A Rationale for a Human Lunar Pathfinder Mission

A RATIONALE FOR A HUMAN LUNAR PATHFINDER MISSION

Robert Lee Howard, Jr. University of Tennessee Space Institute Tullahoma, TN

Abstract NASA must find them and validate them. There are resources in the lunar environment that will NASA is facing immense challenges. enhance our capabilities for missions in other Costs for the International Space Station are areas of space, both within the Earth-Moon' climbing into orbit; Mars is far too unknown for system anq further into the solar system. NASA human flight; robotic missions seem to fail nearly must identify these resources, learn how to tap as often as they succeed; and the shuttle is into them, and create the conditions to make their b.ecoming increasingly obsolete. What is the use a reality. This is why NASA exists. This focus NASA should bring to the new paper will define and justify the objectives of a millennium? Clearly NASA must maintain the pathfinder lunar mission intended to bring focus shuttle and work towards a new launch system. to some of these issues, and will investigate They must complete the International Space mission requirements and constraints to be Station, especially now that components.are in applied to the pathfinder project. orbit. Robotic exploration of the solar system must continue. But for all practical purposes, Introduction this might as well be a path to nowhere. While there are definite long-term payoffs - in the 20+ The call for a return to the moon has year timeframe - there is far too much room in been repeatedly given ever since the final lunar the near future for a loss of identity and purpose. landing. During the period from 1969 to 1972, Neither the scientific community nor the NASA landed six Apollo missions on the moon, American public will find much reward in a thus fulfilling President Kennedy's pledge to space program that spends the next five years land a man on the moon and return him safely to building a space station, the next ten years Earth. These six missions are the only times visiting it, and in the background launches human beings have left the immediate vicinity of occasional robotic probes into space, not to be the Earth to travel to another heavenly body. In heard from until years later. While these subsequent years, however, calls to return to the necessary tasks should by all means continue, moon have fallen largely on deaf ears. Many NASA must place them in the context of a bold times the response has been the question of why. vision for the future of spaceflight. This is not a Much of the space program has been criticized vision consisting of timetables, hypothetical for failing to communicate clear rationales for programs and budget projections. Those have space activity. In a sense, there are a series of been so over-used that they carry no meaning. three questions that must be resolved. Why Instead, this vision must go back to the 1958 should we be in space? Even if we should be in Space Act and reiterate why NASA exists; it space, why should we go to the moon? Ifwe go must create an inspiring image of a future in to the moon, what should that mission space where people beyond the agency and its accomplish? contractors are participants. I believe NASA has the responsibility of opening up the space Why are we in space? frontier. Simply investigating LEO does not constitute an opening of the space frontier; this Why do we have a space program? vision must include the moon as a near term Whenever technical difficulties or budgetary destination. There are valid opportunities for problems come to light, this is often the first commercial enterprise on the moon. NASA must question out of the mouths of critics. What is find them and bring them into reality. There are there about space that could possibly warrant the operational procedures and engineering expenditures and risks incurred in our technologies necessary to support lunar endeavors? What are some reasons to enter operations. We have no idea what they are. space? Why should we enter space at all? There

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Copyright © 2001 by the Space Studies Institute (SSI) are several reasons that come to mind. It is our creating a major tourist attraction in that location. human destiny (or alternately, it is our human Yet someone found a way to develop a wildly desire/drive). There are commercial successful business plan. Hotel and casino opportunities in space. Finally, there is a operators now have no problem spending national mandate to explore space and develop incredible amounts of money to develop their its potential. facilities, for they know with confidence that they Throughout human history, mankind has can tum a profit. Space is where Las Vegas was exhibited a drive to reach beyond the boundaries a hundred or two years ago. It is a wilderness, of the time. Simple curiosity, desires to make seemingly with very little to offer. But to the new discoveries to improve the quality of life, proper visionary, it is the source of the next and a belief that it is simply our purpose have all financial empire. Whether through tourism, fueled this drive. Ancient explorers set sail - at manufacturing, scientific discovery, or some out tremendous expense and risk - seeking to her source of income, multitudes of new traverse vast, unknown oceans and explore newly industries await development. discovered continents. Even today, we still Finally, in Title I, Sec. 102 (d), the explore these oceans and continents, driven to National Air and Space Act imposes the discover and understand parts of this planet that following rationale for American space activity: remain a mystery to us. In the days of American ( d) The aeronautical and space expansion, people believed it was literally God's activities of the United States shall will - or a Manifest Destiny - for the country to be conducted so as to contribute span the continent. This is similar to the beliefs materially to one or more of the of emperors and kings throughout history who following objectives: created vast nations. In a sense, space is the (1) The expansion of human perfect "Manifest Destiny." Unlike the more knowledge of the Earth brutal expansions in the world's past, there are and of phenomena in the no native inhabitants to be oppressed by atmosphere and space; expansion. Space is vast. No matter how far (2) The improvement of the outward we expand there is still new, unexplored usefulness, performance, territory. speed, safety, and efficiency The National Air and Space Act of 1958 of aeronautical and space states in Title I, Sec. 102 ( c ), "The Congress vehicles; declares that the general welfare of the United (3) The development and States requires that the National Aeronautics and operation of vehicles capable Space Administration (as established by title II of of carrying instruments, this Act) seek and encourage, to the maximum equipment, supplies, and extent possible, the fullest commercial use of living organisms through space."1 space; We have only barely begun to fathom (4) The establishment oflong commercial possibilities in space. Just fifty years range studies of the potential ago, only the shrewdest of visionaries could have benefits to be gained from, even imagined that space could be a potential the opportunities for, and the source of profits. Yet today, the commercial problems involved in the communications industry is dependent on utilization of aeronautical orbiting satellites to provide a communications and space activities for infrastructure. While commercial profiteering is peaceful and scientific limited at present to communications in Earth purposes; orbit, an unwritten future contains an incalculable (5) The preservation of the role domain of business ventures. of the United States as a A point of inspiration is the city of Las leader in aeronautical and Vegas, and really most of the major cities in the space science and American southwest. Las Vegas is an island of technology and in the financial profiteering in the middle of the desert. application thereof to the When explorers first reached the area where conduct of peaceful activities Vegas now stands, there was nothing but sand. within and outside the {\.nyone would have laughed at the idea of atmosphere;

