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN APPLIED INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT OF INTELLIGENCE STUDIES MERCYHURST COLLEGE ERIE, PENNSYLVANIA MARCH 2009 DEPARTMENT OF INTELLIGENCE STUDIES MERCYHURST COLLEGE ERIE, PENNSYLVANIA DIAGNOSING DISTORTION IN SOURCE REPORTING: LESSONS FOR HUMINT RELIABILITY FROM OTHER FIELDS A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Mercyhurst College In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN APPLIED INTELLIGENCE Submitted By: GEORGE P. NOBLE, JR. Certificate of Approval: _____________________________________ Stephen Marrin Assistant Professor Department of Intelligence Studies _____________________________________ William Welch Instructor Department of Intelligence Studies _____________________________________ Phillip J. Belfiore Vice President Office of Academic Affairs March 2009 Copyright © 2009 by George P. Noble, Jr. All rights reserved. iii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my dear friend and colleague Nancy Calzaretta, who taught me most everything I know about the handling of sensitive source information. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Allen Bostdorff for his encouragement and ideas. I would also like to thank my primary reader, Stephen Marrin, for his adroit direction and many hours of wise counsel. Finally, I am grateful to my family and my employer for allowing me this time for dedicated study and reflection on the field of intelligence. v ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS Diagnosing Distortion in Source Reporting: Lessons for HUMINT Reliability from Other Fields By George P. Noble, Jr. Master of Science in Applied Intelligence Mercyhurst College, 2009 Assistant Professor Stephen Marrin, Chair The views expressed in this thesis do not necessarily represent the views of the FBI. This paper explores how source reporting can be distorted at each stage of the human intelligence (HUMINT) process within the United States Intelligence Community (USIC) and how that distortion may impact perceptions of source reliability. It first explores the many, sometimes conflicting, meanings of reliability, seeking useful descriptions from other fields to bolster the definition within intelligence. The paper continues with a look at the HUMINT process, followed by detailed discussions of the potential for distortion of source reporting by and between the source, collector, analyst, and editor, again looking at other fields for contributions to understanding. It concludes with observations and recommendations. The target audience includes the USIC, especially the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which both rely heavily on HUMINT collection. Social scientists, journalists, and legal scholars may be interested in the discussion of reliability and how their fields compare with intelligence. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page COPYRIGHT PAGE………………………………………………………………. iii DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………...... v ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………...... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………….. vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………....... x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………...... 1 2 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………... 3 3 PROCEDURES….……………………………………..... 8 4 RESULTS………………………………………………... 10 The HUMINT Process…………………………………… 10 The HUMINT Source……………………………………. 18 The HUMINT Collector…………………………………. 29 The Editor………………………………………………... 56 5 CONCLUSION……….………………………………….. 61 Recommendations………………………………………... 65 Conclusions………………………………………………. 67 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………. 68 APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………... 74 Appendix A………………………………………………. 75 Appendix B………………………………………………. 77 Appendix C………………………………………………. 78 Appendix D………………………………………………. 79 Appendix E………………………………………………. 80 Appendix F………………………………………………. 81 vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BCE Before the Common Era BND German Intelligence Service CIA Central Intelligence Agency CPUSA Communist Party USA D&D Denial and Deception DCIA Director, Central Intelligence Agency DIA Defense Intelligence Agency DNI Director of National Intelligence FI Foreign Intelligence FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation FCI Foreign Counterintelligence GRU Russian/Soviet Military Intelligence HIS Hostile Intelligence Service HUMINT Human Intelligence INFOSEC Information Security IMINT Imagery Intelligence ISR Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance JAG Judge Advocate General (USAF) KGB Committee for State Security (Soviet) MACE Method for Assessing the Credibility of Evidence MID Military Information Division; Military Intelligence Division (US Army) NTSB National Transportation Safety Board ONI Office of Naval Intelligence OPC Office of Policy Coordination (CIA) OPSEC Operational Security OSS Office of Strategic