The Cases of the Faroe Islands and Greenland

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The Cases of the Faroe Islands and Greenland THE INTERPLAYS OF HISTORIES, ECONOMIES AND CULTURES IN HUMAN ADAPTATION AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS: THE CASES OF THE FAROE ISLANDS AND GREENLAND LOTTA NUMMINEN ACADEMIC DISSERTATION To be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Science of the University of Helsinki, for public criticism in the lecture room III Porthania building (Yliopistonkatu 3), on May 14th 2010, at 12 noon. DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES AND GEOGRAPHY A 02 / HELSINKI 2010 Publisher: Department of Geosciences and Geography Faculty of Sience PO BOX 64, FI-00014 University of Helsinki Finland ISSN-L 1798-7911 ISSN 1798-7911 (print) ISBN 978-952-10-6137-0 (paperback) ISBN 978-952-10-6138-7 (PDF) Helsinki University Print Helsinki 2010 ABSTRACT This doctoral dissertation is an investigation into how two northern societies, the Faroe Islands and Greenland, have responded to challenges caused by the interplay of environmental, political, and socio- economic changes throughout history. Its main contribution is that, in addition to recounting narratives of human adaptation, it shows how adaptation has been connected with the development of the settle- ment pattern in the two societies. Adaptation affecting certain characteristics in settlement patterns of the earliest Norse societies in the Faroe Islands and Greenland included new land management practices, changes in livestock com- position and diversifi ed subsistence activities. The character of the adaptation was “learning-by-doing”. Before the 20th century, adaptation of the Inuit to Greenland consisted of both short-term responses, such as shifts between settlement sites and mobility, and long-term strategies, including new hunting techniques and well-defi ned societal rules and practices. Temperature rise during the early 1900s spurred an economic transition from seal hunting to cod fi shing, which led to the concentration of people in the large settlements of West Greenland. This concentration was reinforced by Danish settlement policies in the 1950s and 1960s. In South Greenland, where sheep-rearing was the main economic activity, the settlements were smaller and located in a more scattered manner. In North and East Greenland the set- tlement pattern remained dispersed because seal hunting required a larger radius of action. In the 1970s and 1980s, cooling of sea temperatures led to a decline in cod stocks. Thus shrimp fi shing replaced cod, which also meant a shift from in-shore to off-shore fi shing, which together with settlement policies of the Home Rule caused increasing centralization of Greenlandic population in the fi shing towns of West Greenland. At the present, there is an on-going process of diversifi cation in Greenland’s economy, which seems to give some settlements located close to the new resources a more active role in the economy, leading to an increase in their population. In the Faroe Islands, the settlement pattern was initially dictated by the dominant economic activity, sheep-rearing, which led to a dispersed settlement that refl ected the importance of land laws and land management systems. The economic transition from a farming society to fi shing nation began in the 18th century. Several factors played a role in the transition: population growth, favourable market conditions, large number of natural capital (fi sh stocks), production skills, and somewhat later, industrialization in other countries. Fishing was conducted predominantly from rowing boats in in-shore areas in the 1800s, and villages located at sites with good landing opportunities had remarkable population growth. The in- dustrialization of fi shing in the late 1800s and early 1900s caused a concentration of population in the largest fi shing settlements and in the capital Tórshavn. The modern Faroese society suffered economic crises in the 1950s and the 1990s, which were caused by a major decline in fi sh catches and problems of profi tability. The crises caused massive migration abroad and enforced the previous migration trends. Globalization has been the central development affecting the settlement pattern development of the two societies since the early 2000s. Migration of young people, especially women, from smallest villages to bigger settlements or abroad has increased. This new trend can not be explained by previous develop- ments but indicates that the northern societies, the Faroe Islands and Greenland, are closely integrated in the worldwide systems. Key words: Environmental change, adaptation, settlement pattern, Greenland, the Faroe Islands III TIIVISTELMÄ Tämä väitöskirja on tutkimus siitä, miten kaksi pohjoista yhteiskuntaa, Färsaaret ja Grönlanti, ovat vastanneet niihin haasteisiin, joita ympäristön muutos, poliittinen kehitys ja