174 ( 6) The making available to concentrate on terrestrial space stations and Mars agencies directly concerned exploration? with national defense· of discoveries that have Why the moon? military value or significance, and the Some critics of lunar exploration would furnishing by such agencies, ask why go to the moon? They would say that to the civilian agency we've been there with Apollo, so there is nothing established to direct and new to gain. Their logic, however, is flawed. control nonmilitary From Salyut to Skylab, to Mir, and now to ISS, aeronautical and space we are establishing a human presence in Earth activities, of information as orbit. With each program we are learning new to discoveries which have things and accomplishing more than its value or significance to that predecessors. Yes, we have been to the moon agency; before, but only in the most minimal fashion. (7) Cooperation by the United Simply put, we have not accomplished much of States with other nations and significance on the moon. It is true that the groups of nations in work Apollo program provided incredible done pursuant to this Act and breakthroughs and discoveries, but only a tiny in the peaceful application of fraction of what can ultimately be gained from the results thereof; the moon was accomplished through the Apollo (8) The most effective program. To say, "why go to the moon since utilization of the scientific we've been there with Apollo," is comparable to and engineering resources of saying, "why build a space station since.we've the United States, with close been in orbit with Mercury capsules." Just as cooperation among all Mercury was incapable of performing the interested agencies of the missions ISS will accomplish, Apollo was also United States in order to incapable of conducting the missions a return to avoid unnecessary the moon would perform. The moon has also duplication of effort, been recorrunended as the next focus for space facilities, and equipment; exploration by numerous committees established and to guide space agencies.2 (9) The preservation of the The following elements of the National United States preeminent Air and Space Act are perhaps the most directly position in aeronautics and applicable to the call for a return to the moon: space through research and (3) The development and technology development operation of vehicles capable related to associated of carrying instruments, manufacturing processes. 1 equipment, supplies, and Implicit in this statute are fundamental living organisms through rationales and the directives to develop and space; maintain the technological capability to (4) The establishment oflong accomplish these rationales. Scientific range studies of the potential knowledge, corrunercial utilization, and benefits to be gained from, American leadership are all directly cited as the opportunities for, and the rationales in the Act. The human drive to problems involved in the explore is not directly mentioned, but is perhaps utilization of aeronautical an indirect motivation for several of the listed and space activities for objectives. peaceful and scientific So now that we have a reason for space purposes; activity, what is it that makes the moon an (5) The preservation of the role important destination? Is orbiting the Earth truly of the United States as a insufficient? With all the interest in Mars, why leader in aeronautical and not forget about the moon and simply. space science and technology and in the

