Diagenesis in the St. Peter Sandstone, Michigan Basin

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Master's Theses Graduate College

4-1991

Diagenesis in the St. Peter Sandstone, Michigan Basin

Carl E. Lundgren

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Recommended Citation Lundgren, Carl E., "Diagenesis in the St. Peter Sandstone, Michigan Basin" (1991). Master's Theses. 985. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses/985

This Masters Thesis-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. DIAGENESIS IN THE ST. PETER SANDSTONE, MICHIGAN BASIN

Carl E. Lundgren, Jr.

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science Department of Geology

Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan April 1991

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. DIAGENESIS IN THE ST. PETER SANDSTONE, MICHIGAN BASIN

Carl E. Lundgren, Jr., M.S.

Western Michigan University, 1991

The petrographic evolution of authigenic minerals in the St. Peter formation

consists of: early marine cement, syndepositional dolomite, quartz overgrowth cement,

pervasive dolomite replacement of precursor carbonate, dissolution of framework

grains and carbonate cements, and late formation of authigenic chlorite and illite.

Variations in the diagenetic sequence were templated by variations in primary

mineralogy related to depositional facies. Early intergranular carbonate cement,

common in shelf facies, precluded early quartz cementation. Subsequent dissolution

of dolomite and detrital grains may be temporally and chemically related to the

precipitation of authigenic clay in dissolution pores. In peritidal facies, pervasive

quartz cementation was locally terminated, before complete porosity occlusion, by the

precipitation of late, pore-filling, burial dolomite. Subsequent dissolution of this

dolomite, along with minor silicate framework grains, also resulted in formation of

secondary pores with little late, authigenic clay.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to acknowledge and express sincere appreciation to my advisor, Dr.

David A. Barnes, Department of Geology, Western Michigan University, for his

constant support, encouragement, and critique of my thesis. He vehemently embraced

this project and generously provided many helpful ideas. A substantial number of his

thoughts are incorporated into this thesis.

Special thanks also go to Dr. William Harrison, III, Department of Geology,

Western Michigan University. His interest, advice, and steadfast support helped make

this project possible. I would also like to thank Dr. John Grace, Department of

Geology, Western Michigan University, who provided insight on x-ray diffraction

analysis. I am very grateful to Bill Zempolich, Department of Geology, Johns

Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland (formerly with Mobil Oil Company,

Oklahoma City) for providing funding for this project and valuable discussions of the

St. Peter Sandstone. In addition, I would like to thank Robert Havira, Department of

Geology, Western Michigan University, who gave willing assistance with

photography.

I would like to thank my parents for their love and encouragement throughout

the course of this project. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to express my

deepest appreciation to my wife Chris. Her encouragement and patience were crucial

to the completion of this thesis.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Acknowledgements—Continued

The research was supported by a grant from The Graduate College, Western

Michigan University and Mobil Oil Company, Oklahoma City.

Carl E. Lundgren, Jr.

iii

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Diagenesis in the St. Peter sandstone, Michigan basin

Lundgren, Carl Eric, Jr., M.S.

Western Michigan University, 1991

UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ii

LIST OF TABLES ...... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Statement of Problem ...... 1

Previous Investigations ...... 2

Regional Stratigraphy ...... 2

Prairie du Chien Group ...... 5

Brazos Shale...... 6

St. Peter Sandstone ...... 8

Sedimentary Petrology ...... 10

Methods and Analytical Techniques ...... 12

H. LITHOFACIES DESCRIPTIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS...... 18

Facies 1 ...... 18

Facies 2 ...... 24

Facies 3 ...... 26

Facies 4 ...... 29

HI. SANDSTONE PETROLOGY ...... 33

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table of Contents-Continued

CHAPTER

Primary Mineralogy ...... 33

Q u a rtz ...... 35

Feldspar ...... 35

C arbonate ...... 37

Accessory Minerals ...... 39

Authigenic Minerals ...... 40

Early Dolomite Cements ...... 42

Quartz Overgrowths ...... 46

Saddle Dolomite ...... 49

Anhydrite Cem ent ...... 66

Authigenic Clays ...... 66

Mineral Dissolution and the Origin of Authigenic Clay ...... 73

IV. DIAGENETIC PATHWAYS AND DEPOSITIONAL FACIES 80

Petrofacies 1 81

Petrofacies 2 81

Petrofacies 3 84

V. CONCLUSIONS...... 88

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APPENDICES

A. Core Descriptions ...... 90

B. Point Count Data ...... 127

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 163

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES

1. Cores Used in Study ...... 14

2. Electron Probe Micro-Analysis ...... 59

3. Isotope Analysis ...... 61

vii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES

1. Stratigraphic Nomenclature and Correlation for the Lower and Middle Ordovician in the Michigan Basin ...... 4

2. Reference Well, Hunt Martin 1-15 (Gladwin C o.) ...... 7

3. St. Peter Formation Isopach of the Michigan Basin and the Upper M idwest ...... 9

4. Location Map of Conventional Cores Used in This Study ...... 13

5. Cross Section of the St. Peter Sandstone in the Michigan Basin ...... 19

6. Reference Well, Hunt Martin 1-15 (Gladwin Co.): With Represented Lithofacies ...... 20

7. Core Photo of Facies 1 ...... 22

8. Core Photo of Facies 1 ...... 23

9. Core Photo of Facies 2 ...... 25

10. Core Photo of Facies 3 ...... 27

11. Core Photo of Facies 4 ...... 30

12. Ternary Plot of Framework Grain Mineralogy ...... 34

13. Percent K-feldspar Content Versus Depth ...... 36

14. Photomicrograph of Carbonate Cements ...... 38

15. Photomicrograph of Detrital Phyllosilicate ...... 41

16. Generalized Paragenetic Sequence ...... 43

17. Cathodoluminescence Photomicrograph of Carbonate Cements 44

viii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. List of Figures—Continued

18. Percent Quartz Overgrowth Cement Versus Depth ...... 47

19. Photomicrograph of Quartz Overgrowth Cem ent ...... 48

20. Core Photo of Quartz Cemented Vertical Burrows ...... 50

21. Photomicrograph of Quartz Cemented Vertical Burrow ...... 51

22. Photomicrograph of Saddle Dolomite ...... 53

23. Photomicrograph of Open Grain Packing ...... 54

24. Photomicrograph of Vein Filling Saddle Dolomite ...... 55

25. Cathodoluminescence Photomicrograph of Carbonate Cement 56

26. Ternary Plot of Chemical Compositions of the Dolomite Types in the St. Peter Sandstone ...... 58

27. Plot of Isotopic Composition of the Dolomite Types in the St. Peter Sandstone ...... 63

28. Percent Clay Minerals Content Versus Depth ...... 67

29. X-ray Diffraction Pattern of Clay Rich St. Peter S andstone ...... 68

30. Photomicrograph of Authigenic Clay Filling Secondary Pores ...... 69

31. SEM Photomicrograph of C lay ...... 70

32. EDS Qualitative Elemental Analysis ...... 72

33. Core Photo of Dolomite Dissolution Texture : ...... 74

34. Porosity Content Verse D e p th ...... 75

35. Photomicrography of Secondary Pores ...... 76

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. List of Figures-Continued

36. Photomicrography of Honeycombed K-feldspar Grain ...... 79

37. Schematic Representation of the Diagenetic Pathways in the Intertidal and Shallow Subtidal Quartzarenite Facies ...... 82

38. Photomicrograph of Dolomite Termination Quartz Overgrowth Cement ...... 83

39. Schematic Representation of the Diagenetic Pathways in the Subtidal Shelf Facies ...... 85

40. Photomicrograph of Secondary Pores Filled With Authigenic Clay ...... 86

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Ordovician elastics in the Michigan basin have been a major target for

hydrocarbon exploration since the discovery, in the Dart Edwards 7-36 well in

Missaukee County, of natural gas in portions of a very thick (>1100 ft.) sandstone

unit. Since 1980 more than 57 fields have been discovered. The depth to producing

intervals ranges from 6000 ft. to more than 11,765 ft. Production from these wells

is variable and ranges from 1 to 12 million cubic feet of gas per day. Condensate

production of up to 881 Bbls. per day (Trout 3-18, Ogemaw County) has been

reported.

Within the oil and gas industry, various Ordovician sandstone units have been

referred to as the Jordan Sandstone, Prairie du Chien Sandstone, Massive Sandstone,

and Bruggers Formation. Only recently has the principal sandstone formation in the

Michigan basin been recognized as a continuation of the famous cratonic sheet St.

Peter Sandstone, present throughout much of the Midwest (Harrison, Turmelle and

Barnes 1987).

Statement of Problem

The objective of this study is to investigate the controls on diagenesis in the St.

Peter Sandstone in the Michigan basin. The formation has experienced complex

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. diagenetic modification during burial. This study investigates sandstone diagenesis

with particular emphasis on authigenic mineral formation, timing, and controls

imparted by subsurface temperature and fluid composition.

The research emphasis attempts to correlate the relationship of facies and depth

of burial to the types and variations in the paragenesis of authigenic minerals,

especially carbonate cements in the St. Peter Sandstone in the Michigan basin.

This study seeks better understanding of the geologic controls on the types of

cements and their vertical and horizontal distribution in the St. Peter Sandstone in the

Michigan basin. An understanding of the controls on sandstone diagenesis,

particularly the distribution of authigenic cements, is critical to prediction of the

petrologic properties of the St. Peter Sandstone, including formation of porosity. This

study will add to the large body of knowledge of the St. Peter Sandstone already

accumulated from the outcrop portion in the upper Midwest, and document unique

diagenetic alteration that is apparently related to deep burial in the Michigan basin.

Previous Investigations

Regional Stratigraphy

The St. Peter Sandstone in the Michigan basin subsurface was first encountered

in the Charley E. Moe No. 1 well in Ottawa County, in 1930. The Charley E. Moe

No. 1 penetrated 553 ft. of quartz sandstone underlain by dark-grey dolomites. Nine

years later, 86 ft. of the St. Peter was penetrated at a depth of 10,364 ft. in the Wm.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bateson No. 3 well, in Bay County. These are two of the earliest wells drilled in the

St. Peter Sandstone, and it is important to note that the sand bodies encountered in

these wells were identified correctly as the St. Peter Sandstone.

In 1964, the Brazos State Foster well was drilled in Ogemaw County. The

Foster well was the first modem deep test in the central basin below the Glenwood

interval at this time. The Foster well penetrated 972 ft. of quartz sandstone underlain

by 1,518 ft. of dark-gray dolomitic siltstone, shale, and dolostone (Fisher and Barratt,

1985). The Michigan Geological Survey classified these units as Upper Cambrian and

assigned them to the Trempealeau and Eau Claire Formation (Ives and Ells, 1965).

Since that time, many studies have proposed extension of Upper Midwest, Ordovician

stratigraphic correlation into the central Michigan basin (Barnes, Harrison, and Shaw,

1990; Brady and DeHass, 1988; Bricker, Milstein, and Reska, 1988; Catacosinos,

1972; Ells, 1967; Fisher, Barratt, Droste, and Shaver, 1988; Lilienthal, 1978).

Controversy regarding the basin stratigraphic terminology and the location of sequence

bounding unconformities still continues. Various stratigraphic nomenclature and

relationships are shown in Figure 1.

Early interpretation (Dewitt, 1960; Ells, 1967; Lilienthal, 1978) of the

Ordovician rocks in the Michigan basin suggested that the Glenwood Shale overlies

the sub-Tippecanoe unconformity (Sloss, 1963) and the St. Peter Sandstone is missing

or present only in isolated karstic depressions. In accordance with these

interpretations, additional stratigraphic sections below the Glenwood in the central

basin were correlated to various sub-unconformity units such as the Prairie du Chien

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1989 Group Trenton SL Peter Trempealeau Harrison et. al. 1988 Group Trenton Goodwell St. Peter Glenwood Glenwood Black River Black River Prairie du Chien Prairie du Chien Brady and Dehaos Group St. Peter Black River Trempealeau Trempealeau Prairie du Chien Rsher and Barratt Trenton Trenton FOSTER Bruggore Glenwood Glenwood control basin aw mich Lower Glenwood Rohr Group Trenton Glenwood Block River Black River Lower Glenwood Prairie du Chien / 1983 1985 Group _ Ordovician in the Michigan Basin. Trempealeau Trempealeau Trempealeau Prairie du Chien Peter y S Figure 1. Stratigraphic Nomenclature and Correlations for the Lower and Middle Lodi 1972 Trenton Trenton Jordan Glenwood Glenwood

Black River Black River Catacoeinoe Bricker ot. a!. St. LGwrenco Upper

L. © J O w 3 Cambrion > o c Q -o t

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Group, the Jordan Sandstone, and other informally defined stratigraphic units (Bames

et al., 1990).

Prairie du Chien Group

The Prairie du Chien Group in the upper Midwest is divided into three

formations: Oneota Dolomite, New Richmond Sandstone, and the Shakopee Dolomite,

and is the upper-portion of the Sauk Sequence in the upper Midwest (Davis, 1966).

The Prairie du Chien Group in the upper Midwest consists of shallow marine

dolomitic carbonates, quartz sandstones, siltstones, and shale (Willman et al., 1975).

Sub-Tippecanoe erosion resulted in partial to complete stripping of the Prairie du

Chien Group strata, exposing Cambrian and Precambrian rocks in some places in the

upper Midwest (Mai and Dott, 1985). In the center of the Illinois Basin, however, the

Prairie du Chien Group may be more than 2000 feet thick (Willman et al., 1975).

The Lower Ordovician stratigraphy in the central Michigan basin consists of a thick

(1800 ft.) succession of shallow water carbonate and shaley clastic rocks (Fisher and

Barratt, 1985). These rocks have been called Prairie du Chien, Tempealeau (Bricker

et al., 1983), and Foster (Fisher and Barratt, 1985; Fisher et al. 1988, Figure 1). The

Foster Formation is described by Fisher and Barratt (1985) as dark-gray dolomitic

siltstone, black shale, and dark-gray dolostone with minor quartz sandstone and

anhydrite. Fisher and Banratt (1985) interpret these strata to represent shallow marine

to intertidal depositional environments.

Bames et al. (1990) disagree with the stratigraphic differentiation of the Foster

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Formation in the Michigan basin from the Lower Ordovician Prairie du Chien Group

strata of the upper Midwest. Barnes et al. (1990) found close lithologic similarity of

the Foster Formation to the Shakopee dolomite in the upper Midwest (Davis, 1966;

Willman et al., 1975) and in deep test drilling in the Illinois basin (Buschbach, 1965).

The main difference between the Prairie du Chien Group in the upper Midwest, as

compared to the central Michigan basin, is increased thickness in the Michigan basin.

The Foster Formation in Michigan is as thick as 1800 ft. compared to the Prairie du

Chien Group, which is only a few hundred feet, in the type area (Bames et al., 1990;

Figures 1 and 2).

