DOCSLIB.ORG

Politics and Priesthoods in Late Republican Rome

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Politics and Priesthoods in Late Republican Rome POLITICS AND PRIESTHOODS IN LATE REPUBLICAN ROME By Jonathon George David Rolfe A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the degree of Master of Arts University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand November 2015 Cover photo: The Roman Nuministic Gallery, ‘CAESAR DICT PERPETUO, silver denarius, ca. 44 BC (posthumous)’ from a private collection <http://www.romancoins.info/Imperatorial-caesar.HTML> Consulted on 12th October 2015. ii ABSTRACT This thesis examines the influence of the two major priestly colleges in late republican Rome, the pontificate and the augurate, and aims to explain why membership was valued so highly by members of the Roman élite. Chapter one discusses the exclusive selection process for the priests and the aristocratic prerequisites for membership. In light of the changes to the way priests were selected, resulting from the lex Domitia in 104 BC, this chapter explores the extent to which these offices can be seen as either inherited family rights or political prizes granted through the support of powerful figures like Sulla or Caesar. The second and third chapters consider whether the pontiffs and augurs respectively had significant constitutional ‘hard powers’, comparing their influence to the central religious authority of magistrates and the senate. The collective influence of the pontifical college is examined in the second chapter by assessing their involvement in the decision to reverse the dedication of a shrine on the site of Cicero’s house in 57 BC. This discussion will also analyse the influence of the young individual pontiff, L. Pinarius Natta, who assisted the tribune Clodius at the dedication ceremony in 58 BC. In the third chapter, the individual powers of the augurs are compared to the imperium of magistrates by analysing seven cases of obnuntiatio between 59 and 44 BC, and examining Mark Antony’s use of augural obstruction in his capacity as augur in 44 BC. The chapter also discusses the collective influence of the augurs through the promulgation of decrees and their role during the religious controversies of Caesar’s first consulship in 59 BC. The final chapter suggests that these priesthoods were a means of social advancement, offering young political hopefuls a productive entrée into élite society. This discussion utilises prosopographical data to analyse the extent to which becoming a pontiff or augur at the start of a political career increased an incumbents chances of reaching the consulship. Following this the chapter considers how these positions provided networking opportunities which could translate into political support, facilitating what is termed as ‘soft power.’ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This has been an ordeal. I have lost hair, wits, sleep, what little fitness I had, a lot of money, and have grown a thesis beard. But in the end, it has all been worth it. There are a great many people that I need to thank though for helping me throughout this journey, since without them, I may never have made it through. I first want to thank my supervisor, employer, and most importantly friend, Prof. Jon Hall. I could see the pain in Jon’s face when he found out I had managed to get a scholarship to do this MA (‘oh god, another year of having Jon Rolfe around!’). Well Jon, lucky for you I stuck around a lot longer than that! You have been a fantastic supervisor throughout this project. Thank you for looking through the many versions of my chapters and for your detailed constructive feedback. You have been patient (very patient), generous with your time, and invested in making sure that I produce something that I will be proud to put my name to. Not only have you helped me to conquer my MA though, but you have been a great mentor and friend. Your support has helped me to get through this project, for which I am eternally grateful. I would also like to thank my partner of over eight and a half years, Maggie. You have been my sanity and happiness throughout this project, through the good times and during times of complete and utter despair. I would have been at a loss without our frequent tea breaks, TV marathons and snacking! Thank you for your love, care, humour and just the right amount of crazy (like me). Most of all though, thank you for believing in me and never letting me give up – I love you. I want to thank the whole University of Otago Classics Department for its support throughout this project. Thank you Pat for letting me tutor the last year of your legendary CLAS 102 paper. And thank you Shona, you have also been a real life saver with all the help you have given me in the final submission stages. I also have to thank the Microbiology Department (Anna, Anthony, Bernard, Borum, Dori, G, Jimmy, Kev, Luciano, Manmeet, Matt, Rachel H, Rachel K, Rowan, iv Steph and Susan) for pretty much making me a member of fifth floor for the best part of 2014. You all made me feel like I was part of the group and always had time for me when I needed a break. Thank you all. I also have to thank the whole Dunedin football scene (Edgar centre crew and Mornington AFC) for giving me a great chance to unwind, but also vent a little pent-up postgraduate rage! Finally I want to express my gratitude to my loving family, including my parents (Louise and David), siblings (Matthew, Alex, Sophie and of course Laurence) and grandparents (Richard and Jill). Thank you for your love and support throughout my time at university. v CONTENTS Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................... iv Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................ ix INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................1 i. Approaches to Roman Priesthoods ........................................................................................2 ii. Limitations ..............................................................................................................................6 CHAPTER I: THE IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY AND POLITICAL PATRONAGE IN THE PURSUIT OF PRIESTHOODS 1.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................7 1.2. Co-optation: A ‘Pre-Republican’ System .........................................................................10 1.3. Ancestry and Political Patronage: modes of priestly recruitment 1.3.1. The lex Domitia of 104 .............................................................................................14 1.3.2. The Motives of the lex Domitia: populist shift or personal vendetta? ....................17 1.3.3. The lex Cornelia of 81: Sulla’s expansion of the colleges and reversal of the lex Domitia ........................19 1.3.4. The lex Labiena of 63: the patronage of the triumvirs .............................................22 1.4. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................24 CHAPTER II: THE POLITICAL INFLUENCE OF THE PONTIFFS The dedication of a shrine to Liberty on the site of Cicero’s house 2.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................26 2.2. The Powers of an Individual Pontiff 2.2.1. Introduction: misrepresentation in Cicero’s version of events ................................29 2.2.2. The role of the presiding pontiff L. Pinarius Natta ..................................................31 2.2.3. The political motives of the pontiff’s assistance .......................................................33 2.2.4. Concluding remarks .................................................................................................36 vi 2.3. The Pontificate and the Authority of their Decree 2.3.1. Interpreting the pontifical decree: separating ius religionis and the ius publicum ......................................................39 2.3.2. The augmented authority of the pontiff-senator .......................................................44 2.3.3. The political sentiment of the pontificate .................................................................46 2.3.4. The influence of the pontifical college’s decree .......................................................49 2.4. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................55 CHAPTER III: THE POLITICAL POWERS OF THE AUGURS Adverse auspices and the obstruction of public business in the Late Republic 3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................57 3.2. The Science of Augury 3.2.1. The origin of the augurs and their lore ....................................................................61 3.2.2. The technical procedures for consultation of the auspices ......................................64 3.2.3. Magistrates and obnuntiatio (59-44)........................................................................68 3.2.4. The skilled assistance of an augur............................................................................72 3.3. The Powers of an Augur 3.3.1. The ritual formula alio die .......................................................................................76
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 1 the Politics of the Arena
    THE POLITICS OF THE ARENA 1 1 The Politics of the Arena Origin and Growth of Games The great games of the ancient Mediterranean grew out of religious holidays to become spectacular celebrations of the divine pantheon, events that not only called upon divine support to ensure continued prosperity for the state, but also offered an elaborate, formalized series of actions that encouraged, even required, the participation of an expanded human audience. These spectacles tended to follow a standard format of procession, sacrifice, and games. The procession, the first part of the festival, was, practically speaking, a means of conveying the worshipers, the officiants, and their implements of worship to the sacred space of the altar or temple. To enhance the ritual quality of the movement, the procession followed a specific, religiously significant pathway; the personnel were arranged in a specific order; the participants wore particular kinds of clothing, spoke or sang ritual words. These guidelines could involve sacrificial animals in the procession as well, who not only would be draped in wreaths or ribbons, to set them apart from “common” animals, to make them “sacred”, but also were meant to conform to certain kinds of behavior: they had to seem willing to approach the altar, and cult officials who accompanied them made sure of this. The procession was followed by the sacrifice. Sacrifice was the basic act of Graeco-Roman religion, establishing a positive relationship between deity and worshiper through the offering of a gift; this could mean the immolation of an animal, the pouring of a wine or oil libation, or setting cakes or flowers on the god’s altar for his enjoyment.
