DOCSLIB.ORG

Sovereignty, Shifting Cultivators, and the State in Darjeeling, 1830-1856

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Sovereignty, Shifting Cultivators, and the State in Darjeeling, 1830-1856 HIMALAYA, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies Volume 34 Number 1 Article 8 Spring 2014 Flighty Subjects: Sovereignty, Shifting Cultivators, and the State in Darjeeling, 1830-1856 Catherine Warner University of Washington, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya Recommended Citation Warner, Catherine. 2014. Flighty Subjects: Sovereignty, Shifting Cultivators, and the State in Darjeeling, 1830-1856. HIMALAYA 34(1). Available at: https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya/vol34/iss1/8 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. This Research Article is brought to you for free and open access by the DigitalCommons@Macalester College at DigitalCommons@Macalester College. It has been accepted for inclusion in HIMALAYA, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Macalester College. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Flighty Subjects: Sovereignty, Shifting Cultivators, and the State in Darjeeling, 1830-1856 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Anand Yang and Purnima Dhavan for their suggestions and comments on this paper and, more generally, for their intellectual guidance, and Andrew Davidson for support and encouragement with the writing process. I would also like to thank Sara Shneiderman for her insightful comments on an earlier version of this article, presented as a paper at the Modern South Asia Workshop at Yale. The anonymous reviewers' comments were also much appreciated. This research article is available in HIMALAYA, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies: https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya/vol34/iss1/8 Flighty Subjects: Sovereignty, Shifting Cultivators, and the State in Darjeeling, 1830–1856 Catherine Warner This paper focuses on the historical experiences means of securing labor, the Company officials of shifting cultivators who lived in the eastern denied the role of the state in accumulating Himalaya in the areas around Darjeeling, Eastern labor power. In addition, colonial discourse fixed Nepal, and Southern Sikkim in the early 19th shifting cultivators as backwards and in need century. These groups played an important role of protection, undermining their important in state-formation in the precolonial period, as contributions to state formation under the regionally expansive states relied upon them previous dispensation. By distancing itself from for labor, military levies, and revenue. Shifting patron-client relationships as vital to state cultivators were organized under headmen formation and discrediting these networks who dispensed justice, collected taxes, and of labor organization in favor of market logic, negotiated with the state on behalf of their the Company in theory moved the terms of clients. The author argues that such groups sovereignty towards territory rather than formed the basis of sovereignty on the frontier, people. where control over subjects was more significant Keywords: Darjeeling, borderlands, colonialism, history, than control over clearly demarcated territory. shifting cultivation. Patrons of labor were well-versed in political negotiations and dexterously managed the shift to East India Company rule in Darjeeling in 1835; however, the Company administrators changed the terms of governance, even as they drew upon the headmen’s services in accessing laborers. By positing the labor market as the appropriate HIMALAYA Volume 34, Number 1 | 23 Introduction Following the Anglo-Nepal War of 1814-1816, the East India Company assumed the right to adjudicate the border be- In April of 1925, a Lepcha in Dikchu, Sikkim, told an tween Sikkim and Nepal, signaling its territorial ambitions anthropologist a story about the bat who evaded paying in the eastern Himalaya (Aitchison 1862). In practice, the taxes. According to the storyteller, Chyope, in the past Company’s assumption of the right to arbitrate a spatially the birds had demanded revenue from a bat.1 “When defined, exclusive border between the two states produced Nun-bong-pono-ong-fo (the king of birds) demanded his little change until disputes within Sikkim spilled over the tax, he [the bat] showed his teeth, and snarled, saying he border into Nepal in the 1820s. The Company’s attempts was not a bird, but that he belonged to the family of rats to insert boundaries between Sikkim, Nepal, and its own (ka-lok) and would not pay any tax [to which birds were territory after Darjeeling’s annexation in 1835, depended subject].” The rat king, hearing this, came to collect his upon its ability to understand—in order to shape—local due, but the bat flourished his wings and insisted that, as a hierarchies, systems encompassing not only patron-client bird, he was exempt from paying any tax on rats. The two relationships but also their attendant social and econom- kings held a council and decided to kill the bat for refus- ic obligations. In this light, territorial disputes proved ing to pay any taxes. The next day, the bat