Brazos Shale

The upper part of the Foster Formation in many wells in the central Michigan

basin is referred to as the "Brazos Shale" by many Michigan geologists (Bames et al.,

1990). The term "Brazos Shale," however, is preoccupied and is unsatisfactory for

stratigraphic terminology (Fisher and Barratt, 1985). The "Brazos Shale" consists of

a high gamma ray log signature and intermediate photoelectric effect (Bames et al.,

1990). The "Brazos Shale" is represented in the Hunt Martin 1-15 well, (log depth

12,180 ft. to 12,450 ft., Figure 2) and is truncated in thickness in adjacent wells

(Bames et al., 1990). The "Brazos Shale" is described by Bames et al. (1990) as

gray-green laminated argillaceous siltstone, siliceous shale, and argillaceous

dolomicrite. The high gamma ray signature observed on wireline logs, which is

characteristic of the "Brazos Shale" (Figure 2), is the result of abundant K-feldspar

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7

REFERENCE WELL HUNT-MARTIN 1-15 GLADWIN CO., MICHIGAN

GAMMA RAY .150 P E F 10

11000— BLACK RIVER GLENWCCm

11501 ST. PETER

12000

Sub-TIPPECANCIE BRAZOS shole* 125 0 0 — SURFACE

_L FUSTER PRAIRIE du 1 3 5 0 0 —f- CHIEN GRDUP 14000—f- UMLDR

Figure 2. Reference Well, Hunt Martin 1-15 (Gladwin County). Lithology and wire- line log response of the Middle Ordovician sandstone and associated strata as represented in a type reference well from the central Michigan basin. Stratigraphic nomenclature from Bames et al. (1990).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. silt (Barnes et al., 1990). The "Brazos Shale" is interpreted as a restricted marine,

peritidal deposit (Barnes et al., 1990). No regional stratigraphic counterpart to the

"Brazos Shale" surrounding the Michigan basin has been recognized.

St. Peter Sandstone

The St. Peter Sandstone in the upper Midwest has been described in numerous

publications since Dake (1921). The St. Peter Sandstone was originally described in

the Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota area. The St. Peter Sandstone was deposited

above the interregional sub-Tippecanoe unconformity and represents a classic

transgressive sheet sand (Dapples, 1955). In most places, the St. Peter overlies

carbonate rocks of the Lower Ordovician Prairie du Chien group; however, in some

places it also rests on Cambrian sandstone (Dapples, 1955; Mai and Dott, 1983). The

formation is generally a non-fossiliferous orthoquartzite, and ranges from terrestrial

(fluvial and eolian) facies at the base to more common shallow marine facies

upsection (Dott, 1983; Dott, Byers, Fielder, Stenzel, and Winfree, 1985; Mai and Dott,

1983; Mazzulo and Ehrlich, 1983; 1987; Witzke, 1980).

The St. Peter Sandstone in the subsurface of the Michigan basin (Harrison,

1986; Fisher and Barratt, 1985 "Bruggers Formation"; Figures 1 and 2) ranges in

thickness from zero in the south to in excess of 1200 feet in the central basin (Figure

3). The sandstone contains more common interbeds of carbonate rock to the south

and east due to facies change (Fisher and Barratt, 1985). The unusual thickness of

the formation in the Michigan basin compared to the other parts of the upper Midwest

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9

2 0 0 MILES - r - 1 3 0 0 KILOMETERS

Figure 3. St. Peter Formation Isopach of the Michigan Basin and Upper Midwest. Modified from Harrison, 1990; Mia, 1983; Droste, 1983.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. is the result of persistent basin subsidence and proximity to clastic sediment sources

during deposition (Barnes et al., 1990).

Sedimentary Petrology

Odom, Doe, and Dott (1976) and Odom, Willand, and Lassin (1979) provided

the first detailed petrographic description of the St. Peter Sandstone in the upper

Midwest. Odom and others (1976, 1979) documented the abundance of feldspar (to

25%) in very fine-grained, lower Paleozoic sandstone and siltstone in the upper

Midwest. By analogy to subjacent Cambrian strata, the feldspar content of other

lower Paleozoic sandstones can be correlated to depositional environment and abrasion

history. Highly feldspathic arenites were deposited in low energy shelf environments,

while quartz arenites were preferentially deposited in high energy, near shore

environments.

The diagenetic modification of the St. Peter in the upper Midwest was described

by Odom et al. (1979) as a complex mineral paragenesis that included: (a) early K-

feldspar and quartz overgrowths, (b) illite-smectite-chlorite-carbonate precipitation, (c)

development of euhedral quartz overgrowths, (d) formation of pyrite, and (e) kaolinite.

Mazzullo and Ehrlich (1980, 1983, and 1987) described surface textures and

grain shape characteristics in the St. Peter near St. Paul, Minnesota in order to

interpret depositional sediment transport systems. Mazzullo and Ehrlich documented

an absence of significant diagenetic modification of the St. Peter in this study area.

Hoholick, Metarko, and Potter (1984) described and mapped the porosity and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. cements of the St. Peter in the Illinois basin. Hoholick et al. (1984) described the

distribution of these features mainly in terms of depth of burial, but did not relate

cement types or porosity types to variation in depositional environments. The cements

Hoholick et al. (1984) described are: (a) minor calcite, (b) dolomite, (c) anhydrite, (d)

chlorite, (e) quartz, (f) chert, and (g) chalcedony. They also emphasized the

importance of diagenetic enhancement of porosity by: (a) cement dissolution (calcite

and dolomite), (b) dissolution of framework grain (quartz and k-feldspar), and (c)

fracturing, commonly filled with authigenic chlorite.

Previous petrographic studies of the St. Peter Sandstone are few (Budros, 1986;

Fisher and Barratt, 1985; Peck, Elmore, Gale, and Carpenter, 1988; Rohr, 1985; Rohr

and Prouty, 1986). Fisher and Barratt (1985) described their Bruggers Formation (St.

Peter Sandstone) as a clean quartz sandstone, with common quartz cement. Fisher

and Barratt (1985) also describe an illite/chlorite clay mineral assemblage of

unspecified origin. They suggested that clay coatings on quartz grains may have been

a factor in porosity preservation. The presence of clay coats on quartz grains is

suggested to have inhibited quartz overgrowths, resulting in the preservation of

porosity (Fisher and Barratt, 1985). They also recognized some of the porosity to be

secondary and suggested meteoric freshwater leaching and mineral dissolution during

the development of an unconformity at the top of the formation.

The influence of detrital clay coatings on framework quartz grains preserving

porosity was supported by several workers (Budros, 1986; Peck et al., 1988; Rohr,

1985; Rohr and Prouty, 1986). They suggested that detrital and authigenic illite-

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. chlorite clays preserved original primary porosity by excluding quartz cementation in

the upper portion of the St. Peter Sandstone.

Methods and Analytical Techniques

Several types of data were collected and studied for this project. This

investigation is based on the examination of 24 conventional cores (approximately

2476 feet) from the North-Central Michigan Basin (Figure 4; Table 1). No single

well contains core from all the facies recognized in the St. Peter in the Michigan

basin. Integration of core data with wire-line logs was undertaken in order to interpret

a stratigraphic-sedimentologic subdivision of the successions and areal the extent of

the facies in the formation. Cores used in this study are currently curated in the

Western Michigan University Core Research Laboratory, in Kalamazoo, Michigan.

The cores were described for lithologic heterogeneity, grain size, grain size trends,

sedimentary structures, trace fossils and visible porosity (Appendices A and B).

Approximately 500 resin-impregnated thin sections from cores in the St. Peter

Sandstone were studied with a standard petrographic microscope. A minimum of 250

points were counted from 321 of the 500 thin sections to determine the relative

percentage of framework grains, cements and porosity. Petrographic descriptions were

made using the Folk, Andrews, and Lewis, (1970) classification scheme in an effort

to best describe the modal composition of framework grains, porosity, and cement

relationships, with emphases on authigenic mineral paragenesis and textural variations.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry (EDS)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13

Figure 4. Location Map of Conventional Cores Used in This Study.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 1

Cores Used in Study

COUNTY WELL NAME LOCATION

1. Alpena Sun-Cousineau 1-16 16-29N-08E

2. Alpena Wol-Syl & St. Sanborn 1-29 29-29N-09E

3. Clare Jem-Weingartz 1-7 07-17N-04W

4. Clare Hunt-Winterfield A-l 30-20N-06W

5. Gladwin Hunt-Martin 1-15 15-17N-01E

6. Mason Miller-Camagel 2-30 30-20N-17W

7. Mason Miller-Victory 2-26 26-19N-17W

8. Missaukee Jem-Bruggers 3-7 07-24N-06W

9. Missaukee Patrick-Gilde 1-25 25-22N-07W

10. Missaukee Jem-Visser 3-35 35-22N-06W

11. Missaukee Jem-Workman 10-31 31-22N-06W

12. Newaygo Wol-Pat & St. Norwich 2-28 28-15N-11W

13. Osceola Amoco-Eisenga 1-29 29-20N-07W

14. Osceola Jem-Fruedenberg 1-31 31-17N-08W

15. Osceola Brown-Gingrich 1-31A 31-18N-10W

16. Osceola Jem-McCormick 2-27 27-18N-08W

17. Osceola Hunt-Robinson 31-19N-07W

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 1--Continued

COUNTY WELL NAME LOCATION

18. Oscoda Sun-Cousumers Power 1-3 03-26N-01E

19. Oscoda S un-Mentor C 1-29 29-25N-03E

20. Otsego Reef-Dowker 2-21 21-30N-01W

21. Roscommon Jem-Dalrymple 1-16 16-22N-04W

22. Roscommon FNR-Kitchenhoff 1-29 29-22N-04W

23. Roscommon S un-Roseville Gun Club 1-17 17-21N-01W

24. Wexford Jem-Liberty 1-18 18-24N-09W

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. were used to further evaluate textural relationships and clay mineral types. The EDS

was used to provide elemental composition data.

The textural and compositional variations in dolomite cements were

distinguished by use of cathodoluminescence microscopy and electron probe micro

analysis (EPMA). Both of these techniques were performed at the University of

Michigan Electron Microbeam Laboratory, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Stable, carbon, and

oxygen isotope composition analysis was also undertaken in order to interpret

formation water temperature and composition during formation of the dolomite

cements. Dolomites were separated, based on cathodoluminescence petrography, to

sample for micro-drilling sampling. The samples were then analyzed for carbon and

oxygen isotopic composition at Case Western Reserve, Cleveland, Ohio (Dr. Sam

Savin, Department of Geology) and the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan

(Dr. K.C. Lohmann, Department of Geology).

X-ray diffraction analysis of clay minerals was undertaken on samples identified

during petrographic reconnaissance of clay-rich sandstones. These samples were

individually crushed and ground using a ceramic mortar and pestle and stirred in

distilled water. They were then separated to the less than two micron fraction using

Stokes’ law for size and settling velocities. The samples were then mounted on a

glass slide and analyzed by x-ray diffraction techniques. The x-ray diffraction

analysis determined clay mineralogy and provided semi-quantitative data on rock

composition.

Electrical/geophysical wire-line logs for selected wells were also used in this

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. investigation. These data were compared and integrated with core data and used to

interpret the lithology, thickness, and areal and vertical distribution of the St. Peter

Sandstone. Wire-line logs were also used for the constructing of cross sections for

lithology and interpretive sedimentary facies within the basin.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER n

LITHOFACIES DESCRIPTIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS

The St. Peter Sandstone in the Michigan basin is represented by a thick

sequence (1200) of quartz arenite and dolomitic carbonate rocks (Harrison, 1987).

Four distinct sedimentary facies were recognized in the St. Peter in the Michigan

basin on the basis of detailed sedimentologic analyses of conventional subsurface

cores from 24 wells throughout central and northern Michigan (Figure 4; Table 1;

Appendix A) and integration of these data with wire line log data (Figure 5). The

Hunt Martin 1-15 well in Gladwin County (15-7N-1E) is used in this study as a

subsurface reference well, because of the extensive, continuous core coverage and

thick succession present in the well (Figure 5). All lithostratigraphic correlation is

referenced to the lithofacies subdivision established in the Hunt Martin 1-15 test

(Figure 6).

Facies 1

The lower-most lithofacies recognized in conventional core are from the Hunt

Martin 1-15 (log depth 11,420 ft. to 12,180 ft.; Figure 6) and are composed of

bimodally sorted, medium- to coarse-grained quartz sandstone with variable

admixtures of argillaceous dolomicrite. Quartz cementation, chemical compaction,

and pressure solution are common features in this facies and obscure primary textures

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19

IAC H I « >H *

cc • UJO V {flu z I ; I ! . ' I I ! I I I i ! ! I i UJ< QJ (UUzo C3U Uiu.o iffS l Figure Figure 5. Cross Section of the St. Peter Sandstone in the Michigan Basin.

z«

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o IN> BLACK RIVER BLACK SANDSTONE GLENVODD ST. ST. PETER BRAZOS BRAZOS shale 10 4 FACIES 1 FACIES FACIES 2 FACIES FACIES PEF i V i ' i ' t r- r t ? ., * • l * . .i. \ \ WFWIV V line log response with represented lithofacies (Barnes et al. 1990). Figure 6. Reference well, Hunt Martin 1-15 (Gladwin County). Lithology and wire- GAMMA RAY15Q GAMMA 0 - - 11000 11500“ 12000 1 2 5 0 0 - DEPTH

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and structures in many places.

Facies 1 is distinguished by massive to horizontally bedded and cross-bedding

with interlaminations of dolomitic sandstone of less than 1 cm to 10 cm thick (Figure

7). Thicker tangential cross bed sets are a common sedimentary structure observed

in this facies (Figure 7). The cross bed sets vary from 5 cm to greater than 10 cm

thick. The upper and lower bounding surfaces of the cross sets are typically sharp.

Cross beds in some intervals are bidirectional (Figure 8). Reactivation scour surfaces

are interpreted from some portions of this lithofacies (Figure 8). Thin clay drape

lamina (mostly micritic carbonate sediment) is common and separates sets of cross

strata. Clay drape lamina is observed covering ripple features (Figure 8). Closely

spaced scour surfaces with associated rip-up clasts are common in some cores (Figure

8).

Sparse examples of vertical dwelling burrows (Skolithos) do occur within this

facies (Figure 8). These burrows are observed more commonly in the upper portion

of the lower lithofacies (facies 1). These facies characteristics suggest deposition in

a tidally influenced coastal to intertidal and subtidal marine depositional environment.

Lithofacies 1 is characterized by massive to horizontally bedded and cross bedded

sandstone with little bioturbation. These characteristics are suggestive of a tidally

influenced upper shoreface and foreshore marine environment (Reading, 1986 and

Walker, 1984). The lack of abundant burrowing suggests inhospitable environmental

conditions, in which pre-Silurian strata are interpreted as either non-marine, intertidal,

and/or hypersaline conditions. The rocks show closely spaced scoured surfaces and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22

Figure 7. Core Photo of Facies 1. (A) Hunt Martin 1-15. 11,429 ft. (Gladwin County). Bedding in facies 1 is variable, interlaminations of sandstone and dolomitic sandstone are common. (B) Amoco Eisenga 1-29, 11,455 ft. (Osceola County). Tangential cross-bed sets vary in facies 1 from less than 1 cm to greater than 10 cm.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23

Figure 8. Core Photo of Facies 1. (A) Amoco Eisenga 1-29, 11465A ft. (Osceola County). Various sedimentary structures are observed in facies 1. Above the 11,465A ft. mark note ripples overlain by dark, dolomicrite "mud" drapes. Overlying the "mud" drapes are possible bidirectional medium- scale cross bedding with a small rip-up clast in the middle of the sets. Note the sharply bounded, clay drape lamina between sets of cross beds. Rare small burrows tire preserved at the top of the slab in medium-scale cross bedded sandstone. (B) Hunt Martin 1-15, 11,421 ft. (Glawin County). Grey-green dolomitic and clay rip-up clasts overlying a scour surface (see arrow). Note bidirectional cross bedding above 11,421 ft. mark.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sharp contacts, which are typical of changing energy conditions. The occurrence of

thin, sharply bounded clay drape lamina deposited between sets of cross strata (Figure

8) is characteristic of changing energy conditions due to tidal processes (Reading,

1986). The alternating sands and argillaceous dolomicrite are related to changing

energy conditions. Deposition of fine-grained argillaceous and dolomitic sediment by

suspension occurred during periods of lower energy conditions and may coincide with

slack tide. The dolomitic rip-up clasts may have formed during exposure in nearby

tidal flats or other coastal environments and suggest strong tidal and/or storm

generated currents. Bidirectional cross-bedding and reactivation surfaces are also

suggestive of tidally influenced environments. Both suggest bidirectional sediment

transport and episodic fluctuations in flow velocity (Klein, 1970; Mowbray and

Visser, 1984). The sedimentary structures of facies 1 suggest high energy, intertidal

to subtidal, marine depositional environment, with fluctuating energy conditions. In

the limited number of cores available for this study, no features were observed that

clearly indicated eolian deposition.