175 application thereof to the Ideas run the gamut from simple banking and conduct of peaceful activities commerce using remote servers on the moon to within and outside the wild, grandiose schemes for mining and atmosphere; construction colonies, lunar fueling stations and (9) The preservation of the even massive lunar hotels - the ultimate Las United States preeminent Vegas of the future. There is, however, one thing position in aeronautics and all these concepts have in common. They require space through research and the development of a capability to travel to the technology development moon and return safely. "The key to unlocking related to associated space for business and individuals who will use it manufacturing processes.1 to make money, pay taxes, create jobs, and We currently have no vehicles capable improve the economy is to facilitate the access to of carrying people to the moon, or any equipment space. "3 There is a threshold that leads to and supplies beyond that of small rovers or entirely new worlds of business opportunities on science landers. However, only relatively the moon. We have not yet crossed that modest developments are required to develop threshold. One reason to return to the moon is to this capability from a synthesis of currently take us a step closer. It is NASA's existing space systems. The moon is logically Congressionally mandated responsibility to do all the next developmental step in tenns of space within its power to take us that step closer. transportation capability. Finally, the United States cannot hope Numerous researchers have proposed to maintain its leadership role if another nation is benefits from lunar utilization, and establishing the one to implement these studies and develop studies of those benefits is specifically part of the the associated spacecraft. Simply put, if the NASA mission. Another directly relevant Untied States wishes to remain a superpower, section of the National Air and Space Act that this is one of the missions it must conduct. also speaks towards this issue is, "The Congress declares that the general welfare of the United Still, why not just do Mars? States requires that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (as established by title II of To a large extent, the preceding this Act) seek and encourage, to the maximum information has provided rationale for a return to extent possible, the fullest commercial use of the moon. But in the context of possible Mars space." This provision does include the moon exploration, the issue of Mars must be addressed. and is one of the reasons that NASA must return Some argue that the rationales for returning to to the moon as quickly as possible. the moon are valid, but they are outweighed by Just as an arbitrary example on a the rationales for Mars exploration. These somewhat trivial level, how many people would people see Lunar and Mars programs as pay a couple of hundred dollars for a fist-sized competitors, such that we will either do the moon souvenir moon rock? This is one of many now, or we will do Mars now. The mistake in hypothetical lunar business opportunities that this thinking is that Mars is seen as a valid could be realized in the next few decades. If, option. Unfortunately, we truly are not ready for perhaps, a business were to develop a viable Mars yet. Neither the political will nor the solar-sail powered cislunar transit system, they technological expertise exists to send humans to might solve the lunar transit problem. The Mars. earth/LEO and moon/LLO transportation It is becoming recognized that the problems could initially be solved by flying as variable specific impulse (V ASIMR) plasma secondary payloads on other vehicles, assuming rocket is a prime contender for a human Mars some form of lunar activity existed. Once mission. However, VASIMR technology is far sufficient revenue was generated, the business from operational and the impression some hold could perhaps implement its own Earth and lunar that "Mars is just around the comer" is launch systems. This is a fairly simplistic inaccurate. Additionally, V ASIMR and all Mars commercial use of space that could be conducted surface plans require nuclear reactors, a while NASA conducts even preliminary lunar requirement which may be unable to overcome exploration. political barriers anytime in the near future. Numerous other business schemes for Even ifVASIMR is not usep, all Mars plans do lunar revenue are being formulated left and right. require the development of a new (Saturn

176 V/Energia class or superior) super-heavy lift Fundamentally, there are often two types of booster. There currently is virtually no people involved in the space program. On one Congressional support (and hardly any NASA side (typically the NASA or contractor engineer) support) for development of this booster within is the "Space Advocate." On the other side the next five to ten years. (typically the members of Congress and the There are also unresolved concerns in President) is the "Governmental Administrator." the areas of radiation protection, food shelf life, These two often have different goals for equipment repair, physiological reconditioning, American space activity, whjch leads to clashes surface base assembly, and many others. Many in program development and budget of solutions to these problems should be verified appropriations. and utilized in a low gravity, remote environment The Space Advocate is the type who prior to entrusting them to a Mars mission. Such wants to climb the mountain because it is there. verification tests assume an already existing lunar This person has an innate desire to explore space presence capable of facilitating such tests. and expand human presence into space. He or Pathfinder seeks to lay the groundwork for an she appreciates the benefits we gain from the infrastructure capable of supporting such utilization of space, but would favor space developments. exploration even if there were no gains. The Another key arena that must be proved thrill is in the journey, so to speak. before proceeding to Mars involves the The Governmental Administrator has no unexpected. It has been said that our ability to such love for the journey. He or she is only send missions to Mars and beyond depends concerned with protecting and advancing the heavily on robust systems capable of dealing interests of the United States of America. And with the unexpected and multi-functional tools that is fitting, for that is the role of the for dealing with the unexpected.4 The government. This person appreciates the benefits unexpected is the key issue. Unexpected events gained from the utilization of space, but occur almost routinely in human space missions. prioritizes those benefits among other endeavors. In Earth orbit, a full mission support team is The metric used is how do these benefits advance available to help the astronauts resolve the the interests of the nation? situation. Proposed solutions are choreographed Since the beginning of the space and tested on Earth before astronauts are allowed program, these two factions have engaged in an to proceed. There is real time direct intricate dance to try to find common ground. communications as the astronauts attempt a Unfortunately, that dance has often included false resolution. In most situations if no solution can or unrealistic promises to gamer support. be found, the mission can be aborted and the Advocates often promise spacecraft designs that crew can return safely to Earth. The key things can do anything, when in reality they can do only lost at Mars are communications and the ability a few things. Administrators promise and to abort the mission. The distance is so great that sometimes even legislate directives for space real time communications will not be possible. utilization that ultimately cost far more than the Also due to the distance, there are no aborts - a Administrators are willing to spend. Mars crew cannot abandon the base and return During the Apollo era, the two were early. Before we send crews to Mars we need to largely united as the Advocate desire to explore understand what can go wrong on a surface base space was coincidentally matched with the and prove our ability to resolve unexpected Administrator desire to demonstrate American crises. The moon is a location where such technological superiority over the Soviet Union. operations can be tested. The successful landings on the moon ironically destroyed this alliance, however. The Why have space efforts disappointed? Administrators had achieved their goal and had nothing further to gain from lunar landings. The If there are so many reasons and Advocates, on the other hand, had merely seen opportunities to be in space, and even a federal their first step accomplished. Its success spumed mandate to be in space, why have space efforts them on to grandiose dreams of space colonies, often disappointed? Many see the space program Mars exploration, and lunar cities. To this day, as an endeavor that costs too much and Advocates are struggling to understand why the accomplishes too little. Frequently, there is a Administrators "turned their backs on them," not divergence in goals that can create problems. fully grasping why support existed for the Apollo