    [Show full text]
  • Kings on Coins: the Appearance of Numa on Augustan Coinage
    Kings on Coins: The Appearance of Numa on Augustan Coinage AIMEE TURNER1 iconography, which he began to develop and experiment with in the triumviral period, and continued to utilise into his principate.6 Many In 22 BCE, an as was minted bearing the of the images he employed focus on religious image of Augustus Caesar on the obverse and iconography which promoted Augustus as a 7 Numa Pompilius on the reverse. Discussion of restorer of Roman tradition. In 22 BCE, an this coin in the context of Augustan ideology as was produced that featured the image of has been limited.2 Although one aspect of the Augustus on the obverse and Numa Pompilius, coin’s message relates to the promotion of the second king of Rome, on the reverse. the moneyer’s family, a closer analysis of its Numa was the quasi-legendary second king 8 iconographical and historical context provides of Rome, following Romulus. He is credited important evidence for the early public image with establishing the major religious practices 9 of Augustus, particularly in regard to religion. of the city as well as its first peaceful period. To that end, this paper intends to establish the As one of the earliest coins of the principate, traditional use of kings in Republican coins it offers important evidence for the early and the development of religious iconography public image of Augustus and the direction he in early Augustan coinage. By ascertaining intended to take at that time. His propaganda this framework, the full significance of the as was fluid, changing to meet the demands of the of 22 BCE becomes clearer.
    [Show full text]
  • Vestal Virgins and Their Families
    Vestal Virgins and Their Families Andrew B. Gallia* I. INTRODUCTION There is perhaps no more shining example of the extent to which the field of Roman studies has been enriched by a renewed engagement with anthropology and other cognate disciplines than the efflorescence of interest in the Vestal virgins that has followed Mary Beard’s path-breaking article regarding these priestesses’ “sexual status.”1 No longer content to treat the privileges and ritual obligations of this priesthood as the vestiges of some original position (whether as wives or daughters) in the household of the early Roman kings, scholars now interrogate these features as part of the broader frameworks of social and cultural meaning through which Roman concepts of family, * Published in Classical Antiquity 34.1 (2015). Early versions of this article were inflicted upon audiences in Berkeley and Minneapolis. I wish to thank the participants of those colloquia for helpful and judicious feedback, especially Ruth Karras, Darcy Krasne, Carlos Noreña, J. B. Shank, and Barbara Welke. I am also indebted to George Sheets, who read a penultimate draft, and to Alain Gowing and the anonymous readers for CA, who prompted additional improvements. None of the above should be held accountable for the views expressed or any errors that remain. 1 Beard 1980, cited approvingly by, e.g., Hopkins 1983: 18, Hallett 1984: x, Brown 1988: 8, Schultz 2012: 122. Critiques: Gardner 1986: 24-25, Beard 1995. 1 gender, and religion were produced.2 This shift, from a quasi-diachronic perspective, which seeks explanations for recorded phenomena in the conditions of an imagined past, to a more synchronic approach, in which contemporary contexts are emphasized, represents a welcome methodological advance.
    [Show full text]
  • Tuccia and Her Sieve: the Nachleben of the Vestal in Art
    KU LEUVEN FACULTY OF ARTS BLIJDE INKOMSTSTRAAT 21 BOX 3301 3000 LEUVEN, BELGIË Tuccia and her sieve: The Nachleben of the Vestal in art. Sarah Eycken Presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Art History Supervisor: prof. dr. Barbara Baert Lector: Katlijne Van der Stighelen Academic year 2017-2018 371.201 characters (without spaces) KU LEUVEN FACULTY OF ARTS BLIJDE INKOMSTSTRAAT 21 BOX 3301 3000 LEUVEN, BELGIË I hereby declare that, in line with the Faculty of Arts’ code of conduct for research integrity, the work submitted here is my own original work and that any additional sources of information have been duly cited. I! Abstract This master dissertation on the Nachleben in art of the Vestal Tuccia and her sieve, tries to chart the motif’s course throughout the history of art, using a transhistorical approach excluding an exhaustive study which lies outside the confines of this paper. Nevertheless, different iconographical types of the representations of Tuccia, as well as of their relative importance, were established. The role of Tuccia in art history and, by ex- tension, literature, is not very substantial, but nonetheless significant. An interdisciplinary perspective is adopted with an emphasis on gender, literature, anthropology and religion. In the Warburgian spirit, the art forms discussed in this dissertation are various, from high art to low art: paintings, prints, emblemata, cas- soni, spalliere, etc. The research starts with a discussion on the role of the Vestal Virgins in the Roman Re- public. The tale of the Vestal Virgin Tuccia and her paradoxically impermeable sieve, which was a symbol of her chastity, has spoken to the imagination of artists throughout the ages.