Facies 2

Facies 2 is present in the lower portions of the St. Peter Sandstone and is

sparsely represented in available cores. It exhibits considerable lithologic and

sedimentologic variability. This facies is described from the top one foot of the

Brown Gingrich 1-31 (9971 ft. to 9970 ft.) core in Osceola County (Figure 9). This

facies is composed of interbedded argillaceous dolomicrite to dolomite and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25

Figure 9. Core Photo of Facies 2. Brown Gingrich 1-31A (Osceola County). Interbedded gray-black, argillaceous dolomicrite to dolomite and argillaceous siltstone.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. argillaceous siltstone. Facies 2 is characterized by high gamma ray log signature, and

occurs throughout the lower to middle portion of the St. Peter Sandstone in Michigan

(Figures 5 and 6).

Horizontal and wavy bedding, dolomitic rip-up clasts, and rare to negligible

bioturbation are distinctive of facies 2. Fossil fragments are observed in some

intervals and include inarticulate brachiopods, trilobites, ostracods and possible

bryozoans. Thin algal laminations are also observed in this facies.

The sedimentological data from facies 2 are consistent with deposition in a

lower-energy, intertidal to peritidal deposition environment. The restricted-marine

fauna and lack of burrows suggest deposition in an inhospitable tidally influenced

setting.

The carbonate-dominated strata ascribed to lithofacies 2 in this portion of the

formation (interbedded within 12,182 ft. to 11,418 ft. log depth in the Martin well)

increases in the south and east portion of the basin due to facies changes (Brady and

DeHass, 1988; Fisher and Barratt, 1985). No core is available in these areas.

Facies 3

Sandstone dominated strata described as facies 3 is transitional upwards from

facies 1 and is best recognized in conventional core from the Hunt Martin 1-15

reference well (11,420 ft. to 11,306 ft.; Figures 5 and 6). Facies 3 consists of

bimodally sorted, fine- to medium-grained sandstone. Lithofacies 3 is massively

bedded to amalgamated with abundant, vague, planar laminations (Figure 10). Low

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 10. Core Photo of Facies 2. (A) Hunt Martin 1-15, 11,408 ft. (Gladwin County). Friable sandstone with low angle cross bedding (lower half of slab) overlain by a sharp scour surface (see arrow). Note vertical burrows cross cutting low angle stratification. (B) Hunt Martin 1-15, 11,334 ft. Friable planar laminated sandstone at the base of the slab. Abundant quartz cemented vertical Skolithos burrows cross-cut lamination. Note scour surface in the middle of the slab (see arrow).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. angle planar and possible hummocky stratification is observed in a few cores (Figure

10). Disrupting the planar laminations are straight vertical Skolithos burrows (Figure

10). Bioturbation is moderate with both Skolithos and less common Cruziana

ichnofacies present. The Skolithos burrows are preserved as quartz cemented,

cylindrical burrows and generally range in length from 1 cm to 10 cm (Figure 10).

However, large vertical burrows up to 91 cm are present in facies 3 in the Miller

Victory 1-31 (Mason County). The burrows are generally better sorted and are more

coarse-grained than the surrounding matrix. The Skolithos burrows are commonly

truncated by scour surfaces in the lower portion of the facies. In the upper portions

of the middle lithofacies (facies 3), bioturbation increases and both Skolithos and

Cruziana ichnofacies are present.

Facies 3 is interpreted to represent a normal marine, shoreface to upper offshore,

shelf depositional environment at or below normal wave base. The abundance of

Skolithos type bioturbation indicates normal marine conditions in a high energy

setting. Skolithos ichnofacies are well established as habit burrows indicative of

shoreface environments (Walker, 1984). The increase in bioturbation and decreased

preservation of current-induced sedimentary structures in the upper portions of facies

3 suggests slower rates of sedimentation and indicates a transition from lower-

shoreface environments to offshore environments.

The abrupt truncation of Skolithos burrows by scour surfaces indicates changing

energy conditions at the site of deposition. Low angle stratification in conventional

core is suggestive of hummocky cross or swaley stratifications (Walker, 1984).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Hummocky cross stratification is formed by current surges generated by large storms

(Harms, 1975). The presence of low angle cross stratification and possible hummocky

stratification supports the interpretation of episodic high-energy depositional events.

These features are interpreted to represent lower-shoreface to upper-offshore

depositional environments, which have been influenced by episodic sedimentation, i.e.,

storms. This environment is similar to the environment of deposition interpreted for

the majority of the St. Peter Sandstone in the upper Midwest by Dott et al. (1986),

Mazzullo and Ehrlich (1987), and other previous workers. This transition in

bioturbation is consistent with an overall transgressive succession in the St. Peter

Sandstone.

Facies 4

Facies 4 is transitional upsection from facies 3 and is best observed in the Hunt

Martin 1-15 well (11,310 ft. to 11,232 ft.; Figures 5 and 6). These strata are

characterized by very fine- to medium-grained, slightly argillaceous and dolomitic,

quartzo-feldspathic sandstone. The sandstone is bimodally to moderately sorted. The

facies is typically bioturbated and most current-induced sedimentary structures have

been destroyed by intense bioturbation (Figure 11). The few preserved current-

induced structures consist of planar and low angle cross stratification.

Bedding in facies 4 consists of cycles of fine-grained, intense bioturbated

carbonate sandstone packages overlain by scour surfaces. The scour surfaces are

overlain by fining upward packages of bioturbated sands grading to intensely

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30

Figure 11. Core Photo of Facies 4. Argillaceous sandstone with complete obliteration of primary, current induced sedimentary structures due to intense bioturbation. Sun Mentor "C" 1-29.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. bioturbated, poorly sorted, dolomitic silty sandstones. These hemicycles occur in bed

thickness of a few centimeters to as much as a meter. Bioturbation is dominated by

Cruziana type burrows. Skolithos type burrows are common in the basal portion of

the bed sets, while Cruziana type burrows are dominant in the carbonate rich

sandstones.

The presence of hemicyclic couplets consisting of scour surfaces overlain by

fining upward packages of bioturbated well sorted sandstone grading to intensely

bioturbated, "muddy" carbonate sediment rich layers suggests that sand deposition

occurred during episodic storm events below fair weather wave base. Storm generated

currents episodically scoured the sea floor and transported terrigenous clastic

sediments to offshore settings. Later, during fair weather conditions, carbonate mud

and terrigenous clastic deposition by suspension increased in the absence of coarser-

grained terrigenous clastic sedimentation. The presence of rarely preserved low-angle

cross stratification in a few core samples supports the interpretation of storm-

influenced sedimentation.

The intense bioturbation and mixed siliciclastic-carbonate nature of this facies

suggest these rocks originated in a more distal, storm dominated marine shelf

environment. The more bioturbation per foot in this lithofacies suggests either slow

rates of deposition or a prolific benthic population or a combination of both.

Assuming a constant benthic population, the intensity of burrowing reflects a relative

slow rate of sedimentation. This environment maintained relatively low depositional

energy and slow rates of sedimentation with infrequent, high energy events. These

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. features are consistent with distal offshore shelf environments, influenced by episodic

storms. The increase in bioturbation and the transitional vertical contact of facies 4

over higher energy shoreface environments (facies 3) suggest a more distal marine

shelf environment, near to below normal wave base, as described by Dott and

Bourgeous (1982).

Based on the significant number of trace fossils, the St. Peter is recognized as

a marine sandstone in the Michigan basin. The lithofacies described above indicate

a shallow marine depositional environment, ranging from coastal, mostly shoreface

deposits in the lower portion of the formation to storm dominated, outer marine shelf

deposits, in the upper portion of the formation. The lithofacies indicate a shallow

marine and shelf depositional environment that evolved in a regional-scale

transgressive pattern.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER HI

SANDSTONE PETROLOGY

The St. Peter Sandstone in the Michigan basin is characterized by a quartz-rich

framework grain mineralogy similar to the Lower Paleozoic sandstones elsewhere in

the Upper Midwest (Dapples, 1955; Dott and Byers, 1981; Harrison, 1988). The St.

Peter also contains significant amounts of K-feldspar, primary carbonate cement, silt-

size mica and minor heavy minerals. Diagenetic processes have greatly modified the

primary mineralogy in the St. Peter Sandstone.

Primary Mineralogy

The St. Peter Sandstone Formation in Michigan is dominated by sandstones with

in excess of 90% detrital quartz. K-feldspar is the next most common framework

grain type. Framework grain composition ranges from quartzarenite in coarse- to fine

grained sandstones to feldsarenites in the fine- to very fine-grained sandstones

(Harrison et al., 1987, Figure 12).

The St. Peter also contains a significant amount of carbonate (Appendix B). All

carbonate has been dolomitized. Preserved textures in the carbonate rich beds suggest

a possible primary origin for some of the carbonate sediment. Other carbonate cement

may have originated as early marine cement. Dolomitic sands may comprise up to

half of the stratigraphic section in the southeastern portions of the basin, due to facies

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. US 5025 4 Lithofacies Q 3 Q Lithofacies Q (quartz, feldspar, and lithics) of the different lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). Classification scheme after Folk et al. (1970). Martin 1-15 (Gladwin County). The symbols represent the mineralogy Lithofacies 1 Figure 12. Ternary Plot of Framework Grain Mineralogy. Analysis from the Hunt

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. changes (Fisher and Barratt, 1985).

Quartz

Quartz is the dominant detrital component of the St Peter Sandstone, ranging in

abundance from 42% to 99% (Appendix B). The majority of the grains are unstrained

plutonic or monocrystalline quartz. Polycrystalline quartz grains and chert are present

locally in the St. Peter. Polycrystalline quartz grains make up 10% of some beds in

the Sun Cousineau #1-16 well (Alpena County; Appendix B). Polycrystalline quartz

grains are more common in the northeastern quadrant of the basin. The polycrystalline

quartz grains were probably derived from the mixed granite gneiss and Precambrian

meta sediments source to the northeast of the basin.

Feldspar

Detrital K-feldspar consists of between 0-40% of the framework grains in the St.

Peter Sandstone (Figure 12; Appendix B). Little feldspar is found in lower portions

of the formation while in the upper parts of the formation feldspar comprises up to

40% of the grains (Figure 13).

Work by Odom (1975, 1976) showed that the distribution of K-feldspar in the

cratonic sandstones of the Upper Midwest Valley is controlled by grain size and

depositional environment. The cratonic sandstones (Mt. Simon Formation, Eau Clair

Formation, Wonewoc Formation, Lone Rock Formation, Jordan Formation, and St.

Peter Formation) of the Upper Mississippi Valley range in composition from quartz

DEPTH 11480 1 1 11330

nraei -edprcneti te oe nry itl environment. distal energy lower the in content k-feldspar in increase 1280-1 1

1-15 (Gladwin County). Point count data sorted by facies. Note the the Note facies. by sorted data count Point County). (Gladwin 1-15 1430 1380 - - - - 0 10 FELDSPAR 20 1 S E I C A F 3 S E I C A F 30 4 S E I C A F 40 36 arenite in the coarse- to fine-grained sandstones to feldsarenite in the fine-grained to

silty sandstones (Odom 1975, 1976). This work showed that the stratigraphic and

regional distribution of detrital K-feldspar indirectly correlates with energy regime and

depositional environments as a function of grain size. Fine-grained, feldspathic sands

were deposited in the lower-energy, shelf environments, while coarse-grained quartz

arenites were deposited in higher-energy, near-shore intertidal environments.

In the Michigan basin, the regional and stratigraphic distribution of potassium

feldspar in the St. Peter Sandstone is also related to depositional environment and is

in agreement with Odom’s work (1975, 1976). Feldspathic sandstones are typically

fine-grained and these sandstones are more common in lower-energy shelf

environments, higher in the section. Quartz arenites are more common in higher-

energy, shelf environments, lower in the section (Figure 13). The high concentration

of K-feldspar in low-energy shelf facies is probably responsible for the high gamma-

ray log response characteristic of the upper portions of the St. Peter in the center of

the basin (Figures 5 and 6).

Carbonate

The St. Peter Sandstone contains a significant amount of dolomitized carbonate

of possible primary (micrite) origin including mud and allochem clast-bearing

sandstone (Appendix B). Thin sandy dolomite and dolomitic sands are interbedded

with quartz sandstone in the St. Peter and range in thickness from 1 centimeter to 10

centimeters. The dolomite occurs as coatings on quartz grains (Figure 14) to carbonate

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38

Figure 14. Photomicrograph of Carbonate Cements. (A) Photomicrograph of coated quartz grains. Hunt Martin 1-15 11,493 ft. (Gladwin County). (B) Photomicrograph of open framework grain packing in a quartz sandstone with 35% intergranular dolomite. Jem McCormick 2-27, 9843.6 ft. (Osceola County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. matrix supported sandstones (Figure 14). The carbonate-rich facies in the St. Peter

increase to the southeast due to facies changes (Fisher and Barratt, 1985). All

carbonate in the St. Peter is now dolomite.

A genetic interpretation of these dolomites is difficult. Dolomitization has

destroyed most depositional features. The thin carbonate laminations that are common

in the lower portion of St. Peter (facies 1 and 2) may represent stromatolites or

lithified algal crusts. The carbonate rip-up clasts observed in this portion of the

formation suggest a syndepositional origin for the carbonate laminations. The presence

of isopachous grain coats, rip-up clasts and possible stromatolites suggests shallow

water depositions for the lower lithofacies (facies 1 and 2).

Dolomite cemented sandstone and sandy dolomite are common in the upper

lithofacies (facies 3 and 4). These carbonate mud-rich sediments can contain more

than 35% intergranular carbonate, indicating a possible primary carbonate mud

sediment (Figure 14). Carbonate rip-up clasts are observed in these facies and suggest

syndepositional lithification of carbonate sediment.

Accessory Minerals

Shale and argillaceous beds are a minor constituent of the St. Peter in the

Michigan basin. The minor amount of shales in the Cambrian-Ordovician sandstones

throughout the upper Midwest has been recognized by Dott and Byers, 1981. Dott and

Byers (1981) suggest that the fine-grained sediments were blown from land areas

rather than transported by streams. Dalrymple et al. (1985) supported Dott and Byers

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (1981) interpretations and suggested that prolonged eolian action was significant in

transporting fine-grained sediment away from the Mid-Continent.

