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Date ...... � ..... � ...... }.. : ...... C.... NEW SOUTH WALES 1788 to 1848 A Study of the relationship between Church and State in the development of education in early N.S.W. with special reference to the role, significance and contribution of the Chaplains, Missionaries and Protestant Clergy. IAN J. WING MASTER OF EDUCATION 1979 - 2 - CONTENTS SYNOPSIS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION i. The Present Day Significance of the Early Years in Education. ii. Responsibility. iii. Role of the Church - Informal Responsibil ity. iv. Approach. CHAPTER 2. THE BACKGROUND TO EDUCATION IN THE COLONY OF N.S.W. i. The Colony in 1788. ii. Education in the Early Days. iii. Advances under the Governors. iv. Church and State. CHAPTER 3- BRITAIN'S INFLUENCE i. Local Environment and Overseas Influences. ii. Historical Aspects. iii. Home Government Attitude and General Phi I osophy. iv. Religious Influences at Home and their Effect in the Antipodes. - 3 - v. Australia as a 1 New 1 Land in Education. CHAPTER 4. ROLE, SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OFi THE CHAPLAINS. i. Importance o.f the Chaplains in Early Education. ii. The Rev. Richard Johnson. iii. The Rev. Samuel Marsden. CHAPTER 5. MISSIONARY AND CLERGY CONTRIBUTIONS. i. Aid from the Missionary Societies. ii. The London Missionary Society Men. iii. Clergy Contributions to Education. CHAPTER 6. THE END OF AN ERA. i. Aims of Leadership. ii. Thomas Hobbes Scott. iii. William Grant Broughton. CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY. - 4 - SYNOPSIS The formative years in education in the Colony of New South Wales spanned the sixty years from 1788 - when the colony was estab lished - to 1848 - when a Dual system of administration was instig ated. During this time, the major influence on the development of education was the Church. In the very early years, the chaplains were the signif icant administrators and initiators in the actual foundations of education. By the very nature of their office, the historical setting in Britain and lecal environmental factors, education was seen as part of the Chaplain's duties. The arrival of several Congregational missionaries enabled the next stage of development to take place. The initial found ations provided by the Chaplains were built upon by these men and the provision of education became more widespread. Finally the stronghold over the administration of education by the Anglican Church was weakened and the Anglican dominated and control led system gave way to a dual system shared between various denominations of the Church on the one hand and the State on the other. This dual system with a shared responsibility for education has continued into the 1970's. The resulting friction over educ tional matters has similarly accompanied us to the present. It is - 5 - this continued dual responsibility in education and its resulting friction which is the major feature of our education system which has been carried forward from our foundation years. CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1. THE PRESENT DAY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EARLY YEARS IN EDUCATION. When one observes the multiplicity of administrative pat terns at work in the provision of formal education in N.S.W. in the 70's even the less curious-minded are to some extent tempted to ask such questions as, Was it always thus:? and Why? We find that the existence of a State system of education on a very rigid and centralised pattern works alongside a well established collection of private schools, with both of these sections of the educational community forced into an appearance of mock unity by the necessity of preparing pupils for the same external examination. The unity, however, does not really extend much further than this. The continued reliance upon the State for funds and the very real pressure exerted by the inspectorial system does little to further the close co-operation of these two sectors of the education field. Within the State system, the centralised decision-making process has continued for many years with the resulting high degree of conformity in each education unit. The private system, however, exhibits a fairly marked variety of education institutions just as it has continued to do over the past two hundred years, in N.S.W. - 7 - Although both 'systems' are influenced by similar pressure groups within our society, it is clear that a large proportion of the private schools system remains tied to the various religious denom inations which were responsible for their foundation. This, of course, is nothing new and hardly surprising when one considers the very large role which the Church played in the foundation and estab lishment of education in N.S.W. Church influence is not, of course, restricted to the private system alone. There has been over the past few centuries a very definite Church - State relationship in education which has, I believe left its mark on the present system. Throughout our very short history as a nation, the type of relationship that has existed between Church and State at any part icular time has had a continuous influence on the type, quality and extent of education which has been offered to our children. It is significant then, if we are to fully understand the pressures and idiosyncracies of our present day system of education in N.S.W., to examine in detail the role and significance of the Church in the foundation and developirent of education in the first six or seven decades of the history of the colony of N.S.W. I I. RESPONSIBILITY In examining the history of education in N.S.W. until the mid nineteenth century we note that it is chiefly a history of Church and State with respect to both the provision and administra- - 8 - tion of education at all levels. While these constantly changing roles of Church and State were affected by the new ideas from abroad (especially from the Continent and Great Britain), as wel 1 as social, economic and political pressures brought to bear from within the colony itself, the initial direction of education was to be in fluenced predominantly by the convict element in the population, the imposition of English educational institutions and customs, and the background of the first educational administrators - the chaplains. In many ways, a totally unique system evolved which reflected the unique set of circumstances that surrounded the formation and estab lishment of the penal colony. By the turn of the century, the system of education in the colony differed vastly in character from the model transported to the colony from England via the minds and lives of the members of the first fleet. In England, education was provided by private enterprise or church societies unti 1 1870 when the first State elementary school was established, although the State had provided aid for Church Schools from 1833 onwards. The scene of elementary education in England during the closing years of the eighteenth century was a most depressing one. The Government seemed complete ly unconcerned with this state of affairs and was content to leave the responsibility of providing and administering education to the Churches, chiefly the Church of England. A number of types of schools had been established: the Dame Schools, the Common Day Schools, the Charity Schools, the Schools of Industry and the - 9 - Sunday Schools. The Sunday School movement and the Charity Schools were successful in attracting a large number of pupils and instruction was chiefly religious in nature although some scant attention was paid to the teaching of basic reading, writing and arithmetic. It was against this background of Church of England controlled education of a relatively poor standard that the con vict settlement arrived in N.S.W. in 1788 under the leadership of Governor Phillip. No schoolmaster was sent as part of the first fleet, and so the responsibility was taken up by the Rev. Richard Johnson who immediately set about establishing schools - first at Sydney itself and subsequently at Parramatta and Norfolk Island. Fees were charged in these early attempts at educative institutions but financial help was forthcoming from The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. As time progressed the state was prepared to accept more responsibility in the provision of element ary education and then as a further result of this some of the early teachers were paid by the N.S.W. Corps. (the Chaplain still being in charge of these early teachers). The various missionary societies were also of some assistance - the most prominent and helpful being the London Missionary Society. Following some successful experimentation with the support of education in Norfolk Island by the imposition of levied duties on liquor as wel 1 as fines, Phillip King as the third Governor of the colony largely financed education from Colonial Office sources. - 10 - Indeed an educational awakening occurred under King, for by 1806 some nine schools were providing education for 300 pupils, all receiving government support. However little moral or financial support was given to the provision of education in the colony by the British authorities, who simply regarded N.S.W. as a convict penitentiary. King was most tolerant with respect to the teaching of religion in schools and allowed a Roman Catholic School to be established in 1805 with financial support from the colonial revenue. Bligh upon his appointment in 1806 received instructions from the Secretary of State that financial support could be continued from colonial revenue. Nevertheless, during his Governorship and also that of the second interregnum 1 ittle pro gress was made - in fact a marked deterioration occurred. The Church of England still was providing finance and administering most of the colony's schools and in general the State took little responsibility. Schoolmasters were recruited principally from the ranks of missionaries, clergymen, soldiers or ex-convicts and even when Marsden conducted an extensive recruitment in England there wasn't a significant result. I I I. ROLE OF THE CHURCH - INFORMAL RESPONSIBILITY The development of an education system in N.S.W. was, then quite a unique story. It is clear that the church played an extremely important part in this development. At no time in the history of - 11 - N.S.W. was education more connected with the Church than in the first few decades of the life of the colony. There were several important factors which initially brought this situation into existence. As these factors ceased to exist, so too did the very close relationship between education and the Church. It must be made clear at the outset however, that it is not possible to say that the Church was solely responsible for the development of education in N.S.W. - even in the very early years. Similarly, we must be careful not to over-generalise on the relative insignificance of the role of the State in education in the early years. Many educational historians have been very narrow in their approach to this question. If we are to judge at all, we cert ainly cannot underplay the serious problem of survival that had to be the primary problem for the first few years and the prevailing 1 home government• attitude of N.S.W. as a penal colony (and little or nothing more) which caused their directives to the governors of the colony to seem rather austere and harsh. A balanced approach to the history of the colony must provide the 1 backdrop 1 for any study of the importance of education or the church in these early years. It is still possible to argue, however, that even in the light of the above, the Church did play the major role in the origins of education in the colony and continued as the main driving force for the first half century or so at least. - 12 - IV. APPROACH In order to fully understand the role and significance of the Church in the foundations of education in the colony, it is necessary to examine the background both within the colony in the early years and also the situation which existed in Britain not only with refer ence to attitudes to education but also politically, social ly,and economically. This will then enable us to concentrate on the work of the two Anglican chaplains which were the driving force of the education system for so many years. A study of missionary contributions and the significance of other clergy with special emphasis on the work of William Grant Broughton and Thomas Hobbes Scott will finally enable us to evaluate the importance of the Church in this Church State relationship which was to be the major characteristic of the education system in N.S.W. in this era. CHAPTER 2. THE BACKGROUND TO EDUCATION IN THE COLONY OF N.S.W. I. THE COLONY IN 1788 It is hard for us to imagine the magnitude of the difficul ties with which the members of the first fleet had to contend in the first days, weeks and even years of the colony of N.S.W. We must, however, at least attempt to try to uncover some of the detail of this trying time so that we can examine the education scene in a balanced and well informed way. The interplay of religious, social, economic and political factors within the colony itself were import ant in determining the way that education would begin and develop. From the beginning, children were part of the colony. Thirty-six children arrived with the first fleet in 1788 and a further eleven arrived in 1790 on the 1 Lady Juliana! The Second Fleet brought with it twenty-two children and the Third, in 1791, twelve more. By 1801, about one hundred children had been transport ed to the colony. What was to happen to these children in the eyes of the various administrators representing the home government, is, to some extent, unclear. Similarly there is a good deal of dis agreement over the priorities which the early governors placed on their education. It is known that there was great fear within the colony for the morals of these children. In fact, we can identify the main aims of early education as those of separating children from the adverse influence of vicious parents and an attempt at inculcat- - 14 - ing acceptable moral attitudes. Although the first governor of N.S.W. (Captain Arthur Phillip) had great faith in the future of the colony, most of his colleagues disagreed. In July 1788, he sent the following dispatch to the British Government. 'I have no doubt but that the country will hereafter prove a most valuable acquisition to Great Britain. Time will remove all difficulties, and with a few families who have been used to the cultivation of lands, the country will bear a more pleasing aspect.' If we take heed of the comments of those who were present, a dim picture of the early colony is painted. The Rev. Richard Johnson described the soil as 'nought' and stated that the colony was never likely to answer the wishes and expectations of the government. Captain James Campbell (a marine), stated that no one thing could be found that ever promised to be an object of commerce or worthy the attention of a commercial nation, while Lieutenant Governor, Major Grose stated that in the whole world there was not a worse country as barren and forbidding. The problems these early pioneers faced were the urgent problems of survival. Education was perhaps the furthest thing from their minds in this seemingly 'God forsaken prison land' to which they had been sent. The three major problems which faced them were the lack of water, the unsuitability of the vegetation, and the almost total - 15 - lack of good soi 1. 11 ••• for a considerable time after their arrival they were in so con fused a state that no school could be established for the instruction of chi ldren. 111 Since no imperialist sentiment or vision of the future either of Australia or of the British Empire, was the motive for settlement but instead, simply the desire to rid England of some of her surplus convicts, it is little wonder that education held little or no place in the problems of the very early days. Nor is it any wonder that the colony was soon to develop into - what Shellard describes as - one of the most profligate sac- . . h 2 1 et I es on ea rt . I I. EDUCATION IN THE EARLY DAYS The background to the penal settlement meant that it was set up to provide for adults sentenced to serve out their time in N.S.W. or there for a short time as servants of the crown - in short, con victs and soldiers. 1. Minutes of a meeting of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 15th March, 1972: Bonwick Biography, Val 111. p.766, Mitchell Library. 