Services viii RIP Recruitment-in-Place SS Surveillance Specialist (FBI) SSG Special Surveillance Group (FBI) SVR Foreign Intelligence Service (Russian) TECHINT Technical Intelligence US United States USAF US Air Force USIC US Intelligence Community USN US Navy WFO Washington Field Office (FBI) WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction ix 1 INTRODUCTION This paper explores how the routine development of source reporting within the USIC through targeting, acquisition, documentation, evaluation, and exploitation can lead to the deterioration of product reliability wholly unrelated to purposeful deception by sources. The source reliability caveat contained in most reporting and finished intelligence products1 speaks only to the characteristics of the spy, including his/her trustworthiness, competence, accuracy, and duration of service, while failing to address the loss of reliability that emerges in the intelligence process itself. The collector and/or dedicated evaluators use the caveat to sum up their evaluation of the asset’s motives, abilities, access, and the accuracy of his/her actual output. But are there others involved in the HUMINT process who may potentially distort source reporting? Do intelligence agencies misrepresent the reliability of the source reporting they pass through liaison channels to other domestic and foreign agencies? This paper will explore the many, sometimes conflicting, meanings of reliability, seeking useful descriptions from other fields to bolster the definition within intelligence. It will continue with a look at the HUMINT cycle, followed by detailed discussions of the potential for distortion of source reporting by and between the source, collector, analyst, and editor. It concludes with some observations and recommendations. The target audience for this thesis includes the United States Intelligence Community, especially the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which both rely heavily on HUMINT collection. Social scientists, 1 In the writer’s experience, when an analyst draws from a segment of source reporting for use in certain intelligence products, the analyst inserts a warning notice ahead of the specific text to highlight the sensitivity and reliability of the source of that part of the overall text. A brief end of warning statement lets the reader know that the highlighted text is complete. 2 journalists, and legal scholars may be interested in the discussion of reliability and how their fields compare with intelligence. 3 LITERATURE REVIEW This writer has discovered nothing written specifically on how HUMINT from clandestine sources might be distorted by those who collect, analyze, and publish it. No discussion of human reconnaissance and surveillance intelligence was found in the context of the vulnerability of their data to distortion as they are collected, processed, analyzed, and disseminated. In this age of spy satellites, the literature tends to focus on TECHINT and dismisses human reconnaissance and surveillance as only tangential to HUMINT collection. Richard A. Best, of the Congressional Research Service (CRS), focuses exclusively on TECHINT in his 2005 review of surveillance and reconnaissance.2 No literature was uncovered that outlines a specific HUMINT process and how the reliability of source reporting can be distorted through that process. Such a process would apply the collection, processing, analysis, production, and dissemination nodes of the traditional intelligence cycle. Biographies of Aldrich Ames, Robert Hanssen, John Walker, among others, tell individual stories of espionage but say little about the elements of the intelligence cycle beyond the interaction between source and handler. Even general studies of HUMINT, like Frederick Hitz’s Importance and Future of Espionage,3 focus primarily on operational security (OPSEC) and covert operations. Literature was found on quantitative assessment of human source evidence in intelligence, but it focuses on assessing the source and thus has little applicability to this thesis. In particular, David A. Schum and Jon R. Morris developed the MACE (Method 2 Best, Richard A., Jr. Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) Programs : Issues for Congress, CRS Report for Congress, 22 February 2005. 3 Hitz, Frederick P. “The Importance and Future of Espionage,” in Strategic Intelligence Vol. 2: The Intelligence Cycle, ed. Loch K. Johnson (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Security International, 2007). 4 for Assessing the Credibility of Evidence) system, which uses Baconian and Bayesian analysis to rate
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 1 ISR Asset Visibility and Collection Management Optimization Through