Most detrital phyllosilicate minerals in the St. Peter are silt-size and consist of

mica. Silt size detrital phyllosilicates (muscovite) make up less than 3% of the detrital

component of the St. Peter Sandstone (Appendix B). The phyllosilicates are observed

throughout the St. Peter in the Michigan basin, but are more common in the northern

and northeastern portion of the basin. Phyllosilicates are usually observed pinched

between detrital grains (Figure 15).

Heavy minerals in the St. Peter are a minor constituent, making up less than 1%

of the detrital mineralogy. The heavy minerals present are an ultra stable assemblage

of zircon, tourmaline, rutile, and garnet. Heavy minerals are observed throughout most

of the St. Peter, but are observed more commonly in the northern and northeastern

portion of the basin. Heavy minerals locally form concentrations of up to 10% of the

detrital mineralogy (Cousineau 1-16, in Alpena County; Appendix B). The abundance

of these detrital accessory minerals in the northeast Michigan basin suggests that the

Canadian Shield to the northeast may have influenced St. Peter sedimentation in this

area. The Canadian Shield to the northeast is the most likely provider of these detrital

minerals (Hamblin, 1961).

Authigenic Minerals

Petrographic analysis of 321 thin sections from the St. Peter Sandstone indicates

that the sandstone has been extensively modified by post depositional, diagenetic

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41

Figure 15. Photomicrograph of Detrital Phyllosilicate. Detrital phyllosilicate pinched between quartz grains. Sun Consumer Powers 1-3, 9543 ft. (Oscoda County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. processes. The overall paragenesis of authigenic minerals in the St. Peter Sandstone

includes: early carbonate marine cement, early dolomitization, quartz overgrowths, late

(burial) dolomitization, dissolution of minerals, and the formation of authigenic clays

(Figure 16). The model for diagenesis is consistent in conventional core from the 24

wells studied in Michigan, although variations in diagenetic pathways are strongly

related to variations in depositional facies. The key to understanding the diagenesis

in the St. Peter is understanding the relationship between depositional facies and its

controls on diagenesis. The authigenic mineral assemblage varies considerably

between individual facies. Each facies contained different detrital constituents that

subsequently influence diagenesis and authigenic mineralization.

Early Dolomite Cements

All carbonate minerals in the St. Peter have been dolomitized. The dolomite

occurs in three distinctive petrographic textures. These textures include isopachous

grain rims, intergranular planar-S dolomite (see Sibley and Gregg, 1987), and non-

planar saddle dolomite (Figures 14). Saddle dolomite will be described later.

The isopachous textures can be distinguished petrographically by carbonate rims

or coatings around detrital grains (Figure 14). Isopachous textures may have formed

either from the replacement of oolitic grain coats or early carbonate cements. The

isopachous texture can further be distinguished by bright orange cathodoluminescence

(Figure 17).

The intergranular, planar-S dolomite is the most common dolomite habit. The

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

MICHIGAN BASIN 71 EARLY EARLY TIMING RELATIVE LATE

PARAGENESIS OF ST. PETER SANDSTONE AND AND CEMENT (SADDLE) COMPACTION DOLOMITE AUTHIGENIC AUTHIGENIC CLAY MARINE MARINE CEMENT BURIAL DOLOMITE BURIAL DOLOMITE EARLY EARLY CARBONATE MINERAL MINERAL LEACHING SECONDARY SECONDARY POROSITY CHLORITE CHLORITE AND ILLITE PRESSURE PRESSURE SOLUTION EARLY EARLY REPLACEMENT AND AND PORE FILLING QUARTZ OVERGROWTH QUARTZ OVERGROWTH

Figure 16. Generalized Paragenesis Sequence.

o ' c/j CD 1 ~ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited 0 44

Figure 17. Cathodoluminescence Photomicrograph of Carbonate Cements. (A) Cathodoluminescence photomicrography of bright luminescence isopachous grains and dull luminescence saddle dolomite (see arrow) in facies 4. Jem Frueudenberg 1-29, 9588 ft (Osceola County). (B) Cathodoluminescence photomicrography of moderately luminescence intergranular planar-S dolomite cement. Jem Weingartz 1-7 10,871 ft. (Osceola County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. intergranular, planar-S habit consists of subhedral to anhedral dolomite crystals with

straight compromise boundaries and many crystal face junctions (Sibley and Gregg,

1987). The original texture is rarely preserved and samples with more than 35%

intergranular dolomite are common (Appendix B). This dolomite texture can further

be distinguished by moderate to bright orange cathodoluminescence (Figure 17).

The origin of these dolomites is difficult to determine. Dolomitization has

destroyed most depositional features. The isopachous textures provide the only clue

to the depositional environment and suggest syndepositional oolitic or early marine

cements.

Intergranular dolomite is a common texture found in the subtidal marine facies

(facies 3 and 4) of the St. Peter. The occurrence of more than 35% intergranular

dolomite observed in some samples and the moderate to open packing, or floating

grain texture, at depths greater than 10,000 ft. suggests that an early primary carbonate

matrix or early marine cement precluded significant compaction. Contemporary

submarine carbonate cements have been described by Shinn (1969) in mixed carbonate

and quartz sands in the Persian Gulf. Early isopachous aragonite and high magnesium

calcite cements are reported filling intergranular pore spaces in highly bioturbated

sediments (Shinn, 1969). The principal physical factors involved in the formation of

these cements include relative slow rates of sedimentation, sediment stability, and high

initial permeability. The precipitation of submarine cements is observed to be more

extensive at the sediment water interface in slow sediment accumulation environments.

Shinn (1969) described tightly cemented bioturbated intervals overlain by more porous

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vertically burrowed storm deposits. The alterations of more porous, bedded vertically

burrowed carbonate sand with thinner, more tightly submarine cemented layers, lacking

sedimentary structures with abundant bioturbation, may be indicators for recognizing

submarine sediment in ancient sediments (Shinn, 1969). The microtextures described

by Shinn from submarine cements are similar to the pseudomorphous isopachous

textures observed in the St. Peter in facies 4.

Quartz Overgrowths

Quartz overgrowth cement is the predominant cement in the St. Peter Sandstone

and occurs as both a fabric selective and pervasive cement Volumetrically, quartz

overgrowths and pressure solution textures are more common in higher-energy

sandstone of facies 1 (Figure 18; Appendix B). Complete occlusion of porosity by

quartz cement and pressure solution is common. The overgrowths occur on well-

rounded quartz grains and are in optical continuity with the detrital grains. The

overgrowths form anhedral and euhedral crystals and can be distinguished by "dust

rims" at the boundary between the detrital grain core and the overgrowth (Figure 19).

The relatively loose packing of detrital quartz grains in some samples suggests

that cementation occurred prior to significant burial and compaction. Estimated minus-

cement porosity (Houseknecht, 1987) of 15%-29% is common in quartz cemented

sandstones in facies 1 and 3. The occlusion of most primary porosity by quartz

overgrowths and or pressure solution suggests continued quartz diagenesis over a long

time period in the formation.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11280

F A C IE S 4

11330

FACIES 3

X 11380

CL UJ C l

1 1430 -

FAC IES 1

1 1480

20 40 QUARTZ OVERGROWTHS

Figure 18. Percent Quartz Overgrowth Cement Versus Depth. Analysis from Hunt Martin 1-15 (Gladwin County). Point count data sorted by facies. Quartz overgrowths are more common in the high-energy peritidal facies.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48

Figure 19. Photomicrograph of Quartz Overgrowth Cements. Photomicrograph from facies 1. Minus-cement porosity equals 19% (10% overgrowth cement, 9% porosity) in this sample. Hunt Martin 1-15, 11,466 ft. (Gladwin County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The distribution of quartz cements appears to have been dependent on the

depositional facies. The quartz overgrowths are most common in the high energy

sandstones of facies 1 (Figure 18). In this environment, quartz grains were the

dominant sediment and influenced diagenesis. Quartz cements are also observed in

subtidal shelf sandstones of facies 3 and 4. Quartz cements are restricted to the

vertical burrows and occur as fabric selective cements (Figure 20). The quartz sand

in these vertical burrows are generally better sorted and coarser grained than the

surrounding sandstone. The sandstone surrounding these burrows is either partially

dolomite cemented or clay cemented and friable (Figure 21). The preservation of these

burrows and the presence of dolomite cemented sandstone next to friable sandstone

with inhomogeneity of grain packing suggest that a precursor primary carbonate matrix

may have enclosed the sand grains outside the burrows and precluded quartz

cementation. Fine-grained carbonate mud was excluded from the burrows by

organisms that maintained the burrows. The burrows were eventually filled with a

coarse-grained better sorted sand. Lithification of the surrounding surrounding

carbonate matrix limited quartz cementation to the quartz filled burrows.

Saddle Dolomite

Dolomite cements are volumetrically significant (Appendix B) in the St. Peter,

and increase in abundance toward the southeastern margin (Fisher and Barratt, 1985).

The dolomite occurs in three distinct habits ranging from isopachous rim cements and

intergranular void fill cements (Figure 14; described above) to a coarse, nonplanar

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50

Figure 20. Core Photo of Quartz Cemented Vertical Burrows. Photo from facies 4. Sun Roseville Gun Club 1-17 (Roscommon County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. t w t-vJvn5Vvi--, \ ■ : "Va W y s 1 7 ; • J n.^GEM A'

7 . •*-. .7 7 % .-;

Figure 21. Photomicrograph of Quartz Cemented Vertical Burrow. Vertical burrow next to a loosely consolidated, clay cemented sandstone (facies 3). Note the corroded quartz grains in the loosely consolidated portion of the photo and remnant dolomite (see arrow). Hunt Martin 1-15 11,335 ft. (Gladwin County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. dolomite with curved crystals and undulatory extinction. The isopachous grain

cements and intergranular void-fill cements are interpreted as syndepositional, or early

replacement of marine calcite cements.

The third petrographically distinct dolomite habit occurs as coarse crystals of a

weakly ferroan dolomite (as indicated by potassium ferricyanide staining), both as vein

filling cement and as an intergranular cement. This dolomite can be distinguished in

thin section by undulatory extinction, non-planar to curved crystal contacts and

cleavages, and abundant fluid inclusions (Figure 22). These characteristics are

consistent with the descriptions of saddle dolomite (Radke and Mathis, 1980). Saddle

dolomite is thought to have formed from brines with salinities two to six times that of

sea water between 60 and 150 degress Celsius (Radke and Mathis, 1980). This

dolomite type occurs as a replacement of all precursor carbonate minerals. It obliterates

precursor dolomite textures and it occurs as a minor vein filling cement.

Saddle dolomites occur either as ubiquitous textures and fill all porosity (Figure

23), or more commonly as larger patchy crystals that lack crystal faces (Figure 23).

The patchy saddle dolomite cements appear to be remnants of larger, partly dissolved

crystals. The open packing of saddle dolomite suggests replacement of precursor

carbonate. The vein fill saddle dolomite is observed to cross cut earlier isopachous

and intergranular dolomites, indicating later mineral paragenesis (Figure 24).

Saddle dolomite can be recognized in cathodoluminescence petrography by dark

or dull luminescence (Figure 25). Other dolomite habits have a bright luminescence.

The patchy luminescence of some samples suggests partial replacement of earlier

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53

Figure 22. Photomicrograph of Saddle Dolomite. Photomicrograph of coarse, nonplanar dolomite with curved crystals and undulatory extinction which are characteristics of saddle dolomite Jem Frueudenberg 1-31 9620 ft. (Osceola County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54

^ !

Figure 23. Photomicrograph of Open Grain Packing. (A) Photomicrograph of saddle dolomite in open framework grain packing. Jem Weingartz 1-7 10,774 ft. (Clare County). (B) Photomicrograph of remnant, saddle dolomite in loosely consolidated sandstone. Hunt Martin 1-15 11,325 ft. (Gladwin C oun ty).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55

Figure 24. Photomicrograph of Vein Fill Saddle Dolomite. Vein fill saddle dolomite cross cutting early isopachous dolomite. Jem Frueudenberg 1-31 9588.6 ft. (Osceola County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56

Figure 25. Cathodoluminescene Photomicrograph of Carbonate Cement. (A) Cathodoluminescence Photomicrograph of dull luminescence saddle dolomite cross cutting early, bright luminescence isopachous dolomite. Jem McCormick 2-27 9767.6 ft. (Osceola County). (B) Cathodoluminescence Photomicrograph of patchy luminescence dolomite in a open framework grain packing. This luminescence texture indicates incomplete mineral replacement of intergranular dolomite by saddle dolomite. Jem Frueudenberg 1-31 9596 ft. (Osceola County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. intergranular dolomite by late saddle dolomite (Figure 25).

Elemental compositions of 34 dolomite crystals were analyzed by electron probe

micro-analyses (EPMA) in 7 samples from 4 cores in the Michigan basin (Table 2).

The data show a slight variation in composition of the dolomites in the St. Peter

(Figure 26). The chemical composition of the dolomites clearly reflects the chemical

variations of the three distinct dolomite types. The chemical compositions of the

dolomites range from Ca122(Mg73,Fe03)(CO3)2 for the isopachous dolomite and

Ca122(Mg70,Fe0a)(CO3)2 for the intergranular void-fill dolomites to

Ca,>20(Mg-69,Fe,i0)(CO3)2 for the late, saddle dolomites (Figure 26, Table 2). The iron

content range varies for the three types of dolomite: The composition of the isopachous

dolomite is from .02-.07 mole percent iron, the composition for planar-S dolomite is

.06-.08 mole percent iron and in saddle dolomite is .07-. 16 mole percent. These data

are well in excess of analytical error.

Carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of the dolomites were determined for

23 samples from six cores (Table 3). The dolomites were segregated based on careful

petrographic and cathodoluminescence petrography to identify homogeneous samples.

The samples were then micro-drilled to obtain a pure sample for isotopic analysis.

The isotopic analysis demonstrates the compositional variations of the distinct

petrographic dolomites (Figure 27).