2. Shellard, J. 11 Public Education in N.S.W. 11 in Education Gazette, February, 1968 - 16 - The education of such a community was not, of course, even contemplated in any real way. The thought of a future generation and a thriving nation was not the immediate problem and was, there fore replaced by more urgent matters:- how to survive, how to ensure a continuous and reliable supply of food, how to provide shelter and clothes and so on. The fact that thirty six children had been landed from the Fleet 1 s transports tended to be overlooked by both the Home Office and also the authorities of the time in the penal colony. Indeed no one appears to have seen any need whatsoever to plan for a rising generation - education was not a function of the state. By 1807, on Governor Bligh 1 s testimony, there were 397 married women in the colony, 1,035 11 concubines11 , 807 legitimate children and 1,024 illegitimate children. Even within a few years of arrival, the problem of neglected children wandering the streets was acute. It was clear, that an education was needed for these child ren and also for the children of officers, free settlers and emancipists. The traditional answer to this question was the local clergyman financed by his endowed living, his glebe, and the fees of his pupils. None of these were available in N.S.W. The early chaplains had no great backing in their endeavours to support schools, no doubt missionaries did their best, but neither they nor - 17 - the convicts who often did the actual teaching were well qualified for the task. Private schools did begin early in the nineteenth century but it is very difficult to say what standard they reached. It was clear to the early governors of N.S.W. that the 1 Home 1 policy could not be applied to the penal colony at Botany Bay in most fields. The very idea that the penal colony was to remain just that was reason enough for trouble especially when we consider the fact that many of the convicts who were transported from Britain were not criminals by any stretch of the imagination. They were not prepared to allow the Settlement to remain a penal colony and nothing more. With the increased amount of emancipists and free settlers, as the settlement grew, this feeling became acute so that by the time Macquarie was in full control and the British Government sent Commissioner Bigge to prepare a report on the colony, the Home Office was beginning to become quite concerned at the waste of time and money on what was intended to be a dumping place for so called 11 undesirables 11 of British Society. In the first few years, however, the Home Government 1 s lack of understanding of the problems of the colony was causing much concern. They were very much out of touch with the actual problems that were being faced by the members of the First Fleet, in social and economic matters. The early governors of N.S.W. soon found it necessary to contradict their masters at Westminster, for Botany Bay was not a fragment of English society transplanted to the Antipodes, but a - 18 - military and penal garrison in which they were responsible for every detail of daily life. The results achieved by the colony were also of great concern to the home office. It was anticipated at the outset, that the convicts would need to be maintained for one year only and that after one year the colony would be well on the way to self-suffic iency. With so many problems associated with the new colony, it is not difficult to see that the education of the convicts and their children was a problem of little consequence to the Home Government. When they were not prepared to underake any major government intervention in education in Britain, why should there even be thought of it in a penal colony? The people who made up the colony were simply transplant ed British subjects and whtle there has been quite a lot of de bate over the 1 quality 1 of these people it is certain that the attitude of the Home Government was such that they considered them to be criminals and hardly worthy of educative concern. It is undeniably true, that the savagery of the penal code caused many •good, hard working men' to be sent to N.S.W. It is also true that the most brutal of England's criminals were gen erally sent to the gallows rather than to N.S.W. This is not to say, though, that there were not many criminals in the penal colony who deserved to be chastis~for their criminal behaviour in Britain or even their continued criminal activities in the colony - 19 - itself. By 1798 Civi 1 police had been found necessary. Among the problems of early education one notes that one of the great problems was the availability of books and capital. Although many of the first fleet were unable to read, there were some who had received at least a very basic education in England. The Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (S.P.C.K.) tactfully selected the following books to accompany the first fleet - 200 Exercises against Lying; 50 Cautions to Swearers; 100 Exhortations to Chastity; 100 Dissuasions from Stealing; 50 Religions made Easy as well as Prayer Books and Bibles. There were, certainly, others available from both the better educated convicts and members of the N.S.W. Corps. The officers, governors, and free settlers, were however, the major source of books other than those held by the clergy. This of course was a major problem to anyone inclined to teach even the basic reading skills. Another problem was that associated with the total apathy of many of the convicts. Although some of the convicts were des irous of having their children educated, there were many who did not care and felt that the exercise was a pure waste of time. In fact, many convicts did all within their power to make certain that their children were not 'at school I because this meant that they were not able to work as slaves to their parents. The main problem apparent in the colony from the start, however, was the lack of suitable people capable of teaching the - 20 - children Those who were well-educated, were either officers with plenty of work to keep them busy or the clergy. A few convicts were eventually found who could start a school but this happened after the colony had been in existence for a while. The result was that the clergy were the logical choice to be responsible for the task of ed ucation. As we shall see later, this was not an uncommon situation in Britain at the time. The first attempts at education in the colony between 1788 and 1824 are summarised in the table below. Cronological Summary 1789 - 1824 1789 Land to be allotted to support a schoolmaster 1793 Rev. Johnston's first school-house; finance by the S.P.G. 1799 Missionary influence; voluntary school at Kissing Point 1801 Opening of Female Orphan School 1809 Hosking appointed to orphan school - first trained teacher 1811 Macquarie's grant of 25 pounds to each school house. 1815 Aborigines' school at Liverpool 1819 Male Orphan school established under Bowden 1823 Bigge Report (mentioning several secondary schools) 1824 Rev. Reddall appointed as Director-General The overall educational situation in N.S.W. was very poor. In the first half century of the colony's existence, 'stop-gap' meas ures were used in an attempt to provide at least something of an education for the children of the convicts so that the future of the - 21 - colony was certain but this did not really become of any great sig nificance unti 1 Macquarie 1 s governorship. To quote Turney, 11 Teache rs we re usua 11 y as unsk i 11 ed and incompetent as they were i 11 paid and of low social standing. The methods they employed were mechanical and inefficient. The enlight ened pedagogic theories and practices being developed on the continent of Europe had little impact on educational activity. Schools, commonly unsuitable and inadequate in structure, were irregularly attended. Parsimony was, from the beginning, a feature of the administration of the colony's schools. To this was soon added often bitter rivalry between the various religious denominations, and later between the powers of Church and State. 11 During the period 1788 - 1825, there was a considerable amount of progress in education in the colony. The chaplain was responsible for establishing schools and missionary societies provided some finance. Orphan schools were opened and trained teachers were appointed with government assistance. There were even attempts to educate the natives in special Aboriginal schools. The overall structure of education, however, was not evident. Nowhere was there to be seen any thoughtful planning in an attempt to provide an education system. It was not until Commissioner Bigge arrived in the colony and prepared two reports in 1823 that there began a feeling of the necessity of a thorough examination and perhaps the formulation of a system of education. The schools which had been established in the early years - 22 - owed little to the State except the victualling of teachers from government stores. The first real progress was made through the efforts of the chaplains. I II. ADVANCES UNDER THE GOVERNORS The following table shows us the governors of N.S.W. from 1788 to 1824. 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip R.N. 1792 Major Francis Grose (Lieutenant - Governor) 1795 Captain William Paterson (Lieutenant - Governor) 1796 Captain John Hunter R.N. 1800 Captain Philip Gidley King R.N. 1806 Captain William Bligh R.N. 1808 Lieutenant-Colenal George Johnston 1808 Major Joseph Foveaux (Lieutenant - Governor) 1809 Lieutenant-Colonel William Patterson 1809 Colonel Lachlan Macquarie 1821 Sir Thomas Brisbane 1825 Sir Ralph Darling Although some governors served in their positions for significantly longer periods of time than others, each made at least some basic impact on the type of education which was to continue within the colony. While it is true that the clergy's influence was of greater importance than that of any other single group, this does not imply that the influence and encouragement of the gov- - 23 - ernors was insignificant. As has been pointed out above, a multi factoral approach must be taken if one is to examine in any balanced way the causes of the progress of education in this period. We have al ready begun to see that the clergy ;consti,tuted the rnbst. .im- portant factor in this educational development but we cannot success fully separate this church influence from all the other factors. The governors' influence in education does not provide any exception to this. Here we find in most cases a very direct re ralationship between clergy and governor - whether it be a close and harmonious relationship such as that between King and Marsden or a turbulent intolerance such as that which seemed to exist between Marsden and Macquarie in the later years. Although in the first thirteen years of the colony there was no aid from public funds, this is not to suggest that the governors of the day were not interested in education. Each of Phillip, Grose, Patterson and Hunter (the governors of this period) was interested in education to some extent. They had many other areas of responsibility which meant that they were unable to devote a disproportionate amount of time to any one area of public office. Similarly they had to fund many 'public works' projects with very limited budgets. There are events which took place in this period to show that the relationship between Church and State was not always a smooth one. The Rev. Richard Johnson had a very lengthy battle to obtain even the simplest structure for a church. He provided the - 24 - funds himself initially so that the building could be commenced only to find that Major Francis Grose suggested to the Home Govern ment that Johnson had overpriced the Church and that he should not be fully paid. 3 By 1796 however, Captain John Hunter stated that a public school was needed to save the children from certain ruin and only a year later he was able further to add that he had seen to it that more than one hundred children were receiving rudimentary education. Hunter was the first governor sympathetic to religion and, because of the very close links between education and the church it is not unexpected that this strong interest in education should exist and that further strong ties between the church and education should develop. King, too, commenced his term as governor by commenting upon the neglected state of the children of the colony. On arrival he was impressed by the 1 vicious and wretched state• of most of the children - due largely to the large orphan population. He saw part of the answer in the establishment of a government orphan school, and so set up the •orphan School Fund' which was to be maintained out of shipping and customs duties and fines. The orphan school was patterned on the Charity boarding schools in England and was 3. Grose and Johnston spent much of their time in disagreement. M.L. Loane describes Grose as a selfish, godless, worldly-minded man - See M.L. Loane, Hewn from the Rock, page 5. - 25 - opened in 1801 in what had been Lieutenant Kent 1 s house (the finest residence in Sydney) which King had purchased especially for the school. At the time of opening, the orphan school housed thirty-one orphan girls. Another orphan school was opened some time later at Parramatta. This was also for orphan girls only. Under King, education entered the first important phase of development: a definite and important policy had been followed by King. Not only had he been responsible for the provision of state schooling for orphans but he had encouraged the London Missionary Society (L.M.S.) in their extension of elementary education to populous districts outside Sydney and Parramatta. He also gave the Hawkesbury settlers a brick building at Green Hills (Windsor) to use as a school. By 1806 (when King left the colony) there were nine schools receiving government support - including three in Sydney, one at Kissing Point and one at Toongabbie - along with several private schools. The resulting instruction was provided for four hundred children which was approximately six percent of the child popu lation of the colony. It must be noted here that a lot of the instruction was carried out by either clergy or missionaries but it is clear that King lent much support to these educational pro visions. In fact, N.S.W. was far ahead of Britain in granting state funds to education. Three main reasons emerge as the main factors responsible - 26 - for this early government intervention in education:- 1. the undue proportion of neglected and abandoned children; 2. the practically despotic nature of the early governments which meant that virtually nothing was done without government intervention; and 3. the scarcity of resources and lack of existing infra structure and hence the obvious need for government help. If we laud King for his enterprise in educational endeavours we might reverse, somewhat, our feelings when we look at Bligh's relatively brief term as Governor. Even though he stated in 1807 that he was doing all in his power to educate the children, we can look upon this era of education in N.S.W. as one of a decline. It wasn't until Macquarie took over in 1809 that any really significant developments occurred. The field of education was no exception in this period of building, strengthening and general development. It would be wrong to suggest that Macquarie stressed education at the expense of any other area of his administrative realm. Indeed, he was seen from a purely historical viewpoint as a great builder of public buildings, and the governor who finally viewed the colony as an asset to Britain which would have a very useful future rather than merely a penitentiary sufficiently far enough away from Brit ain to be forgotten. The progress made under Macquarie in both religion and education was indeed spectacular. He was keen to provide a well founded moral and social base for the colony and this meant a well- - 27 - designed education for the young inhabitants of the colony. Between 1809 and 1821 (the Macquarie era), six major advanc es were made. 1. In 1819 a male orphan school was opened in Sydney. This was the first time that the male orphans were able to receive the same care as the females. Orphan schools were of greater success than the original 'public' schools because the children were removed from the bad examples of convict parents. 2. The extension of a small system of public schools established by local subscription and government aid maintained by the Orphan School Fund and administered by the Orphan School Conmittee. 3. The introductLon of the Monitorial System - first on Lancastrian lines and then the Bell System. 4. An unsuccessful experiment with the instruction of Aboriginal children at Liverpool. S. The Inauguration of the Sunday School movement. 