casually hung inseparable from disputes about sovereignty over people. from the eaves of a thatched roof and loudly proclaimed As a colonial power, the East India Company was unable to that although soon he would be killed, he had many bat create strong linkages with Indian society or create hege- relations working in the service of their own king who monic influence at the grassroots level (Yang 1989; Guha would seek revenge. Overhearing this and fearing the bat’s 1997). Thus, even as the Company engaged patron-client many supporters, the two kings fled. Chyope explained in networks to procure laborers for building the hill station, conclusion: “So that is why the bat is free from all taxation. these unequal relationships could no longer be considered Everybody in the world pays some sort of revenue, even the basis for legitimate rule. The notion that sovereignty we human beings, but the bat is free and doesn’t. That is adhered to territory rather than to people became an es- why he always hides in the day time, and flies at night” sential fiction for early 19th century colonial governance. (Stocks 1975: 47-48). My argument builds upon the work of scholars who have Although the anthropologist, De Beauvoir-Stocks, record- noted the colonial state’s territorialization of governance ed this story some decades after the events of the period and move towards unitary, non-overlapping forms of I shall address—the East India Company’s annexation of sovereignty in contrast to the “divisible and negotia- Darjeeling from Sikkim in 1835 and the initial development ble” forms of a pre-colonial dispensation (Jalal 1995: 14). of the colonial hill station through the 1850s—it evokes Many scholars have also offered insights into the ways in key historiographical questions regarding sovereignty and which colonial rule was territorialized by creating geo- identity in the borderland. In the story, the kings, who graphical inequalities and then employing discourses that collect taxes on the basis of shared identity, collaborate naturalized these inequalities. Such trends often meant with one another to support their own authority vis-à-vis that forested and mountainous spaces demarcated as their respective subjects. Sovereignty, then, is depicted ‘indigenous’ became ruled as exceptional spaces in need as exclusive and vested in the relationship between ruler of authoritarian forms of control, as colonial discourses and subject, one based on shared qualities—one is either defined indigenous people as less capable of participating a subject of bats or rats or birds. This view of kingship, in the new colonial dispensation than other colonized interestingly, does not match the multi-ethnic model of South Asians (Sivaramakrishnan 1999; Rai 2004; Shneider- the Namgyal rulers of Sikkim with which the Lepcha sto- man 2010; Sharma 2011; Ludden 2012). In accordance with ryteller would have been most closely acquainted; rather, this changing notion of sovereignty, Company administra- the story suggests that state authority (as encompassed in tors described their efforts to attract and maintain manual the right to collect taxes) rests with the heads of clans or laborers for carrying provisions, clearing and preparing ethnic groups. For the subjects, belonging to such a group building sites, and constructing roads, as the creation of a meant protection from multiple, competing authorities, labor market where none had existed. By positing the mar- all of whom might claim taxes or forced labor, in return ket as the ideal and just system for appropriating labor, for subordination to a single ruler. Such patron-client the EIC administrators discredited and contained existing relationships were crucial foundations for building state patron-client relationships even as they utilized them to sovereignty in the pre-colonial dispensation and became gain access to laborers. This move undermined the power key sites for colonial intervention in the initial period of of labor patrons with whom pre-colonial states had formed Darjeeling’s development as a hill station.2 alliances to achieve a territorial presence in the frontier. 24 | HIMALAYA Spring 2014 The colonial state would become the arbiter of territory religion’ (namely Hinduism and Buddhism) and the re-defi- and leave the control of labor to the ‘market,’ effectively nition of ethnic identities (English 1985; Ortner 1989). In reversing the terms, rather than practice,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Geotechnical Investigations for the Kosi - Mechi Link Canal Project
    INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR RESEARCH IN EMERGING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOLUME-3, ISSUE-2, FEB-2016 E-ISSN: 2349-7610 Geotechnical Investigations for the Kosi - Mechi Link Canal Project Dr. R. Chitra1, Dr. Manish Gupta2, Shahid Noor3 and Harbir Singh4 1Group Head, Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi, India [email protected] 2Divisional Head, Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi, India [email protected] 3Scientist, Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi, India [email protected] 4Scientist, Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi, India [email protected] ABSTRACT The acute spatial and temporal variations in precipitation patterns have greatly influenced water resources planning, management, and development in India. Specifically, these patterns have led to the development of several water transfer projects in the country. The spatial and temporal variations in the rainfall over India has led to denotation of water ‘surplus’ and water scarce river basins in the country. The project for interlinking the rivers in India aims at transferring water from water ‘surplus’ to the water scarce basins. The river Kosi, often referred to as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’ ha surplus amount of water and creates devastation in Bihar state during the floods. Therefore, the Government of Bihar has an ambitious plan to link its rivers and tame the Kosi river. The Kosi – Mechi link canal project is proposed as a relief to the problems experienced by the state. The implementation of Kosi – Mechi link canal project will overcome the acute problem of shifting of course of Kosi river, heavy sediment load, flooding etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Mechi River Bridge - Nepal Section
    Resettlement Plan April 2017 IND: SASEC Road Connectivity Investment Program – Tranche 2 Mechi River Bridge - Nepal Section Prepared by the National Highway and Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India for the Asian Development Bank. CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (as of 01 March 2017) Currency unit Indian rupee (Rs) INR1.00 = $ 0.01496 $1.00 = INR 66.8349 ABBREVIATIONS ADB – Asian Development Bank AH – Asian Highway BPL – Below Poverty Line CoI – Corridor of Impact DH – Displaced Household DM – District Magistrate / District Collector DP – Displaced Person EA – Executing Agency FGD – Focus Group Discussion GRC – Grievance Redress Committee GRM – Grievance Redress Mechanism LA Act – Land Acquisition Act, 1894 MoPIT – Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transportation NGO – Non Governmental Organization PIU – Project Implementation Unit PMU – Project Management Unit RF – Resettlement Framework RO – Resettlement Officer RP – Resettlement Plan R&R – Resettlement and Rehabilitation RoB – Road over Bridge RoW – Right of Way SASEC– South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation SH – State Highway SPS – Safeguard Policy Statement VDC – Village Development Committee WHH – Women Headed Household WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 1 hectare = 2.47 acre 1 kattha = 720 sq.ft 20 kattha = 1 bigha 1 bigha = 0.3306 acre = 1338 sq.m NOTE In this report, "$" refers to US dollars This resettlement plan is a document of the borrower. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of ADB's Board of Directors, Management, or staff, and may be preliminary in nature. Your attention is directed to the “terms of use” section of this website. In preparing any country program or strategy, financing any project, or by making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area in this document, the Asian Development Bank does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.
    [Show full text]
  • LCSH Section K
    K., Rupert (Fictitious character) Motion of K stars in line of sight Ka-đai language USE Rupert (Fictitious character : Laporte) Radial velocity of K stars USE Kadai languages K-4 PRR 1361 (Steam locomotive) — Orbits Ka’do Herdé language USE 1361 K4 (Steam locomotive) UF Galactic orbits of K stars USE Herdé language K-9 (Fictitious character) (Not Subd Geog) K stars—Galactic orbits Ka’do Pévé language UF K-Nine (Fictitious character) BT Orbits USE Pévé language K9 (Fictitious character) — Radial velocity Ka Dwo (Asian people) K 37 (Military aircraft) USE K stars—Motion in line of sight USE Kadu (Asian people) USE Junkers K 37 (Military aircraft) — Spectra Ka-Ga-Nga script (May Subd Geog) K 98 k (Rifle) K Street (Sacramento, Calif.) UF Script, Ka-Ga-Nga USE Mauser K98k rifle This heading is not valid for use as a geographic BT Inscriptions, Malayan K.A.L. Flight 007 Incident, 1983 subdivision. Ka-houk (Wash.) USE Korean Air Lines Incident, 1983 BT Streets—California USE Ozette Lake (Wash.) K.A. Lind Honorary Award K-T boundary Ka Iwi National Scenic Shoreline (Hawaii) USE Moderna museets vänners skulpturpris USE Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary UF Ka Iwi Scenic Shoreline Park (Hawaii) K.A. Linds hederspris K-T Extinction Ka Iwi Shoreline (Hawaii) USE Moderna museets vänners skulpturpris USE Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction BT National parks and reserves—Hawaii K-ABC (Intelligence test) K-T Mass Extinction Ka Iwi Scenic Shoreline Park (Hawaii) USE Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children USE Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction USE Ka Iwi National Scenic Shoreline (Hawaii) K-B Bridge (Palau) K-TEA (Achievement test) Ka Iwi Shoreline (Hawaii) USE Koro-Babeldaod Bridge (Palau) USE Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement USE Ka Iwi National Scenic Shoreline (Hawaii) K-BIT (Intelligence test) K-theory Ka-ju-ken-bo USE Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test [QA612.33] USE Kajukenbo K.