177 program and thus not understanding why that The NASA budget cycle is a three-year process level of support does not exist today. of budget formulation, budget enactment, and Another source of disappointment is the budget execution. Budget formulation begins in reality that political management of a January of each year with economic forecasts and technological endeavor is a dubious prospect at general guidelines from the Office of best. American politics is grounded in the arts of Management and Budget (OMB). A final NASA compromise, lobby, and coalition building. budget is submitted to OMB in October to be Technological enterprises are based in the laws incorporated into the President's proposed of physics, thorough analysis, and relatively budget, which is generally submitted to Congress inflexible design. The two do not mix well, in the following January. Congressional review especially when these differences are not taken generally lasts until the end of the summer or into consideration. October.3 Even once the Advocates and Some problems are induced by this Administrators have agreed on a space initiative structure that can affect the space mission design to support and funding has been authorized, and process. With annual funding, there is a funding even when all technological challenges have control gate for all programs at the beginning of been resolved, program expenses can still grow every fiscal year. This, of course, places out of control, causing disappointment and constraints and risks on the design process. A resentment among the Administrators. Many change in political alliances or public opinion times, space programs become bloated for the could easily cause Congress to change the level purpose of job security. The temptation is great of funding allocated to a spacecraft project under (for both civil service and contractors) to involve development. An engineering design is an entire office in a study, even if one person can inherently inflexible to this sort of activity, as do the job, thus justifying (to the Administrator) evidenced by costly, sometimes annual redesigns the existence of the office. Many excuses are to the International Space Station throughout the given: that it is necessary to maintain the skill previous decade. Another problem is that the level of all employees; that we should never be NASA budget must compete with other federal dependent on the technical competence of any agencies under the OMB for funding, including one person; that multiple sets of eyes are needed highly dissimilar agencies such as the Social to verify data; etc. These are all true, but the Security Administration, the Veteran's result is a semi-uncontrolled growth of project Administration, and the Department of Housing size (and indirectly complexity, sometimes even and Urban Development. 3 increasing the potential for error). The project This has caused serious problems for then costs more than it would otherwise have the International Space Station from the cost. beginning. The space station has been subjected The result of all of this is massive, to major redesigns at least seven times. 3 underachieving projects whose destiny is Congressional opponents attempt to kill it during cancellation. Almost ALL human space each budget cycle. It has gone from an eight programs are eventually cancelled. The only person station down to a four-person station, up exception to date is the Space Shuttle. (It should to a six or seven-person station, and lately back be pointed out that while the Shuttle is not yet down to a three-person station. Even today, ISS cancelled, replacements are already on drawing designers at the Johnson Space Center cannot say boards and it is only a matter of finding with true confidence what the final configuration Congressional spending approval.) Even ISS of the station will be, primarily due to the assumes cancellation and is designed with budgetary uncertainty. termination in mind. A true ongoing station President Bush's proposed 2002 budget would assume orbital replacement of all considers the station "US Core Station components, rather than an eventual deorbiting Complete" when Node 2 is delivered on flight of the complex. 1OA. The impression is that American station components scheduled for delivery after Node 2 Issues relating to NASA budget cycle are no longer guaranteed. "U.S. contributions to such capabilities will be dependent on the Some of the disappointments with availability of funds within the President's five NASA space activities can also be traced to the year budget plan for Human Space Flight, budget cycle used to get funding from Congress. technical risks, and the Administration's