    ISR asset visibility and collection management optimization through knowledge models and automated reasoning Anne-Claire Boury-Brisset1, Michael A. Kolodny2, Tien Pham2 (1) Defence Research and Development (2) U.S. Army Research Laboratory Canada 2800 Powder Mill Road 2459 de la Bravoure Road Adelphi, MD 20783-1197 Quebec, QC, G3J 1X5, Canada [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Abstract The increasing number and diversity of information sources makes ISR operations more and more challenging; this is especially true in a coalition environment. Optimizing the discovery and utility of coalition ISR assets when facing multiple requests for information, and enhancing the data to decisions process by gathering mission-relevant information to consumers will require automated tools in support of collection planning and assessment. Defence R&D Canada and the US Army Research Laboratory have related research activities in the area of ISR asset interoperability and information collection. In this paper, we present these projects and collaborative efforts to enhance ISR interoperability, through plug-and-play ISR interoperability and semantic knowledge representation of ISR concepts as well as approaches to maximize the utilization of available ISR collection assets. Keywords: Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance, information collection, sensors, UGS, standards, ontology. Published in the KSCO-2016 conference proceedings, ICCRTS-KSCO 2016 DRDC-RDDC-2016-P144 © Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister of National Defence, 2016 © Sa Majesté la Reine (en droit du Canada), telle que représentée par le ministre de la Défense nationale, 2016 1 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Trends Toward Real-Time Network Data Steganography
    TRENDS TOWARD REAL-TIME NETWORK DATA STEGANOGRAPHY James Collins, Sos Agaian Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA [email protected], [email protected] Abstract Network steganography has been a well-known covert data channeling method for over three decades. The basic set of techniques and implementation tools have not changed significantly since their introduction in the early 1980’s. In this paper, we review the predominant methods of classical network steganography, describing the detailed operations and resultant challenges involved in embedding data in the network transport domain. We also consider the various cyber threat vectors of network steganography and point out the major differences between classical network steganography and the widely known end-point multimedia embedding techniques, which focus exclusively on static data modification for data hiding. We then challenge the security community by introducing an entirely new network data hiding methodology, which we refer to as real-time network data steganography. Finally, we provide the groundwork for this fundamental change of covert network data embedding by introducing a system-level implementation for real-time network data operations that will open the path for even further advances in computer network security. KEYWORDS Network Steganography, Real-time Networking, TCP/IP Communications, Network Protocols 1. INTRODUCTION Even though the origins of steganography reach back to the time of ancient Greece, to Herodotus in 440 BC, the art of steganography continues to evolve. This is especially true in the technical methods of digital embedding [1][2]. Digital steganography has been used since the early 1980’s and network steganography techniques quickly evolved with the advent of the Internet and standardized multimedia formats used for data exchange [3].
    [Show full text]
  • Stalin and the Seat-Of-His-Pants
    THE CRITICS | BOOKS hen Richard Sorge – reputedly the greatest spy who ever lived W– was executed by the Japanese on 7 November 1944 his last words were: “The Red Army!”, “The International Communist Party!” and “The Soviet Com- munist Party!”, all delivered in fluent Japa- nese to his captors. Sorge was bound hand and foot, the noose already set around his neck. Tall, blue-eyed, ruggedly good- looking and apparently unperturbed by his imminent demise, Sorge was contributing the perfect denoument to what he might well have assumed was an enduring myth in the making. So much for the myth but, as ever, the truth – or as close as we can get to the truth – is infinitely more compelling, as this fasci- nating biography makes clear. Sorge, suave, calm, facing his death with enviable sang- froid was a far more complex, troubled and rackety figure than the one he cut at his ex- ecution, and is all the more interesting for it. Born in 1895 to a German father and a Russian mother in Baku, an oil town on the Caspian Sea, Sorge had a comparatively set- tled bourgeois upbringing, particularly after the family moved back to Berlin when he was five years old. What radicalised him was the First World War. He enlisted as a soldier when hostilities began and he saw a lot of action, being wounded three times. The slaughter he witnessed on the Western and Eastern fronts made Sorge embrace communism. In the near-civil war that erupted in Germany after the Armistice he joined the Spartacist revolutionaries who saw the future of Ger- many as a utopian workers’ republic.