    [Show full text]
  • Ethnic Demography of Nepal
    AIMSA Collection For study Ethnic Demography of Nepal Harka Gurung Paper presented at a talk programme organized bv Nepal Foundation for Advanced Studies (NEFAS) January 10,1996, Kathmandu. 1. Definition and Data I. The basic elements of social composition include (a) race, as ethnicity/caste; (b) language or mother tongue; and (c) religion or belief. Many tend to include all these three under the rubric of 'ethnicity'. This seems misplaced. One such example leading to confusion is the terms 'Nepalese ethnic' used as in the case of refugees from Bhutan. They, however, include many ethnic/castes and are considered refugees because of their non-Nepalese political identity. They are indeed a group of people sharing Nepali language of which some have their own Tibeto-Burman mother tongue. Again, not all of them are Hindus as some follow their tribal belief. These so-called 'Nepalese ethnics' are actually a language group whether they subscribe to the semantics of Bhandari's 'Nepali' or Ghising's 'Gorkhali' Ethnicity, language, and religion do tend to overlap but treating them as discrete entities for analysis will contribute to clarity. 2. One also finds loose use of terms in Nepalese anthropological literature. This refers to transposition of linguistic labels in ethnic context such as 'Indo-Aryan' for Caucasoid or Khasa and 'Tibeto-Burman' for Mongoloid or Kirant. These two racial divisions also differ in social structure in that the Caucasoids are caste-based and the Mongoloids are mostly tribal. It would be useful here to make a subtle distinction of native terms 'jat' (caste) for the Caucasoids and 'Jati' (nationality) for the Mongoloids although they have a common etymology in the sense of 'species'.
    [Show full text]
  • Zootherapeutic Uses of Animals by Mech Tribe Living in Duars of West Bengal, India
    Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 13 (3), July 2014, pp. 557-563 Zootherapeutic uses of animals by Mech tribe living in Duars of West Bengal, India Ajita Sarkar1, Ritesh Biswa2 & AP Das3* 1Aravalli Biodiversity Park, Center for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems (CEMDE), University of Delhi, Delhi 110007; 2Entomology Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of North Bengal, Siliguri 734013, West Bengal, India 3Taxonomy & Environmental Biology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of North Bengal, Siliguri 734013, West Bengal, India E-mails: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Received 21.09.12, revised 10.02.14 Ethnobiological study in West Bengal is mostly confined to the use of plants in Ethnomedicine, however, there is a dearth of ethnozoogical works; thus, there is an urgent need to take up such studies. Recent survey among the Mech tribe living in the Duars of West Bengal, India, has recorded the uses of 20 different species of animals along with 11 species of plants in traditional medicines to cure different ailments. However, more efforts need to be exercised to explore and document the traditional ethnozoological knowledge accumulated by Mech and other tribes living in this region, so that, it can be put to the human welfare. Keywords: Traditional medicine, Zootherapy, Mech tribe, Duars, Animals, Plants IPC Int. Cl.8: A61K 36/00, A61K, AO1K, A61D 7/00, A61D Duars is situated in the Sub-Himalayan region of In Duars, Mech is the most dominant tribe4-7. West Bengal and lies in the East of the river Tista They speak in Tibeto-Burmese language and are and is located between 27° – 26°16' N latitude and regarded as the oldest settling Indo-Mongoloid tribe 89°53' – 88°4' E longitude with a total area of of North-east India and that of the Northern part of approximately 6227 sq km, stretching upto the river the state of West Bengal.