    [Show full text]
  • THE PONTIFICAL LAW of the ROMAN REPUBLIC by MICHAEL
    THE PONTIFICAL LAW OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC by MICHAEL JOSEPH JOHNSON A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Classics written under the direct of T. Corey Brennan and approved by ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey October, 2007 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION The Pontifical Law of the Roman Republic by MICHAEL JOSEPH JOHNSON Dissertation Director: T. Corey Brennan This dissertation investigates the guiding principle of arguably the most important religious authority in ancient Rome, the pontifical college. Chapter One introduces the subject and discusses the hypothesis the dissertation will advance. Chapter Two examines the place of the college within Roman law and religion, giving particular attention to disproving several widely held notions about the relationship of the pontifical law to the civil and sacral law. Chapter Three offers the first detailed examination of the duties of the pontifical college as a collective body. I spend the bulk of the chapter analyzing two of the three collegiate duties I identify: the issuing of documents known as decrees and responses and the supervision of the Vestal Virgins. I analyze all decrees and responses from the point of view their content, treating first those that concern dedications, then those on the calendar, and finally those on vows. In doing so my goal is to understand the reasoning behind the decree and the major theological doctrines underpinning it. In documenting the pontifical supervision of Vestal Virgins I focus on the college's actions towards a Vestal accused of losing her chastity.
    [Show full text]
  • Johnlydus-4-01-January – Final
    JANUARY [63] 1. I have spoken sufficiently about the fact that the month of January was defined as the beginning of the priestly calendar by King Numa; in it, they would offer sacrifice to the [beings] above the moon, just as in February [they would offer sacrifice] to the [beings] below it. And so, I must speak about Janus—who he is and what idea of him the ancients had. Now then, Labeo says1 that he is called Janus Consivius, that is, "of the council / Senate" [boulaios]; Janus Cenulus and Cibullius, that is, "pertaining to feasting"—for the Romans called food cibus; Patricius, that is, "indigenous"; Clusivius, meaning "pertaining to journeys" [hodiaios]; Junonius, that is, "aerial"; Quirinus, meaning "champion / fighter in the front"; Patulcius and Clusius, that is, "of the door"; Curiatius, as "overseer of nobles"—for Curiatius and Horatius are names of [Roman] nobility. And some relate that he is double in form [64], at one time holding keys in his right hand like a door-keeper, at other times counting out 300 counters in his right hand and 65 in the other, just like [the number of days in] the year. From this,2 he is also [said to be] quadruple in form, from the four "turns" [i.e., the solstices and equinoxes]—and a statue of him of this type is said to be preserved even now in the Forum of Nerva.3 But Longinus vehemently tries to interpret him as Aeonarius, as being the father of Aeon, or that [he got his name because] the Greeks called the year4 enos, as Callimachus in the first book of the Aetia writes: Four-year-old [tetraenon] child of Damasus, Telestorides5..
    [Show full text]
  • Greek and Roman Mythology and Heroic Legend
    G RE E K AN D ROMAN M YTH O LOGY AN D H E R O I C LE GEN D By E D I N P ROFES SOR H . ST U G Translated from th e German and edited b y A M D i . A D TT . L tt LI ONEL B RN E , , TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE S Y a l TUD of Greek religion needs no po ogy , and should This mus v n need no bush . all t feel who ha e looked upo the ns ns and n creatio of the art it i pired . But to purify stre gthen admiration by the higher light of knowledge is no work o f ea se . No truth is more vital than the seemi ng paradox whi c h - declares that Greek myths are not nature myths . The ape - is not further removed from the man than is the nature myth from the religious fancy of the Greeks as we meet them in s Greek is and hi tory . The myth the child of the devout lovely imagi nation o f the noble rac e that dwelt around the e e s n s s u s A ga an. Coar e fa ta ie of br ti h forefathers in their Northern homes softened beneath the southern sun into a pure and u and s godly bea ty, thus gave birth to the divine form of n Hellenic religio . M c an c u s m c an s Comparative ythology tea h uch . It hew how god s are born in the mind o f the savage and moulded c nn into his image .