178 confidence in Agency cost estimates." 5 counterproductive to begin with a large program. Threatened components include the US A small, "pathfinder" program can prototype and Habitation Module, Crew Return Vehicle (thus field test issues to build confidence before limiting the station to a three-person crew), and massive infrastructure resources are committed. Russian Program Assurance contingency From a political perspective, it is better for this modules (Interim Control Module, US small mission to be American. Later expansions Propulsion Module). 5 This "Core Station" ISS can be international, but by going first and laying will never be able to accomplish all of the things the foundation, America establishes itself as the full station would have attempted. It will leader and sets the ground rules for lunar use. inevitably become a source of disappointment for The first step in the development of any those who planned to utilize the full capability of space mission is to develop a mission statement the station. and mission objectives. These drive the entire This budget cycle must be considered in design process, as they describe what the mission the development of future space projects. A is supposed to accomplish. For this Lunar space vehicle is an integrated system. When a Pathfinder concept advocated in this paper, the budget change forces the elimination of a mission statement is to establish a human component, adjustments must be made, which operational presence on the moon and provide a can sometimes mean a redesign of the entire starting point for permanent occupation and vehicle. Generally, such redesigns increase the utilization of the moon. Pathfinder Preliminary cost, delay the mission, and increase both the Mission Objectives are as follows: technical risk for mission success and the risk for further budget reductions and perhaps even 1. Land people on a lunar polar region, program cancellation. Rapidly paced projects sustain each crew for a period of one are much more likely to survive the budget month, return them safely to Earth, and process. The more times a project faces rotate new crews through the lunar Presidential and Congressional review, the more facility on a periodic basis opportunities exist for vital funding to be 2. Develop an expandable lunar surface removed. Thus, there is a rationale for programs infrastructure to support future lunar that can be implemented reasonably quickly. launch, landing and construction endeavors, including road surfacing, What should we do if we go? trench excavation, and landing site preparation Having established that there are valid 3. Study the effect of low gravity on reasons to go to the moon, a specific plan should human health and performance next be discussed. Simply launching forward 4. Locate and survey potential lunar fuel unconstrained with only a general consensus to resources send humans to the moon would inevitably bloat 5. Process lunar fuels to prototype into the most massive undertaking in human possibilities for use in support of future history. A specific concept must be established space activities with rigid mission parameters. Once the design 6. Return raw and processed fuel samples is begun, these parameters should not be to earth for detailed analysis changed. "Changes of mission parameters of 7. Provide an environment capable of alffiost any type have potentially large effects supporting Mars related testbed upon the specifications for the subsystems which activities compromise and support a spacecraft. "6 Even 8. Demonstrate that human space missions details as small as orbital inclinations are can be conducted in a cost effective significant. "The specific orbit adopted for a manner mission will have a strong impact on the design 9. Develop and demonstrate American of the vehicle. "6 competence in human spaceflight So how should we go? Big? Small? beyond the gravitational influence of National? International? Many of the issues Earth discussed previously in this paper suggest that a lunar mission should begin with a small initial Specific rationales for each mission objective presence. From three perspectives - will now be discussed. technological, political, and commercial, it is