    [Show full text]
  • Historical Geography and Demography of Colonial Northern Bengal
    Chapter I Historical Geography and Demography of Colonial Northern Bengal The present chapter seeks to historicize the geographical transformations and ecological vulnerabilities during the colonial periods in northern Bengal. The chapter also intends to explain the demographic transformations of northern Bengal shaped by the environmental factors and natural disasters occurred during the period of the study. Apart from the geographical and demographical changes the chapter will also focus on the political construction of the northern Bengal districts which had gone through several territorial and administrative adjustments and transfers of lands among each other even in the first half of the twentieth century. In order to analyse the geographical characteristics, the river system, change of river course and formation of new lands seemed to be the most decisive factor for the geographical construction of the region. Northern Bengal had a great variety of topographical structures which extended from the Darjeeling Himalayan ranges to the riverine inundated agricultural tracts. Niharranjan Ray, while describing the northern boundary of Bengal, has argued that the north of Bengal is bounded up by the Sikkim and the snowy Himalayan peak of Kanchenjungha below which there are Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts.1 The districts of Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling and the State of Cooch Behar were overwhelmingly populated by the hilly tribes viz. Lepcha, Limbu, Koch, Rajbanshi, and Bhutia; and the north-eastern boundary in the ancient time was extended up to the Brahmaputra river which demarcated the eastern and western boundary of Pundrabardhan and Kamrup State respectively.2 H. Blochmann has mentioned about the five ‘districts’ of Bengal during pre-medieval period viz.
    [Show full text]
  • BOOK REVIEW Reviewed by Jeewan P
    BOOK REVIEW Reviewed by Jeewan P. Thanju International Watercourse Law and A Perspective on Nepal-India Relation By Surya Nath Upadhaya Kathmandu, Nepal: Ekta Books, 435pp, Rs.650/- (US$ 35) his book is written by a prominent person with The author's point of view is that adherence to the T more than three decades of experiences and International Laws by India and Nepal will benefit both expertise in the sector of water resources. Nepal's water the countries, and as such there will not be any sense of resources have a very high potential to benefit the people cheating between them. of this region; which is not happening in practice. The Chapter 3: Laws on Procedures of Cooperation people of this region have a right to know, why the water in International Water Courses:- The following resources of Nepal have not been fully exploited - asserts points are covered in this Chapter: the author. The book tries to answer this query. The book 1. Obligation to Notify about Planned Measures; reviews the water relationship between Nepal and India 2. Obligation to Exchange Information; in the perspectives of International Law. The author has 3. Obligation to Consult and Negotiate in Good Faith; analyzed in detail the various aspects of the Kosi, Gandak 4. Issues Connected to Obligations to Exchange agreements and the Mahakali River Treaty between Information's in Good Faith; Nepal and India. In the considered opinion of the author, 5. Issues connected to Obligations to Exchange Nepal has failed miserably to benefit from Nepal-India Information, notify Planned Measures and bilateral agreements.