    [Show full text]
  • The Imperial Cult and the Individual
    THE IMPERIAL CULT AND THE INDIVIDUAL: THE NEGOTIATION OF AUGUSTUS' PRIVATE WORSHIP DURING HIS LIFETIME AT ROME _______________________________________ A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Department of Ancient Mediterranean Studies at the University of Missouri-Columbia _______________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy _____________________________________________________ by CLAIRE McGRAW Dr. Dennis Trout, Dissertation Supervisor MAY 2019 The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled THE IMPERIAL CULT AND THE INDIVIDUAL: THE NEGOTIATION OF AUGUSTUS' PRIVATE WORSHIP DURING HIS LIFETIME AT ROME presented by Claire McGraw, a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. _______________________________________________ Professor Dennis Trout _______________________________________________ Professor Anatole Mori _______________________________________________ Professor Raymond Marks _______________________________________________ Professor Marcello Mogetta _______________________________________________ Professor Sean Gurd DEDICATION There are many people who deserve to be mentioned here, and I hope I have not forgotten anyone. I must begin with my family, Tom, Michael, Lisa, and Mom. Their love and support throughout this entire process have meant so much to me. I dedicate this project to my Mom especially; I must acknowledge that nearly every good thing I know and good decision I’ve made is because of her. She has (literally and figuratively) pushed me to achieve this dream. Mom has been my rock, my wall to lean upon, every single day. I love you, Mom. Tom, Michael, and Lisa have been the best siblings and sister-in-law. Tom thinks what I do is cool, and that means the world to a little sister.
    [Show full text]
  • Pontifex Maximus
    bs_bs_banner Journal of Religious History Vol. ••, No. ••, •• 2016 doi: 10.1111/1467-9809.12400 ROALD DIJKSTRA AND DORINE VAN ESPELO Anchoring Pontifical Authority: A Reconsideration of the Papal Employment of the Title Pontifex Maximus It is a common assumption that the title of supreme priesthood or pontifex maximus is included in the official papal titulature, and it has been supposed that the Roman bishop adopted it from the Roman emperor in late antiquity. In fact, however, it was probably not until the fifteenth century that the designation was first used by the papacy, and it has continued to be part of papal representation ever since. The title was deeply rooted in the Roman imperial past. At several stages in papal history the papal agency felt the need to draw back (again) on this ancient, traditional title and managed to successfully (re-)introduce the title by anchoring it in the cultural biogra- phy of the papacy. Introduction Since Antiquity, the interplay between the Roman bishops and secular rulers has been subject to continuous transformation and renegotiation, as both groups continually reverted to established traditions in order to sustain legiti- macy and pre-eminence.1 At the same time, however, modes of representation had to be innovative in order to appeal to contemporary tastes, needs, and ex- pectations. Anchoring these novelties in tradition was a convenient means of implementing, and reinforcing, the desired effect, and tracing these processes of embedding the new in the familiar offers us the possibility of understanding cultural, political, and religious transformation. An outstanding example of this kind of “anchoring innovation” is that of Roman episcopal titulature, as can be 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Temples and Priests of Sol in the City of Rome
    See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242330197 Temples and Priests of Sol in the City of Rome Article in Mouseion Journal of the Classical Association of Canada · January 2010 DOI: 10.1353/mou.2010.0073 CITATIONS READS 0 550 1 author: S. E. Hijmans University of Alberta 23 PUBLICATIONS 9 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Available from: S. E. Hijmans Retrieved on: 03 November 2016 Temples and Priests of Sol in the city of Rome Summary It was long thought that Sol Invictus was a Syrian sun-god, and that Aurelian imported his cult into Rome after he had vanquished Zenobia and captured Palmyra. This sun-god, it was postulated, differed fundamentally from the old Roman sun-god Sol Indiges, whose cult had long since disappeared from Rome. Scholars thus tended to postulate a hiatus in the first centuries of imperial rule during which there was little or no cult of the sun in Rome. Recent studies, however, have shown that Aurelian’s Sol Invictus was neither new nor foreign, and that the cult of the sun was maintained in Rome without interruption from the city’s earliest history until the demise of Roman religion(s). This continuity of the Roman cult of Sol sheds a new light on the evidence for priests and temples of Sol in Rome. In this article I offer a review of that evidence and what we can infer from it the Roman cult of the sun. A significant portion of the article is devoted to a temple of Sol in Trastevere, hitherto misidentified.