179 1. Land people on the lunar polar region, concern and risk factor of every lunar landing. sustain each crew for a period of one month, Long duration missions must be buried and return them safely to Earth, and rotate underneath regolith for radiation protection. new crews through the lunar facility on a Components for most modular bases must be periodic basis transported from their landing vehicle to the base location and assembled. The lack of smoothed During the Apollo missions, crews roads or pathways for transport vehicles to move stayed on the lunar surface for only a few days. base components from a landing site to .a base Of course, very little could be done in that time. location complicates any discussion of base A one-month stay is important in that it allows assembly. Inflatable structures may need to be more useful time for mission activity to be outfitted after arrival with equipment transported conducted. This is an increase over the Apollo on a separate landing vehicle. Additionally, mission durations, but it does not begin to items to be tested in support of a Mars mission approach the long timeframes anticipated for may require pre-existing infrastructure support. most Mars mission concepts. Such a stay begins Of course, the Apollo program could human operational experience on another surface not have addressed these issues because each in a small step. Future lunar programs could Apollo mission utilized a different landing site gradually increase the mission duration and set and there was no reason to assume any future endurance records as confidence grows. lunar programs would revisit an Apollo site. It should also be noted that the time However, it is reasonable to conclude that period of one month happens to match the expanded human facilities will eventually be moon's rotational period. At a polar site this is constructed at a Pathfinder site to support a fuel not of particular importance, though it will be processing operation. By utilizing the Pathfinder relevant for landings on other locations of the presence to prepare the lunar surface for future moon, which are subject to tremendous bases, the design of those bases and their temperature variations between day and night associated delivery systems can be simplified, and significant energy storage/production reducing both the cost and the technical risk. considerations. In those locations, maintaining a human presence throughout the lunar day/night 3. Study the effect of low gravity on human cycle forces the development of a capability to health and performance inhabit the moon throughout its temperature extremes and provide continuous power, which Microgravity experience has will be necessary for any permanent lunar demonstrated that the human body is affected by development. a lack of gravity. It is important to determine if tliese same effects are experienced in a reduced 2. Develop an expandable lunar surface gravity field and develop appropriate infrastructure to support future lunar launch, countermeasures before committing personnel to landing and construction endeavors, a multi-year Mars expedition. Additionally, including road surfacing, trench excavation, human factors studies have identified work and landing site preparation environmental issues present in microgravity that are not present, or result in different actions, in While the Apollo program produced a normal gravity. It is important to determine how wide variety of scientific discoveries, it was low gravity will affect human performance prior never a design goal of the Apollo missions to to committing to work station hardware for a leave the lunar surface more accessible to future Mars mission. human expeditions. As a result, Apollo did little to increase our capability for future human lunar 4. Locate and survey potential lunar fuel activity. The same logistical issues present in resources each Apollo landing remain present for any future lunar landings. It can be shown that significant savings Many extensive lunar concepts (FLO, can be accomplished by fueling interplanetary LUNOX, etc.) face the obstacle that they require spacecraft with fuel mined on the moon as too elaborate a support infrastructure to be opposed to with fuel mined on Earth. 7 (The practical. Landing hazards due to uncertain lower the fuel Isp the greater the advantage.) terrain and possible rock obstacles are a driving The chemical propellant (LH2,L02) version of

180 the Mars reference mission in particular can cut moon is a much closer approximation than any roughly sixty-six percent of its required fuel if it location on Earth or Earth orbit. Further, tests at utilizes hydrogen and oxygen from lunar ice Pathfinder can be aborted if necessary, with no resources.7 Achieving these savings in the risk to crew and no possibility of stranding reference mission or in any future interplanetary astronauts away from Earth. The Pathfinder mission requires the presence of a lunar mining outpost should be expandable; such that Mars operation. However, prior to the establishment test articles can be landed at the facility and of such an operation it is important to physically tested by Pathfinder personnel. confirm the presence of fuels at suspected sites, survey these sites to determine appropriate 8. Demonstrate that human space missions can mining and processing locations, and validate be conducted in a cost effective manner proposed fuel processing techniques. Human space flight has come to be 5. Process lunar fuels to prototype possibilities perceived as impossibly expensive and it is for use in support of future space activities almost expected that any mission will inevitably go over budget and fail to meet its design By building the technology to tum lunar timelines. There is also an inhibiting myth that resources into usable fuel, Pathfinder can bring human space travel beyond Low Earth Orbit (and Mars and other deep space human missions in some cases even there) is too expensive for a closer to an achievable reality. Experimenting single nation. A lunar program such as the one with fuel prototypes will allow astronauts to proposed here is not too expensive for one explore a wide variety of processing technologies nation, and in fact is less expensive than the and select those with the greatest promise for American contribution to the International Space future use. Station. Of course, in order to prevent the 6. Return raw and processed fuel samples to traditional cost explosion, it is necessary to earth for detailed analysis control all aspects of the program, including staffing, from the project's inception. Success Study of raw samples may reveal will provide lessons for larger space projects, alternative methods of fuel extraction, which may such as the Mars expedition. It will also inspire be simpler, more cost efficient, or require fewer public and congressional confidence in NASA's resources than previously anticipated methods. ability to implement such projects. Success will This insight should be gleaned before committing further help empower private industry to expand to specific techniques in support of an into the lunar arena for industrial, service, operational fuel processing facility on the moon. recreational and other enterprises. Studies may also yield insights about the moon that might not be obvious with the equipment 9. Develop and demonstrate American available on the surface. ISS and Earth will both competence in human spaceflight beyond the provide more sophisticated laboratories for this gravitational influence of the Earth research, allowing samples to be studied in greater detail. Returning samples to Earth will It is important to ensure American also allow for the testing of various storage technical competency in all aspects of human devices, which will be necessary for any large spaceflight. Only by actually designing, scale utilization of lunar fuel. constructing and operating hardware does a nation truly gain technical competency. For 7. Provide an environment capable of instance, while the theory of orbital refueling is supporting Mars related testbed activities well known, only the Russian space program is currently capable of refueling spacecraft in orbit. It is important to the overall vitality of the As has been previously stated, the Moon American space program that we possess this provides an ideal location for the evaluation of capability as well. Not for the sake of some Mars components. There is, of course, no competition, but for the simple need to be truly place other than Mars where the Martian gravity, functional and not dependent on other nations for atmosphere, and radiation environment can be critical components of future space operations. represented. However, in many aspects, the Implementing the technology to sustain humans

