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As Nossas Constelações

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As Nossas Constelações As Nossas Constelações A origem de algumas constelações pivotais ao longo da Eclíptica parece remontar a muitos séculos antes da nossa Era. O Touro, o Leão ou o Escorpião estão documentados desde remota antiguidade, na Mesopotâmia. Outras constelações têm origem clássica. Por fim, veremos o contributo moderno da era da expansão marítima europeia (em especial nas constelações que povoam os céus austrais). Origens, o Zodíaco Na Mesopotâmia, foi agilizada uma divisão da esfera em três “caminhos” ou faixas (com referência ao equador celeste), desde cedo, no segundo milénio (os “caminhos” de Anu, Enlil e Ea). Posteriormente, a astronomia documentada nos MUL.APIN (ver infra) antecipa o zodíaco ao estabelecer 17 ou 18 “markers” ou balizas (nem todos especificamente situados na Eclíptica) para o percurso da Lua (Sin), que atravessava os “caminhos” previamente referidos (sistema análogo aos Nakshatras Hindus, decerto relacionado). A redução para 12 estará comprometida com a divisão ideal do ano em outros tantos meses solares, determinados pelo calendário adoptado. De acordo com Lis Brack-Bernsen e Hermann Hunger, o zodíaco foi, antes de mais “…percebido como sistema de arcos ao longo do horizonte, sobre os quais as constelações nasciam”. Eram utilizadas estrelas como referência inicial, ab initio não especificamente o ponto vernal “matemático” (Franz Kugler, Bartel van der Waerden e Otto Neugebauer). As inscrições MUL.APIN (compêndio babilónico que lida com aspectos diversos da astronomia/astrologia descritiva e resume provavelmente material mais antigo) terão sido compiladas por volta de 1000 A.C., datando o exemplar recuperado mais antigo do sétimo século. Uma interpretação moderna foi efectuada por Hermann Hunger e David Pingree (Mul.Apin: An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform, 1989). Acredita-se que estas listagens influenciam a futura delineação grega, por exemplo do catálogo atribuído a Eudoxo de Cnido ou transparecendo nos parapegmata (i.e., calendários estelares baseados na divisão do ano em signos zodiacais) dos atenienses Méton e Euctemon. Placa WA 86378 (actual BM 86378, Museu Britânico) Com origem na Mesopotâmia, o Zodíaco evoluiu lentamente, provavelmente no intervalo 1300-500. As suas etapas terão sido: - disposição de doze constelações (desiguais) ao longo da Eclíptica; - divisão desse círculo em doze partes iguais; - divisão dos doze segmentos em doze signos tropicais com igual dimensão. Não há vestígios de que um esquema grego equivalente até um análogo ser documentado circa 500 A.C. Peter Jensen (Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, 1890) foi o primeiro a demonstrar que o zodíaco grego, com pequenas alterações, é uma adaptação do modelo babilónico (i.e., mesopotâmico). Ian Ridpath (Star Tales: Revised and Expanded Edition, 2018) considera legítimo inferir, através dos espaços “despovoados” em redor das latitudes austrais inacessíveis (e tomando em consideração o efeito da Precessão dos Equinócios), a data e a geografia de origem das constelações que chegaram até nós (Ch1): Identifying the constellation inventors It is not too difficult to work out roughly where the constellations known to Eudoxus and Aratus were invented. The clue is that Aratus described no constellations around the south celestial pole, for the reason that this area of sky was permanently below the horizon of the constellation makers. From the extent of the constellation-free zone we can conclude that the constellation makers must have lived at a latitude of around 35–36° north – that is, south of Greece but north of Egypt. A second clue comes from the fact that the constellation-free zone is centred not on the south celestial pole at the time of Aratus but on its position many centuries earlier. The position of the celestial pole changes slowly with time because of a wobble of the Earth on its axis, an effect known as precession, and in principle this effect can be used to estimate the date of any set of star positions. Because of the uncertainties involved, however, attempts to date the constellations as described by Aratus have produced a wide range of results. Derived values extend back to nearly 3000 BC, with a majority preference for somewhere around 2000 BC. A newer and more comprehensive analysis by Bradley Schaefer of Louisiana State University has concluded that Aratus’s descriptions correspond to the sky as it appeared close to 1130 BC. At present, the best we can say is that the constellations known to Eudoxus and Aratus were probably invented in the second millennium BC by people who lived just south of latitude 36° north. This date is too early for the Greeks and the latitude is too far south; Egyptian civilization is sufficiently old, but the required latitude is well