    [Show full text]
  • The Vestal Virgins' Socio-Political Role and the Narrative of Roma
    Krakowskie Studia z Historii Państwa i Prawa 2021; 14 (2), s. 127–151 doi:10.4467/20844131KS.21.011.13519 www.ejournals.eu/Krakowskie-Studia-z-Historii-Panstwa-i-Prawa Zeszyt 2 Karolina WyrWińsKa http:/orcid.org/0000-0001-8937-6271 Jagiellonian University in Kraków The Vestal Virgins’ Socio-political Role and the Narrative of Roma Aeterna Abstract Roman women – priestesses, patrician women, mysterious guardians of the sacred flame of goddess Vesta, admired and respected, sometimes blamed for misfortune of the Eternal City. Vestals identified with the eternity of Rome, the priestesses having a specific, unavailable to other women power. That power gained at the moment of a ritual capture (captio) and responsibilities and privileges resulted from it are the subject matter of this paper. The special attention is paid to the importance of Vestals for Rome and Romans in various historic moments, and to the purifying rituals performed by Vestals on behalf of the Roman state’s fortune. The study presents probable dating and possible causes of the end of the College of the Vestals in Rome. Keywords: Vesta, vestals, priesthood, priestesses, rituals Słowa kluczowe: Westa, westalki, kapłaństwo, kapłanki, rytuały Vesta and her priestesses Plutarch was not certain to which of the Roman kings attribute the implementation of the cult of Vesta in Rome, for he indicated that it had been done either by the legendary king- priest Numa Pompilius or even Romulus, who himself being a son of a Vestal Virgin, according to the legend, transferred the cult of the goddess from Alba Longa,1 which was contradicted by Livy’s work that categorically attributes the establishment of the Vestal Virgins to Numa by removing the priesthood structure from Alba Longa and providing it with support from the state treasury as well as by granting the priestesses numerous privileges”.2 Vesta, the daughter of Saturn and Ops became one of the most important 1 Plut.
    [Show full text]
  • A Natural Starting Point for a Study of Cicero's Attitude Toward Military Matters Is His Actual Military Experience
    Cicero de re militari: A civilian perspective on military matters in the late Republic Katherine Amie Liong PhD in Classics The University of Edinburgh 2011 The candidate hereby confirms that this thesis was composed by her and represents her own work, except where credit has been given to the work of others. She furthermore confirms that no part of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree or qualification except as specified on the title page. __________________________________ Katherine Liong i Acknowledgements A PhD thesis inevitably takes on a life of its own, and accrues many debts along the way. I am pleased to express here my profound gratitude for the support, encouragement, and enlightenment that I have received from individuals and institutions while I completed this project. Thanks are first of all due to my supervisors, Dr Dominic Berry and Prof. Andrew Erskine, for their attention to detail, patience, and flexibility in managing our respective leaves of absence. Dr Berry first drew my attention to the potential of this topic when I was beginning my MA with him at the University of Leeds, and I have benefitted greatly from his enthusiasm and expertise about Cicero in the intervening years. I am also grateful to Drs Gavin Kelly and Ulrike Roth for their feedback and perspective at my annual reviews and in other conversations. Friends and family on both sides of the Atlantic were a constant source of motivation and reassurance; of these, my partner Duncan has my particular thanks (and admiration) for sharing this journey with me. Last but not least, I should like to thank the funding bodies whose support made this project possible.
    [Show full text]