    [Show full text]
  • SPYCATCHER by PETER WRIGHT with Paul Greengrass WILLIAM
    SPYCATCHER by PETER WRIGHT with Paul Greengrass WILLIAM HEINEMANN: AUSTRALIA First published in 1987 by HEINEMANN PUBLISHERS AUSTRALIA (A division of Octopus Publishing Group/Australia Pty Ltd) 85 Abinger Street, Richmond, Victoria, 3121. Copyright (c) 1987 by Peter Wright ISBN 0-85561-166-9 All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior written permission of the publisher. TO MY WIFE LOIS Prologue For years I had wondered what the last day would be like. In January 1976 after two decades in the top echelons of the British Security Service, MI5, it was time to rejoin the real world. I emerged for the final time from Euston Road tube station. The winter sun shone brightly as I made my way down Gower Street toward Trafalgar Square. Fifty yards on I turned into the unmarked entrance to an anonymous office block. Tucked between an art college and a hospital stood the unlikely headquarters of British Counterespionage. I showed my pass to the policeman standing discreetly in the reception alcove and took one of the specially programmed lifts which carry senior officers to the sixth-floor inner sanctum. I walked silently down the corridor to my room next to the Director-General's suite. The offices were quiet. Far below I could hear the rumble of tube trains carrying commuters to the West End. I unlocked my door. In front of me stood the essential tools of the intelligence officer’s trade - a desk, two telephones, one scrambled for outside calls, and to one side a large green metal safe with an oversized combination lock on the front.
    [Show full text]
  • War Responsibility of the Chinese Communist Party, the Ussr and Communism
    WAR RESPONSIBILITY OF THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY, THE USSR AND COMMUNISM How the US became entangled in the Comintern’s master plan to communize Asia Ezaki Michio, Senior fellow, Nippon Kaigi (Japan Conference) Shock waves from Venona files continue to reverberate The Venona files have unmasked more than a few Soviet spies who infiltrated the US government during the World War II era. With the disclosure of the transcripts, what has for decades been a suspicion is on the point of becoming a certainty: the Roosevelt administration was collaborating with the Soviet Union and the CCP (Chinese Communist Party). A retrospective debate is in progress, and with it a reexamination of the historical view of that period; both have accelerated rapidly in recent years. The term “Venona files” is used to describe code messages exchanged between Soviet spies in the US and Soviet Intelligence Headquarters that were intercepted and decrypted by US Signals Intelligence Service personnel. The NSA (National Security Agency) released the transcripts to the public in 1995. As more of these messages were disclosed and analyzed, they revealed evidence likely to prove conclusively that at least 200 Soviet spies (or sympathizers) worked for the US government as civil servants. Their members included Alger Hiss ① (hereinafter I shall place numbers after the names of influential individuals, and use boldface font to indicate communists or communist sympathizers).1 Suspicions that there were Soviet spies in the Roosevelt administration date back more than 60 years. In 1948 Time magazine editor Whittaker Chambers, testifying before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, accused Alger Hiss ① of spying for the USSR.
    [Show full text]
  • Flynn,John T.- While You Slept (PDF)
    While You Slept Other Books by John T. Flynn THE ROOSEVELT MYTH THE ROAD AHEAD: AMERICA'S CREEPING REVOLUTION While You Slept OUR TRAGEDY IN ASIA AND WHO MADE IT by JOHN T. FLYNN THE DEVIN-ADAIR COMPANY New York · 1951 Copyright 1951 by John T. Flynn. All rights reserved. Permission to reprint material from this book must be obtained in writing from the publisher. For information write: The Devin-Adair Company, 23 East 26th St., New York 10, N. Y. First Printing, November 1951 Second Printing, November 1951 Third Printing, December 1951 Fourth Printing, January 1952 MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Contents I While You Slept 9 II The Red Deluge 13 III China's Two Wars 14 IV Two Great Designs 25 V Architects of Disaster 30 VI The Road to Korea Opens 44 VII The Great Whitewash 54 VIII The Pool of Poison 59 IX The Hatchet Men 71 X Left Thunder on the Right 82 XI The Press and Pink Propaganda 88 XII Red Propaganda in the Movies 98 XIII Poison in the Air 108 XIV The Institute of Pacific Relations 116 XV The Amerasîa Case 134 XVI The Great Swap 145 XVII The China War 151 XVIII The Blunders That Lost a Continent 157 XIX America s Two Wars 178 References 187 While You Slept I While You Slept As June 1950 drew near, America was giving little attention to a place called Korea. Secretary General Trygve Lie of the United Nations was urging that Chiang Kai-shek's govern- ment be expelled from the United Nations to make room for the Chinese Communist government of Mao Tse-tung.