6. The establishment of several private schools on English trad itions - for example, Dr. Laurence H. Halloran opened an academy in Sydney for the instruction of classics, maths and conmercial studies. Even with the above advancements, though, the state of education was still in a poor way. It consisted, in effect, of an ineffi cient, haphazard way of providing schools. Buildings, teachers, books, and equipment were still make-shift and unsatisfactory. - 28 - In essence, we can say that Macquarie improved on the beginnings in education which he inherited upon taking control of the colony. Because of his somewhat autocratic administration, there was less direct co-operation between the governor and the Church in their combined efforts in furthering education in the colony. Macquarie improved upon the basis he had found and made significant social and economic progress in the colony. He was responsible for fostering expansion and innovation colonial education. Although Macquarie made steady progress, from the start he was frustrated in his attempts to obtain suitable educators. He made urgent demands for qualified teachers but his calls were almost fruitless. He had to continue to rely on the provision of manpower from the Church which one suspects was not found to be altogether satisfactory in his eyes. Nevertheless, he was able to establish day schools and pay theteachers from government funds. Seven more L.M.S. missionaries arrived and at least two became teachers in 1810 - John Davies was appointed to the day school at St. Phillip's Church and John Eyre to the Charity School at Parramatta. It was not until Bourke's arrival in 1831 that we were to see a more liberal approach in education with a more far-sighted attempt at providing an all-embracing and sound system of national elementary education. Although Bourke's I Irish System' was not to succeed (primarily due to the intervention of Bishop Broughton), it - 29 - did lay the basis for the setting up of the Board of National Education in 1848. IV. CHURCH AND STATE In sumnary, then, the governors played an important part in the development of education between 1788 and 1848. It is obvious that this period in our educational history was one of beginnings and consolidation. Although it can be said that the direction which education was to fol low was heavily influenced by the gov ernors of the day, we must note that at the 'grass roots' level it was the church which was responsible primarily for the provision of equipment, housing and manpower as well as expertise and organis ation. The two chaplains in the early days and their successors, a long with the missionaries, were the ones who were really making the most significant contribution in the provision of education in the colony. Their role was not only one of teaching but also one of attempting to organise the very loose system of schools which did exist. The State was able to take the credit in an official way just as the Church could say that its role was to actually make the advances which were necessary and possible. CHAPTER 3. BRITAIN 1 S INFLUENCE I. LOCAL ENVIRONMENT AND OVERSEAS INFLUENCES It is not difficult to identify the many characteristics in early education in N.S.W. which were clearly inherited from the 'Mother Country•. The Monitorial System; the close relationship be tween education and the Church; the reticence on the part of the government to provide public finance; and the persistent feeling that people should not be educated to become socially mobile1, are just a few very easily recognized situations common to both countries. It would be presumptuous to presuppose that our early attempts in education in N.S.W. were in any way a continuation and development of the British System but merely in a different geographical locality. In fact there was no clearly defined British 1. Preserving the status quo through the existing class system was generally considered by those whose opinions counted to be a matter of paramount importance. Even Pestalozzi found it necess ary to warn that elementary education ought not to encourage 'fantastic dreams• of abolishing class distinction. See K. Silber: Pestalozzi - The Man and His Work, London, Routledge and Kenan Paul, 1960, p. 195. Note that the disturbing effects of the French Revolution and the unsettling effects of the religious revival strengthened this feeling. - 31 - system but instead a group of basically autonomous institutions - closely tied to the Church - which attempted to fulfil very differ ent educational objectives. The one very strong characteristic which was a definite carry-over from the British experience was, however, the continued close relationship between education and the Church. It is true that the prevalent philosophies of education which were in vogue in Britain at the time had a very marked effect on our new system, but more important was the very different cultural, social, economic and political environment which was to be the major shaping force in the colonial model. No predetermined pattern was utilized in the development of the N.S.W. experience. Instead, a very haphazard provision was made for the basic ed ucation of the children present within the penal colony. We cannot allow ourselves the liberty of thinking that education was high on the list of priorities in the infant colony. As has been pointed out above, there were the far more pressing issues of survival to be considered. Nevertheless, it is clear that any model of colonial education must be examined in the light of two prime factors: 1. the local environment and its influences, and 2. the overseas factors which had direct relevance to the situation in N.S.W. Having already given an overview of the situation as it existed in N.S.W. in the early years of the colony (in chapter two), I will now provide some basic background to the situation in Britain at the time and - 32 - examine the repercussions of the overseas situation on our local mode 1. I I. HISTORICAL ASPECTS When one understands the background of the British situation, it is not at all surprising that no schoolmaster was provided by the British government to accompany the first fleet. Indeed, it would have been of great surprise to all concerned to see the government undertake such a radical move. The initial settlement of N.S.W. was to some extent contem~ora neuus with the French Revolution and also with the effects of the industrial revolution in Britain. The expediency of sending convicts to N.S.W. was by far more important in the eyes of the British gov ernment than its overall colonial policy. The development of for- eign policy for the colony by the 'Home' government followed an ad hoe approach which tended to be a continued exercise in problem solv ing. The whole concept of developing the colony as a useful asset to Britain (apart from its obvious benefits as a dumping ground for law breakers) was not pursued in any serious manner. 2 2. This is not really surprising, even when one realises that the discovery and development of Australia was in a period of Nat ional imperial ism. Firstly, Australia did not seem to hold any strategic gains for Britain. Secondly, there seemed to be no re source available which would be of any use to Britain, and finally - 33 - The historical processes at work in England from 1600 to 1800, a period embracing the era of mercantilism, prepared the way for nationalism and laid the foundations for the industrial rev olution which was internally to change the social and economic structure of the British Isles and externally was to unite the British Empire through ties of nationalism and imperialism. This is not to say, however, that the colony was not viewed at least to some minor extent as a part of Britain 1 s imperialist programme. If constructive colonial policy had been forthcoming from the home government, and if useful labour had been provided it may not have taken such a long time for Britain to achieve the benefits she did from her colonial outpost in the South Pacific. II I. HOME GOVERNMENT ATTITUDE AND GENERAL PHILOSOPHY At the time of the foundation of the colony, education was not considered to be a function of the state. As P.R. Cole3 points out the schools that existed were supported by bequests, foundations, fees, grants of church vestries and voluntary associations. They were considered to be a branch of religious enterprise and under the real thrust of British imperialism was not fully under way at this time. 3. Cole, P.R. in GOLLAN, K. The Org~nisation and Administration of Education in N.S.W., Sydney Teachers• College Press, Sydney. - 34 - ecclesiastical control. The British government's attitude to popular education was fair ly clear. The provision of even elementary education was not con sidered to be a necessary role of the state. The overall situation in England, however, was not quite so clear cut. On the one hand, Adam Smith was advocating the instruction of the inferior ranks to make them less prone to rebellion while on the other hand, the Bishop of London felt that it was better for both the religion of the country and the government, to let the lower classes remain in the state of ignorance which nature (and presumably God), had orig inally placed them. Conservative opinion held, then, that education was the wrong way to overcome talk of rebellion and so there was considerable opposition to any talk of a national system of education from the conservatives. The High Church Tories were very quick to condemn such attempts as that of Robert Raike to run the Sunday Schools and after Wesley's praise of such, were even more certain that they were a threat. 4 The dissenter and the liberal were against the education of the poor by the state for other reasons. They were not only distrustful 4. Sunday Schools were begun in 1790 by Raike and by 1795 a quarter of a million pupils were attending. - See S.J. Curtis and M.E.A. Boultwood, An Introductory History of English Education Since 1800, London, U.T.P., 4th Edition, 1966, page 6. - 35 - of the State but also fearful of its alliance with the established church. All of this feeling against public education in the last half of the eighteenth century was, however to alter slightly by the turn of the century, when such figures as Lord Milton expressed their support for education in the following way during the Debate in the Parochial Schools Bill in 1807. 11 There must be a lower order of people who must perform the manual labour of a country; and the better informed they were, the better they would be in every respect. 115 Considerably later, when Lord Bathurst was spelling out what was required of Commissioner Bigge, he instructed: 11 You will also turn your attention to the possibility of diffusing throughout the colony adequate means of education and religious instruction; bearing always in mind in your suggestions that these two branches ought in all cases to be inseperably connected. 116 It is clear that by this later stage, education was intended to bring about social change. It seems that many historians in the past have mistakenly assumed that these views of education for social change anded ucation as a State responsibility were more widespread during the 5. Parochial Schools Bi 11, Hansard, Vol. 4, 1807, Column 801. 6. Bigge Report, page 2, Mitchell Library. - 36 - original settlement of N.S.W. than they were. 7 In fact, if we study the philosophical setting of the time we find that the viewsof both Locke and Rousseau led to the idea of education being used to negate the evil influences of society. Locke was more insistent that education determined what a person would be like than Rousseau who felt that the only justification for early education was to negate the corrupt society around the child. With the popularity of Rousseau being as it was in Britain in the late eighteenth century, it is little wonder that the gov ernment was not keen to take any positive step in the direction of State provided education. The only real exception to this feeling was the justification of expenditure in an attempt to 'convert' Roman Catholics in Ireland to Protestantism; but even so, no public finance in education was forthcoming in England until as late as 1833. IV. RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES AT HOME AND THEIR EFFECT IN THE ANTIPODES. Perhaps the most important area of British influence on the 'new' education within the colony was that of the established church in Britain - the Church of England. If we carefully examine the nature of the church - especially in England - at the time of colon isation it is much easier to identify the reasons for the conflicts 7. Note here, however, that Jeremy Benthem in his Prison Reform Pians included a schoolmaster and schoolrooms in gaols. - 37 - which arose in N.S.W. in later years. There is no doubt that the Church through its Chaplains - was responsible for the real control over education in the early years of the colony. The somewhat pedantic view that it was the state which had the effective control because of the relationship of the chaplains to the governor - answerable directly to him because of the mi 1 i tary nature of their appointment,does not really form a defensible argument. It is clear that the early provision of education was left to the chaplain - not in any official way but merely because no one else was interested in taking up the problems of education as a first priority. It was this early interest in education - a natural carry over from the British environment - which was responsible for the very strong control which the Church of England was eventually to exert over education in N.S.W. As T.F. MacKenzie says in his in ~stigation into nationalism and education in Australia: 11 1n view of the fact that the church was the first agency to evirice an interest in the educational welfare of the colonists, it is only natural that schools should progress under its aegis. 118 What of the nature of the Church in Britain though? This period of time saw much change and undermining influences at work within the Church of England in Britain. On the one hand we see the 8. MacKenzie, T.F. MacKenzie, T.F. Nationalism and Education in Aust ralia, King and Son, London, 1935, page 2. - 38 - growth of the so called 'non-conformists' - the main thrust being the evangelical preaching of people like John Wesley whilst on the other we observe the ever strengthening influence of the High Church party. The non-conformists were viewed with quite a lot of suspicion by the established church so much so that the term non-conformist came to be used in the worst derogatory sense. It was from these more liberal movements within the church, however, that our first chaplains came and from the ultimate schism into separate denomin ations that many of the L.M.S. Missionaries were sent. Here too we can find the original basis of some of the disagreements which were to arise within the colony between the very extreme evangelical element within the church and the much more conservative High Church party. 9 It is no surprise to find that most of the interest in the welfare of the colonists in N.S.W. came from people like Wilberforce and his associates in the evangelical movement. It was one of the main beliefs of this group within the Church that evangelism was of the utmost importance. This type of thinking led to the very successful missionary thrusts which were to follow this period. From an educational point of view it is significant to note here that the English evangelicals were directly opposed to the ideas espoused by Rousseau. The whole concept of the 'goodness' 9. This will be expanded more fully later. - 39 - of man was not considered to be Biblical. The evangelicals held very closely to the theologically fundamentalist doctrine of 'the sinful nature of man' which led to the belief that it is only through a knowledge God and his sanctification that man can live at peace with God and in harmony with nature and his fellow man. Wilberforce himself felt that the gains of a school in N.S.W. would be the decent and orderly maintenance of the colony. Even though it is not possible, or even desirable, to ident ify any one man as the prime instigator of the Church and education in N.S.W., it is possible to note that one man in particular did play a very significant part in shaping the minds of the early pioneers in education and the Church. This man was the Rev. Joseph Milner. Milner was the head of the Grammar School at Kingston on Hull and was, in fact, one of the main figures in the Evangelical movement in Yorkshire. He was responsible for much of Johnson's training as well as that of Marsden. As Loane says; 11 It may we 11 have been through Joseph Mi l ne r that Johnson came into a clear Christian Assurance as it was through Isaac Milner (his brother) that Wilberforce made his supreme sp1r1tua• • ] d"1scovery. II 10 Other names were important in providing the English back ground to the colony in Education and Church but most of them were in some way associated with one of the sections of the Evangelical movement within the Church at the time - Such names as Charles 10. Loane, M.L. Hewn from the Rock, page 3. - 40 - Simeon, Henry Venn, John Newton, Henry Thornton, William Wilberforce, William Cowper and many others were members of one of the newly formed evangelical groups - the Clapham sect, the Elland Society, the Eclectic Society and also had direct influence over Johnson and Marsden - as well as Pitt. 11 Perhaps the most significant repercussion of this back- ground in the colony was the strained relationship which developed between the governors (most of whom were High Churchmen) and the Chaplains with their 1 methodistish 1 ways. The very strong sense of individualistic decision making which had developed within the Ang lican Evangelical circles in England had spilled over to the chaplains, while the very conservative reliance upon superiority and leadership remaining in High Church circles in England, had been continued by our first governors. Clashes were inevitable under these circumstances. In Britain, the system of education too was most highly in fluenced by the Church. The two most significant educational instit utions in the colony were the Dame schools and Charity schools. The Dame schools were operated by women at home in return for a few pence while the Charity schools were clergy run within the par1s. h . 12 11. Foramore detailed account of the relationships involved here see M.L. Loane - Hewn From the Rock, Chapter 1. 12. The older established Charity Schools were run largely under the - 41 - Their aim was to improve the morality of society. Both of these institutions served the lower classes and relied heavily on middle class support - something totally missionary in N.S.W. The English system was divided on class lines but this could not carry over to N.S.W. with any success because of the very nature of the colony. There was no room for national grammar schools for the upper classes or even middle local grammar schools or academies until the colony had developed for quite some years. The lower class dame and charity schools were the most appropriate. But why was Australia so differ ent? V. AUSTRALIA AS A NEW LAND IN EDUCATION In his article on Australia as a new land in Education 13 , Barcan identifies several important factors which were responsible for the very marked differences which were to emerge between British and Australian education. It would, indeed, be very difficult to disagreed with Barcan in his main point that Australian education has developed in such a way that it is easily distinguished from Eng lish or European education and that this was a result of the pion eering developing environment in Australia. 11 The pioneering developing environment had given Australian auspices of the S.P.C.K. and the S.P.G. 13. Barcan, A. 11 Australia as a New Land in Education 11 in FORUM OF EDUCATION, Vol 35, No. 1, March 1976. - 42 - education many characteristic features which distinguished it from Engl i sh and European education. 11 14 Barcan makes it clear, however, that there was a tradition carried over from the 'home country• and that it was this 'transport ed' system which was modified. 11 The special features of the new pioneering society modified the European education tradition which was transported there. 