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Sheep Farming As “An Arduous Livelihood”

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Sheep Farming As “An Arduous Livelihood” University of Alberta Cultivating Place, Livelihood, and the Future: An Ethnography of Dwelling and Climate in Western Greenland by Naotaka Hayashi A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology ©Naotaka Hayashi Spring 2013 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. Abstract In order to investigate how Inuit Greenlanders in western Greenland are experiencing, responding to, and thinking about recent allegedly human-induced climate change, this dissertation ethnographically examines the lives of Greenlanders as well as Norse and Danes in the course of past historical natural climate cycles. My emphasis is on human endeavours to cultivate a future in the face of difficulties caused by climatic and environmental transformation. I recognize locals’ initiatives to carve out a future in the promotion of sheep farming and tree-planting in southern Greenland and in adaptation processes of northern Greenlandic hunters to the ever-shifting environment. Sheep farming was introduced by those Danes who were inspired by the existence of Norse society in the Middle Ages on the island, and tree-planting was initiated, presumably for experiment purposes by Danes and other outsiders. Some self-reliant, independent Greenlanders who could envision an alternative life in farming took over and developed a sheep farming tradition. Whether tree-planting can take hold in a Greenlandic sociocultural landscape is still open to question. With government support, Greenlandic farmers managed to adapt their livelihood to the harsh climate although this created their dependency on the government and global economy. In the trial-and- error adaptation process, farmers learned historical fluctuations of temperature. This relates to what the Norse ruins scattering throughout southern Greenland tell farmers – a sense of continuity of people’s lives from the past to the present. This becomes their frame of reference in holding a view of the future. Like sheep farmers, hunters in northern Greenland are fully competent in a transient landscape and are flexible enough to cope with novel shocks in the environment. However, unlike farmers’, their effort to envision a future has often been frustrated by larger forces, including international politics. Locals’ narratives on climate change well reflect their expectations, frustrations, and anxieties. It is important to create a situation where people can freely envision a better way of life, explore future possibilities, and realize the values they have for life. This will lead to the continuance of individuals’ lives, local communities, and − ultimately – to the building of a sustainable nation. Acknowledgements My gratitude goes to all of my examining committee members – Naomi Krogman, Ken Caine, Marko Zivkovic, Rob Shields, Frank Sejersen (the external reader), former examiner Christopher Fletcher – and especially to my supervisor Mark Nuttall, who gave me invaluable advice from the early stages of my research project. Without his “whip,” I would not be able to finish this writing by the deadline of my PhD program. I received insightful advice concerning my research project from Yvon Csonka, Birger Poppel, and Søren Thuesen. Their advice helped me understand deeper Greenland’s political, social, and economic situation. In order to learn Greenlandic, I translated Estrid Janussen’s Greenlandic textbook from Danish to Japanese without permission; however, when I confessed this to her in Nuuk, she delightedly forgave me. Malin Jennings also kindly shared her invaluable information with me about hunting in northern Greenland. Milton Freeman always generously spared time to chat with me, which was always insightful and useful for understanding the affairs of the Circumpolar North. In editing my tree-planting chapter, I received useful comments from Andreas Kåre Hellum. Michelle Borowitz, Shirley Nelson, Linda Tiet, Tara Young, and Tim Young proofread the draft and helped me shape the structure of the chapters. I am extremely grateful to numerous local people in towns and settlements in Greenland. Without their kindness and hospitality, my fieldwork would not have been possible. I appreciate that Qaqortoq Mayor, Simon Simonsen, and Tina Jensen had warmly welcomed me at the initial stage of my fieldwork. I will be forever grateful to Kenneth Høegh and Pitsi Høegh, who provided my wife and me with a place to stay in Qaqortoq and assisted my fieldwork. I am also grateful to Aqqalooraq Frederiksen and Poul-Erik Pedersen for their support. I am very grateful for the staff members at the Agricultural Advisory Office in Qaqortoq for having supported my research during my fieldwork. Without their help, I would not have been able to get acquainted with so many sheep farmers in isolated places. Niuernermik Ilinniarfik (Business high school) and Ilinniarnertuunngorniarfik (Gymnasium) at Qaqortoq provided me with a venue to talk to students, teachers, and staff members. My thanks go to “Makka” Dahl, “Adami” Hansen, Sikkerninnguaq Hard, Malik Lundblad, and “Buuti” Mikaelsen who assisted my interviews with local people. Marius Elisasen and Karale Kielsen always generously helped me deepen my understanding of Greenlandic. For confidentiality reasons, there are many people whom I do not name here, but this never means that I am not thankful to them. Particularly, I appreciate the sheep farmers for their kindness and patience during the interviews, despite my poor western Greenlandic. Many thanks also go to the hunters in Siorapaluk and Qaanaaq. Qujanakulukulukulooq savaatillinnut, aamma aalisartunut piniartunullu oqaloqatigiikkatta silaannaap allangoriartornera pillugit! Aamma, Sioarapalummi Qaanaamilu piniartunut qujanarujussuaq! I will be forever grateful to Yuki Hayashi for her support. Our “honeymoon” started when we flew to Canada from Japan, but it deviated to Greenland halfway through, came back to Canada, and is still “ongoing.” My research in western Greenland was made possible by financial support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC Canada Graduate Scholarships, Doctoral); the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research of the University of Alberta (U of A, the Dissertation Fellowship and the Walter H. Johns Graduate Fellowship); the Department of Anthropology at the U of A (Provost Doctoral Entrance Award and the Departmental Graduate Professional Development Award); the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs (Northern Scientific Training Program grants); the Canadian Circumpolar Institute of the U of A (the Circumpolar/Boreal Alberta Research [CBAR] grants); the Canadian Anthropology Society (CASCA, Travel Award); and the Faculty of Arts at the U of A (Travel Award). Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................. 1 2. Theoretical Background: Understanding Climate Change in the Context of the Study of Global Environmental Change and an Introduction of Endogenous Development Theory ..................................................................................... 16 3. Research methods and the localities in question ..................................... 47 4. Life in a Settlement as Opposed to Life in a Town: Sheep Farming as “An Arduous Livelihood” ...................................................................................... 60 5. Living with History: Interactions Between Norse Ruins, Fjord Landscapes, and Time ..................................................................................................... 112 6. A History of a Sheep Farming Tradition in Greenland in the 20th Century: From Exogenous to Endogenous Development ............................................. 139 7. Settling and Cultivating the Southern Greenland Landscape: the Sheep Farmer as Settler/Pioneer ............................................................................ 184 8. Looking Forward: Tree-planting to Create Possibilities for Future Generations ................................................................................................ 219 9. Hunters and Hindrances in Northern Greenland: Larger Forces That Discourage Locals From Envisioning the Future ............................................ 254 10. One Phenomenon and Manifold Narratives: Different Views of the Future 286 11. Conclusion: Allowing Possibilities to Open Up in the Future Through the Creative Lives of Individuals ......................................................................... 319 12. References ....................................................................................... 328 Tables Table 4-1 Population distribution by habitation in Greenland in 2011 .......... 60 Table 7-1 The number of sheep (lambs and ewes) slaughtered between 1965 and 1966 .............................................................................................
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