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NASA's International Relations in Space

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Notes 1 Introduction and Historical Overview: NASA’s International Relations in Space 1. James R. Hansen, First Man. The Life of Neil A. Armstrong (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2005), 493. 2. Ibid., 393, 503. 3. Ibid., 505. 4. For survey of the historical literature, see Roger D. Launius, “Interpreting the Moon Landings: Project Apollo and the Historians,” History and Technology 22:3 (September 2006), 225–255. On the gendering of the Apollo program, see Margaret A. Weitekamp, The Right Stuff, the Wrong Sex: The Lovelace Women in the Space Program (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004); “The ‘Astronautrix’ and the ‘Magnificent Male.’ Jerrie Cobb’s Quest to be the First Woman in America’s Manned Space pro- gram,” in Avital H. Bloch and Lauri Umansky (eds.), Impossible to Hold. Women and Culture in the 1960s (New York: New York University Press), 9–28. 5. Hansen, First Man , 513–514. 6. Sunny Tsiao, “Read You Loud and Clear.” The Story of NASA’s Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (Washington, DC: NASA SP-2007–4232), Chapter 5 . 7. Experiment Operations during Apollo EVAs. Experiment: Solar Wind Experiment, http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/humanexplore/exploration/exlibrary/docs/apollocat/ part1/swc.htm (accessed August 31, 2008). 8. Thomas A. Sullivan, Catalog of Apollo Experiment Operations (Washington, DC: NASA Reference Publication 1317, 1994), 113–116. Geiss’s team also measured the amounts of rare gases trapped in lunar rocks: P. Eberhart and J. Geiss, et al., “Trapped Solar Wind Noble Gases, Exposure Age and K/Ar Age in Apollo 11 Lunar Fine Material,” in A. A. Levinson (ed.), Proceedings of the Apollo 11 Lunar Science Conference, Houston Texas, January 5–8, 1970, Vol. 2. Chemical and Isotopic Analysis, 1037–1070. 9. Hansen, First Man , 395. 10. This is true of scholarly works like Hansen’s First Man , Chapter 29 , as well of accounts specifically concerned with lunar science, like William David Compton’s, Where No Man Has Gone Before. A History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4214, 1989), autobiographical accounts like Buzz Aldrin’s Return to Earth , Chapter 8 , and semipopular works like Leon Wagener’s One Giant Leap. Neil Armstrong’s Stellar American Journey (New York: Forge Books, 2004), Chapter 14 . None of these sources mentions either that the Swiss experiment was deployed before the American flag was unfurled. One has to burrow deep into the official records to extract this data (see Experiment Operations during Apollo EVAs ). See also Peter Creola interview, Bern, Switzerland, by John Krige, May 25, 2007, NHRC. For Creola’s own role in space, see Anon., Peter Creola. Advocate of Space (Noordwijk: European Space Agency, ESA SP-1265/E, 2002). 284 NOTES 11. Howard E. McCurdy, Space and the American Imagination (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997). 12. John Logsdon, “Die deutsche Weltraumforschung in transatlantischer Perspective,” in Helmuth Trischler and Kai-Uwe Schrogl (eds.), Ein Jahrhundert im Flug, Luft- und Raumfahrtforschung in Deutschland 1907–2007 (Frankfurt Am Main: Campus Verlag, 2007). 13. Howard E. McCurdy, The Space Station Decision. Incremental Politics and Technological Choice (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990). 14. The Act is available at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/spaceact.html (accessed January 27, 2005). 15. Gerald Haines, “The National Reconnaissance Office. Its Origins, Creation and Early Years,” in Dwayne A. Day, John M. Logsdon, and Brian Latell (eds.), Eye in the Sky. The Story of the Corona Spy Satellites (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998), 143–156. 16. On the IGY, see Rip Bulkley, The Sputniks Crisis and Early United States Space Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); Fae L. Kosmo, “The Genesis of the International Geophysical Year,” Physics Today , July 2007: 38–43; and Allan Needell, Science, Cold War and the American State: Lloyd V. Berkner and the Balance of Professional Ideals (Chur: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000). 17. Arnold W. Frutkin, International Cooperation in Space (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1965), 31. 18. Eilene Galloway, “Organizing the United States Government for Outer Space, 1957–1958,” in Roger Launius, John M. Logsdon, and Robert W. Smith (eds.), Reconsidering Sputnik. Forty Years Since the Soviet Satellite (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000), 309–325, 322. See also “The Woman Who Helped Create NASA,” http://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/galloway_space_act.html (accessed September 20, 2008). 19. Andrew G. Haley, Space Law and Government (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963), 313–328. 20. John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace. Inquiries into the History of the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), Chapter 7 . 