1115 As we have previously noted, the Church was the main social agency responsible for education in Britain. We have seen too that it was the church in early N.S.W. which nurtured and organized the early attempts (feeble as they were) of education in N.S.W. Although much of the British system was modified, the church impact was the strangest feature to emerge as having been successfully transplanted. If we return to Barcan's analysis of the situation we find that he suggests several differences between Australia and other 1 new 1 lands in education. As opposed to the small scale farming frontier which was so successful in America, the Australian frontier was a large scale pastoral concern. In Australia, too, there were acute shortages of labour, strong materialist interests and weak nesses of local feeling. In common with the other new lands (identified by Barcan as North America, New Zealand, and South Africa) the following features 14. Ibid, page 2 7. 15. Ibid, page 28. - 43 - emerge: a greater emphasis on secular education; greater equality of opportunity; a curriculm which emphasised modern or vocational subjects at the expense of classical liberal studies; academic standards lower than those of Europe; and, an earlier commencing and leaving age. These were the features which identified the Australian system as being different to the British and European system but we must be careful in our conclusions here. The change in some areas was a gradual one especially in the emphasis on secular education and the increased equality of oportunity. Originally, the Church guided system was the successful transplant. It was successful not because of the similarities in environment (there were very few of these), but because of the fact that the chaplains were originally the only people available to take charge of the education of the children of the colony. Those administrators present (mainly the governor) had far more serious matters to attend to. What then, was the role, significance and contribution of the chaplains in the development of education in early N.S.W.7 CHAPTER 4 THE ROLE, SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE CHAPLAINS I. IMPORTANCE OF THE CHAPLAINS IN EARLY EDUCATION Although there were many people who contributed to the found ations of education in N.S.W., we must look to the early chaplains if we are to find the real organizers and pioneers. Because of the position that the chaplains were placed in, it was quite the natural thing that they should be the ones who would be most interested in the education and development of the children of the colony. They were very much aware of the moral danger which a convict colony provided for its children. They were, of course, equally aware of the very close relationship between morals and religion. If we were to decide upon those who contributed most, we would most assuredly have to choose the 'pioneer chaplain educators' of early New South Wales. Not only were they involved in the foundation, organization and management of early education in the colony, but they were involved also at the 'grass roots' level in that they were called upon to be teachers as well as co-ordinators. Their unique position meant that they acted on behalf of the State as well as the Church. In examining the role of the Church in the foundations of education in the early colony, then, it is the chaplains who emerge as the dominant figures. This is clearly the case in the very early years when the chaplains were the only clergy present to represent the Church. As missionaries and other clergy arrived in the colony - 45 - the chaplains' contributions declined in significance relative to the other church influences but nevertheless the contributions of the chaplains per-se must stand as the most important influence in the development of the education in N.S.W. The fol lowing table lists the chaplains in N.S.W. and their respective dates of service; TABLEOF CLERGYAND CHAPLAINSLICENSED TO SERVE IN NEWSOUTH WALES FROM 1788 TO 1836 1 CLERGY ARRIVED DETAILS DIED Richard Johnson 1788 Returned England 1800 1827 James Bain 1791 Returned England 1794 Samuel Marsden 1794 St. John's Parramatta 1838 Henry Fulton 1800 Castlereagh and Richmond 1840 Wi 11 i am Cowper 1809 St. Phillip 1 s Sydney 1858 Robert Cartwright 1810 Collector 1856 Benjamin Vale 1814 Returned England 1816 1863 John Youl 1816 Tasmania 1819 1827 I .i::-- Richard Hi 11 1819 St. James, Sydney 1836 0"\ I John Cross 1819 Po rt Macquarie 1858 George Augustus Middleton 1820 Resigned 1827 Re-licensed 1837 1848 Thomas Redda 11 1820 Campbell town 1838 Thomas Has sa 11 1822 Cowpastures (Cobbity) 1868 Suspended 1830 Frederick Wilkinson 1825 Re-licensed 1833 1866 Returned England 1837 Thomas Hobbes Scott (Archdeacon) 1825 Returned England 1829 1860 Matthew Devenish Meares 1825 Retired 1860 1878 John Espy Keane 1825 Returned England 1841 Charles Pleydell Neale Wilton 1827 Newcastle 1859 E1 i j ah Smi th 1828 Returned England 1831 1870 Returned to N.S.W. 1851 John Vincent 1828 Penrith 1854 Joseph Docker 1828 Resigned 1833 1865 William Grant Broughton (Archdeadon) 1829 Consec rated 1836 1853 Thomas Sharpe 1830 Retired 1870 1877 Charles Dickinson 1831 Hunter 1 s Hi 11 1839 George Innes 1831 The King 1 s School, Sydney 1832 I I .i:- "'-J 1867 1854 1859 DIED 1902 Parramatta Windsor DETAILS School, Kings Matthew's St. Stroud The Maitland 1832 1834 1833 1836 ARRIVAL p42 Loane, L. Marcus Cowper Rock. Rusden CLERGY the Stiles from Macquarie Forrest Keylock Tarlton rt Hewn Robe 1. George Henry William - 48 - As is evident from this table, Johnson and Marsden were not the only two chaplains to serve in the early years of N.S.W. It is true to iay that they did exert the greatest influence on education in that they were responsible for the actual origins of education in the colony whereas the chaplains who came after them were more heavily involved in continuing and amending the previously formed structures. This can even be said of Archdeacon Scott in that he built upon and changed the existing system. He did not have to start with nothing. Referring to the table, it is interesting to note that not all of the chaplains included served in the same capacities. Bain and Vale, for example, were specifically commissioned as Chaplains to the N.S.W. Corps and the 46th Regiment (respectively). Scott, too, stands out as being different in that he wasn't regarded simply a chaplain, but instead was in charge of all chaplains present in the colony through his office as archdeacon. Neither can we suppose that each chaplain had the same influence over education. Clearly, Johnson and Marsden were most important, but Fulton, Cowper, Scott and others each made very significant contributions. In the early years, the chaplains worked under a strange system of dLal allegiances. They were servants of both the Church and the State (this alone shows us something of the very close ties that existed between Church and State of the time). Although they were responsible to the Church for their actions, they were also to serve as military chaplains and were in fact directly under the control of the governor. 2 2. Although this situation of dual control over the clergy is a - 49 - This relationship was to cause a good deal of friction, especially between Marsden and Macquarie in later times. The relationship between Church and State was a very important part of the reason for our education system developing in the way that it did. In fact, to be fair we must admit that the early control and financing of education along with the actual teaching that took place resulted from the combined efforts of Church, State and private efforL The schools were under the immediate survei 11 ance of the clergymen·• who were at this time, salaried servants of the State. The school master was paid from one of several sources: the financial aid from private individuals in England; financial assistance from the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts; the payroll of the N.S.W. Corps; or School fees. The State, one finds, was not as willing to undertake as much responsibility for education as one would expect it to in a penal colony. Some educational historians have praised the efforts of the State (almost to the total exclusion of the part played by the Church) but if one examines the source documents, it becomes evident that behind the advances brought about by the State there was often a good somewhat strange situation for us to understand, it was, nevertheless, a normal, thing for chaplains to be under the command of the military leader. This would have been especially important in a penal colony far removed from the home government and mother church. - 50 - deal of pushing by the clergy of the time. 3 This can be exemplified in the following instances: In a letter to Under Secretary Cooke of the Colonial Office, Marsden made it quite clear that the British government should act in a responsible way in providing education for the many children of the State which was becoming a serious problem in N.S.W. 11 0f the 1832 children recorded by the August 1806 Muster, 1025 were illegitimate. In the education of these helpless children of the State, on whom the character of 'this rising race• would greatly depen d , t h e B r1t1s• • h government must accept a maJor• respons1• b 1• 1 1ty.• I 14 Marsden pressed for the appointment of qualified teachers for schools in the Nepean and Hawkesbury districts and at Parramatta and Sydney and asked also for the appointment of a master at each of two orphanages (one of which had not yet been constructed). Furthermore he was successful in attaining the bulk of his demands. As a direct result of his efforts, the Rev. William Cowper was sent out and John Hosking and his wife and family had sailed to take appointments at the orphan school by 1808. Marsden also used personal contacts (Elizabeth Fry) to provide 3. This is not to say that the efforts of the State were totally insignificant, nor is it factual to say that the Church was behind all educative endeavours. 4. Marsden to Cooke, Norfolk St., Strand, 21 Nov. 1807 H.R.N.S.W. Vol 6. p. 382 - 51 - gifts of spelling books and religious tracts for the schools and a lending library. Having seen the result of the Chaplain's influence with the Home Government, it is also of interest to discover that locally (in N.S.W.) he acted in a similarly supportive and innovative way. In a government order5 Macquarie urged parents in the Liverpool, Windsor, Richmond, Pitt Town, Castlereagh and Wilberforce districts to assume the responsibility for erecting school houses. The government would contribute twenty-five pounds to this end. Even before this, however, Marsden had called a meeting of the inhabitants of Richmond, at which William Cox showed plans for a brick building 40 x 16 ft costing an estimated two hundred pounds sterling which would serve as both a school house and a place of worship. Nearly one hundred and fourteen pounds was collected at the meeting itself and a committee was elected to consider tenders and manage the project. Similar meetings were reported during 1812, relating to the repair of the Kissing Point School house and the appointment of a master, and to the building of a school and the enclosure of a burial ground at Windsor. In each case Marsden had a leading part as an organiser and subscriber. Once again, it was Marsden who called for the first tenders for the erection of a new female orphanage at Parramatta in 1813. In 1814, William Shelley an ex-missionary and friend of Marsden was appointed as manager of a small aboriginal establishment on an 5- May 10, 1811. - 52 - experimental basis. Marsden was to have little more to do with this project however due to the lack of trust between Macquarie and himself. Marsden also provided land for Walter Lawrey (a Methodist) for a church and school at Windsor. We need not of course, restrict ourselves to Marsden's influence in education. Each of the other chaplains had a part to play. In 1818, for example, the Rev. Wi 11 iam Cowper, (Assistant Chaplain at the time) was instrumental in moving towards uniformity and control by introducing his 11 Rules for the Management of the Public Schools in Sydney'. These rules requires monthly reports to the Resident Chaplain, attendances at Sunday School and the teaching of the C. of E. Catechism. 6 Johnson too, was responsible for much of the 'behind the scenes 1 work of the foundation years. He supervised the work of William Richardson and Isabella Rosson who were teaching early in the 1790's in Sydney. Thomas McQueen similarly found that he was under the super vision of one of the early chaplains in his endeavours as a school master. 7 The chaplains, then, were not officially responsible for the education of the children of the colony. Nor were they in any way obliged to take part in the founding of the system of education which 6. H.R.A. Series 111, Vol. Ill p. 358 7. James Bain was responsible for supervising McQueen's work. - 53 - we have inherited from that time. The close relationship between education and the Church in England along with the obvious presence of a need for someone to intervene led to a very active part being played by the chaplains in the development of education in N.S.W. This was especially the case with the first two chaplains - the Rev. Richard Johnson and Samuel Marsden. Because of the magnitude of their contributions, it is relevant at this time to look at the lrves and backgrounds of each of these men and note the effects that they had on the development of the education system in the colony. I I. The Rev. Richard Johnson With the background to the colony outlined in preceding chapters, it is not at all difficult for us to realise that the problems that confronted the establishment of education in New South Wales were somewhat difficult to overcome. In the first few years of the colony, the administration of education was in fact, shared between the Governor and the Chaplain. There was no official office which provided for the development of any realistic attempts at a system. Instead many ad hoe measures were to be consolidated into the rather disorganised system that evolved. It was quite under standable for the Rev. Richard Johnson to take charge of the education of the children of the colony when one considers his background and the attitudes towards education in England. It was understandable, too, that the governor should play some part as the colony was a penal establishment and nothing more. The governor was to have the - 54 - final say in al 1 matters - even those connected with the running of the church. Indeed the chaplain was involved in a strange situation in that he actually received a salary for his office. He was considered to represent the established Church and this was part of the administration of the colony. What can be said, then, of the back ground of the Rev. Richard Johnson - the first Anglican clergyman to be appointed to the colony? - a man who M.L. Loan has described as 'the pioneer of education in N.S.W. (A man who was) as much concerned for illiterate convicts and aborigines as he was for the children of free settlers•. 8 Richard Johnson was born in Weldon, Yorkshire in 1755. 9 He was educated at the Grammar School at Kingston-upon-Hull under Joseph Milner (the head of the school). lO When he left school, Johnson tried his hand at both teaching and farming before he entered Magdalene College in Cambridge as a sizar in 1780. He graduated a Bachelor of 11 Arts in 1784 with a good reputation as a scholar. Having been ordained Deacon in 1783, he was priested in 1784 and sent as Curate to Lymington near Hampshire by the Bishop of London. His appointment as Chaplain took place on 24th October, 1786 when he received a royal warrant as Chaplain to the settlement of 8. M.L. Loane p.7. 9. N.K. McIntosh, The Rev. Richard Johnson p.5 10. Note the similarity here with the Rev. Samuel Marsden 11. Aust. Dictionary of Biography, Vol 2. p. 17. - 55 - N.S.W. This appointment was not a last minute thing as some historians have maintained. This can be seen from the date of appointment, almost seven months prior to the sailing of the First Fleet. Nor was it an appointment which originated from the Bishop of London himself. Johnson was nominated due to the efforts of the Eclectic Society, - a group whose leaders had quite a deal of influence in the matters of State in that period of time. The Eclectic Society was a group of evangelical Anglican clergymen and laymen which had been formed in 1783. The leading spirit of the movement was John Newton. The very close associations between the society and names such as William Wilberforce and Henry Thornton meant that it was very well informed about affairs, at large. The fact that William Wilberforce was the closest friend of William Pitt meant that when Johnson was nominated from within the society, Pitt (the Prime Minister whose government had decided to found a settlement in N.S.W.) could be informed of the choice. It was clearly no coincidence that Richard Johnson was to become the chaplain. In fact, it was Wilberforce who introduced Johnson to the S.P.G. and S.P.C.K. 12 , just as it was Wilberforce who light-heartedly referred to Johnson as the Bishop of 12. These were the Missionary department of the Church of England and as such were very useful to Johnson in the provision of books and tracts and in the eventual payment of grants and finding of suitable people for schoolmasters in N.S.W. - 56 - Botany Bay. As an Anglican clergyman, then, the Rev. Richard Johnson was a 1 low churchman• and his sympathies were very heavily directed towards the Methodist type evangelical influence of the time. Wilberforce 1 s influence in his appointment was part of a continuous attempt at the spread of the evangelical movement within the Church of England. This type of background was (as is noted elsewhere) to cause a good deal of friction between Johnson and some of those in authority in N.S.W. especially Phillip and Grose. In October 1786, Johnson had his first real contact with his future parishioners when he boarded the 11 Leviathan11 at Woolwich. He was somewhat dismayed to see that the type of congregation to which he would be preaching left much to be desired. Johnson and his wife (Mary, whom he had married on 4th December, 1786) boarded the 11 Charlotte11 in March 1787 and travelled from England as part of the First Fleet. In these early days he was al ready some what disillusioned because of the reception and reaction of the con victs to his services. He was eventually to decide that his activ ities would be better directed towards the children. Perhaps there was hope for the next generation if they were able to be influenced from an early age. From the outset in New South Wales, Johnson was to find that he was very much to be involved in education. There was an obvious need and somebody had to tackle the issue. He was the logical choice, not only because of his education (superior to that of any - 57 - others in the colony) but also because of the traditional relation ship between the Church and education that has been mentioned above. One of Johnson 1 s primary dilemas was that he saw his role differently from that of Phillip. Under the 'Rules of War' (which applied to Johnson as a Military Chaplain), Johnson was seen as the guardian of public morality. This, of course, was also Phil lip's view. Phillip saw Johnson as being very important in rehabilitating those who had been sent out to the colony. The Bishop over Johnson, on the other hand, was more intent on seeing the regular ministrations of the Church while the Eclectic Society saw Johnson's main purpose as being the conversion of his charger. Johnson himself, saw each of these three roles as important but found great difficulty in reconciling each of them to the satis faction of his spiritual and military superiors. 