The dolomites have 8 180 compositions that range from -5.48 to -13.65 and 8 13C

compositions that range from -1.86 to -4.9. The isotope data clearly show a separation

of two significant dolomite types, which have an average oxygen value of -10.85 for

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. U\ o o

a ll points of each dolomite type Fields containing Isopachus Dolomite Saddle Dolomite Planar-S Dolomite Isopachus Dolomite Planar-S Dolomite Saddle Dolomite Fe 7. 20 OO o OO o o °o o o do 1007. 1007. Mg Peter Sandstone. 1007. 1007. Fe Figure 26. Ternary Plot of Chemical Compositions of the Dolomite Types in the St. Ca 7.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 2

Electron Probe Micro-Analysis

SAMPLE COMPOSITON TYPE OF DOLOMITE

Jem-Frueudenberg 1-31

9688.8 Ca1.24(Mg68)Feo9)(C03)2 Saddle (vein fill)

C a, 2 4 (Mg. 6 9 )Fe.(I7 )(C0 3 ) 2 Saddle (vein fill) Cai.22(M g68,Fe io)(C 03)2 Saddle (vein fill) Caj 2i(M g68,Fe n)(C 03)2 Saddle (vein fill) Caj 23(M g22,Fe 05)(CO3)2 Isopachous Ca,.25(Mg70,Fe05)(CO3)2 Isopachous Ca1.23(Mg7o,Feo7)(C03)2 Isopachous Ca1.2i(Mg.7i,Fe07)(CO3)2 Isopachous Ca12i(Mg7i,Fe ^(C O j^ Isopachous Caj .22(Mg.7o,Fe0,) (C 03)2 Planar-S

9596 ^-•ai.2o(^8.67>F®.ll)(^-'®3)2 Saddle C a j i2o(M g59,Fejo)(C03)2 Saddle Cai.2i(Mg70,Fe08)(CO3)2 Planar-S Cai.2i(Mg-7o,Fe,o8)(C 03)2 Planar-S Cai.2i(Mg.72,FeM)(C 03)2 Planar-S

Jem-Weingartz 1-7

10774

Ca, .2 2(Mg. 7 0,Fe08) (C 03)2 Saddle (vein fill) Ca1.22(Mg.7i)Feo7)(C 03)2 Saddle (vein fill) Ca1.22(Mg.7i)Feo7)(C 03)2 Saddle (vein fill) Cai.i8(Mg7i,Fei ^(COjJz Saddle CaI.22(Mg,73,Fe(M)(C 03)2 Isopachous Cai.2i(M g74,Feo4)(C 03)2 Isopachous Ca1.2i(Mg.74,Fe04)(CO3)2 Isopachous Ca[ 2i(Mg gg.Fe 09)(CO3)2 Planar-S

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 2--Continued

SAMPLE COMPOSITON TYPE OF DOLOMITE

Hunt-Martin 1-15

11493

Ca, 2 3(Mg.75,Fe.o2)(C03)2 Isopachous

Cai.22(Mg7 4 ,Feo3)(C0 3 ) 2 Isopachous CaI.24(Mg73,Feo3)(C03)2 Isopachous

Jem-McCormick 2-27

9726

Ca1 i7 (M g 6 6 ,Fe!6 )(C0 3 ) 2

Ca1 .i7 (M g 6 8 ,Fe!4 )(C0 3 ) 2

Caj ,2 2 (Mg. 7 4,Fe o,,) (C 0 3 ) 2

9764

Ca1 2 o(Mg 6 8 ,Fe 1 1 )(C 0 3 ) 2 Saddle (vein fill)

9767.6

Ca, .23(Mg.70, Fe 0 9 ) (C 0 3 ) 2 Planar-S

Ca1 .2 1 (M g 7 0 ,Fe 0 g)(CO 3 ) 2 Saddle (vein fill)

Cai.i9 (M g 7 1 ,Fe 0 9 )(CO3 ) 2 Saddle (vein fill)

Caj. i9 (Mg.72,Fe <3 5 ) (C 0 3 ) 2 Isopachous

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 3

Isotope Analysis

SAMPLE del 180 del ,3C TYPE OF DOLOMITE

Jem-Fruedenberg 1-31

9581 -10.10 -4.42 Saddle (vein fill) 9582 -10.10 -4.55 Saddle (vein fill) 9588 -07.86 -3.85 Isopachous 9588.5 -11.61 -4.16 Saddle (vein fill) 9588.8 -08.57 -3.61 Isopachous 9589 -07.81 -3.74 Isopachous 9589 -11.23 -4.47 Saddle (vein fill) 9596 -09.77 -4.96 Planar-S

Jem-Weingartz 1-7

10774 -10.80 -3.72 Saddle 10756 -10.48 -3.45 Saddle

Hunt-Martin 1- 15

11290 -09.81 -3.95 Saddle (vein fill) 11492 -05.48 -3.89 Isopachous 11493 -08.79 -3.95 Isopachous

Jem-McCormick 2-27

9759.5 -10.79 -4.04 Saddle (vein fill) 9764 -10.00 -3.93 Planar-S 9764 -10.83 -4.46 Saddle (vein fill) 9767.5 -09.75 -4.22 Planar-S 9768 -10.54 -4.90 Saddle (vein fill) 9796 -10.21 -4.14 Saddle (vein fill) 9843.6 -10.30 -4.64 Planar-S 9843.6 -11.03 -4.68 Saddle

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 3-Continued

SAMPLE del 180 del 13C TYPE OF DOLOMITE

Hunt-Robinson 1-31

10312 -10.94 -1.89 Saddle (vein fill)

Hunt-Winterfield A-l

11593 -13.65 -3.97 Saddle (vein fill)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 0 \ w rt>6 6,3c -5 -2 -I •5 •6 •7 B right Luminescence Dolomite 8 Mixed Luminescence Dolomite . 6180 •9 -10 D ull Luminescence Dolomite Sandstone. -1 2 -13 Figure 27. Plot of Isotopic Composition of the Dolomite Types in the St. Peter O

of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

l o' 3 (J) C/5 CD C CD

c o Q. -o o CD

7J -o saddle dolomite and -7.73 for early dolomite (Figure 27). The measured variation in

S ,80 composition reflects changing or different fluid conditions during the

precipitation of dolomite (Land, 1985).

Saddle dolomites have the lightest oxygen values (ave. -10.85), while the

isopachous dolomites have the heaviest oxygen values (ave. -7.73). The iron content

of the dolomites also correlates with the 8 lsO compositions, such that increasing iron

corresponds to lighter 8 180 values (Figures 26, 27).

The light oxygen isotope compositions indicate that the saddle dolomite must

have formed either at elevated temperatures or from fluids depleted in 8 lsO relative

to seawater (Land, 1985). Most studies of dolomite with light oxygen isotope

compositions suggest dolomite formed at elevated temperatures under burial conditions

(Gregg, 1985; Gregg and Sibley, 1984; Zenger, 1983). More important is the work by

Radke and Mathis (1980), who have suggested that saddle dolomites form during

burial at elevated temperatures (60 - 150 C) from brines with salinities 2-6 times that

of seawater. The saddle dolomites in this study are interpreted to have formed at

elevated temperatures. The saddle dolomites formed as a replacement mineral of

earlier dolomites and as vein filling cements at elevated temperatures.

The partial replacement of a precursor carbonate is suggested by the mixed

petrographic and mixed chemical characteristics of the intergranular planar-S

dolomites. Replacement of a precursor carbonate mud is suggested by the open or

loose grain packing seen in the dolomite cemented samples (Figure 23). Replacement

of an earlier carbonate cement by saddle dolomite is supported by patchy appearance

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of saddle dolomite within intergranular dolomite samples and the patchy

cathodoluminescence petrography (Figure 25). The patchy characteristic of

intergranular dolomites suggests that saddle dolomite replaced a precursor dolomite

cement.

Mixed isotopic and elemental compositions of the intergranular planar-S

dolomites are suggestive of incomplete mineral alteration of a precursor carbonate

(Figures 26, 27). The 8 lsO valves of intergranular dolomites (ave.-10.22) are heavier

than saddle dolomites (ave. -10.85) and lighter than isopachous dolomites (ave. -7.73).

The average iron content of the intergranular dolomites is also between the average

iron content of the saddle dolomites and the isopachous dolomites. The chemical

compositional characteristics of the intergranular dolomite suggest that late, higher

temperature, saddle dolomite replaced an earlier precursor cement. The intermediate

textural and chemical compositions of intergranular dolomites represent incomplete

replacement of early dolomite by late high temperature dolomitization.

The petrographic and chemical diversities of the dolomites represent the

depositional and diagenetic complexities in the St. Peter Sandstone. The chemical

analysis suggests that the dolomites have undergone a complex paragenetic history.

The carbonate cements in the St. Peter have undergone at least two phases of

dolomitization: an early dolomitization and a later, high temperature, burial

dolomitization.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 Anhydrite Cement

Little anhydrite cement is observed in the St. Peter Sandstone. This cement is

best observed in the western part of the basin (Appendix B). Anhydrite replaces quartz

overgrowths and fills intergranular pores. Textural evidence suggests anhydrite

coincides with the precipitation of saddle dolomite.

Authi genic Clays

Petrographic and scanning electron microscope analyses indicate a variety of clay

mineral habits in the St. Peter Sandstone of the Michigan basin. Detrital clay and

shale beds are rare in the St. Peter Sandstone. The detrital clay that is present occurs

locally, as thin disrupted lamina and rip-up clast. Clay minerals are very common in

shelf facies (facies 3 and 4) in the St. Peter, while the intertidal facies (facies 1) have,

generally, lesser clay (Figure 28; Appendix B). The common occurrence of significant

clay in the shelf facies results in a green coloration of the rock material (Figure 14).

X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis indicates that illite and chlorite are the common

clay minerals in the St. Peter (Figure 29). The clays exhibit a variety of textures in

thin section and SEM with mostly pore-lining and intergranular pore filling habits

(Figure 30). Most clays observed in SEM frequently have poorly developed crystal

morphology although delicate, pore filling examples are not uncommon (Figure 31).

Qualitative composition analysis (energy dispersive system; EDS) indicates that

discrete illite and chlorite clay assemblage is an intimate physical mixture that is not

DEPTH 1 1480 11430 11380 11330 more common in the lower energy distal lithofacies (facies 3 and 4). and 3 (facies lithofacies distal energy lower the in common more 11280-1 (Gladwin County). Point count data sorted by facies. Clay minerals are are minerals Clay facies. by sorted data count Point County). (Gladwin 0 5 CLAY 10 1 S E I C A F 4 S E I C A F 3 S E I C A F 15 67 49999999999999999999999999999999999999999999

Fisure 29- ™ sth r s— <*** ”.299 ft. (Gladwi“coX) ' ^ H“M Mani" >-15 69

Figure 30. Photomicrograph of Authigenic Clay Filling Seconday Pores. (A) Photomicrograph of remnant saddle dolomite interfingering with pore bridging authigenic clay. Hunt Winterfield A -l 10,589 ft. (Clare County). (B) Photomicrograph of secondary pores filled with authigenic clay. Note the open framework grain packing. Hunt Martin 1-15 11,299 ft. (Gladwin C oun ty).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70

Figure 31. SEM Photomicrograph of Clay. Note the euhedral and pseudohexagonal clay flakes, which are characteristic of chlorite. Hunt Martin 1-15 11,299 ft. (Gladwin County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. present in discrete crystals larger than the EDS electron beam (Figure 32).

The delicate crystal structure of the clay minerals indicates that some of the clay

in the St. Peter is post-compactional, authigenic clay. The lack of these delicate clay

textures in much of the St. Peter is probably the result of artifactual modification due

to drilling induced damage, sample dehydration and collapse (Cocker, 1987). The illite

crystals may have collapsed due to core dehydration, masking the chlorite, and making

visual identification of clay textures difficult (Cocker, 1987).

The presence of intergranular clay in planar to low angle cross stratified

sandstone in the shoreface to upper offshore facies (facies 3) suggests a post

depositional origin for the clay. The abundance of intergranular clay in uncompacted

porous intervals and lack of stylolitization in clay-rich intervals suggests clay formed

after significant compaction. The pore lining and pore filling textures (Figure 30)

suggest an authigenic origin for clay minerals (Wilson, 1977). The geometry of the

x-ray diffraction patterns show sharp, narrow peaks which are characteristic of

authigenic clays (Eslinger, 1988; Reynolds, 1984; Figure 28). Work by Barnes et al.

(1989) on clay mineral geochronology in the St. Peter in Michigan indicates the age

of formation of very fine-grained (<0.2 um) illite to be 100 million years younger than

the age of deposition of the St. Peter.

Authigenic clay is interpreted as the common clay type in the St. Peter Sandstone

in the Michigan basin. However, some silt-size detrital phyllosilicates are also

observed. Locally, detrital clay-like mica grains are observed pinched between detrital

framework grains in northeast Michigan basin (Sun-Cousineau 1-16, in Alpena

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. K> ■^j (Gladwin County, see figure 40). The composition suggests mixture of chlorite and illite. - 30G -- 6 0 0 -- 9 0 0 - 1200 1 5 0 0 — 2 1 0 0 — 2 4 0 0 - t - 1 8 0 0— Figure 32. EDS Qualitative Elemental Analysis. From Hunt Martin 1-15 11,299 ft. n O ~ 3 c C O

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. County). The detrital, green clay rip-up clasts observed in all intervals of the St. Peter

suggest some detrital clay recrystallization.

Mineral Dissolution and the Origin of Authigenic Clay

Evidence for the dissolution of minerals is observed throughout the St. Peter.

Patchy dolomite-cemented sandstone is observed next to friable clay-cemented

sandstone (Figure 33). These macroscopic textures demonstrate the relationship

between mineral dissolution and pore-filling authigenic clay. Examples of secondary

porosity are observed throughout the formation. Clay minerals and secondary porosity

are more common in the subtidal shelf facies (facies 3 and 4; Figures 28 and 34).

Schmidt and McDonald (1979 a, b) recognized and defined a variety of

secondary or dissolution pore types including fractures, dissolution of framework

grains and dissolution of cements. These types of secondary pores are characterized

in thin section by partial dissolution of cements or grains, inhomogeneity of packing,

oversized and elongated pores, corroded and honeycombed grains, and open fractures

(Schmidt and McDonald, 1979 b). Numerous examples of secondary pore textures can

be found in the St. Peter. Oversized and elongated pores in loosely consolidated

sandstone next to partially leached dolomite are commonly found and suggest that

these pores may have been filled with an early dolomite cement (Figure 35). Corroded

and etched quartz overgrowths suggest overgrowths were partly dissolved or grew

around dolomite (or other type of cement) that later dissolved (Figure 35). Partially

leached K-feldspar grain, producing honeycombed textures, indicates some secondary

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74

ft jii-V MARTII

Mreft

Grain Sire Sc.nc

Figure 33. Core Photo of Dolomite Dissolution Texture. Patchy, dolomite cemented sandstone adjacent to loosely consolidated, clay cemented sandstone. Hunt Martin 1-15 11,297 ft. (Gladwin County)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. without prohibited reproduction Further owner. copyright the of permission with Reproduced Figure 34. Porosity Content Verse Depth. From the Hunt Martin 1-15 (Gladwin (Gladwin 1-15 Martin Hunt the From Depth. Verse Content Porosity 34. Figure DEPTH 11480 1430 1380 1330 1280 energy distal lithofacies (facies 3 and 4). and 3 (facies lithofacies distal energy County). Data sorted by facies. Porosity is more significant in the lower lower the in significant more is Porosity facies. by sorted Data County). 0 5 POROSITY 10 15 1 S E I C A F 3 S E I C A F 4 S E I C A F 20 25 76

Figure 35. Photomicrograph of Secondary Pores. (A) Photomicrograph of remnant intergranular dolomite in a loosely consolidated sandstone with oversized and elongated pore textures. Note the corroded grains filled with dolomite (see arrow) are similar to the corroded pore texture. The presences of corroded grains filled with dolomite suggest the porosity in this sample formed from the dissolution of dolomite. The secondary pores are filled with clay. In the middle of photo note the honeycombed feldspar grain. Hunt Martin 1-15 11,299 ft. (Gladwin County). (B) Photomicrograph of corroded and etched quartz overgrowths. These textures suggest quartz overgrowths were partially replaced by a precursor cement which was subsequently dissolved. Sun Mentor "C" 1-29 10,083 ft. (Oscoda County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. porosity formed from the dissolution of framework grains (Figure 35).

The relationship between partially dissolved intergranular dolomite with loosely

packed porous sandstone, at depths greater than 10,000 ft., suggests that the majority

of porosity is secondary and was formed from the dissolution of dolomite (Figure 35).