21. NASA Key Personnel Change, June 1, 1979, Record no. 726, Folder 11.2.1, Frutkin, Arnold W., NHRC. 22. Release 85–132, September 20, 1985, Record no. 000137, Folder, Barnes, Richard J. H., NHRC. 23. Special Announcement, February 1, 1979; Release 88–160, November 21, 1988, Record no. 1669, Folder, Pedersen, Kenneth S., NHRC. 24. Release 90–7, August 2, 1990; Release 91–3, January 7, 1991, Record no. 1669, Folder, Pedersen, Kenneth S., NHRC. 25. The organigram is available at http://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/organization.html . 26. Arnold Frutkin, “International Collaboration in Space,” Science 169:3943 (July 24, 1970), 333–339. 27. Michael O’Brien, Global Reach. A View of NASA’s International Cooperation (Washington, DC: NASA NP-2008–01–492-HQ, 2008). 28. John Logsdon, “U.S.-European Cooperation in Space Science: A 25-Year Perspective,” Science 223:4631 (January 6, 1984), 11–16. 29. Roger D. Launius, “NASA and the Attitude of the U.S. Toward International Space Cooperation,” in Les relations franco-am é ricains dans le domaine spatial (1957–1975). Quatri è me recontre de l’IFHE, 8–9 d é cembre 2005 (Paris: IFHE Publications, 2008), 45–63, at 53. 30. Marcia S. Smith, “America’s International Space Activities,” Society 21:2 (January/ February 1984), 18–25. 31. Tsiao, Read You Loud and Clear. For a review, see NASA News and Notes 25:3 (August 2008), 1–5. The system comprised four tracking programs: mini-track, a NOTES 285 north-south network through the Western hemisphere for scientific satellites; the deep-space network; the manned space flight ground stations; and the Baker-Nunn tracking stations for a Smithsonian astrophysics program. For an account of the last, see Teasel Muir-Harmony, “Tracking Diplomacy: The IGY and American Scientific and Technical Exchange with East Asia,” in Roger Launius, Jim Fleming, and David de Vorkin (eds.), Globalizing Polar Science: Reconsidering the International Polar and Geophysical Years (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 279–306. 32. Frutkin, International Cooperation in Space. 33. In the Introduction to 26 Years of NASA International Programs , signed by the International Affairs Division, then headed by Ken Pedersen, who also wrote the fore- word to the booklet. 34. Frutkin, International Cooperation in Space , 34. 35. Ibid., 35. 36. Logsdon, “U.S.-European Cooperation,” 11–16. 37. Frutkin, International Cooperation in Space , 33. 38. For these objections see Logsdon, “U.S.-European Cooperation,” 13. 39. For a summary account, see Joan Johnson-Freese, Changing Patterns of International Collaboration in Space (Malabar FL: Orbit Books, 1990), Chapter 6 ; Smith, “America’s International Space Activities,” 19. 40. See John Krige, “Technology, Foreign Policy and International Cooperation in Space,” in Steven J. Dick and Roger D. Launius (eds.), Critical Issues in the History of Spaceflight (Washington, DC: NASA-SP-2006–4702, 2006), 239–262. 41. Hermann Pollack, “International Relations in Space. A US View,” Space Policy 4:1 (February 1988), 24–30, at 24. 42. Kenneth S. Pedersen, “The Changing Face of International Space Cooperation. One View of NASA,” Space Policy 2 (May 1986), 120–135, at 130. See also Johnson- Freese, Changing Patterns , Chapter 9 ; and Smith, “America’s International Space Activities.” 43. Kenneth S. Pedersen, “Thoughts on International Space Cooperation and Interests in the Post-Cold War World,” Space Policy 8:3 (1992), 205–220, at 208. 44. US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, U.S.- Russian Cooperation in Space, OTA-ISS-618 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, April 1995), 81. 45. Pedersen, “Thoughts on International Space Cooperation,” at 216. 46. Eligar Sadeh, “Technical, Organizational and Political Dynamics of the International Space Station Program,” Space Policy 20 (2004), 171–188, at 173; emphasis mine. For the early history of the station, see John M. Logsdon, Together in Orbit. The Origins of International Participation in Space Station Freedom (Washington, DC: Space Policy Institute, George Washington University, December 1991); Howard E. McCurdy, The Space Station Decision. Incremental Politics and Technological Choice (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007). 47. U.S.-Russian Cooperation in Space , 76. 48. Quoted in Sadeh, “Technical, Organizational,” 174. 49. Paul B. Stares, The Militarization of Space. U.S. Policy 1945–1984 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985), 42–43. 50. Final Report to the President on the U.S. Space Program, January 1993 , submitted by NASA administrator Dan Goldin to President H. W. Bush, on January 7, 1993, avail- able at http://history.NASA..gov/33082.pt1.pdf (accessed on December 15, 2008). 51. Demian McLean, “Obama Moves to Counter China with Pentagon-NASA Link,” Bloomberg.com, January 2, 2009, available at http://news.yahoo.com/s/ bloomberg/20090102/pl_bloomberg/aovrno0oj41g/print (accessed on January 4, 2009). 52. Marcia S. Smith, U.S. Space Programs: Civilian, Military, Commercial , CRS Issue Brief for Congress, updated November 7, 2005, available at http://www.unm. edu/~cstp/v_library.html (accessed on January 19, 2013). 286 NOTES 2 NASA, Space Science, and Western Europe 1. Arnold W. Frutkin, International Cooperation in Space (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965), Chapter 2 . 2. On COSPAR, see Newell, Beyond the Atmosphere. Early Years of Space Science (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4211, 1980), Chapter 18 .
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