13 His responsibility for schooling, however, never seemed to be in doubt either in his own mind or that of his superiors. He set about to assume this responsib ility and was responsible for the supervision of the first schools - the dame schools - established by two convict women - Isabella Rossan and Mary Johnson between 1788 and 1790. These schools, elementary as they were, enabled instruction in basic reading, writing and arithmet ic to begin in the small huts of the women. By 1791, he had appointed Thomas MacQueen to be the first schoolmaster of Norfolk Island. Johnson himself had visited the is land and assisted in the setting up of the school where the Rev. 13. Australian Dictionary of Biography, Vol 2, page 17. 58 - James Bain supervised 'McQueen 1 s teaching. In 1792 Johnson wrote to the S.P.G. suggesting that educated convicts might act as teachers and should receive some remu~eration - ten pound per annnum was suggested. His letter to the S.P.G. also outlined the advances that had been made in regard to education in the colony to date and as such represented an important source of . f . 14 1 n ormat I on. Johnson was responsible for the overal 1 administration of several other schools which had been instituted by 1793 - including those of William Rosson and William Webster. After 5½ years of preaching in the fields, Johnson 1 s dissatis faction with the lack of proper facilities led him to decide in 1793 to finance the building of a church. Although he was to be refunded the money later he saw this as further evidence of the wrongly ordered priorities of the governor. He built the church himself with some convict help and presented a bill to Lt. Governor Grose amounting to sixty-seven pounds twelve shillings and eleven pence halfpenny. Unfortunately the building was burnt down and at that time Johnson had still not been paid - which would perhaps have not surprised him, had he known the contents of Grose 1 s covering letter to Rt. Hon. Henry Dundas on 4th September, 1793: 11 His charge for the church is infinitely more than it ought to have cost 14. See Appendix A. 15. Historical Records of Australia p.451 - 59 - After the completion of Johnson 1 s Church, he had used it extensively not only for Divine Worship but also as a schoolhouse. Records show us that he catered for 150 children at the school under the supervision of William Richardson, Isaac Nelson and Thomas Taber. When the school/church burnt down in 1798, Hunter moved the school to the courthouse, then a store-house: 11 The School moved to the courthouse (where they were constantly displaced by the normal business of the court) and then to the store house. This did not provide any perfect solution. Johnson described the building as 'not in any way comfortable' and attendances dropped 16 d ra s t i ea 11 y. 11 The large number of pupils at Johnson's school shows us the wide influence that the chaplain had in the colony. Just as the Church and State were closely connected, so too were the Church and schoo 1. The day began with prayer and a hymn and ended in a like manner. It was compulsory for pupils to attend church on Sunday just as it was expected that at least two of the masters would attend also. The fact that Johnson was in overall charge is undisputed. The very close supervision which Johnson maintained over the school can be seen if we examine his 1 Rules 1 for the school which he prepared in 1798. 17 16. Bonwick Transcript, Box 49, p.44173, Mitchell Library 17. See Appendix B - Rules or Articles to be observed respecting the school at Sydney, N.S.W., 1798 - 60 - These rules along with the school itself provide us with evidence of an extremely significant contribution by Johnson to the development of early education in the colony. The role of the chaplain was clearly a supervisory one while the significance of the 'rules' is that Johnson himself saw the office of chaplain as one which included the supervision of education in the colony. The 'rules' themselves show us a good deal about the attitude of the chaplain to education at the time. We find that the school was open to all children - whether they belonged to soldiers, settlers or convicts. Johnson ensured ease of entrance to the school requiring only one week's prior notice. He also made it clear that attendance was important and that if a child's attendance was not satisfactory, they would be deprived the benefit of the school. Fees were charged if pupils were learning to read, to write or to do arithmetic. These fees were quite significant for the period, but those who could not afford to pay were not required to do so. Discipline, hours and more detailed information on the activities of the school are all found in 18 these 'rules'. As part of his role as administrator of the schools, it was Johnson's job to pay the teacher out of the allowances paid to him for this purpose by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. He was, in effect, then, in charge of the overall 18. It is interesting to note that many of our present 'rules' in education are similar to Johnson's rules - e.g. Discipline. - 61 - administration of the schools within the colony at the time. As Cleverley says, 1Johnson has been credited with the initiation of the first colonial schools. The mantle seems to have fallen on him by way of the expectation that, in this age, education and religion invariably accrued together'. 19 The government of the time, clearly conceived the Church to be an appendage of their military style administration. The Rev. Richard Johnson, then was responsible for 1laying the groundwork 1 for the future provision of education in New South Wales. It is clear from Turney 1s account of the early days that Johnson was an ingenious and industrious man and achieved a lot in his 12 years in the colony prior to returning home in 1800: 11 During the last hectic decade or so of the 18th century, the Rev. Richard Johnson, the colony 1s chaplain, first secured some kind of elementary instruction for the rising generation with little encouragement from vice-regal superiors pre-occupied with other more pressing problems. He selected and gained the governors' approval to the appointment of several convict teachers; furnished their school with books; supervised their management; gave lectures to the pupils on religious and moral matters; and helped to secure contributions from the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel towards the teachers• salaries.i120 19. Cleverley, J.F. The First Generation, SUP, 1971, p.63 20. Turney, C. Pioneers of Australian Education, SUP, 1969, p.2. - 62 - It has been claimed by some historians that Johnson was a 'mild submissive' man who nevertheless did his best, but this view seems to be only partly true in its implications. Certainly Johnson did 'do his best' in his role as chaplain. 1 Mild 1 and 'submissive', however, might well be replaced by 'humble' and 'open minded'. From Ii the records it is apparent that Governor Grose found him to be far from submissive. He described Johnson as 11 one of the people called Methodist, and a very troublesome, discontented fellow11 • 21 It seems fairly safe to assume that Johnson was troublesome because he held different views to those of Grose. This is not at all surprising if M.L. Loane is correct in describing Grose as 1 a selfish, godless, worldly-minded man' . 22 In conclusion, then, we can see that Johnson had a profound effect on the development of education in N.S.W. Not pnl¥ was he responsible for the administration and supervision of the foundation of education but he laid the groundwork also upon which our present system has dev~loped. Johnson 1 s own words in evidence to the Select Committee on Transportation in 1812 are suffic.i,ent to convince us of the progress that he made in founding education in N.S.W. 11 Were there many establishments, before you left the colony for the education of children? 21. Australian Dictionary of Biography Vol. 2, p. 18 22. M.L. Loane, Hewn from the Rock, p.5. - 63 - "Yes, there were some that I superintended myself, in the little church that I built; I suppose at one time above one hundred children used to attend under three schoolmasters. "Were there many other similar establishments in the colony? "There were similar schools, where I used to give lectures. "The education of children was neglected in the colony, even in that early period? "No, as far as circumstances would permit, I mean with respect to myself. 1123 Johnson returned to England with Hunter in October 1800 due to ill health - never to return to the Colony of N.S.W. I II. THE REV. SAMUEL MARSDEN In many ways, the Rev. Samuel Marsden and the Rev. Richard Johnson were alike. Not only did they both attend the same school - Hull Grammar; have the same friends - Wilberforce and his associat es; have similar evangelical theological leanings; and have difficult y working with the Governor of the colony; but they both very quickly came to the conclusion that their main task was to concentrate on the next generation rather than the present and hence, they were both vitally interested in the children of the colony. 23. Report from the Select Committee on Transportation, 10th July, 1812, p. 68 - 64 - 24 Samuel Marsden was born on the 25th June, 1765 at Bagley, Yorkshire and baptised on 21st July, 1765. 25 He received a local ed ucation and followed in the same paths as Johnson in attending the Grammar School at Kingston-on-Hull under Joseph Milner. He too was heavily influenced by the Methodist revival movement of the time. He became an active lay preacher in the Anglican Church and eventually entered Magdalene Coilege Cambridge (just as Johnson had done) in December 1790 with the financial help of the Elland Society. 26 At Wi Jberforce's persuation 27 , Marsden did not comp Jene his degree but instead accepted an appointment as Assistant Chaplain to the Colony of N.S.W. He was ordained deacon in March and priest in May 1793, married Elizabeth Friston in April and sailed on 1st July, 24. Note here that many historians give 28th July 1764 as the birth date. This is shown to be very unlikely by A.T. YARWOOD - Samuel Marsden - the Great Survivor~ p. 284 25. This date supports the above date. 26. The Elland Society was a group of north country clerics who play ed an important role in the recruitment and training of poor men for the evangelical wing of the Established Church. Marsden was accepted as a protege of the Elland Society in 1786 - (Note, once again the Johnson - Marsden similarities with the Eclectic and Elland Societies.) 27. A further similarity. - 65 - for Port Jackson where he remained (with the exception of visits home to England) until his death in 1838. The pioneering work of Johnson was carried on energetically by Marsden. Although quite a few new churches and their attached schools opened, because of the shortage of teachers, Marsden and Johnson had to do a lot of teaching themselves. In 1800, Johnson returned to England and Mar.sden became senior chaplain. In this same year, the Rev. Henry Fulton, a wrongly accused convict was assigned to work in Norfolk Island by Marsden. He remained there until 1804 when he returned as a chaplain of Sydney and Parramatta. So great was Marsden 1 s faith in this man that he left him in charge and returned home for a holiday and for talks with the London Missionary Society and the Church Missionary Society con cerning the work of the Church in the Pacific. Shortly after Marsden 1 s return Fulton was assigned as an official chaplain to the Castlereagh District where he set up a school. Marsden 1 s relationship with the governors was a not a good one, but sti 11 Macquarie and Marsden had determined upon an Anglican mono poly in education. Phi llip 1 s negative attitude was in fact continued from one governor to the next even 1 till as late as the 1850 1 s in New South Wa 1es. It was because of the question of the gove rrnr'' s awthori ty over his chaplains that whilst in England Marsden sought to have Castlereagh (the Secretary of State for the Colonies) replace his military commission with a civil one. Marsden was somewhat relieved to find that Castlereagh complied with his wishes. - 66 - In the early years, Macquarie was a better governor to work with from the point of view of the chaplains because of his earnest desire to see religion and morality prospering in the colony. The Governor-Chaplain relationship had changed. Macquarie assigned the chaplain to his area but stressed that the Senior Chaplain was at all times to be considered in charge of his chaplains. This good working relationship was only to be brief however, for it was not long before Macquarie and Marsden had several dis agreements. The last of them, concerning the Rev. Benjamin Vale, was eventually to lead to the final constitutional break between Church and State in New South Wales. Macquarie made several attempts at deliberately excluding Marsden from educational ventures. Perhaps his most successful was omitting Marsden from the Native Institution Committee - a venture in which Marsden was infinitely involved and which was located at 28 Parramatta. Marsden, as Senior Chaplain was still seen by Macquarie as the administrator of education through his chaplains. The men whom Mars den was working with at the time, were of great assistance to him. The eleven protestant missionaries who arrived in 1798 had been im pressed by the need in the colony for them as teachers and evangelists 28. Macquarie's own words make it quite clear that Marsden was delib erately excluded from the Committee - see Bonwick Transcript, Box 26, p.5759 (Mitchell Library) - 67 - and so had decided to stay. Marsden (who was in control because Johnson was indisposed) and Hunter welcomed them and gave them material aid. Marsden also received assistance as an educational administrat- or from W.P. Crook and Rev. John Harris. Crook lived with his family in a nearby house which Marsden purchased for them and received a government salary and rations for teaching from fifty to seventy day pupils, with the help of two male prisoners at the new church. Harris taught and preached at Green Hills (the modern Windsor) from 1803 - 1808. 29 Marsden's work differed from that of Johnson in several ways. The main difference was that while Johnson had been very actively involved at the 'grass-roots' level, Marsden was more successful as an administrator. The colony had grown somewhat and there was in fact a structure in education upon which to build. The chapel and schoolroom at Kissing Point provides us with an excellent example of this combined initiative from the chaplains which was to be followed up by either the State or Church providing the necessary teachers. At Kissing Point (the present site of St. Anne's Ryde), both Johnson and Marsden opened the chapel on July 16, 1800. The chapel was used as a school room for about twenty pupils on weekdays and instruction was given by a government appointed teacher. The Female Orphan School also shows us some of Marsden's 29. See A.T. YARWOOD - Samuel Marsden - the Great Survivor p.107 - 68 - administrative methods in education. Here, he opened the school with thirty one girls on 12th August, 1801. The institution was to provide learning, clothing, a bed, board and protection from parents (for those who had parents who were found unsuitable). Instruction was given by three older inmates supervised by Marsden at the outset, but eventually, Marsden was successful in securing the services of a schoolmaster for the orphan school - John Hosking. The personal work of Marsden was important. Bligh wrote for more schoolmasters and Castlereagh was prepared to send them if they could be found. This was one of the main purposes in Marsden's visit to England. Prior to this, attempts to recruit clergymen and schoolmasters by correspondence had been desperately unsuccessful. Within a fortnight of arriving in London, Marsden addressed to the Under-secretary (Cooke) a letter dealing with the colony's need for schoolmasters and clergy men. In these endeavours Marsden met with success. Among his first recruits was the first trained teacher to come·to N.S.W. - Mr. John Hosking - who began to teach in the female orphan school (see above) in 1809 and remained there 'till 1818. Marsden was also responsible for offering the control of the orphan school to William Pascoe Crook. 