    [Show full text]
  • Espionage Against the United States by American Citizens 1947-2001
    Technical Report 02-5 July 2002 Espionage Against the United States by American Citizens 1947-2001 Katherine L. Herbig Martin F. Wiskoff TRW Systems Released by James A. Riedel Director Defense Personnel Security Research Center 99 Pacific Street, Building 455-E Monterey, CA 93940-2497 REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 The public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing the burden, to Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (0704- 0188), 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. PLEASE DO NOT RETURN YOUR FORM TO THE ABOVE ADDRESS. 1. REPORT DATE (DDMMYYYY) 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (From – To) July 2002 Technical 1947 - 2001 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER 5b. GRANT NUMBER Espionage Against the United States by American Citizens 1947-2001 5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER 6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER Katherine L. Herbig, Ph.D. Martin F. Wiskoff, Ph.D. 5e. TASK NUMBER 5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8.
    [Show full text]
  • Spy Culture and the Making of the Modern Intelligence Agency: from Richard Hannay to James Bond to Drone Warfare By
    Spy Culture and the Making of the Modern Intelligence Agency: From Richard Hannay to James Bond to Drone Warfare by Matthew A. Bellamy A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (English Language and Literature) in the University of Michigan 2018 Dissertation Committee: Associate Professor Susan Najita, Chair Professor Daniel Hack Professor Mika Lavaque-Manty Associate Professor Andrea Zemgulys Matthew A. Bellamy [email protected] ORCID iD: 0000-0001-6914-8116 © Matthew A. Bellamy 2018 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to all my students, from those in Jacksonville, Florida to those in Port-au-Prince, Haiti and Ann Arbor, Michigan. It is also dedicated to the friends and mentors who have been with me over the seven years of my graduate career. Especially to Charity and Charisse. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ii List of Figures v Abstract vi Chapter 1 Introduction: Espionage as the Loss of Agency 1 Methodology; or, Why Study Spy Fiction? 3 A Brief Overview of the Entwined Histories of Espionage as a Practice and Espionage as a Cultural Product 20 Chapter Outline: Chapters 2 and 3 31 Chapter Outline: Chapters 4, 5 and 6 40 Chapter 2 The Spy Agency as a Discursive Formation, Part 1: Conspiracy, Bureaucracy and the Espionage Mindset 52 The SPECTRE of the Many-Headed HYDRA: Conspiracy and the Public’s Experience of Spy Agencies 64 Writing in the Machine: Bureaucracy and Espionage 86 Chapter 3: The Spy Agency as a Discursive Formation, Part 2: Cruelty and Technophilia
    [Show full text]
  • The Search for the "Manchurian Candidate" the Cia and Mind Control
    THE SEARCH FOR THE "MANCHURIAN CANDIDATE" THE CIA AND MIND CONTROL John Marks Allen Lane Allen Lane Penguin Books Ltd 17 Grosvenor Gardens London SW1 OBD First published in the U.S.A. by Times Books, a division of Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co., Inc., and simultaneously in Canada by Fitzhenry & Whiteside Ltd, 1979 First published in Great Britain by Allen Lane 1979 Copyright <£> John Marks, 1979 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner ISBN 07139 12790 jj Printed in Great Britain by f Thomson Litho Ltd, East Kilbride, Scotland J For Barbara and Daniel AUTHOR'S NOTE This book has grown out of the 16,000 pages of documents that the CIA released to me under the Freedom of Information Act. Without these documents, the best investigative reporting in the world could not have produced a book, and the secrets of CIA mind-control work would have remained buried forever, as the men who knew them had always intended. From the documentary base, I was able to expand my knowledge through interviews and readings in the behavioral sciences. Neverthe- less, the final result is not the whole story of the CIA's attack on the mind. Only a few insiders could have written that, and they choose to remain silent. I have done the best I can to make the book as accurate as possible, but I have been hampered by the refusal of most of the principal characters to be interviewed and by the CIA's destruction in 1973 of many of the key docu- ments.