    [Show full text]
  • Pre-Feasibility Report for Irrigation Project of Kosi-Mechi Intrastate Link Project (Cca 214812 Ha) for Providing Irrigation Facilities in Four Districts of Bihar
    PRE-FEASIBILITY REPORT FOR IRRIGATION PROJECT OF KOSI-MECHI INTRASTATE LINK PROJECT (CCA 214812 HA) FOR PROVIDING IRRIGATION FACILITIES IN FOUR DISTRICTS OF BIHAR 1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The proposed Irrigation Project of Kosi-Mechi Intrastate Link Project (CCA 214812 Ha) is for providing irrigation facilities in four districts (Araria, Purnea, Kishanganj and Katihar) of Bihar. The objective of the project is to increase the irrigation facilities in four districts of Bihar. The applicant is seeking prior environmental clearance from EAC from the MOEFCC, New Delhi. The Form-I and PFR is prepared by Centre for Envotech & Management Consultancy Pvt. Ltd. (NABET Accredited Consultant QCI No. 20. a. SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT Location of Project The proposed link command (Culturable Command Area) comprising 214812 ha (2.15 lakh ha) is falling in Araria, Purnea, Kishanganj and Katihar districts of Bihar. The link canal traverses towards Lat. 260 14′ 27″ N & Long. 87º 22' 00" to Lat. 26º 21' 47"N & Long. 870 57′ 23″ E. The link canal forms its northern boundary while river Parman and river Mahananda form the western and eastern boundaries. In south it is spread upto river Ganga. Existing Hanuman Nagar Barrage Geographical Location is Lat. 26°11'00"N & Long. 860 54' 00"E. Location Map is enclosed as Annexure-I General Feature of Project The existing alignment of EKMC from Reduced along with Latitude and Distance (RD) 0.00 km to RD 41.30 km is proposed to Longitude be utilised unchanged with remodelling. The New proposed canal from EKMC RD 41.30 km to outfall Point in Mechi (RD 117.500 km) Beyond the EKMC tail end RD 41.30 km, the link canal traverses towards south–east direction upto RD 53.156 km.
    [Show full text]
  • Nepal Side, We Must Mention Prof
    The Journal of Newar Studies Swayambhv, Ifliihichaitya Number - 2 NS 1119 (TheJournal Of Newar Studies) NUmkL2 U19fi99&99 It has ken a great pleasure bringing out the second issue of EdltLlo the journal d Newar Studies lijiiiina'. We would like to thank Daya R Sha a Gauriehankar Marw&~r Ph.D all the members an bers for their encouraging comments and financial support. ivc csp~iilly:-l*-. urank Prof. Uma Shrestha, Western Prof.- Todd ttwria Oregon Univers~ty,who gave life to this journd while it was still in its embryonic stage. From the Nepal side, we must mention Prof. Tej Shta Sudip Sbakya Ratna Kanskar, Mr. Ram Shakya and Mr. Labha Ram Tuladhar who helped us in so many ways. Due to our wish to publish the first issue of the journal on the Sd Fl~ternatioaalNepal Rh&a levi occasion of New Nepal Samht Year day {Mhapujii), we mhed at the (INBSS) Pdand. Orcgon USA last minute and spent less time in careful editing. Our computer Nepfh %P Puch3h Amaica Orcgon Branch software caused us muble in converting the files fm various subrmttd formats into a unified format. We learn while we work. Constructive are welcome we try Daya R Shakya comments and will to incorporate - suggestions as much as we can. Atedew We have received an enormous st mount of comments, Uma Shrcdha P$.D.Gaurisbankar Manandhar PIID .-m -C-.. Lhwakar Mabajan, Jagadish B Mathema suggestions, appreciations and so forth, (pia IcleI to page 94) Puma Babndur Ranjht including some ~riousconcern abut whether or not this journal Rt&ld Rqmmtatieca should include languages other than English.
    [Show full text]
  • A Glimpse of Kirat-Yakthung (Limbu) Language, Writing, and Literacy
    Journal of Global Literacies, Technologies, and Emerging Pedagogies Volume 4, Issue 1, March 2017, pp. 560-593 Delinking, Relinking, and Linking Methodologies: A Glimpse of Kirat-Yakthung (Limbu) Language, Writing, and Literacy Marohang Limbu1 Writing, Rhetoric, and American Cultures Michigan State University, USA Abstract: Limbus (Limboos), who are also known as “Yakthungs” or “Kirat-Yakthung” or “Kirats,” have/had their own unique culture, language, writing, and Mundhum rhetorics. After “Nun-Paani Sandhi” (Salt-Water Treaty) in 1774 with Khas-Aryas, they (Khas- Aryans) ideologically and Politically banned Limbus from teaching of their language, writing, and Mundhum rhetorics in Yakthung laje (Limbuwan). Because of the Khas-Aryan oPPression, Limbu culture had/has become oral-dominant; Yakthungs used/use oral- Performance-based Mundhum rhetorics to Preserve their culture, language, histories, and Mundhum rhetorics. The main PurPose of this article is to discuss the develoPment of Kirat-Yakthung’s writing and rhetoric and/or rise-fall-rise of Yakthung scriPt, writing, and literacy. The essay demonstrates how Kirat-Yakthung indigenous PeoPles are delinking (denaturalizing or unlearning) Khas-Aryan-, Indian-, and Western linguistic and/or cultural colonization, how they are relinking (revisiting or relandscaPing) their Susuwa Lilim and/or Sawa Yet Hang ePistemologies, and how they are linking their cultural and linguistic identities from local to global level. In this essay, I briefly discuss delinking, relinking, and linking methodology, and how Kirat-Yakthungs are translating it into Practice. This essay demonstrates Khas-Aryan intervention and/or Khas-Aryan paracolonial intervention in the develoPment of Kirat-Yakthung writing and literacy, and Kirat-Yakthungs’ resistance for their existence.