sosiaaliset sekä talou- delliset tekijät ovat aiheuttaneet. Tutkimuksessa kuvaillaan ihmisten sopeutumista pohjoisissa yh- teisöissä ja osoitetaan sopeutumisen yhteyksiä asutusrakenteen kehitykseen ja muutoksiin. Viikinkiajan asutusrakenteeseen vaikuttivat sekä Färsaarilla että Grönlannissa maankäytön val- litsevat käytännöt, maataloudessa pidettyjen kotieläinten ominaisuudet ja maataloustuotannon mo- nipuolistuminen. Viikinkiajan väestö toi mukanaan taitoja vanhoista kotimaistaan mutta sopeutui uusiin, pohjoisiin elinolosuhteisiin kokeilemalla ja tekemällä. Asutuksen sijoittumisen määrittelivät vallitsevat elinkeinot ja paikalliset luonnonympäristöt. Grönlannin inuitit sopeutuivat elinolosuhteiden muutokseen nopeasti vaihtamalla asuinpaikkaa ja olemalla liikkeessä. Inuitit kehittivät myös pidemmän aikavälin sopeutumisstrategioita, kuten uusia tapoja metsästää. He myös laativat yhteisöjen toimintaa helpottavia sääntöjä ja käytäntöjä. Merive- den lämpötilan nousu 1900-luvun alussa aiheutti elinkeinojen siirtymän hylkeenpyynnistä kalastuk- seen, mikä puolestaan johti väestön keskittymiseen Länsi-Grönlannin kaupunkeihin. Keskittymistä voimisti entisestään Tanskan harjoittama asutuspolitiikka 1950- ja 1960-luvuilla. Etelä-Grönlannissa, missä lampaanhoito oli pääasiallinen elinkeino 1800-luvulle asti, asutuskes- kukset olivat pieniä ja hajanaisesti sijoittuneita. Pohjois- ja Itä-Grönlannin asutusrakennetta luon- nehtivat pienet rannikkokylät. Asutusrakenne oli hajanainen siksi, että hylkeenpyynti pääelinkei- nona vaati laajan toimintasäteen. 1970- ja 1980-luvuilla meriveden lämpötilojen viileneminen johti turskansaaliiden määrän nopeaan vähenemiseen. Katkarapujen pyynti syrjäytti tuolloin turskanka- lastuksen. Katkarapuja pyydettiin avomerellä suurilla aluksilla toisin kuin turskaa. Grönlantilais- väestöä tarvittiin teollisen jalostuksen työvoimaksi isoimpiin kalastuskaupunkeihin. Tämä kehitys yhdessä itsehallinnon asutuspolitiikan kanssa lisäsi grönlantilaisten muuttoliikettä Länsi-Grönlan- nin kalastuskaupunkeihin. Nykyisin Grönlannin taloutta leimaa monipuolistuminen, millä näyttää olevan vaikutusta asutusrakenteen kehitykseen: uusien tulolähteiden läheisyydessä sijaitsevat kau- pungit ovat kasvussa. Färsaarilla asutus perustettiin suhteessa pääasialliseen taloudelliseen toimintaan, lampaanhoi- toon, mikä johti pieniin kyliin ja laajalle levittäytyneeseen asutusrakenteeseen. Asutusrakenne heijas- teli myös vallitsevien maalakien ja maanhallintajärjestelmän yhteiskunnallista merkitystä. Färsaarilla tapahtui talouden siirtymä maataloudesta kalastukseen 1700-luvun lopusta lähtien 1800-luvulle asti. Siirtymään vaikuttivat väestönkasvu, kalastuksen kannalta suosiolliset markkinaolosuhteet, suuret kalaparvet, uudet tuotantomahdollisuudet ja teollistumisen alkaminen muualla maailmassa. Kalas- tuselinkeino vaikutti välillisesti myös asutusrakenteeseen. 1800-luvun alussa färsaarelaiset kalastivat pääasiassa soutuveneillä rannikon läheisyydessä. Tuolloin ne kylät, joihin oli helpointa päästä soutu- veneillä, kasvoivat. Teollinen kalastus alkoi 1800-luvun lopulla ja teollistuminen jatkui 1900-luvun alkupuolella. Väestö alkoi keskittyä isoimpiin kalastuskaupunkeihin ja pääkaupunkiin Tórshavniin, joissa kalanjalostus tapahtui. Färsaarten taloutta heikensivät 1950-luvulla ja 1990-luvulla taloudelliset kriisit. Ne johtuivat ympäristön muutoksen aiheuttamasta kalansaaliiden romahduksesta ja kalastuk- sen tuottavuuden ongelmista. Seurauksena oli muuttoliike ulkomaille ja suurimpiin kaupunkeihin. Globalisaatio on vaikuttanut asutusrakenteen kehitykseen sekä Grönlannissa että Färsaarilla IV 2000-luvun alusta asti. Nuorten ihmisten, erityisesti naisten, muuttoliike pienimmistä kylistä suu- riin asutuskeskuksiin tai ulkomaille on lisääntynyt. Tätä kehityskulkua ei selitä kokonaan näiden yhteiskuntien oma, alueellinen, historiallinen kehitys. Se osoittaa, että Färsaaret ja Grönlanti ovat läheisessä yhteydessä maailmanlaajuiseen kehitykseen. Avainsanat: Ympäristön muutos, sopeutuminen, asutusrakenne, Grönlanti, Färsaaret VI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has included several persons in Finland, Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, whom I would like to thank for all their support, time and assistance. I am grateful to the Department of Geography at the University of Helsinki, the home base of my study, for providing me with education and guidance. Special thanks go to my supervisor, Profes- sor Markku Löytönen, for tireless encouragement and support for my work and Dr. Pauliina Raen- to for encouraging comments. Warmest thanks to Anna-Kaisa Hakkarainen who kept supporting me and with whom I had several discussions on the research process. I also want to thank Hilkka Ailio for doing the layout and Airi Töyrymäki for guiding me through the administrative challenges of completing this thesis. I would like to
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