181 on an extended lunar presence will ensure 4. Implement intelligent, semi-autonomous American technological growth vital to future navigation systems space efforts. 5. Have the ability to receive ISS and STS Further, we cannot anticipate the status support but be capable of operating with of foreign relations or the economic vitality of neither foreign nations over the next ten to twenty years. 6. No more than 1-3 billion increase in Political or economic instabilities could render NASA annual budget for Pathfinder current allies and partners into enemies, activities (both construction and competitors, or otherwise non-participants. The operational phases) loss of relations with such nations must not 7. Five to ten year development timeline compromise American space interests. The risk from concept to first crew landing of dependence on foreign nations for critical 8. Ten year design lifetime vehicle elements has already been seen in the 9. United States mission with limited to no space station program. While this risk will be foreign participation necessary for many future space activities, it is an 10. Minimize ground operations support unnecessary risk for a program of this scale. team (flight controllers, program Keep in mind, however, a national offices, etc.) Pathfinder effort does not preclude an international lunar presence. It is absolutely Specific rationales for each requirement or reasonable to expect that an expansion of a constraint will now be discussed. human lunar presence will at some point become international in scope. Pathfinder could itself 1. Assume no heavy launch vehicle become involved in supporting an international development lunar presence by either becoming core modules for a future international surface base, or by Implicit in many human space flight serving as an outpost to prepare a base location studies is the assumption that a new heavy lift for such a future international endeavor. vehicle will be developed in support of the Alternately, an international base could be human exploration program. Human spacecraft, developed .independently of Pathfinder activities, stations, and planetary outposts are often sized simply using lessons learned from Pathfinder. beyond the capabilities of current vehicles with Regardless of the manner in which international the assumption that the development of boosters activity spreads to the moon, Pathfinder can play to launch them is a logical given. In reality, a role in building the international space however, new launch vehicles are unlikely infrastructure while simultaneously ensuring the without serious governmental mandates to development of American technological develop new launch capabilities. Such vehicles competence. could become exceedingly large programs, potentially larger than Pathfinder itself. In addition to mission objectives, it is Pathfinder will therefore be sized such that no also necessary to specify requirements and new launch vehicles will be necessary to place ~ constraints that the Pathfinder program must Pathfinder sized program on the moon. satisfy. These requirements and constraints provide structures that keep the program from 2. Available launch vehicles limited to existing attempting to "do everything" and provide vehicles plus Delta IV and Atlas V guidance to design teams to ensure that Pathfinder is capable of meeting its mission Numerous commercial launch vehicles objectives. The following are Pathfinder mission are in various stages of design, but Pathfinder requirements and constraints: will not be designed to rely upon any of these vehicles, which may or may not exist in reality 1. Assume no heavy launch vehicle when it is time to launch Pathfinder components. development While these vehicles are not so much dependent 2. Available launch vehicles limited to upon Congressional support, foreign markets, existing vehicles, plus Delta IV and technological issues, and other unpredictable Atlas V factors could affect their readiness. If such 3. Minimize the development of new space boosters are not ready on time, their delays must vehicles cause no schedule slips to Pathfinder. Boeing's

182 Delta IV and Lockheed Martin's Atlas V are not will trivialize the budgetary resources necessary yet operational, but both are far enough along in to conduct such a mission. Yet, given the need their development and engine testing sequences for ongoing shuttle, station, aeronautics, and that each can be considered a nearly existing robotic missions, it would not be prudent to system, one that can with confidence be expected expect Congress to devote more than a few to be functional before Pathfinder. billion of NASA's annual budget on initial lunar Consequently, those two systems can assumed to exploration. (This constraint may be revised be available and Pathfinder will be designed to slightly once cost estimates are performed, take advantage of their projected payload should it prove to be unrealistic.) capacities. 7. Five to ten year development time line from 3. Minimize the development of new space concept to first crew landing vehicles This cannot be a program where civil Each new vehicle that must be servants and contractors devote their entire developed increases the cost (both political and career to seeing it launch - as has been done in economic) and risk of Pathfinder. Using existing both shuttle and station programs. A primary vehicles allows Pathfinder to sidestep political cause of costs spiraling out of control is the discussions and development challenges that extension of program development well past the could prove damaging to the mission. Existing intended launch dates. This program is relatively engines, spacecraft, and other subsystems will be small in size and scope and if it cannot be used wherever advantageous. launched in a reasonable period of time, then perhaps that is evidence that technology has not 4. Develop intelligent navigation systems with reached an adequate point of maturity for the maximum possible versatility project.