30 In summary then, we see Marsden as more of an administrator in Education. His zeal for missionary work took him away from the colony on numerous occasions and hence, any ongoing work by himself was not 30. Bonwick Transcripts, Box 49, p.327 - 69 - possible. This does not mean that he was less interested in the schooling of the children of the colony than was Johnson. He was responsible for the continued expansion of education within the colony, but he also had other areas of influence. The following statement by Marsden shows him as an educationalist, Anglican, evangelist and farmer and serves to sum up his attempts within the colony: 11 The rising generation are now under education in almost all parts of the country. The Catholic priests have all left us; so that we now have the whole field to our selves. I trust much good will be done, some amongst us are turning to the Lord. Our churches are well attended, which is promising and encouraging to us. This will become a great country in time, it is much favoured in its soil and climate~31 31. Memoirs of the Life and Letters of the Rev. Samuel Marsden, Ed. J~B. Marsden, 1958 p.~9 - 70 - APPENDIX A to CHAPTER 4 LETTER from Rev. Richard Johnson to Rev. W. Morice, (S.P.G.) 21st Match, 1792 (Held in Mitchell Library) Port Jackson, March 21st.92 Revd. Sir, I first beg leave to make an humble apology for my not writing to you before now - I scarcely know however what apology to make, having given you a promise and that previous to my leaving England, that I wd. write to you after our arrival in this distant country. I have only two things to say by way of excuse for my neglect - and the first is, - that, (as you may suppose) things for a consid erable time were and must be in an unsettled confused state, on which account it was impossible to get any schools erected or establish- ed for the instruction of children and further, as have written sev- eral letters to the Rev.Mr.Gaskin, you have no doubt received infor mation how things have been going on amongst us. I think it high time however now to fulfi 1 my engagement or promise I then made you. The Revd. Mr. Bain, Chaplain to the New South Wales Corps, and who is now at Norfolk, soon after his arrival here in the 'Gorgon', put two letters into my hands, which letters he has left with me - I think it my duty therefore, Sir, in his absence, and as being a part concerned in the subject matter which they contain, to take some active part in the business. - 71 - It is now a considerable time since his Excellency our Governor told me that he expected two schoolmasters out from England - none however have yet arrived - There being several children of age to be instructed, I proposed to his Excellency to have a person appointed at different places to instruct them to read - To this he readily consented, and myself was appointed to superintend them - we have now one school established at Sydney and another at Parramatta - a school-mistress appointed for each. These teach the children belong ing to the Convicts gratis - the Military officers &c making them some little acknowledgement for their trouble. I have also this summer taken a trip to Norfolk - was there about three weeks - at N. there are a number of children, and in the fleet that came out this summer, there was a man convict came here, who had for a series of years been accustomed to the profession of a schoolmaster in London, I think he told me near Holborn - I had several Conversations with this man, and from what I both saw and heard of him, I thought him to be a fit and suitable person for the purpose. Captain King, the Governor of the Island, has accordingly appointed him as schoolmaster at Norfolk. I am happy to inform you, Sir, that since then different schools have been established (considering our numbers which were at first but small, and many of them very young), those that have been capable of being instructed, have made tolerable improvement. Through the favour of the Society in Bartletts Building who have been pleased to make me a corresponding member, I have been en abled to furnish these different schools with Books, suitable to the - 72 - different progress the Children have made, and I hope that the charitable and laudable intentions and endeavours of both that and your society will in some degree in time be succeeded by God 1 s Bless ing, answerable to your wishes. Sir, I this morning took the Liberty of putting your Letter to Mr. Bain, into the hands of his Excellency, signifying to him at the same time, and if he thought proper, I wd write to you upon the sub ject, which he in answer begged me to do - His Excellency has author ized me to say, that sd any of those four persons mentioned in your letter, or any other free person or persons, come out under the Denomination of a schoolmaster, besides the ten pounds a year, which your Society has been so kind as to promise to each, he will in addition allow them a certain allowment of ground and some assistance to cultivate it. Or sd you think good and proper that the person now employed in this, sd be continued, and that you will allow them the above salary (and he will in the meantime look out for and appoint a fourth) he wi 11 continue them in their place - and further, that if you will take the trouble of laying out the ten pounds per anum, in art icles the most useful, as wearing apparel, a little soap, tea, sugar &c, and direct them to him or the principal commanding officer for the schoolmaster, he will see that they be properly and equally dis tributed amongst them. The Names of the persons that are now employed are two women, Richardson and Johnson and a f1an,bythe Name of McQueen now at Norfolk. I have long wi sh'es that some Method cd be hit upon for such of - 73 - the convicts as wished and wanted, to be instructed to read - Great Numbers of them both of Men and Women, I believe and fear know not a letter of the alphabet - From the great success that has attended the Sunday schools in England, I sd think and hope that if a similar plan was adopted and pursued here, it might and wd be attended with great good i1n forwarding the Reformation of the people - so far as my other duties which altogether are pretty great and extensive, wd admit of, I sd be very ready and extremely happy to forward, and to see this properly attended to, as I take the liberty of repeating, I cannot doubt, but if properly conducted, it wd be a means, and that a great one, of bringing some of these unhappy wretches to a better way of thinking. I have taken the Liberty, Sir, of throwing out this hint, in order that you may advise and consult with the gentlemen belonging to your, or (if you please) to those belonging to both the societies, whether those likewise might not share in the privileges and Blessings that we may hope wi 11 be drived from this your charitable institution. There is I confess one objection or obstacle which I foresee in in cluding the Convicts in the general Benefit, and that is, that sd this meet with your Consent and approbation, I fear that a school-mistress wd not do wo well neither be proper to instruct the Men Convicts and in that Case, it wd be expedient and even necessary to have some extra person or persons appointed, but as this might be done in a way not to interfere with publick work, a very little pittance might be sufficient to induce some persons to take upon themselves this employ- - 74 - ment on the Sunday, or other leisure time - I beg you, Sir, forgive me throwing out this hint - my sole motive in doing it, God is My Witness, is the sincere and ardent wish I have in seeing the Reform ation of these miserable and deluded people and that they may be brought to a sense of their duty both to God and man. A number of the Natives, both Men, Women and especially Children are now every day in the Camp - Two Native Girls I have under my roof - I hope in time that these ignorant and benighted heathen, will be capable of receiving instruction, but this must be a work of time and much Labour. It wd be advisable and is much to be wished that some suitable Missionary (two wd be better) was sent out for this purpose. I have nothing more to add than to assure you of my good wishes and I hope sincere prayers to God, that he may succeed with his Bless ings, your pious wishes and endeavours to promote his Cause and gospel, and that I am, with My respectful Compliments to the two societies, Rev. Sir, Your much obliged fd. and faithful servant Richard Johnson - 75 - APPENDIX B to CHAPTER 4 Rules or Articles to be Observed respecting the School at Sydney, N.S.W., 1798. - From Mackaness, G. Some letters of Rev. Richard Johnson, B.A. Part I I, 1954, p.29. 1. That this School is to be considered for the Benefit of Children of all Descriptions of Persons, whether Soldiers, Settlers or Convicts, provided they comply with the Rules here laid down. 2. Any Parent, etc. who intends to send a Chi Id to School is to give a week 1 s notice to the Revd. Mr. Johnson ... 3. No child is to be admitted, ti 11 he or she shall arrive at the age of three years. 4. The School hours to be from nine to twelve 0 1 clock in the morning and from two to five in the afternoon. No school on Saturday afternoon. 5. Every fresh scholar to pay sixpence at first entrance - Such child ren as are learning to read, to pay fourpence pr. week; those learning to write, or arithmetic, sixpence. 6. Such payments to be.made once a Quarter .... 7. Such Parents or others, as refuse, or with hold such payments ... to be deprived of ye privilege of sending their children to this School. 8. Persons incapable of paying for their children will not be required to do so .... - 76 - 9. Any child or children guilty of swearing, lying, stealing, or any other idle or wicked Habit at School are to undergo such Punishment as the Masters (first acquainting Mr. Johnson with the Crime and having his concurrence) shall think proper to inflict; if after fre quent correction no reformation be effected, that child to be turned from school. 10. All children belonging to this School, are regularly to attend public worship on the Sabbath Day ... and to appear clean and decent; the different Masters (two at least) 1 ikewise to attend, to mark those that are absent ... 11. The children to be catechized, and to sing one of Dr. Watt's Hymns for Children every Saturday forenoon, to be catechized at Church at such time as Mr. Johnson or the clergyman officiating may find convenient. Such parents as neglect or refuse to send their children to be thus instructed, to be deprived of the Privilege of the School. 12. A form of Prayer to be read by one of the School Masters, and one of Dr. Watt's Hymns to be sung morning and evening ••. 13. The Church Bell to ring a Quarter before Nine in the Morning, as a warning for the children to prepare immediately to school. 14. Those Parents as make a practice of keeping their Children for several days together from School upon frivolous occasions ... are first to be warned of such neglect and if they persist, they are deprived of the Benefit of sending their Child to this School. 15. As books of learning are at present scarce in the Colony, the - 77 - children are to give up their Books to the Master every noon and evening, except of Saturday, when they may be allowed to take them Home, that the Parents on Sundays, during the Interval of Divine Service may hear their lessons .•.. 16. The pecuniary Benefits ... divided equally amongst the School masters .... 17. The persons thus appointed are William Richardson, Isaac Nelson and Thomas Tabor ... 18. These different Rules may hereafter allowed to be altered, enlarged or curtailed as may be deemed necessary to be read publicly in Church once a quarter ... Sydney, New S. Wales Richard Johnson August 29th, 1798 CHAPTER 5. MISSIONARY AND CLERGY CONTRIBUTIONS I. AID FROM THE MISSIONARY SOCIETIES In a~ examination cf the role of the church in the development of education in N.S.W. in the early years it is not sufficient to conclude the study with merely the influence and importance of the first two chaplains. Whilst it is correct to say that Johnson and Marsden were in fact responsible for the main advances in education at the time, 1 it would be an over-simplification if we were to believe that all of the Church 1 s influence was channelled through these two men. In fact, as has been shown previously, Johnson and Marsden both acted in such a way as to generally supervise the attempts at educa tion in the colony at the time. They were to some extent involved themselves in education at the actual teaching level but, for the reasons shown in the previous chapter, neither of these men could devote all of their efforts and time to education alone. As Chaplains they had far more widespread responsibilities. In a similar way, many of the missionaries and clergy who follow ed Johnson and Marsden were unable to devote all of their time to the education of the children of the colony. They were, by the very nature of their position, responsible for far more. They saw their duty as providing for the spiritual, moral and physical needs of those people that they were serving. Their attempts were directed 1. See Chapter 4. 79 - towards the salvation of the men, women and children in the colony. Because of the very close relationship between the church and educa- t1on. at t h e time, . 2 however, they saw education as part of their duties. This is especially true of the missionaries who came to N.S.W. from the London Missionary Society (L.M.S.). It is quite evident from the correspondence between the missionaries and the 'home office' of L.M.S. that education was one of the priorities which was to be closely followed up by the Society. The following extract from a letter to the missionaries from their superiors shows this emphasis on schooling as well as the importance to be regarded to Marsden and Johnson. 11 You wi 11 doubtless pay especial regard to the experience and advice of the Rev. Mr. Johnson and Mr. Marsden, whose counten ance and regard you will respectfully seek, very probably and may have the opportunity of being useful in the education of the children of Convicts and among the Convicts themselves. 113 The missionary societies in general played several roles. Not only were they able to encourage the chaplains that were appointed, but they were eventually to provide finance for the support of 4 teachers , supply books and equipment, bring pressure to bear so that 2. This point is more fully discussed in previous chapters. 3- Rowland Hassall Papers, Vol 1, p.12 (Mitchell Library} 4. Specific grants from missions were made for teachers• salaries, the establishment of schools and school maintenance. - 80 - more teachers were supplied to New South Wales and perhaps even more important, they sent missionaries to the colony. The societies of significant importance were the London Mission ary Society (L.M.S.),the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.), the Soc iety for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (S.P.C.K.), and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (S.P.G.). Each of these organisations played a significant role in the setting up of education in N.S.w. 5 The grants from missions mentioned above were not large but did provide assistance in areas of need. The S.P.G. made ten pounds per year available as a grant to teachers in the colony up till 1830. The L.M.S. sent a two hundred pounds grant in 1799 and the C.M.S. sent one hundred pounds to Marsden in 1810. The arrivals of protestant refugee missionaries in the late 1790's and early 1800's were perhaps the most important missionary arrivals in the colony's history from an educational point of view. The missionaries had originally been sent to Tahiti but had found it 5. The L.M.S. was a non Anglican protestant Missionary Society with its basic roots in the Congregational Church which was founded in 1795 to send Missionaries to the South Seas. The C.M.S. was an Anglican Missionary Society which was more newly formed than S.P.G. and S.P.C.K. It was not considered the missionary department of the Church as such but operated in a more autonomous and independent way - just as the present C.M.S. Australia does. The SPCK and SPG - 81 - necessary to leave there and headed for N.S.W. They were wel- comed by both Hunter and Marsden who were delighted to receive such help. There was at the time a great need for both educators and evangelists. The missionaries being members of the L.M.S., were non conformists as far as the established church was concerned. This did not, however, present any real problems, because of the back ground of Marsden who had similarly been influenced by non-conform ist theology during his training in England. A further influx of L.M.S. missionaries took place in 1810 and, once again several of them made a useful contribution to the colony as school teachers. One may view the arrival of these men as either providential or fortuitous according to one 1 s outlook, but there is little doubt that their presence was extremely beneficial to the colony. As we have seen, the missionaries saw themselves as both evang elists and educators, and so it is not surprising to find that within a very short time they were heavily involved in education. A closer examination of the lives and work of each of these L.M.S. missionar ies wi 11 serve to point out the very important role that they play ed in the continuing development of education in the colony. They helped to build on the already established structure which Johnson and Marsden had provided but were also responsible for an extension of the system both in diversity and size, in the early years of the nineteenth century. were both considered as the missionary department of the established church. - 82 - I I. THE L.M.S. MEN There were quite a few members of the London Missionary Society who eventually resided in N.S.W. or spent some time here. Many of them had come to the South Seas in the 1 Duff 1 in 1796 with the Rev. J.F. Cover and found their way to Sydney in the 1 Nautilus 1 in 1798 but other arrivals did take place. 