    [Show full text]
  • Global Studies 1
    Global Studies 1 Assigned Academic Advisors GLOBAL STUDIES Academic advisors are critical resources dedicated to students' academic, personal, and professional success. Every CAS student is Description assigned an academic advisor based on their primary major. Since most The global studies major at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln CAS students have more than just a single major, it is important to get to prepares students for a changing and complex world by increasing their know the advisor for any minors or additional majors. Academic advisors knowledge of global issues and developing their skills in critical thinking, work closely with the faculty to provide the best overall support and communication, and logical analysis. The interdisciplinary program discipline-specific expertise. is designed to help students understand the growing connectedness Assigned advisors are listed in MyRED (https://its.unl.edu/myunl/) and diversity of interactions at the global level. Global studies provides and their offices may be located in or near the department of the major students with a range of classroom, community, and co-curricular for which they advise or in the Academic and Career Advising Center. activities both domestically and internationally. It is built on the Students who have declared a pre-health or pre-law area of interest will framework of: also work with advisors in the Exploratory and Pre-Professional Advising • being a dynamic and well-integrated interdisciplinary academic Center (Explore Center) in 127 Love South, who are specially
    [Show full text]
  • Tradecraff in ANCIENT GREECE
    DECLASSIFIED Authority NND 947003 Strategemata I I TRADECRAFf IN ANCIENT GREECE Rose Mary Sheldon 1 The ancient Greeks knew a great deal about the ins and outs of spying, but they did not make our modern terminology distinctions among intelligence collection, security, counterintelligence, and covert operations. If the Greeks did h~ve a word for it, it was strategemata, the single heading under which they gtouped all such activities. We are able to study these "strategems of war" today, t~anks to the survival of several Greek military handbooks, called strategika biblia. Their chapters on intelligence gathering instruct a commander in what w~uld today be called tradecraft: the finer arts of running agents, sending secret rriessages, using codes. ciphers, disguises, and surveillance. We can also glean information from the works of Greek historians and other ancient writers who, even if they are not primarily concerned with military matters, do refer occa­ sibnally to techniques of secret operations. Here is a look at what these sources h~ve to say about the " how to do it" of ancient spying. Of all the surviving military treatises, by far the best is the one written about ~7 B.C. by Aeneas the Tactician-another name, it is thought, for Aeneas of Stymphalos, general of the Arcadian Confederacy. As a fourth-century com­ mlmder, he very likely served most of his time as a mercenary soldier. The Arcadians had been the first Greeks to turn to soldiering as a profession and were mhre in demand than any other mercenaries. They were said to have been the first practical instructors in the art of war.
    [Show full text]
  • Espionage As a Sovereign Right Under International Law and Its Limits
    Maurer School of Law: Indiana University Digital Repository @ Maurer Law Articles by Maurer Faculty Faculty Scholarship 9-2016 Espionage as a Sovereign Right under International Law and its Limits Asaf Lubin Maurer School of Law - Indiana University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/facpub Part of the International Law Commons, Military, War, and Peace Commons, and the National Security Law Commons Recommended Citation Lubin, Asaf, "Espionage as a Sovereign Right under International Law and its Limits" (2016). Articles by Maurer Faculty. 2911. https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/facpub/2911 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Scholarship at Digital Repository @ Maurer Law. It has been accepted for inclusion in Articles by Maurer Faculty by an authorized administrator of Digital Repository @ Maurer Law. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Espionage as a Sovereign Right under International Law and its Limits by Asaf Lubin1 It is indispensable for a sovereign to obtain information on his subjectsand his soldiers, on all which happens near him or in distant regions, and to know about everything which is occurring, be it of small or great importance. If he does not do so, this will prove a disgrace, a proof of his negligence and neglect ofjustice... Sending out police agents and spies shows that the ruler is just, vigilant, and sagacious. If he behaves as I have indicated, his state will flourish. - Nizam Al-Mulk, Persian scholar and vizier of the Seljuq empire (11th century) T he literature surrounding the international legality of peacetime espionage has so far centered around one single question: wheth- er there exist within treaty or customary international law prohibi- tive rules against the collection of foreign intelligence in times of peace.
    [Show full text]