Such systems reduce the ground 8. Ten year design lifetime operations support required by Pathfinder, which will significantly reduce ongoing operations This is a sufficient period of time to costs. Additionally, such intelligent systems are obtain sufficient science/engineering results to necessary for future missions beyond the Earth determine future priorities. A life span, moon system and successful validation of those including scheduled major research initiatives, technologies will help to reduce the risk of future should be planned out early in the design phases space exploration. to ensure that the program is properly designed for all issues generated by its operations. 5. Have the ability to receive ISS and STS support but be capable of operating with 9. United States mission with limited to no neither foreign participation

Pathfinder should utilize existing space It is often stated that space missions are systems wherever possible for maximum so expensive that no one nation can conduct them flexibility, but should not be tied to the alone. While that may be true for some nations it availability of any particular space infrastructure. has never been true for America. A simple ISS may prove too limited to provide reliable glance at other major American initiatives support to the Pathfinder program. Additionally, (Panama Canal, Hoover Dam, Strategic Defense the shuttle fleet could be grounded during a Initiative, National Missile Defense etc.) reveal Pathfinder mission. Neither scenario should stop that America has always been capable of, and Pathfinder from proceeding or disrupt a committed to, greater expenditures than human Pathfinder mission in progress. space projects such as Apollo, the Space Shuttle, and Pathfinder. Space missions are expensive, 6. No more than 1-3 billion increase in NASA and it is perhaps easier to share costs, but using annual budget for Pathfinder activities the International Space Station as an example, it is arguable that the original Space Station A return to the moon is a major Freedom concept would have ultimately been endeavor and no amount of cost cutting measures less expensive for America than the final US

183 contribution to the International Space Station necessary for society to meet these challenges Alpha. In truth, international missions allow the and take advantage of the numerous lunar participating countries to participate in space opportunities. It is clearly in accord with the activities that require a greater level of National Air and Space Act, and in the best commitment than what their respective interests of the United States and ultimately the governments are willing to provide. world, for NASA to proceed immediately with a International participation increases the lunar Pathfinder-type mission. number of organizations that will have the ability to add cost, risk and complexity to mission References requirements, while decreasing the areas in which the Untied States can provide [1] The National Aeronautics and Space technological leadership and maintain its current Act. Pub. L. No. 85-568, As Amended. expertise. Where political considerations advise http ://www.hq.nasa.govI ogc/spaceact.ht doing so, it may prove necessary for Pathfinder ml. to use some international participation, but in all [2] Schrunk, D., Thangavelu, M., Cooper, other situations the program should be strictly B., and Sharpe, B. (2000). "A American. There is significant room for Coherent Vision for Space Exploration international expansion beyond the initial and Development in the 21st Century." capability and the National Air and Space Act Proceedings of the 2000 Lunar does provide for international participation. Development Conference. Space Front International outposts could be landed at the Press. Pathfinder site, incorporating crews and [3] Hammond, Walter. (1999). Space experiments from multiple nations. Pathfinder Transportation: A Systems Approach to should ideally be the vanguard of an international Analysis and Design. AIAA. "city" on the moon. However, the basic [4] Larson, W. and Franke, L. (Eds.) Pathfinder mission should be American. ( 1999). Human Space Flight Analysis and Design. McGraw Hill. 10. Minimize ground operations support team [5] National Aeronautics and Space (flight controllers, program offices, etc.) Administration Federal Funds. http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget Operations are often the largest ongoing /fy2002/nsa.pdf. cost of a space program. The space shuttle and [6] Fortescue, P. and Stark, J. (Eds.) space station programs both have large mission ( 1995). Spacecraft Systems control teams, program offices, configuration Engineering. John Wiley and Sons. management teams, etc. Flight control teams [7.] Howard, Robert. ( 1999). should be limited to front rooms only, during all "Performance Benefits of Utilizing mission phases. This implies a need for highly Lunar Fuel in Support of Human sophisticated onboard software for mission Interplanetary Space Missions." management and systems monitoring. Mission Proceedings of Human Space specific software parameters should be calculated Transportation and Exploration by the onboard software, rather than by ground Workshop. AIAA. computers, wherever possible. If this can be accomplished, staffing costs can be significantly reduced. Program offices should be kept small and be given sufficient authority to enforce cost controlling measures.

Conclusion

There are immense challenges and opportunities on the moon that await human response. This paper has served to highlight some of those issues and bring out some of the rationales that support a small NASA mission to conduct some of the preliminary research

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