This interpretation is supported by the corroded quartz overgrowths on quartz cemented

burrows in the upper lithofacies. This suggests that something terminated quartz

cementation. The sandstone surrounding these burrows is either partially dolomite

cemented or friable and clay cemented (Figure 21). The presence of dolomite

cemented sandstone with open grain packing next to quartz cemented burrows suggests

that a carbonate matrix may have limited quartz cementation to the burrow. The

proximity of the quartz cemented burrows to partly leached dolomite cement with open

grain packing suggests that a primary carbonate matrix may have enclosed quartz

grains outside the burrows and confined quartz cementation to the burrow. The

subsequent leaching and removal of the carbonate cement outside the burrow created

secondary pores between quartz-cemented burrows (Figure 26). This is suggested by

the comparable grain packing in dolomitic and porous areas.

Clay minerals are observed more commonly in the upper lithofacies (facies 3 and

4; Appendix B). The clay minerals are observed filling secondary pores in loosely

consolidated sandstone at depths greater than 10,000 ft. (Figure 35). Clay minerals are

observed overlying partially dissolved dolomite crystals and filling secondary pores

(Figure 30), which indicates a post-dissolution origin for the clay. The clay minerals

commonly display pore fill and pore lining textures which are characteristics of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. authigenic clay (Wilson, 1977). The precipitation of the clay minerals must have been

later than feldspar dissolution, as indicated by clay within a honeycombed feldspar

dissolution pore (Figure 36).

The majority of porosity in the St Peter Sandstone is interpreted to have formed

by the dissolution of detrital framework grains and dolomite cement. Although

secondary porosity is interpreted to be common throughout the St. Peter Sandstone,

secondary pores with abundant authigenic clay are volumetrically more significant in

the upper lithofacies (facies 3 and 4; figures 28 and 34). Textural relationships

between partially leached dolomite and loosely packed, clay filled pores (Figure 35)

suggest some porosity in the St. Peter formed after the dissolution of dolomite cement.

Carbonate cement must have precluded significant quartz overgrowth cement in the

upper lithofacies. Subsequent dissolution of this dolomite cement and detrital K-

feldspar resulted in secondary pores filled with clay minerals.

Clay mineral textures clearly post-date mineral dissolution. Micrite carbonate

mud and detrital K-feldspar were apparently more common in the lower-energy shelf

facies. The presence of these minerals in the shelf facies may have enhanced

authigenic clay precipitation in these facies.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79

Figure 36. Photomicrograph of Honeycombed K-feldspar Grain. Note the partially leached or honeycombed k-feldspar grain with authigenic clay in the intragranular pore space. Hunt Martin 1-15 11,299 ft. (Gladwin County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV

DIAGENETIC PATHWAYS AND DEPOSITIONAL FACIES

Petrographic studies of the St. Peter Sandstone indicate dramatic modification

of primary depositional textures and mineralogy due to a complex diagenesis. The

ideal model for the paragenesis of the St. Peter Sandstone consists of the deposition

of mixed carbonate and clastic sediments, formation of early carbonate cement, early

dolomitization, early quartz overgrowth cementation, late high temperature

dolomitization of precursor carbonate cement, significant mineral dissolution of

dolomite cement and framework grains, the creation of secondary porosity, and the

formation of authigenic clay minerals (illite and chlorite). This overall paragenetic

sequence is consistent in the cores studied. Detailed analysis of the overall paragenetic

sequence indicates that variation in the diagenetic pathways is closely related to

variations in depositional environments and primary mineralogy. The variation in

diagenetic pathways can be subdivided into three distinct petrographic classifications

that are characteristic of individual facies. These petrographic classifications are

referred to as petrofacies. Individual components of the complex mineral paragenetic

sequence have been more thoroughly developed in different depositional facies. The

variations in diagenetic pathways are the result of primary mineralogy templating

diagenesis and are the indirect result of the original environment of deposition. The

variation in pathways has a distinctly different result on the paragenesis of the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 individual facies.

Petrofacies 1

The sandstones deposited in the high-energy intertidal facies (facies 1) are mainly

well-sorted quartz-rich sandstones. The diagenetic characteristics of these sandstones

are dominated by quartz cementation and are assigned to petrofacies 1 (Figure 37).

In petrofacies 1, quartz grains, in the absence of major interstitial carbonate or

other minerals, dominate the mineral paragenesis. Quartz overgrowth cements formed

early and continued until porosity was occluded (Figure 37). In some samples of

facies 1, quartz cementation was terminated by the emplacement of dolomite cement

(Figures 37 and 38). The subsequent dissolution of carbonate cement with minor

amounts of detrital K-feldspar resulted in the creation of secondary porosity with minor

precipitation of authigenic clay (Figure 37). Examples of petrofacies 1 can be found

interbedded within facies 3 and 4. Well sorted quartz sands were deposited in these

facies by high-energy depositional events.

Petrofacies 2

Sandstone in facies 3 is more commonly deposited with carbonate mud or

experienced early marine carbonate cementation due to long periods of exposure at the

sediment water interface and contact with carbonate saturated, marine water. The

rocks with carbonate cement have a diagenetic pathway assigned to petrofacies 2

(Figure 39).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. N> 00 D F B QUARTZ QUARTZ / v CEMENT secondary pores. b-c-d). In some samplescement pore-fill burial (a-b-e-f). dolomite terminated early quartz Subsequent dissolution resulted in the creation of Shallow Subtidal Quartzarenite Facies. The absence of an intergranular matrix resulted in the formation ofabundant quartz overgrowth cement (a- OVERGROWTH CARBONATE QUARTZ GRAIN O QUARTZ GRAIN Figure 37. Schematic Representation of the Diagenetic Pathways in the Intertidal and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83

Figure 38. Photomicrograph of Dolomite Terminating Quartz Overgrowth Cement. The subsequent dissolution of carbonate cement resulted in the creation of secondary pores in facies 1. Hunt Martin 1-15 11,440 ft. (Gladwin Co.).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Carbonate matrix of primary sediment or early marine cement origin precluded

extensive quartz cementation in petrofacies 2. Carbonate mud was apparently more

common in the upper portion of facies 3. The dolomitization of the carbonate cement

and subsequent dissolution of the dolomite resulted in the creation of secondary pores

with little precipitation of authigenic clay (Figure 39).

Petrofacies 3

Sandstones deposited in facies 4 consist of fining upward packages of bioturbated

sands grading to intensely bioturbated carbonate sediments. These rocks experienced

early marine carbonate cementation due to long periods of exposure at the sediment

water interface and contact with carbonate saturated, marine water. The diagenetic

characteristic of sandstones in facies 4 is assigned to petrofacies 3 (Figure 39).

Abundant carbonate mud precluded quartz cementation and dominated the early

diagenesis of petrofacies 3. The dolomitization of the carbonate cement and

subsequent dissolution of the dolomite resulted in the creation of secondary porosity

(Figure 39). Authigenic clay now fills these secondary pores (Figure 40).

The diagenetic pathv/ays for facies 3 and 4 are similar except for the major

precipitation of authigenic clay in facies 4. The abundance of authigenic clay in facies

4 may be due to the significant amount of dolomite, k-feldspar, and micas in facies 4.

The dissolution of these minerals may have had a strong control on the precipitation

of authigenic clay.

The diagenetic pathways in the St. Peter Sandstone are the direct result of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 00 D ° ^ 0 — ^ E °O 0 0 3 0 i W CLAY GRAIN GRAIN “ MATRIX" “ DETRITAL DETRITAL AUTHIGENIC CARBONATE CARBONATE have less authigenic clay, pathway (a-b-c-d; facies 3). clay, (a-b-e-f; facies 4). Facies with lower concentration of K-feldspar Facies with higher concentrations of K-feldspar had abundant authigenic K-FELDSPAR Facies. Dolomitizationresulted of incarbonate the cement creation and of subsequentsecondary poresdissolution filled with authigenic clays. Figure 39. Schematic Representation of the Diagenetic Pathways in the Subtidal Shelf

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. Figure 40. Photomicrograph of Secondary Pores Filled With Authigenic Clay. From facies 4, Hunt Martin 1-15 11,298.5 ft. (Gladwin County).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. depositional environment. Deposidonal environment controlled the distribution of

primary detrital constituents and influenced mineral diagenesis. Sandstones with minor

quartz overgrowth cement, mixed terrigenous sand, carbonate sediments, and abundant

secondary porosity with authigenic clay represent the low-energy shelf depositional

facies (facies 3 and 4). Sandstones with dominantly quartz overgrowth cements, minor

remnant dolomite, and secondary pores with little authigenic clay are more common

in the high-energy intertidal depositional facies (facies 1).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

The St. Peter Sandstone in the Michigan basin can be subdivided, based on

conventional core analysis, into 4 distinct lithofacies. These shallow marine facies

occur in an overall transgressive succession. These facies represent depositional

environments ranging from high-energy intertidal to shallow subtidal environments, in

the lower portion of the formation, to storm-dominated, outer-marine shelf

environments upsection. These facies indicate a shallow marine shelf depositional

environment that evolved in a regional scale transgressive pattern, ranging from tidally

influenced peritidal environments lower in the section (facies 1 and 2) to storm

dominated marine, nearshore and outer marine shelf environments in the upper portions

of the formation (facies 3 and 4). The upper facies (facies 3 and 4) are very similar

to facies described elsewhere in the upper Midwest.

Most sandstones in the St. Peter in Michigan contain in excess of 90% quartz.

K-feldspar is the only other significant detrital particle. K-feldspar is as much as 40%

of framework grain in some samples. The St. Peter also contains interbedded

carbonate bearing rocks ranging from dolomitic sand to sandy dolomite.

The distribution of primary detrital minerals correlates with energy regime and

depositional environments. The St. Peter ranges in composition from quartz arenites

in the high energy peritidal environments to feldsarenites and sandy dolomites in the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. low energy shelf environements.

The primary mineralogy of the St. Peter Sandstone has been extensively modified

by post depositional processes. The St. Peter Sandstone has experienced complex

diagenetic modification which resulted in: (a) early carbonate marine cement, (b) early

dolomitization, (c) quartz overgrowths, (d) late (burial) dolomitization, (e) dissolution

of minerals, and (f) the formation of authigenic clay minerals (illite and chlorite). This

paragenetic sequence is consistent in the cores studied of the St. Peter.

Detailed analysis of this paragenetic sequence indicates that variation in the

diagenetic pathways are closely related to depositional environments and primary

mineralogy. Individual components of the paragenetic sequence are more throughly

developed in different deposition facies. The high-energy intertidal quartz arenite

facies (facies 1) is dominated by quartz cementation. The low-energy subtidal sandy

dolomite and feldsarenite facies (facies 3 and 4) are characterized by remnant

dolomite, abundant secondary porosity, and authigenic clay minerals. The variation

in the diagenetic pathways is directly related to the original depositional environment.

Depositional environment controlled the distribution of primary detrital minerals and

the primary detrital mineralogy templated diagenesis. The variations in diagenetic

pathways have distinctly different results on the mineral paragenesis of the individual

facies. The reiationship between depositional environment and the distribution of

detrital minerals is the key to understanding diagenesis in the St. Peter Sandstone.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix A

Core Descriptions

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LOCATION DEPTH .gi/**/'- >700 5" ______U A U . ______

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w c u NAME T s m i - o e . i T y .-.o.-.;

~~io c A riQ N _y~~

~~______PAGE A OF____ ei or?ah.' size aijo SEDIMENTARY STRUC TURES~~

~~FACIES !THO: nn'PTIVE REMARKS INTERPRETATION~~

l-t r * J Tt\»*rly a -***

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix B~~

~~Point Count Data~~

~~127~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SUN COUSINEAU 1 -1 6 ALPENA CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOTAL~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~6676 200* 2 3 - 3 33 6 250 * 5 poly 3 heavey minerals~~

~~6686 192 1 TR - TR 21 36 250 1 heavey mineral~~

~~6689.5 200 1 3 - TR 24 20 250~~

~~6690 181* 1 2 - TR 42 24 250 * poly~~

~~6690.3 198* 2 3 - 1 46 TR 250 heavey minerals present~~

~~6693 202* 2 6 1 16 7 14 250 * 40 poly~~

~~6698 204 TR 4 6 36 TR 250 \~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Lithofacies 3~~

~~Ternary plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Sun-Cousineau 1-16 Alpena Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 7~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. JEM WEINGARTZ 1-7 CLARE CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOTAL~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~10747 132 77 28 - 3 10 - 250~~

~~10751 101 131 18 - TR - - 250~~

~~10758 162 61 23 - TR 2 2 250~~

~~10765 137 41 38 TR 39 5 - 250~~

~~10766 127 83 21 TR 13 6 1 251~~

~~10770 171 12 8 - 3 21 36 251~~

~~10774 168 59 7 - - 11 6 251~~

~~10775 184 30 10 18 7 10 251~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~10780 181 3 10 - - 56 6 256~~

~~10783.4 180 TR 28 - 4 6 33 250~~

~~10788 198 3 17 - 5 12 15 250~~

~~10810 190 - 21 - - 23 16 250~~

~~10813.6 178 - 20 - - 35 17 250~~

~~10820 253 - 9 - - 34 7 300~~

~~10830 225 - 12 - - 19 11 267~~

~~10840 188 - 12 - TR 24 26 251~~

~~10849 175 - 21 - TR 8 26 250~~

~~10853 181 - 3 - - 63 5 251~~

~~10857.5 198 TR 14 - TR 7 31 250~~

~~10870 159 63 18 1 6 _ 6 253~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131~~

***** Lithofacies 4 a a a a a Lithofacies 1

~~75 100~~

~~Ternary plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Jem-Weingartz 1-7 Clare Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 2, 3). N = 20~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HUNT WINTERFIELD CLARE CO. A-l~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOTAL~~

~~UPPER CORE~~

~~GLENWOOD:~~

~~11578 154 - 6 - 12 14 4 250~~

~~11580 185 1 19 - TR 13 32 250~~

~~11582.8 100 137 7 - 4 3 - 251~~

~~ST. PETER • LITHOFACIS 3~~

~~11585 105 134 12 ---- 250~~

~~11586 28 240 - ---- 268~~

~~11586.5 88 2 128 TR 30 2 - 250~~

~~11586 195 17 18 TR 13 7 2 250~~

~~11588 180 42 17 - TR 3 2 250~~

~~11593 200 - 16 - 1 8 17 250~~

~~10595.4 187 51 14 - 3 14 13 282~~

~~11600 21 199 28 - 2 - - 250~~

~~11610.5 187 - 17 - 13 22 15 250~~

~~LOWER CORE LITHOFACIS 1~~

~~11579 187 4 6 -- 50 3 250~~

~~11581 182 TR 4 -- 54 10 250~~

~~11593 150 90 10 TR TR 5 255~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ***** Lithofacies 4 OOOOO Lithofacies 1~~

~~-----~~

~~25 50 75 100~~

~~Ternary plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Hunt-Winterfield A-l Clare Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 12~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HUNT MARTIN 1 -15 GLADWIN CO.~~

~~Sample: QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CLAY QTOG PORES TOT/~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~11283 142 63 15 4 25 249~~