6 One of the original party was the Rev. J.F. Cover - a congregation al minister (and Rowlan HassalJls brother-in-law). Prior to his service with the L.M.S., Cover was a Schoo.lmaster at Woolwich (London) and as such was to prove valuable to the colony. He worked closely with William Henry whilst in the colony and preached and taught at Parramatta, Kissing Point and Toongabbie as well as giving lectures on Sunday evenings at Parramatta. His stay in the colony was not a long one, and he returned to England in 1800 to continue his work there as a Congregational minister. 6. The missionaries who arrived in May 1798 aboard the 1 Nautilus 1 are listed by the ADB Vol 1, (p.251) as: J.F. Cover, W. Henry, R. Hassall, P. Hodges, S. Clode, J. Cock, E. Main, F. Oakes, J. Puckey, W. Puckey and W. Smith - eleven in all. There is some doubt as to the correctness of this list, however, and it does seem that there may have been more members of the party. The date of arrival of the missionaries, however, is not as important in this study as the work that they did in the colony after their arrival. - 83 '.'" Not all clergy were to return to their native England, however, many found that their life 1 s work was within the colony and as a result stayed in N.S.W. until they died. William Pascoe Crook was such a man. Crook was born in 1775; however we know little of him until he began his time with the L.M.S. and sailed with Cover in the 1 Duff 1 • On his arrival in 1803 in Sydney, he was engaged by Marsden as a Schoolmaster and opened a school and church at Parramatta. This school was to become Australia 1 s first boarding school by 1804. Cover was also Marsden 1 s parish clerk. He eventually became Pastor at Castle Hill and assisted Hassall at Kissing Point and Toongabbie. In 1808, after Bligh was deposed, Crook was accepted as acting chaplain and moved to Sydney where he continued his boarding school and began evening classes. By 1813 he remodelled his school on the Lancastrian principles. From the information provided by Goodin 7 we see Crook as an innov ative educator. He was the first to undertake the idea of a full scale boarding school, and was instrumental in providing the first attempts at what we would today call secondary education. He also pioneered gi rl 1 s education by opening a school for young ladies in Phillip Street, Sydney, in 1830. He did not always see 'eye to eye• with his colleagues however, and was eventually to have a disagreement ]. V.W.E.Goodin, 1 Public Education in N.S.W. Before 1848 1 in Journal of the Royal Historical Society, Vol 36, 1950, pt 11, pages 99 - 102. - 84 - with Marsden. 8 Perhaps the main contributions which Crook made in the colony were his labours in education. They were, indeed, progressive for that day - especially when we note the provision made for individual differences of his pupils and his attempts at making learning as pleasing as possible - This is shown in his advertisement in the Sydney Gazette. 1:1 Mr. Crook has resumed the charge of the Public School kept in Parramatta Church; and is wi ]ling to have a few young Gentlemen to Board and Lodge with him, he has taken a House where he can accommodate them. 11 The Branches of Instruction will be adapted to the situation for which the Pupil may be designed, who will be taught to read, speak and write the English tongue with accuracy and propriety, Bookkeeping, Geometry, Trigonomety and Mensuration, practically applied in Navigation, Surveying, Gauging &c. He will endeavour to store their minds with a general knowledge of Geography, History and Astronomy, making every part of Education as pleasing as possible. 119 John Harris was another L.M.S. missionary to find his work mainly in the field of education. After his arrival in the colony along with 8. 11 Brief Sketch of the Life and Labours of the late Rev. W.P. Crook' (Manuscript in Mitchell Library - undated). 9.Sydney Gazette , 19th August, 1804 - 85 - Hassall and Cover he accepted the position as Chaplain and school master at Norfolk Island. He remained there as chaplain until Fulton arrived to take his place and as schoolmaster until 1803 when he returned to Sydney. Marsden then sent him to Green Hills as a pastor and teacher. The school at Green Hills Harris envisaged as an orphan school and a building was erected 'for the worship of God and 10 an orphan school for boys. 1 A good deal of hardship was exper- ienced by Harris, however, and it is known that he did not receive much for the teaching that he performed. This is especially sad when we realise that he alone was responsible for teaching between forty and fifty children over four years. Rowland Hassall also had some teaching experience before he left England with the L.M.S. party in the 'Duff'. He had been in volved in Sunday School work and was later to draw upon his exper ience in this field when he was responsible for founding the first Sunday School in Parramatta. Like other L.M.S. missionaries, he had a special interest in the Toongabbie and Kissing Point schools but was more occupied with the school at Kissing Point than the others. He had carried on the work where Cover had left off and worked closely with Matthew Hughes at the Kissing Point school. Hassall's other important contribution was in the form of his demands on the L.M.S. directors for contributions towards the Orphan School Fund. In this he met with a degree of success and the L.M.S. 10. Bonwick Transcript, Box 49, pp.238-9. - 86 - provided thirty nine pounds, five shillings and sevenpence for the bui 1ding which was twenty six shillings and sevenpence short - an amount which he found himself .. 11 Finally, William Shelley provides us with a further example of a L.M.S. member who came to Sydney to the colony's benefit. Like the previous missionaries, Shelley sailed in the 1Duff 1 in 1796. After three missionaries were killed in 1799 he came to Sydney along with Harris. Shelley was a very 1busy 1 man and could not be des cribed as simply a schoolmaster. In fact, from the time .that he took up residence with Roland Hassall in Parramatta, he was very heavily involved in trading ventures and the Tonga mission. As an artisan missionary of the L.M.S., Shelley continued to be faithful to the society and became interested in working among the Aboriginal people in Parramatta and its surrounds. 'He attempted to learn the language, took some children into his own family and addressed Governor Macquarie with the practicab ility of civilizing them. He was invited to draw up plans and in December (1814) was appointed superintendent and principal instruct or of the Native Institution at Parramatta. 112 The Native Institution opened in January 1815 and owed its ex istence to William She1 ley. The committee formed to assist Shelley 11. Ibid p.134 12. Australian Dictionary of Biography. Vo1 2, p.439 - 87 - in its operation consisted of: John Thomas Campbell, Esq.; D1 Arcy Wentworth, Esq.; William Redfern, Esq.; Hannival McArthur, Esq.; The Rev. William Cowper; The Rev. Henry Fulton; Mr. Rowland Hassal l. All of these people who were appointed to the committee one would expect to be serving in such a way. Samuel Marsden, however, is conspicuous by his absence. It is clear that the Marsden-Mac quarie feud was responsible. Although Shelley was responsible for the plan, and the setting up of the Native Institution in accordance with his plan, he was not to fully follow through his ideas. He died shortly after the opening of the Institution in July 1815. Mrs. Shelley continued her husband's work but the Institution closed in 1826. Nevertheless, an important contribution was made by Shelley in that finally work among the Aboriginal children had begun in an organised and meaningful way. 13 I I I. CLERGY CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION A significant contribution to the education scene in the first half of the century of the history of N.S.W. had been made by the L.M.S. missionaries. They were not alone in their endeavours how ever, as can be seen from the work of the non missionary clergy of 13. The N.S.W. Department of Education has recognised Shelley's con tribution to education and has named a school in Blacktown 11 The Shelley School 11. - 88 - the day. Men such as Bain, Fulton, Cowper, Youll and Reddall each contributed to education both in a direct and a supportive way. In the early years, we see Bain working along with Johnson in the provision of education for the infant colony. Although he was officially chaplain of the N.S.W. Corps, he did not limit himself to this role alone. Prior to leaving England, Bain discussed with the S.P..G. the idea of providing compensation for schoolmasters in the colony and was able to secure the assistance of the Archbishop of Canterbury in convincing the S.P.G. to grant ten pounds to each schoolmaster in the colony. This, of course was an important step for it meant that more qualified people may be prepared to offer for service in this way in the colony. Bain arrived in N.S.W. in September 1791 to take up his position as Chaplain to the N.S.W. Corps and fi lied in for Johnson during his absence. In 1792, Phillip sent him to Norfolk Island as a teacher, chaplain and magistrate. We know that whilst at Norfolk Island, Bain was involved in teaching i1n the school there. He was recalled to Sydney by Grose in 1794. Although Bain was not to contribute as much as Johnson and Marsden or, indeed, many of the other chaplains, we must remember that he was commissioned as Chaplain to the N.S.W. Corps and not the colony in general. If we bear this in mind it is clear that he made those contributions to education which it was possible for him to make. Perhaps the most important contribution was to secure the ten pounds compensation grant from the S.P.G. - 89 - Henry Fulton, on the other hand, was a man who had education as his chief interest. "Education was Fulton's chief interest. He had always been a good scholar; the inventory of his library shows a wide range of books with an emphasis on mathematics. 1114 Fulton was ordained a priest of the Church of Ireland in 1795 but was unfortunate enough to be convicted of a minor political crime associated with the Irish Rebellion and was transported to N.S.W. When Fulton first arrived in 1800, Hunter was unsure of how to use him but when Johnson left he made him as assistant chaplain, sent him to the Hawkesbury and then to Norfolk Island. He was pardoned in 1805 and returned to Sydney in 1806 where he was to dep utise for Marsden during his leave in England. During his time at Norfolk Island, Fulton was very active in helping provide education for the children there. His main con tributions to education however were his efforts at Castlereagh where he opened a middle-to-upper class school. 11 0n 11 July 1814 he opened a seminary at his new parsonage, Castlereagh House, where he instructed young gentlemen in classics, modern languages and such parts of the mathematics, both in theory and practice, as may suit the taste of the 14. K.J. Cable in Australian Dictionary of Biography. Val 1, p. 422 - 90 - s cho 1ar.1115 Eventually, Fulton was suspended from duty by the Rebellion but he remained Bligh's personal Chaplain and continued to speak out on education matters - finally to oppose Bourke's educational policy. The Rev. William Cowper was invited to the colony by Marsden during a visit to this parish in 1808. The similarity in back ground between the two men - both influenced by the evangelical re vival in Hull - meant that they were to possess similar attitudes to many things. Cowper accepted the invitation and arrived in the colony in August 1809 with a commission as Assistant Chaplain paying two hundred and sixty pounds per anl'IIL.lrn. Marsden sent Cowper to St. Phillips where he was to remain for many years. Cowper was a man of extreme views, and had several clashes with Macquarie. Macquarie, being a 11 High Churchman" could not tolerate Cowper's extreme evangelical position - as was evidenced in October 1814 when Cowper was ordered by the Governor to use the established version of the psalms rather than the alternate version which he had been using. Cowper was conferred with a D.D. from Lambeth in 1848 and Collated to the archdeaconry of Cumberland by Broughton in the same year. It was through his influence as a parish priest that Cowper was to have his greatest impact on education for it was in this capacity that he was able to exercise authority over the schools which he founded and controlled in his parish. He was a great help to St. 15. K.J. Cable, Australian Dictionary of Biography,·Vol 1, p.422 - 91 - Paul's College and the King's School in later years, but his main formal contribution was in 1818 when he tightened Anglican control of the Schools System by introducing his 'Rules for the Management of the Public Schools in Sydney' which required monthly reports to the Resident Chaplain, the teaching of the Church of England Catechism, and attendance at Sunday Schools. Thomas Reddal was an Anglican priest as well as being an educator. He was appointed both Chaplain and schoolmaster by Bathurst in 1819. Prior to his departure for the colony, he studied the 'Madras System' of instruction in London. He was sent out by. Bathurst in an attempt at introducing the Bell monitorial system into the colony's schools. He was to remain a schoolmaster until the 'system' was established and then revert to being a chaplain. Reddall arrived in Sydney in 1820, and very soon had converted the Male Orphan School to the Madras System. His influence was so great that he was able to change the new St. James' School building into law courts because of the problems using the Madras system there. Instead, the Georgian School in Castlereagh Street was begun. By 1820, Reddall had opened another school, at Macquarie Fields, and in 1824, along with two others, he was appointed to a conmittee 1Dadminister the Male and Female Orphan Schools. By 1824, he was in fact the first 'director-general' of public schools. Reddall, then had an immense influence on the education system of the time. He was an instigator or initiator in education as well as an administrator. He was not, however, very successful at the - 92 - practical teaching level. Many have criticized him as having mis used his talents but it is clear that he was able to exert his authority and allow the Anglican orientated Bell system to be strengthened at the expense of the Lancastrran (non-Conformist) approach to the monotorial system. The above outline of clergy influences is by no means compre hensive. There were other men who worked in the colony and influ enced education. e.g. John Youll who was the first teacher at the Portland school and who taught in Green Hills in 1808. Similarly, there were Roman Catholic influences from such men as James Kenny and Father James Dixon. The above, however, were the main clergy and missionaries who influenced education to any significant degree in the early years of the colony. CHAPTER 6. THE END OF AN ERA I. AIMS OF LEADERSHIP It remains to mention the work of two Anglican clergy who were to have a profound influence on the organisation, direction and administration of education. Both Thomas Hobbes Scott and William Grant Broughton have achieved considerable fame in N.S.W. not only because of their contribution to education but also because of their leading role in establishing the Anglican church on a sure footing within the colony. (Broughton being its first Bishop) Both Broughton and Scott were deeply convicted men who endeavoured to improve upon the existing systems in education. The main aim was to consolidate the multiplicity of education establishments into a well organised system which catered for the needs of the children within the colony, provided suitable future citizens for the colony and established ed ucation and the Church in what they considered was the correct relationship within the Society. II. THOMAS HOBBES SCOTT T.H. Scott, the son of a clergyman, was born in Oxford into a 1 well connected 1 family. At the age of 30 he matriculated and progressed to St. Alban 1 s Hall at Oxford where he was granted a B.A. in 1817 and an M.A. in 1818. It was not until he was appointed as J.T. Bigges 1 secretary that he had any influence on N.S.W. In 1819 Earl Bathurst issued a commission of inquiry into the - 94 - State of the colony in general to John Thomas Bigge. The report of this colllTlission was tabled in the House of Commons in 1822 and 1823. The section of Bigges' report devoted to education and religion was rather brief (when compared to the detail given in other areas) and provided only a sketchy account of the colony's churches and schools. Bathurst, not content with this summoned Scott (Bigge's secretary) in an attempt to gain more information. Bigge was not in England at the time. After some delay caused by the lack of order in his notes at that time, Scott asserted that the government should be responsible for public education and that a clerical visitor should be placed in charge of the church establish ment to control education. The financing of a system of schools was a problem and neither Bigge nor Scott had at that stage made any recommendations but when summoned by Bathurst, Scott made several suggestions - one eighth of the colonial imports devoted to education; the endowment of schools from the rents of a series of farms; the contributions of wheat or meat by the parents; or a new and large reserve of land set aside for the financial backing needed for education. The final suggestion of setting aside land to support a Church and school establishment in every district was acted upon by Bathurst and Governor Brisbane was instructed to put the plan into action. Scott, having been ordained deacon in 1821 and priest in 1822, was nominated as the Archdeacon at a fee of two thousand pounds per - 95 - annum and to be in charge of Church and schools in N.S.W.; Governor Brisbane was recalled, and General Darling was sent out as the new governor. All this was to mark the end of one era of dis organised advances in education and the beginning of what was hoped would be a period of sustained growth and success in education in the Colony of N.S.W. Scott, who ranked next to the Lieut. Governor was a tireless and exacting administrator who had sufficient power to effect great changes in the education scene. 