POLITICS AND PRIESTHOODS IN LATE REPUBLICAN ROME By Jonathon George David Rolfe A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the degree of Master of Arts University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand November 2015 Cover photo: The Roman Nuministic Gallery, ‘CAESAR DICT PERPETUO, silver denarius, ca. 44 BC (posthumous)’ from a private collection <http://www.romancoins.info/Imperatorial-caesar.HTML> Consulted on 12th October 2015. ii ABSTRACT This thesis examines the influence of the two major priestly colleges in late republican Rome, the pontificate and the augurate, and aims to explain why membership was valued so highly by members of the Roman élite. Chapter one discusses the exclusive selection process for the priests and the aristocratic prerequisites for membership. In light of the changes to the way priests were selected, resulting from the lex Domitia in 104 BC, this chapter explores the extent to which these offices can be seen as either inherited family rights or political prizes granted through the support of powerful figures like Sulla or Caesar. The second and third chapters consider whether the pontiffs and augurs respectively had significant constitutional ‘hard powers’, comparing their influence to the central religious authority of magistrates and the senate. The collective influence of the pontifical college is examined in the second chapter by assessing their involvement in the decision to reverse the dedication of a shrine on the site of Cicero’s house in 57 BC. This discussion will also analyse the influence of the young individual pontiff, L. Pinarius Natta, who assisted the tribune Clodius at the dedication ceremony in 58 BC. In the third chapter, the individual powers of the augurs are compared to the imperium of magistrates by analysing seven cases of obnuntiatio between 59 and 44 BC, and examining Mark Antony’s use of augural obstruction in his capacity as augur in 44 BC. The chapter also discusses the collective influence of the augurs through the promulgation of decrees and their role during the religious controversies of Caesar’s first consulship in 59 BC. The final chapter suggests that these priesthoods were a means of social advancement, offering young political hopefuls a productive entrée into élite society. This discussion utilises prosopographical data to analyse the extent to which becoming a pontiff or augur at the start of a political career increased an incumbents chances of reaching the consulship. Following this the chapter considers how these positions provided networking opportunities which could translate into political support, facilitating what is termed as ‘soft power.’ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This has been an ordeal. I have lost hair, wits, sleep, what little fitness I had, a lot of money, and have grown a thesis beard. But in the end, it has all been worth it. There are a great many people that I need to thank though for helping me throughout this journey, since without them, I may never have made it through. I first want to thank my supervisor, employer, and most importantly friend, Prof. Jon Hall. I could see the pain in Jon’s face when he found out I had managed to get a scholarship to do this MA (‘oh god, another year of having Jon Rolfe around!’). Well Jon, lucky for you I stuck around a lot longer than that! You have been a fantastic supervisor throughout this project. Thank you for looking through the many versions of my chapters and for your detailed constructive feedback. You have been patient (very patient), generous with your time, and invested in making sure that I produce something that I will be proud to put my name to. Not only have you helped me to conquer my MA though, but you have been a great mentor and friend. Your support has helped me to get through this project, for which I am eternally grateful. I would also like to thank my partner of over eight and a half years, Maggie. You have been my sanity and happiness throughout this project, through the good times and during times of complete and utter despair. I would have been at a loss without our frequent tea breaks, TV marathons and snacking! Thank you for your love, care, humour and just the right amount of crazy (like me). Most of all though, thank you for believing in me and never letting me give up – I love you. I want to thank the whole University of Otago Classics Department for its support throughout this project. Thank you Pat for letting me tutor the last year of your legendary CLAS 102 paper. And thank you Shona, you have also been a real life saver with all the help you have given me in the final submission stages. I also have to thank the Microbiology Department (Anna, Anthony, Bernard, Borum, Dori, G, Jimmy, Kev, Luciano, Manmeet, Matt, Rachel H, Rachel K, Rowan, iv Steph and Susan) for pretty much making me a member of fifth floor for the best part of 2014. You all made me feel like I was part of the group and always had time for me when I needed a break. Thank you all. I also have to thank the whole Dunedin football scene (Edgar centre crew and Mornington AFC) for giving me a great chance to unwind, but also vent a little pent-up postgraduate rage! Finally I want to express my gratitude to my loving family, including my parents (Louise and David), siblings (Matthew, Alex, Sophie and of course Laurence) and grandparents (Richard and Jill). Thank you for your love and support throughout my time at university. v CONTENTS Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................... iv Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................ ix INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................1 i. Approaches to Roman Priesthoods ........................................................................................2 ii. Limitations ..............................................................................................................................6 CHAPTER I: THE IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY AND POLITICAL PATRONAGE IN THE PURSUIT OF PRIESTHOODS 1.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................7 1.2. Co-optation: A ‘Pre-Republican’ System .........................................................................10 1.3. Ancestry and Political Patronage: modes of priestly recruitment 1.3.1. The lex Domitia of 104 .............................................................................................14 1.3.2. The Motives of the lex Domitia: populist shift or personal vendetta? ....................17 1.3.3. The lex Cornelia of 81: Sulla’s expansion of the colleges and reversal of the lex Domitia ........................19 1.3.4. The lex Labiena of 63: the patronage of the triumvirs .............................................22 1.4. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................24 CHAPTER II: THE POLITICAL INFLUENCE OF THE PONTIFFS The dedication of a shrine to Liberty on the site of Cicero’s house 2.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................26 2.2. The Powers of an Individual Pontiff 2.2.1. Introduction: misrepresentation in Cicero’s version of events ................................29 2.2.2. The role of the presiding pontiff L. Pinarius Natta ..................................................31 2.2.3. The political motives of the pontiff’s assistance .......................................................33 2.2.4. Concluding remarks .................................................................................................36 vi 2.3. The Pontificate and the Authority of their Decree 2.3.1. Interpreting the pontifical decree: separating ius religionis and the ius publicum ......................................................39 2.3.2. The augmented authority of the pontiff-senator .......................................................44 2.3.3. The political sentiment of the pontificate .................................................................46 2.3.4. The influence of the pontifical college’s decree .......................................................49 2.4. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................55 CHAPTER III: THE POLITICAL POWERS OF THE AUGURS Adverse auspices and the obstruction of public business in the Late Republic 3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................57 3.2. The Science of Augury 3.2.1. The origin of the augurs and their lore ....................................................................61 3.2.2. The technical procedures for consultation of the auspices ......................................64 3.2.3. Magistrates and obnuntiatio (59-44)........................................................................68 3.2.4. The skilled assistance of an augur............................................................................72 3.3. The Powers of an Augur 3.3.1. The ritual formula alio die .......................................................................................76