~~11289 123 116 11 --- - 250~~

~~11291 103 111 35 - 1 - - 251~~

~~11292 166 77 7 - ' - - TR 250~~

~~11294 123 106 17 - 3 1 TR 250~~

~~11299 181 - 28 - 1 13 32 255~~

~~11300 128 91 41 - TR - 1 261~~

~~11303 172 1 41 - 22 - 16 252~~

~~11307 161 - 47 - 1 6 38 253~~

~~11308 179 - 69 -- 1 1 250~~

~~11309 192 1 20 -- 7 29 249~~

~~11310 167 - 25 - 1 39 19 251~~

~~11312 188 - 29 - 1 12 21 251~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~11314 177 TR 41 3 7 26 254~~

~~11316 192 2 24 - TR 17 15 250~~

~~11317 180 3 33 - 5 10 20 251~~

~~11318 182 TR 29 - 5 13 21 250~~

~~11320 164 - 42 - 4 8 31 249~~

~~11321 174 6 103 - 1 10 6 300~~

~~11322 202 3 40 - TR TR 5 250~~

~~11325 205 1 17 _ TR 11 19 253~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HUNT MARTIN 1 -1 5 , GLADWIN CO.~~

~~Sample: QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CL QTOG PORES TOTAL~~

~~11327 204 - 23 - 5 TR 17 249~~

~~11328 201 - 35 - 2 TR 20 258~~

~~11330 212 TR 16 - TR 8 17 253~~

~~11331 208 - 21 - 4 TR 17 250~~

~~11332 173 - 30 - TR 11 36 250~~

~~11334 186 - 41 - 1 2 24 254~~

~~11336 198 - 28 - 4 TR 20 250~~

~~11339 196 - 17 - 2 1 34 251~~

~~11342 178 - 30 - 2 7 32 250~~

~~11344 193 - 24 - TR TR 32 249~~

~~11346 172 - 49 - 3 - 26 250~~

~~11350 195 - 28 - 12 - 17 252~~

~~11351 185 - 28 - 8 2 27 250~~

~~11356 204 - 26 - 2 - 23 255~~

~~11357 202 - 33 ' - 6 - 9 250~~

~~11358 192 - 31 - 2 2 24 250~~

~~11359 192 - 31 - 2 2 24 250~~

~~11360 184 - 15 - 1 39 11 250~~

~~11366 216 - 17 - TR 9 12 254~~

~~11367 190 - 16 - TR 29 13 250~~

~~11368 191 - 25 - TR 23 11 250~~

~~11371 213 - 10 - TR 9 18 250~~

~~11372 183 _ 21 _ TR 16 29 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HUNT MARTIN 1 -1 5 GLADWIN CO.~~

~~Sample: QTZ DOLO K- SPAR MICA CLAY QTOG PORES TOTAL~~

~~11374 186 - 15 - TR 26 24 251~~

~~11376 214 - 10 - TR 10 20 254~~

~~11380 166 - 20 - TR 35 31 251~~

~~11382 199 - 14 - 6 12 19 250~~

~~11384 198 - 17 - TR 17 18 250~~

~~11386 207 - 19 - TR 6 18 250~~

~~11390 191 - 13 - TR 21 25 250~~

~~11396 194 - 12 - - 27 18 250~~

~~11397 241 - 15 - TR 1 22 277~~

~~11398 205 TR 14 TR - 17 14 250~~

~~11400 209 - 11 - - 7 24 250~~

~~11402 192 - 29 - 1 7 23 254~~

~~11404 185 - 3 TR - 60 2 250~~

~~11406 220 - 5 TR TR 4 22 251~~

~~11408 183 - 7 TR TR 8 42 250~~

~~11409 219 - 7 - 15 TR 21 260~~

~~11410 213 - 2 1 5 5 35 251~~

~~11412 165 - 4 2 73 6 250~~

~~LITHOFACIES 1~~

~~11414 207 - 1 TR TR 22 20 250~~

~~11416 173 - 5 - TR 68 4 250~~

~~11418 200 - 10 TR 14 12 14 250~~

~~11419 195 _ 26 _ 17 7 10 251~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HUNT MARTIN 1-15 GLADWIN CO~~

~~Sample: QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CLAY QTOG PORES TOTAL~~

~~11421 178 56 1 - 6 28 - 265~~

~~11426 143 56 7 - - 44 - 250~~

~~11428 179 27 3 - 1 43 - 253~~

~~11429 181 66 4 -- 4 TR 255~~

~~11430 189 49 3 -- 10 - 251~~

~~11432 196 - 4 - - 41 9 250~~

~~11434 200 - 2 - TR 34 16 250~~

~~11435 183 12 6 -- 36 13 251~~

~~11436 167 - 2 - - 74 7 250~~

~~11438 181 - 1 -- 60 9 251~~

~~11440 180 41 6 -- 21 2 250~~

~~11442 177 - i -- 58 13 250~~

~~11444 176 TR 2 - - 54 17 250~~

~~11446 156 87 4 - - 1 2 250~~

~~11448 172 30 - -- 48 1 250~~

~~11449 198 27 7 - - 16 5 253~~

~~11450 191 4 1 - TR 47 8 250~~

~~11452 180 29 3 - - 35 3 250~~

~~11454 196 22 3 - TR 11 18 250~~

~~11456 199 - 9 - - 29 13 250~~

~~11458 209 - 6 - 1 15 19 250~~

~~11460 200 - 2 - - 37 12 251~~

~~11462 203 . 2 _ 30 15 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HUNT MARTIN 1 -1 5 GLADWIN CO.~~

~~Sample: QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CLAY QTOG PORES TOTAL~~

~~11463 200 - 8 -- 15 27 250~~

~~11466 195 - 7 -- 25 23 250~~

~~11468 203 - 3 -- 32 12 250~~

~~11470 206 - TR -- 25 19 250~~

~~11471 193 - 12 - TR 16 29 250~~

~~11472 214 - 1 -- 22 15 252~~

~~11474 218 - TR - TR 13 23 254~~

~~11476 194 34 11 - - - 13 252~~

~~11478 189 TR 1 -- 51 8 250~~

~~11479 217 4 6 -- 22 5 254~~

~~11480 181 68 1 -- 1 TR 250~~

~~11488 159 91 10 -- 1 - 261~~

~~11490 195 2 1 -- 52 TR 250~~

~~11491 176 1 11 -- 56 6 250~~

~~11492 204 27 4 -- 24 - 259~~

~~11494 163 61 14 - 1 5 11 255~~

~~11496 202 63 2 -- 5 9 281~~

~~11497 191 30 11 4 4 3 7 250~~

~~11498 173 62 7 - 2 4 4 250~~

~~11499 162 73 13 - - 4 4 250~~

~~11500 163 77 5 - - 3 2 250~~

~~11501 191 42 4 -- 9 4 250~~

~~11503 192 6 4 _ - 37 11 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HUNT MARTIN 1-1 5 GLADWIN CO.~~

~~Sample: QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CLAY QTOG PORES TOTAL~~

~~11505 175 48 13 13 1 250~~

~~11506 178 43 8 19 2 250~~

~~11507 166 55 18 22 TR 261~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ***** Lithofacies 4 a a a a a Lithofacies 3 OOOOO Lithofacies 1~~

~~25 50 75~~

~~Ternary plot of prim al minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Hunt-Martin 1-15 Gladwin Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 117~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. MILLER VICTORY 2-26 MASON CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOT,~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~5918 219 - 1 - - 14 20 254~~

~~5921.1 190 AYD - - - 53 6 250~~

~~5925 173 - 1 - - 53 23 250~~

~~5931 207 - 2 - TR 19 22 250~~

~~5931.9 188 - 3 - - 47 12 250~~

~~5934.2 183 - TR - - 65 4 250~~

~~5946 221 - 2 8 1 12 6 250~~

~~5951 218 - 3 TR 3 15 16 250~~

~~LITHOFACIES 1~~

~~5957 210 3* 3 - 1 21 14 252 * AYD~~

~~5959 210 - 2 TR 6 10 21 250~~

~~5965.5 220 - 1 - TR 25 4 250~~

~~5968.5 174 - 1 1 2 5 67 251~~

~~5970.6 203 - 2 - TR 39 7 250~~

~~5974.10 212 - 3 3 5 18 10 250~~

~~5976 182 AYD 2 _ 3 16 47 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AAAAA Lithofacies 3 OOOOO Lithofacies 1~~

~~Ternaiy plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Miller-Victory 2-26 Mason Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 15~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. JEM BRUGGERS 3-7 MISSAUKEE CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOTAL~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~10157 180 - TR - 60 8 2 250~~

~~10158 205 4 5 - TR 32 4 250~~

~~10162 194 2 8 - 8 26 12 250~~

~~10162.3 178 6 6 6 12 36 4 250~~

~~10166 178 - 22 - TR 38 20 258~~

~~10169.3 160 - 9 1 - 72 8 250~~

~~10172.5 146 - 4 - - 90 - 250~~

~~10176.4 182 - TR -- 70 - 252~~

~~10178.5 196 - 8 -- 44 6 254~~

~~10181.6 172 - 8 -- 60 8 250~~

~~10183.5 200 - 16 - TR 16 2 250~~

~~10189 156 - 12 -- 56 26 250~~

~~10191 200 - 8 - TR 36 16 250~~

~~10200 138 - 14 _ 2 70 14 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 144~~

~~a a a a a Lithofacies 3~~

~~25 50~~

~~Ternary plot of primaiy minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Jem-Bruggers 3-7 Missaukee Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 14~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PATRICK GLIDE 1-25 MISSAUKEE CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOT~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~10547.7 180 22 2 2 13 31 250~~

~~10549 209 TR 3 -- 12 26 250~~

~~10570.9 220 - 3 - 3 11 17 254~~

~~10576 203 - 7 - 13 9 19 251~~

~~10584 203 - 8 - 5 20 19 255~~

~~10593.5 218 - 3 - 5 9 16 251~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~10596.5 215 . 19 16 250~~

~~10597 182 - 2 -- 62 4 250~~

~~10600.4 187 - 5 -- 47 11 250~~

~~10608 198 - 1 - 3 29 19 250~~

~~10617 197 - TR - 2 16 35 250~~

~~10626.5 199 - 1 - - 19 31 250~~

~~10651.3 193 - 3 2 TR 35 16 250~~

~~10653 194 - 1 2 TR 30 23 250~~

~~10655.8 204 _ TR _- 39 15 258~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 146~~

** *** Lithofacies 4 a a a a a Lithofacies 3

~~25 50~~

~~Ternary plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Patrick-GIide 1-25 Missaukee Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 15~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. JEM VISSER 3 -3 5 MISSAUKEE CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOTAL~~

~~LITHOFACIFS 4~~

~~10835 138 - 110 2 4 - 256 10841 BAD SLIDE~~

~~10842.5 190 - 6 - 1 22 26 250 *1 heavey mineral~~

~~10848 204 - 13 - 3 21 6 250~~

~~10866 168 - 32 37 12 1 252 LITHOFACIFS 3~~

~~10908 209 - 2 - TR 37 2 250~~

~~10914 207 - 2 - TR 15 25 250~~

~~10923 202 - 4 - - 38 7 251~~

~~10932 203 - 1 - - 49 3 256~~

~~10937 215 - 2 - - 24 10 251~~

~~10940 154 - 4 TR - 90 2 250~~

~~10955.7 216 4 4 1 6 5 14 250~~

~~10962 217* - TR 5 1 21 9 253 * 2 POLY~~

~~10964 BAD SLIDE~~

~~10965 221 - TR - - 24 4 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148~~

***** Lithofacies 4 a a a a a Lithofacies 3

~~Ternary plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Jem-Visser 3-35 Missaukee Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 15~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. JEM FRUEDENBERG 1-31 OSCEOLA CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CLAY OTOG PORES TOTAL~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~9545.3 194 3 7 -- 42 4 250~~

~~9562.4 183 39 8 - 4 0 16 250~~

~~9523 202 5 5 TR 9 14 12 252~~

~~9575 180 - 24 0 TR 13 34 251~~

~~9583.1 197 18 11 - TR 14 11 251~~

~~9588.6 101 146* 2 0 2 __ 251 * 115 micro 31 saddl~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~9596 172 64 14 -- -- 250~~

~~9597 224 3 5 - TR 5 13 250~~

~~9598 221 - 14 - 3 5 7 250~~

~~9608 226 - 4 TR 4 12 5 251~~

~~9620 209 9 2 - TR 9 21 250~~

~~9634.8 208 - 5 - 1 24 12 250~~

~~9648 212 1 7 - 3 13 17 253~~

~~9663 205 1 5 TR 5 12 23 251~~

~~9664 96 164* 1 - TR __ 261 * anhydrite present~~

~~9677 198 - 20 4 14 8 6 250~~

~~9693 207 - 6 TR 7 9 21 250~~

~~9696 165 - 20 5 7 35 7 250 * 11 rip-up's present~~

~~9698 164 - 24 - 6 33 5 251 * 18 rip-up's present~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. JEM FRUEDENBERG 1-31 OSCEOLA CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CLAY OTOG PORES TOT)~~

~~9702 161 “ 49 35 5 250~~

~~LITHOFACIES 1~~

~~9709 229 ANHY 3 3 8 7 250~~

~~9715 202 ANHY 3 - TR 28 18 250~~

~~9725 189 _ 8 - TR 31 20 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ***** Lithofacies 4 AAAAA Lithofacies 3 OOOOO Lithofacies 1~~

~~0 25 50 75 100~~

~~Ternaiy plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Jem-Frueudenberg 1-31 Osceola Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 23~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. JEM MCCORMICK 2-27 OSCEOLA CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOTAI~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~9731 5 245 TR - --- 250~~

~~9735 146 100 4 - -- - 250~~

~~9736 201 3* 9 - 5 12 21 251 *anhy.~~

~~9743 TR 250 -- -- - 250~~

~~9745 TR 250 -- -- - 250~~

~~9748 177 12 14 - 6 20 '21 250~~

~~9752 177 12 8 - TR 51 3 251~~

~~9753 190 TR 13 - 8 25 14 250~~

~~9767.6 116 - TR 144 - TR - 260~~

~~9769 200 TR 8 - 5 16 21 250~~

~~9774 208 - 11 10 13 9 251~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~9780.8 200 TR 7 - 1 34 11 253~~

~~9828 215 - 9 - 6 6 14 250~~

~~9831.6 218 - 4 - 1 8 19 250~~

~~9838 198 - 13 - 2 30 14 253~~

~~9843.6 144 88 5 - 11 1 1 250~~

~~9849 201 - 9 17 11 15 253~~

~~LITHOFAIES 1~~

~~9874.5 191 1 _ TR 47 10 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153~~

***** Lithofacies 4 a a a a a Lithofacies 3 OOOOO Lithofacies 1

~~25 50 75 100~~

~~Ternaiy plot of primai 7 minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Jem-McCormick 2-27 Osceola Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 18~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SUN CONSUMERS POWER 1-3 OSCODA CO.~~

~~SAMPLE QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORES TOTAL~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~9488 167 TR 9 _ TR 49 25 250* * tr of heavy minerals~~

9501 176 1 8 - 11 27 28 250*

9502 200 12 4 - 2 20 12 250*

9509 209 2 TR - 1 19 19 250*

9517 191 6 2 - TR 19 31 250**

~~9524 Sample to lose, but high concentation of feld.~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~9535 205 - 4 2 12 16 12 250~~

~~9536.4 202 - 5 2 11 20 10 250~~

~~9536.7 198 - 8 4 4 20 16 250~~

~~9548 167 ____ 83 1 251~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155~~