1 He appointed teachers, selected and secured sites for schools and made certain that he was well informed by requiring detailed reports from all chaplains, clergy and teachers. His ecclesiastical power was further strengthened by the fact that his superior was the Bishop of Calcutta (the Archdeaconry of N.S.W. was created as a part of the diocese of Calcutta) who was too far away to exert any real influence. Scott remained on good terms with his fellow clergy and educators and was on especially good terms with Marsden - still senior chaplain. As King's Visitor of Schools, the archdeacon was fully in charge of education not only on a systems level but also from a practical point of view. He was able to keep in touch with what was happening in the actual classroom. Bathurst, like Scott, believed that education and the Church were inseparable and so in 1826 he set up the Corporation of Trust- 1. Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, Vol 11, p.422 - 96 - ees of Church and School Lands whereby a seventh of all land in N.S.W. was· to be turned over to the Church of England for education and religion and their support. Scott as archdeacon and King's visitor was automatically vice president of the board (ex officio). In addition to his achievements on an administrative level, Scott was responsible for many practical changes on the education frontier. Not only did he build schools (as mentioned above) but he also established teacher training centres; inaugurated secondary ed ucation; encouraged mechanics institutes; helped the orphan schools; further strengthened the adoption of the Bell System; founded Schools of industry and established a new institution for Aborigines at Blacktown. Significant advances were made but the development of education on a systems level still continued to be slow and problematic. The 1 Corporation 1 proved too big and unweildy and naturally met with opposition from the non Anglican protestants and the Roman Catholics. Even from his appointment and subsequent arrival in the colony in 1825, Scott experienced great problems, and he faced much opposition from the Roman Catholic, Methodist and Presbyterian denominations who had become organised by 1825 and were led by vocal and capable leaders. His appointment was unpopular also with the emancipists because of his part associations with Bigge and his continued identity with the exclusive faction in the colony. 2 2. Turney, C. Pioneers of Australian Education, S.U.P. page 13. - 97 - John Dunmore Lang for the Presbyterians and Therry for the Roman Catholic persuasion were particularly vitriolic in attack on Scott, an arragement which so openly favoured the Church of England in its involvement in the colonial schools. Following legal battles, the proclamation of the Church and Schools Corporation's Charter was not made till 1826 and oppos- ition even from the Surveyor-General was made to the provision of the necessary one seventh of the land in each country. A depression be set the colony in the late 1820 1 s which also intensified the Corporation's difficulties in building the necessary schools. In fact no land was made available to the Corporation till 1829 and by the end of that year the whole scheme was abandoned when the Corp oration was informed that its Charter would be revoked. Indeed the system was doomed from the outset, because the spirit of the age was moving against the whole system or concept of a privileged church - this is evidenced in England by the repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts in 1828 and the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1820. Scott's scheme was doomed to failure due to the existence of such a diversity of denominational influence but there were achieve ments. Most important was the movement away from the unregulated group of institutions into a supervised, centralised and co-ordinated system. Shellard makes the following three points on the aspects of Scott's system which stand out. 1. Scott was suggesting the support of a 'National Sys~em' of ed ucation by drawing on public funds in the form of income and - 98 - capital from land, a form of negotiable asset already used extensively in the colony and one which seemed to be in almost unlimited supply. 2. Administration of this system was to be in the hands of a Board of Trustees maintaining a central control through pro vision of funds and appointment of staff. 3. The entire system was to be tied closely to Church administration. He assumed that the role of the Church of England in Australia would be that of the Church of England in England, that is, as the Established Church of the country. 3 Scott's achievements were left to the historian to praise, but his mistakes were publicly decried in the press of the time. The unrelenting attacks of Hall (and others) had taken their toll and Scott felt that no other road was open to him but to resign. This he did in 1829. 4 3, Shellard, J.S. 'Public Education in N.S.W. 1 , part 10, p.600 in Education Gazette, Nov. 1968. 4. It is interesting to note here that Hall with whom Scott had battled for some time as evidenced by the 1 St. James pew in cident• was convicted and gaoled for libelous publications some time later. - 99 - 111. \n LL 1AM GRANT BROUGHTON Like Scott, Broughton had contributions to make to the education scene in N.S.W. He too, however, was to have an influence more in his lack of success than in a more positive and planned way. William Grant Broughton was the acknowledged leader of the opposition to Bourke's plans for a national system of education. Having arrived in the colony on 13th September, 1829 as archdeacon ' (to replace Scott), Broughton was determined to set up his own ver sion of the ideal education system but could only administer the affairs of the 'Corporation' as they stood 'till finally it was dissolved in 1833. By the time Broughton had arrived in the colony, denominational rivalry had developed to a fair degree - flared by the Church and Schools Corporation episode of the 182O 1 s. Whilst the Anglican Church in England could claim to be the established church due to its large number of adherents, this was no longer possible in N.S.W. The historical setting of Broughton's attempt at providing an Anglican dominated system was in all ways working against the possibility of this taking place. We must admire Broughton for his persistence in continuing to fight for what he considered to be the best thing for the future of the colony and for its present children. F.T. Wittington in his very comprehensive study of Broughton makes it clear that Broughton was a sincere, honest and devoted man who believed that education and the Church were inseparable in building national life. - 100 - "Broughton persistently taught that the first necessity in building up national life was an all embracing educational system, based on the cardinal truths of revealed religion. 115 To this end he founded the King's School at Parramatta and to prevent Bourke from introducing the Irish system in Australia, sailed for England in 1834 and endeavoured whilst there to thwart Bourke's plans. In this he was not quite successful. Returning to the Colony in 1836 he continued his efforts to have only one denomination supported by the state - the Anglican Church. From 1836 to 1848 Broughton was successful in preventing any secular system of education from being introduced. It was not unti I 1847 that he was practically forced by the circumstances of the time to change his attitude on the issue of non-Ang! ican education. The financial crises of the early 1840's helped change the bishop's attitude. The Governor of the Colony could no longer afford in those distressing years to give subsidies to the churches and their schools when the very existence of the Colony was being threatened by the Depression. The pastoral ists could no longer support Broughton and his schools. They had their own financial problems to contend with. By 1848 the worst of the Depression was past, Broughton was less hostile to government aid to proposed state schools and the Governor was then Fitzroy, a very able and practical politician. A compromise was 5. WHITTINGTON, F.T. William Grant Broughton, Angus and Robertson, page X 11. - 101 - made regarding the introduction of the Irish National system. There was to be a dual system of education: a set of denominational schools and state schools. In 1848 the dual system of education came into being under Governor Fitzroy. By 1848, then, the foundation era in Australian Education was complete. The movement away from a group of scattered and loosely organised institutions towards a highly centralised system of education had begun. The final stage had been the beginning of a loss of power and control by the Church. Ang] ican dominance was no more. Scott and Broughton had recognised that the education system was at a critical state. It would either be established as an integral part of the Anglican (and hopefully to them 'established') Church or become a divided system - divided between Church and State from a control viewpoint and divided between the major denomin ations so that a schismatic structure would result. One wonders whether Scott or Broughton foreshadowed the possibility of a dual sustem in education even continuing into the 20th and perhaps 21st centuries. CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS At no time in the history of N.S.W., was education more connected to the Church than in the period between 1788 and 1848. This was the period of religious dominance in education. The partnership between Church and State was almost totally one sided - the Church led and the State followed. 1 It is obvious that the partnership was a dynamic one, however, and we find that there is a gradual decline of importance on the part of the Church, and a steady growth in pub lic sector education. In the preceding chapters, I have commenced by outlining the dominant factors that were responsible for bringin9 ,about: this, Gburch dominance in education in the early years and have continued by accounting for the changes that took place in this dynamic Church State partnership from the foundation years 'till 1848. It would be foolish to assume that the Church alone was res ponsible for education in any one period, just as it would to maintain that there was an equally shared partnership. In the very early years, it was the Chaplains who undertook the ultimate respons- ibility for education within the colony. 2 - even if this was to some 1. One might even say that for the most part the State played the role of a 'sleeping• partner. 2. A unique position existed in the early colony in that the Govern ment was in total control because of the penal nature of the settle ment (the Chaplains were in some ways a part of the State). - 103 - extent on behalf of the State. The fact that early education was centred around the chaplain, the governor, the missionaries and the convicts is most definitely correct. The emphasis, however, was on the chaplain. It was he who undertook the organisation, supervision and administration of the early attempts by a group of convicts. It was the chaplain who was first to recognise that the future of the colony lay in its children and that this meant that they needed to be educated and protected from their somewhat 'unsavoury' environment. Continued assistance from the Missionary Societies of the established Church in England and non conformists was forthcoming during the formative years of the colony. They provided men, equipment and money, in an attempt to put education on a 1sure footing1 within the colony. The clergy too, were continually supportive - whether they were Anglican, Roman Catholic or Protestant - there were disagree ments but generally it was agreed that it was the Church's respons ibility to educate. The unique system of education that was to develop in N.S.W. owes a great deal to this early period of foundations and growth. The initial model was influenced heavily in three main ways: 1. Ideas and traditions were either brought or received from abroad; 2. Internal pressures within the colony moulded the initial institutions; and 3. The background and nature of the Chaplains determined the directions which were to be followed in - 104 - educational development. As the role of the Church undertook a subtle change away from its heavy social emphasis towards a more evangelical and pastoral approach in the early nineteenth century and as the Church and State slowly separated in Great Britain we found the balance of power in the N.S.W. Church-State educational partnership changing away from the traditional Church dominance towards heavier state intervention. It was this gradual trend that has continued to our present day when the State is most certainly the dominant part of the dual system in education in N.S.W. The role of the chaplains, clergy and missionaries in the early years in education in N.S.W. was to establish and build a strong, comprehensive and workable education system as a base for further growth. Their contributions were so great that they tot ally overshadow the lesser contributions by the State at the time and their significance can be seen in our present continuing Church-State partnership in education in N.S.W. BIBLIOGRAPHY I . BOOKS AUSTIN, A.G. Australian Education 1788 - 1900 - Church State and Public Education in Colonial Aust ralia, Pitman, Melbourne. 1961. AUSTIN, A. G. The Australian School, Longmans, Croydon, Vic, 1966 AUSTIN, A.G. Selected Documents in Australian Education 1788 - 1900, Pitman, Melbourne, 1963 BARCAN, A. 11 Australia as a new land in Education 11 , in the Forum of Education, Vo] 35, No. 1, March 1976, pp.27-38 BARCAN, A. 11 The Australian Tradition in Education 1a, in COWAN, R.W.T., (ed) Education for Australians, Cheshire, Sydney, 1964 BARCAN, A. A Short History of Education in N.S.W., Martindale Press, Sydney, 1965 BONWI CK, James Australia 1 s First Twenty Years_, M.L. BONWI CK, James Australia's First Preacher, M.L. BORDER, R. Church and State in Australia 1788 - 1872, S.P.C.K., London, 1962 BRIDGES, B. 11 Aboriginal Education in Eastern Australia (N.S.W.) 1788 - 1855 11 in the Australian Journal of Education, Vol. 12, No. 3, Oct. 1968. pp. 225 - 43. - 106 - BURTON, W.W. The State of Religion and Education in N.S.W. Cross, London, 1840 CLEVERLEY, J. F. The First Generation, Sydney University Press, 1971. COLE, P.R. "Education in N.S.W. 1788 - 1830" in GOLLAN, K. The Organisation and Administration of Educa tion in N.S.W., Sydney Teachers College Press, Sydney. COWAN, R.W.T. (ed) Education for Australians, Cheshire, Sydney, 1964 CROWLEY, F.K. 11 The Foundation Years 11 in GREENWOOD, G. (ed) Australia - A Social and Political History, Sydney 1955. FOSTER, W. 11 The Era of Archdeacon Scott in Education 11 in Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol. 47 Part 3. GRIFFITHS, D.C. Australian Education, 1788 - 1900 GRIFFITHS, D.C. Documents on the Establishment of Education in N.S.W., 1789 - 1800, A.C.E.R., Melbourne, 1957 GR I FF I THS , D. C. Select Documents in Australian Education, 1788 - 1900, Pitman, Melbourne, 1963 GOODIN, V. 11 Public Education in N.S.W. before 1848 11 in Journal of R.A.H.S., Vol 36, 1950 GROSE, K. 11Wi 11 iam Grant Broughton and National Education in N.S.W. 1829-3611 in FRENCH, E.L. (ed) - 107 - Melbourne Studies in Education, 1963, MUP Melbourne, 1964. HYAMS, B.K. AND BESSANT, B. Schools for the People, Longman, Camberwell, Vic. 1972. MACKENZIE, T.F. Nationalism and Education in Australia - with Special Reference to the State of N.S.W. King and Son, London 1935. MARSDEN, J.B. Life and Works of Samuel Marsden, Whitcombe and Tombs, Christchurch, 1913. RANKIN, D.H. The Philosophy of Australian Education, Arrow Printery, Melbourne, 1941. REEVES, G. A History of Tasmanian Education, Arrow Print ery, Melbourne, 1941. ROWLAND, E.C. A Century of the English Church in N.S.W., Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1948 SMITH, S.H. A Brief History of Education in Australia 1788 - 1848, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1917. SMITH, S.H. AND SPAULL, G.T. History of Education in N.S.W. 1788 - 1925, George B. Phi lip, Sydney, 1925. TURNEY, C. (ed) Pioneers of Australian Education, Vol 1, S.U.P., 1969 TURNEY, C. Sources in the History of Australian Education 1788 - 1970, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1975 WANNAN, B. Early Colonial Scandals, Lansdowne, Melbourne, 1972. - 108 - WIHTI NGTON, F. T. William Grant Broughton, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 19 36. YARWOOD , A. T. Samuel Marsden - The Great Survivor, Melbourne University Press, 1977. I I. JOURNALS, ORIGINAL SOURCES ETC. AUSTRALIAN DICTIONARY OF BIOGRAPHY AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION BONWICK TRANSCRIPT - Various Boxes - Mitchell Library EDUCATION GAZETTE - Especially Article by J. Shellard, 1968. FORUM OF EDUCATION HISTORICAL RECORDS OF AUSTRALIA HISTORICAL RECORDS OF N.S.W. JOURNAL OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION JOURNAL OF ROYAL AUSTRALIAN HISTORICAL SOCIETY MARSDEN PAPERS - Mitchell Library.