north of them. The time and the place, though, ideally match the Babylonians and their Sumerian ancestors who lived in the area we know as Mesopotamia and who, as we have already seen, had a well-developed knowledge of astronomy by 2000 BC. Hence two independent lines of evidence point to the Babylonians and Sumerians as the originators of our constellation system. Em resumo, podemos inferir que as constelações descritas por Arato e Eudoxo foram inventadas no segundo milénio numa latitude um pouco a sul dos 36º N. Corresponde ao contexto das civilizações da Mesopotâmia. Constelações ptolomaicas do hemisfério sul no mapa desenhado por Albrecht Durer, 1515 Constelações Clássicas Há um “incremento” da época de Homero ou Hesíodo, circa 700 A.C. (que elencam poucas constelações e asterismos), para a de Eudoxo ou Arato, que descrevem um vasto acervo de constelações. As 48 constelações clássicas são sistematizadas na Sintaxe de Ptolomeu e no poema de Arato de Solos (Phaenomena, "Aparências"). A primeira edição do “Almagesto” de Ptolomeu (como será conhecido a partir do nome arabizado) acontecerá em Veneza em 1515. Tabela das 48 constelações listadas por Ptolomeu, c. 150 A.D. Andromeda Cassiopeia Eridanus Perseus Aquarius Centaurus Gemini Pisces Aquila Cepheus Hercules Piscis Austrinus Ara Cetus Hydra Sagitta Argo Corona Australis Leo Sagittarius Aries Corona Borealis Lepus Scorpius Auriga Corvus Libra Serpens Boötes Crater Lupus Taurus Cancer Cygnus Lyra Triangulum Canis Major Delphinus Ophiuchus Ursa Major Canis Minor Draco Orion Ursa Minor Capricornus Equuleus Pegasus Virgo N.B.: o asterismo Antinous, criado pelo Imperador Adriano na época de Ptolomeu não aparece no catálogo. Surgirá, por exemplo, em globos e atlas a partir do século XVI mas torna-se obsoleta. Coma Berenices, não sendo nomeada, é descrita por Ptolomeu no final da sua descrição de Leo, o Leão. Referida por Al-Biruni, reaparece com C. Vopel e G. Mercator, surgindo decisivamente no influente catálogo de T. Brahe. A constelação Libra será “reabilitada” justamente no período romano, antes era considerada pelos Gregos parte de Scorpius: Chelae, “as pinças”. Cláudio Ptolomeu somente acrescentou quatro nomes de estrelas individuais aos que Arato havia elencado quatro séculos antes: Altair (a que chama Aetos, "Águia"), Antares, Regulus (Basiliskos) e Vega (a que chamou Lyra, o nome da constelação). A era das navegações, dos grandes atlas e o preenchimento dos “vazios” Constelações do hemisfério austral. Uranometria, Johann Bayer (1603) Entre meados dos séculos XVI e XVIII, novas constelações vão ser formadas. Perpetuadas, algumas ratificadas, vão aparecendo em globos e atlas. Em 1603, o atlas de J. Bayer acrescentou constelações visíveis do hemisfério sul. Tycho Brahe, como vimos, autonomizou um antigo asterismo, Coma Berenices, passando a considerá-lo uma constelação de pleno direito. Em 1624, J. Bartsch documentou três constelações em espaços anteriormente “desocupados”, nos intervalos das clássicas, e listou uma outra (Crux), que Ptolomeu integrava em Centaurus (havia sido previamente evidenciada por Mestre João Faras e por Andrea Corsali, navegador activo no início do século XVI). J. Hevelius (1611-1687), elencou outras (listadas infra) e Lacaille, após a sua pesquisa dos céus do Cabo (sul de África, 1750), anotou mais um conjunto de constelações austrais (ver listagem infra). Por fim, a enorme Argo Navis foi separada em 3 constelações diferentes (Carina, Puppis e Vela), hoje consideradas autonomamente. Na volúpia criadora da época, que incluiu tentativas radicais de alteração, por exemplo “cristianizar” o paganismo celestial (e.g. Julius Schiller e o seu Coelum Stellatum Christianum, 1627), muitas constelações ficaram pelo caminho, doravante esquecidas. Constelações austrais resultantes da cartografia e navegações holandesas, na articulação do teólogo e cartógrafo Petrus Plancius (1552-1622) com os navegadores Keyser e De Houtman: Chamaeleon, Dorado, Grus, Hydrus, Indus, Pavo, Musca (originalmente Apis, a Abelha), Phoenix, Triangulum Australe, Tucana e Volans. Petrus Plancius introduz ainda as constelações Camelopardalis, Columba e Monoceros. Alguns espaços entre as “clássicas” do hemisfério norte foram preenchidos por Johannes Hevelius, cartógrafo influente. As suas constelações prevalecentes são: Canes Venatici, Lacerta, Leo Minor, Lynx, Scutum (originalmente Scutum Sobiescianum), Sextans e Vulpecula (originalmente Vulpecula cum Anser). Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille (1713-1762) introduz (e divide, no caso da clássica Argo Navis) as constelações austrais Antlia, Caelum, Carina, Circinus, Fornax, Horologium, Mensa, Microscopium, Norma, Octans, Pictor, Puppis, Pyxis, Reticulum, Sculptor, Telescopium e Vela. (Listagens acima baseadas no volume Star Maps History, Artistry, and Cartography de Nick Kanas (Springer -
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