***** Lithofacies 4 a a a a a Lithofacies 3

~~25 50~~

~~Ternary plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Sun-Consumers Power 1-3 Osceola Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 10~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 SUN MENTOR C 1 -2 9 OSCODA CO.~~

~~SAMPLE QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOTAL~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~10057.5 186 9 28 5 22 3 255~~

~~10071.1 146 2 46 25 21 10 250~~

~~10072 166 - 44 24 16 - 250~~

~~10075 174 1 TR TR 52 22 250~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~10081 200 TR TR 44 8 252~~

~~10083.6 197 2 - TR 42 7 251~~

~~10085 181 3 12 25 20 13 254~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~10090.4 198 3 17 10 8 14 250~~

~~10093.3 188 15 4 9 18 16 250~~

~~10093.5 184 9 5 15 5 32 250~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~10096.4 170 3 78 TR 250~~

~~10102.1 208 - 1 1 34 6 250~~

~~LOWER CORE-----~~

~~10173 181 - 8 - 27 28 250~~

~~10175.5 210 - TR - 60 10 251~~

~~10185.5 160 - 1 TR 80 9 251 r—H 00 00 10196 - 5 TR 32 10 254~~

~~10206 178 - 4 - 56 12 250~~

~~10212.4200 4 TR 44 2 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SUN MENTOR C 1 -2 9 OSCODA CO.~~

~~SAMPLE QTZ DOLO K-SPAR MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOTAL~~

~~10213 210 - 4 - 2 14 20 250~~

~~10214 215 - 12 - 1 14 16 258~~

~~10221.6 201 2 TR - 4 20 26 253~~

~~10229.4 181 - 10 3 4 29 23 250~~

~~10231.8 220 4 6 12 6 15 263~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ***** Lithofacies 4 a a a a a Lithofacies 3~~

~~0 25 50~~

~~Ternary plot of primai^ minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Sun-Mentor C 1-29 Oscoda Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 23~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. JEM DALRYMPLE 1 -1 6 ROSSCOMMON CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOT,~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~11012 205 8 7 - TR 21 9 250~~

~~11015 205 - 1 1 9 13 22 251~~

~~11016 203 1 3 - TR 21 24 252~~

~~11019 217 - 1 - 3 15 17 254~~

~~11026 196 2 17 - 11 24 6 255~~

~~11046 200 27 9 4 7 13 260~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~11048 208 - 10 - 3 7 31 250~~

~~11053 194 -- - - 54 2 250~~

~~11079 187 - - -- 57 6 250~~

~~11086 197 - TR 1 1 29 22 250~~

~~11090 220 - TR - 1 37 1 259~~

~~11107.7 234 - 2 4 3 13 4 260~~

~~11121 211 - - TR 1 66 4 264~~

~~11141.5 215 - 1 1 TR 29 4 250~~

~~11149.1 197 - TR 3 2 46 5 253~~

~~11152.5 196 _ TR TR 3 49 5 253~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ***** Lithofacies 4 aaaaa Lithofacies 3~~

~~25 50~~

~~Ternary plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Jem-Daltymple 1-16 Roscommon Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 16~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SUN ROSEVILLE GUN CLUB ROSSCOMMOM CO.~~

~~SAMPLE: QTZ DOLO FELD MICA CLAY QTOG PORE TOT/~~

~~LITHOFACIES 4~~

~~11631.5 199 1 6 5 16 23 250~~

~~11634.5 164 2 40 - 92 2 250~~

~~11641.5 180 2 6 4 18 40 251 * 1 heavey mineral~~

~~11657.1 177 5 4 3 11 29 250~~

~~11670 212* TR 5 2 12 19 250 * 3 poly.~~

~~11672.5 208* 3 8 5 6 20 250 * 3 poly~~

~~11677 194* - 3 6 30 17 250 * 3 poly~~

~~11679.4 182 34 2 2 24 15 250~~

~~11682 173* 8 6 1 50 8 250 * 2 poly~~

~~11691 193 85 8 8 8 14 250~~

~~LITHOFACIES 3~~

~~11704.5 196* 4 3 - 21 25 250 * 5 poly 1 heavey mineral~~

~~11706.5 199 1 8 - 25 16 250~~

~~11708 201 - 6 - 41 2 250~~

~~11735 196* - 7 1 28 18 250 * 5 poly~~

~~11770 211 9 2 12 16 250~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 162~~

~~Lithofacies 4 Lithofacies 3~~

~~0 25 50~~

~~Ternary plot of primary minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, Dolomite) from the Sun-Rosville Gun Club Roscommon Co. The symbols represent the mineralogy of the distinct lithofacies (facies 1, 3, 4). N = 15~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY~~

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~~Davis, R. A., 1970. Willow River Dolomite, Ordovician analogue of modem algal stromatolite environments: Joum. Geol., v. 74, p. 908-923.~~

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~~Dewitt, W., Jr., 1960. Geology of the Michigan basin with reference to subsurface disposal of radioactive wastes; U.S. Geological Survey, Trace Elements Investigations Report 771.~~

~~Dott Jr., R. H. and Bourgeois, J., 1982. Hummocky stratification: significance of its variable bedding sequences. Bulletin of the Geol. Soc. of Amer. Bull., v. 93, p. 663-680.~~

Dott Jr., R. H. and Byers, C. W., 1980. SEPM Research Conference on Modem Shelf and Ancient Cratonic Sedimentation-The Orthoquartzite -Carbonate Suite Revisited: SEPM and The Dept, of Geology and Geophysics, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dott Jr., R. H., Byers, C. W., Fielder. G. W., Stenzel, S. R. and Winfree, K. E., 1986. Aeolian to Marine Transition in Cambro- Ordovician Cratonic Sheet Sandstone of the Northern Mississippi Valley, USA.: Sedimentology 33, p. 345-367.

~~Drake, C. L., 1921. The Problem of the St. Peter Sandstone: Univ. of Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy Bull., v. 6 no. 1.~~

~~Droste, J. B., Abdulkareem, T. F. and Patton, J. B., 1982. Stratigraphy of the Ancell and Black River Groups (Ordovician) in Indiana: Ind. Geol. Surv. Occasional Paper 36, 15p.~~

~~Droste, J. B. and Patton, J. B., 1985. Lithostratigraphy of the Sauk Sequence in Indiana: Ind. Geol. Surv. Occasional Paper no. 47, 86p.~~

~~Ells, G., 1967. Correlation of Cambro-Ordovician Rocks in Michigan: Mich. Basin Geol. Soc. Ann. Field Excursion Guide.~~

~~Ells, G., 1969. Architecture of the Michigan Basin: in Mich Basin Geol. Soc. Ann. Field Excursion Guide, p. 60-93.~~

~~Eslinger, E. and Pevear, D., 1988. Shale Diagenesis and Clay Minerals and Sandstone, in Clay Minerals for Petroleum Geologist and Engineers, SEPM Short Course #22.~~

~~Fisher, J. H., 1969. Early Paleozoic history of the Michigan basin: in Michigan Basin Geol, Soc. Ann. Fieldtrip Excur. Guidebook, p. 89-93.~~

~~Fisher, J. H. and Barratt, M. W., 1985. Exploration of Ordovician in Central Michigan Basin: Amer. Assoc, of Pet Geol. Bull., v. 69, no. 12, p. 2065-2076.~~

~~Fisher, J. H., Barratt, M. W., Droste, J. B. and Shaver, R. H., 1988. Michigan basin: in Sloss, Larry, (ed) Sedimentary cover- North America Craton, U.S., Geol. Soc. of Amer., DNAG volume D-2.~~

~~Folk, R. L., Andrews, P. B. and Lewis, D. W., 1970. Detrital sedimentary rock classification for use in New Zealand: N.Z. Jour. Geophy. v. 13, p. 937-68.~~

~~Fowler, J. H., and Kuenzi, W. D., 1978. Keweenawan Turbidies in Michigan (Deep Borehole Red Beds): A System: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 83, no. B12, p. 5833-5843.~~

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 166 Gregg, J. M., 1985. Regional epigenetic dolomitization in the Bonneterre Dolomite (Cambrian), southeastern Missouri: Geology, v. 13, p. 503-506.

~~Gregg, J. M., and Sibley, D. F., 1984. Epigenetic dolomitization and the origin of xenotopic dolomite texture: Journ. of Sed. Pet., v. 54, p. 908-931.~~

~~Gregg, J. M., and Sibley, D. F., 1986. Epigenetic dolomitization and the origin of xenotopic dolomite texture-reply: Joum. of Sed. Pet., v. 56, p. 735-736.~~

~~/ Hamblin, W. K., 1961. Paleogeographic evolution of the Lake Superior region From Late Keweenawan to Late Cambrian time: Geol. Soc. of Amer. Bull., v. 72, no. 1, p. 1-18.~~

Harms, J. C., Southard, J. B., Spearing, D. R., and Walker, R. G., 1979. Depositional environments as interpreted from primary sedimentary structures and stratification sequences. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short Course 2, 161p.

~~Harrison III, W. B., 1987. Michigan’s "deep" St. Peter gas play continues to expand: World Oil, April, p. 56-61.~~

~~Harrison, W. B., Ill, Barnes, D. A., Lundgren, C. E., and Wieczorek, L. A., 1989. Deep Well Drilling in the Michigan Basin: in American Gas Association, 1989, p. 585-592.~~

Harrison, W. B., Turmelle, T., and Barnes, D. A., 1987. Influence of Depositional Environment and Diagenesis of Reservoir Quality in the St Peter Sandstone, Michigan (abst): Amer. Assoc, of Pet Geol., Bull. v. 71, p. 656.

Hoholick, J. D., Metarko, T., and Potter, P. E., 1984. Regional Variations of Porosity and Cement: St. Peter and Mount Simon Sandstones in Illinois Basin: Amer. Assoc, of Pet. Geol. Bull., v. 68, no. 6, p. 753-764.

~~Houseknecht, D. W., 1987. Assessing the relative importance of compaction processes and cementation to reduction of porosity in sandstones: Amer. Assoc, of Pet. Geol. Bull., v. 71, no. 6, p. 633-642.~~

~~Ives, R. E., and Ells, G. D., 1965. Developments in Michigan in 1964: Amer Assoc, of Pet. Geol. Bull., v. 49, p. 700-706.~~

~~Klein, G. D., 1970, Depositional and dispersal dynamics of intertidal sand bars: Jour, of Sed. Pet., v. 40, p. 1095-1127.~~

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Land, L. S., 1985. The application of stable isotopes to studies of the origin of dolomite and to problems of diagenesis of clastic sediments: in Arthur, M. A., Anderson, T. F., Kaplan, I. R., Veizer, J. and Land, L. S., (ed.) Stable Isotopes in Sedimentary Geology, SEPM Short Course # 9, p. 4-1 to 4-22.

~~Lilienthal, R. T., 1978. Stratigraphic Cross-section of the Michigan Basin: Mich. Geol. Surv. Rept. of Invest, no. 19.~~

~~Longman, M. W., 1980. Carbonate diagenetic textures from near surface diagenetic environments: Amer. Assoc, of Pet. Geol. Bull., v. 64, p. 461-487.~~

~~Lundgren Jr., C. E. and Barnes, D. A., 1989. Influence of deposition environment of diagenesis in the St. Peter Sandstone, Michigan Basin (abst.): Amer. Assoc, of Pet. Geol., v. 73, p. 384.~~

~~Mai, H. and Dott Jr., R. H., 1985. A Sub-surface Study of the St. Peter Sandstone in Southern and Eastern Wisconsin: Wise. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Info. Circ. no. 47, 26p.~~

~~Mazzullo, J. A. and Ehrlich, R., 1980. A variation in the St. Peter Sandstone- Fourier grain shape analysis: Joum. of Sed. Pet., v. 50, p. 63-70.~~

Mazzullo, J. A. and Ehrlich, R., 1983. Grain Variation in the St. Peter Sandstone: A record of eolian and fluvial sedimentation of an Early Paleozoic cratonic sheet sand: Joum. of Sed. Pet., v. 53, n. 1, p. 105-119.

Mazzullo, J. A. and Ehrlich, R. 1987. The St. Peter Sandstone of Southeastern Minnesota: Mode of deposition: in Sloan, R. E. (Ed.) Middle and Late Ordovician Lithostratigraphy and Biostratigraphy of the Upper Mississippi Valley, Minnesota G.S. Rpt. Inv. 35, p. 44-50.

~~Mowbray, T. and Visser, M. J., 1984. Reactivation surfaces in subtidal channel deposits, Osterschelde, Southwest Netherlands: Jour. Sed. Pet., v. 54, no. 3, p. 811-825.~~

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~~Odom, I. E., 1975. Feldspar-grain size relations in Cambrian arenites, upper Mississippi Valley: Joum. of Sed. Pet., v. 45, p. 636-50.~~

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 168 Odom, I. E., Doe, T. W. and Dott, R. H., 1976. Nature of feldspar-grain size relations in some quartz rich sandstones: Joum Sed. of Pet., v. 46, p. 862-870.

Odom, I. E., Willand, T. N., and Lassin, R. J., 1979. Paragenesis of diagenesis minerals in the St. Peter Sandstone (Ordovician), Wisconsin and Illinois, Soc. Econ. Paleon. and Mineral., Spec. Publication 26., p. 425-443.

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Peck, C. J., Elmore, R. D., Gale, P. N. and Carpenter, B., 1988. Porosity preservation and development in Prairie du Chien Sandstone, Michig. n Basin (abst): Am. Assoc, of Pet Geol. Bull. v. 72, p. 234.

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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Schmidt, V. and McDonald, D. A., 1979a. Textures and recognition of secondary porosity sandstone: in Scholle, P. A. and Schluger, P. R., (eds.), Aspects of Diagenesis, SEPM Spec. Pub. # 26.

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~~Shinn, E. A., 1969. Submarine lithification of Holocene carbonate sediments in Persian Gulf: Sedimentology, v. 12, p. 109-144.~~

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~~Trempleton, J. S., and Willman, H. B., 1963. Champlainian series (Middle Ordovician) in Illinois: 111. State Geol. Survey Bull., v. 89, p. 39-47.~~

~~Walker, R. G., 1984. Facies Models, 2nd Edition, Geoscience Canada, p. 317.~~

Willman, H. B., Atherton, E., Buschbach,. T. C., Collinson, C., Frye, J. C., Hopkins, M. E., Lineback, J. A. and Simon, J. A., 1975. Handbook of Illinois Stratigraphy: 111. State Geol. Survey Bull. 95, 261p.

~~Wilson, M. D. and Pittman, E. D., 1977. Authigenic clays in sandstones: Recognition and influence on reservoir properties and paleoenvironmental analysis: Joum. of Sed. Pet., v. 47, p. 3-31.~~

~~Winfree, K. E., 1983. Depositional environments of the St. Peter Sandstone of Upper Midwest, Unpubl. Master’s Thesis, Univ. of Wis. 114p.~~

~~Winfree, and Dott, R. H., 1983. Progress on the St. Peter Sandstone of the Upper Midwest: in Geol. Soc. Am. Field Guide, Univ. Wis., p. 4-11.~~

~~Zenger, D. H., 1983. Burial dolomitization in the Lost Burro Fromation (Devonian), east-central California, and the significance of late diagenetic dolomitization: Geology, v. 11, p. 519-522.~~

~~Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.~~