    [Show full text]
  • Tungdunge and Dhangdhange Are Homonyms That Represent Limbu and Dhimal's Relationship
    IAR Journal of Humanities and Social Science ISSN Print : 2708-6259 | ISSN Online : 2708-6267 Frequency: Bi-Monthly Language: Multilingual Origin: KENYA Website : https://www.iarconsortium.org/journal-info/IARJHSS Research Article Tungdunge and Dhangdhange are Homonyms that Represent Limbu and Dhimal's Relationship Article History Abstract: Nepal is a country that is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural. It has Received: 28.06.2021 geographical regions such as mountains, hills, and plains. There are various ethnicities and cultures among the Kirat families who live in these three regions. Revision: 05.07.2021 Metaphysical intelligence has built the ethnic's culture. Native culture and Accepted: 18.07.2021 geography have shaped ethnic identity and evolution. Religious, political, and Published: 31.07.2021 administrative forces in the state have also contributed to ethnic development and Author Details their integrity. The Limbu and Dhimal of the Kirat family, who claim that any Dr. Nawa Raj Subba clan is culturally or fundamentally different ethnicities, are thus members of the Authors Affiliations Kirat family. Limbu developed his o wn culture and identity while living on the hill. Living in the Terai gave Dhimal a unique culture and existence. A traditional Purbanchal University, Edenburgh idea prevails that these two groups are brothers. According to Dhimal folklore, International College, Biratnagar-16, Nepal they came from the Ganges plain. Kirat crossed the Himalayas and was known as Corresponding Author* Limbu, Rai, while those who stayed were known as Dhimal in Terai. Kirat Dr. Nawa Raj Subba folklore points Kirat ancestors first appeared in Kholung and Koshi Baraha How to Cite the Article: Kshetra and entered hilly regions of Arun, Varun, and Tamber.
    [Show full text]
  • Birendra Bhujel.Pdf
    Out-Migration of the Nepali Community from the Dooars Region of Alipurduar District: A Sociological Study A Dissertation Submitted To Sikkim University In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Philosophy By Birendra Bhujel Department of Sociology School of Social Sciences February, 2020 Dedicated to my Parents Mrs. Indra Kumari Bhujel & Mr. Bishnu Prasad Bhujel Acknowledgment During this research i have received all kinds of supports and cooperation from many people. I, would like to express my gratitude to all the people who were the parts of this research. Without his love and expert guidance from my supervisor, Binod Bhattarai, the work would not have been a reality. He has been an immense source of inspiration to me throughout this research. He has not only provided me the luminescence but also provided the research apparatus for walking on the research ramp. I, express my love and gratitude towards him for always supporting me. I express my colossal thankfulness to the faculty members of the Department of sociology Dr. Sandhya Thapa, Dr. Swati, Dr. Indira and Mr. Shankar Narayan Bagh for their suggestions and encouragement during this research. I would like to extend my wholehearted gratefulness towards Khimi Thapa, and Kalpana Thapa for supporting me with all measures in course of this study. I, would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Khusboo Gurung, Tilak Thapa, Dipika Chhetri, Kumar Chhetri, Sandipan Das and Sukhdew Lama for their support during entire journey of this work. I extend my sincere thanks to respected Sir Abhijit Chakrabarty and Bipul Da of the North Bengal University for their entire supports.
    [Show full text]