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Africa and the World Dawn Nagar • Charles Mutasa Editors Africa and the World

Bilateral and Multilateral International Diplomacy Editors Dawn Nagar Charles Mutasa Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR) Independent Consultant Cape Town, Harare, Zimbabwe

ISBN 978-3-319-62589-8 ISBN 978-3-319-62590-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62590-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017953376

© Centre for Conflict Resolution 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover Image: © Zoonar GmbH / Alamy Stock Photo Cover Design: Samantha Johnson

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Acknowledgements

The editors, Dawn Nagar and Charles Mutasa, are grateful to all the contributors to this book and to all the staff and Board at the Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR), Cape Town, South Africa, who in their dif- ferent ways have made the publication of this book possible. We would like to thank the publication and editing team in particular for their tre- mendous support. We would like to especially thank Jason Cook for copyediting the manuscript so meticulously. Most importantly, we are indebted to the Embassy of the Kingdom of Norway, who provided the funding for this publication. In addition, we are grateful to the people and the government of Sweden, for their ­consistent support of the work of CCR.

Dawn Nagar and Charles Mutasa

v The original version of this book was revised. The biographies are moved from chapter end to book front matter. Contents

1 Introduction: Inspirations and Hesitations in Africa’s Relations with External Actors 1 Charles Mutasa

Part I Bilateral Relations: Traditional Powers 25

2 Africa and the United States: A History of Malign Neglect 27 Adekeye Adebajo

3 Africa and Russia: The Pursuit of Strengthened Relations in the Post- Era 51 Rosaline Daniel and Vladimir Shubin

4 Africa and : Winding Into a Community of Common Destiny 71 Haifang Liu

5 and Africa 95 Douglas A. Yates

ix x Contents

6 To and Beyond: Africa and the 119 Alex Vines

7 Africa and Portugal 143 Clara Carvalho

Part II Bilateral Relations: Non-Traditional Powers 167

8 Africa and ’s Relations After the Cold War 169 Bernardo Venturi

9 Brazil-Africa Relations: From Boom to Bust? 189 Adriana Erthal Abdenur

10 A Renewed Partnership? Contemporary -Africa Engagement 209 Danilo Marcondes de Souza Neto

11 Africa and India: Riding the Tail of the Tiger? 245 Kudrat Virk

12 Africa- Relations in the Post-Cold War Era 269 Scarlett Cornelissen and Yoichi Mine

13 Africa and the Nordics 287 Anne Hammerstad

14 Africa, the Islamic World, and 315 Roel van der Veen

Part III Multilateral Relations 333

15 Africa and the Middle East: Shifting Alliances and Strategic Partnerships 335 Hamdy A. Hassan and Hala Thabet Contents xi

16 Africa at the United Nations: From Dominance to Weakness 359 James O.C. Jonah

17 Africa and the International Criminal Court 371 Dan Kuwali

18 Can the BRICS Re-Open the “Gateway to Africa”? South Africa’s Contradictory Facilitation of Divergent Brazilian, Russian, Indian and Chinese Interests 403 Patrick Bond

19 Europe-African Relations in the Era of Uncertainty 433 Gilbert M. Khadiagala

20 Africa and the World Trade Organisation 455 Mariama Williams

21 Sub-Saharan Africa: The and the International Monetary Fund 475 L. Adele Jinadu

22 Conclusion 499 Dawn Nagar Notes on Contributors

Adriana Erthal Abdenur is a fellow at Instituto Igarapé and a senior post-doctoral scholar at CPDOC in Fundação Getúlio Vargas (FGV-Rio) through a grant from the Brazilian National Council for Scientific Research. She has a PhD from Princeton and a BA from Harvard. She has published widely on South-South cooperation and the BRICS, includ- ing recent articles in journals such as (Global Governance), Cambridge Review of International Affairs, Quarterly, and Journal of Peacebuilding and Development. She co-edited, with Thomas G. Weiss, the volume Emerging Powers at the UN (Routledge, 2016). Adekeye Adebajo is the Director of the Institute for Pan-African Thought and Conversation at the University of Johannesburg. He was Executive Director of the Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR) in Cape Town between 2003 and 2016. He served on United Nations missions in South Africa, Western Sahara, and , and was Director of the Africa Programme at the International Peace Institute (IPI) in New York. Prof. Adebajo is the author of six books: Building Peace in ; Liberia’s Civil War; The Curse of Berlin: Africa After the Cold War; UN Peacekeeping in Africa; The Eagle and The Springbok: Essays on and South Africa; and Thabo Mbeki: Africa’s Philosopher-King. He is the co-editor or editor of nine books, on managing global conflicts, the United Nations, the European Union, West African security, South Africa’s and Nigeria’s for- eign policies in Africa, and Nobel peace laureates of African descent. A graduate of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, and the Fletcher School of

xiii xiv Notes on Contributors

Law and Diplomacy in Massachusetts, he obtained his doctorate from Oxford University in , where he studied as a Rhodes Scholar. Patrick Bond is a professor of at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg. His recent books include South Africa— The Present as History (co-authored with John Saul, James Currey 2016); BRICS (co-edited with Ana Garcia, Pluto Press 2015); and Elite Transition (3rd edition, Pluto Press 2014). Bond obtained his PhD under David Harvey’s supervision at Johns Hopkins University, on the subject of uneven development in Zimbabwe. He learned politics in the anti- soli- darity movement, and during the mid-late 1990s worked in the South African government as a policy drafter, including in the president’s office as the editor of the 1994 (White Paper on Reconstruction and Development). Clara Carvalho holds a PhD in Anthropology from ISCTE received in 1999. She is the current president of AEGIS (Africa-Europe Group for Interdisciplinary Studies) and the former director of the Centre of African Studies/Centre of International Studies at ISCTE-IUL (2007–16). She is a professor in the Department of Anthropology, ISCTE-IUL, and has been Invited Professor at the Universities of Brown (USA, 2004) and Lille (France, 2002 and 2003), and gave short courses at the graduate method- ological seminars promoted by CODESRIA in several African countries, and at the Universities of Rovira i Virgil, Spain, and Mainz, . Her research interests are African Studies, focusing in health, education and gender. Her main research has been in Guinea-Bissau where she works since 1992 on several issues including local power, colonial iconography and medical anthropology. Since 2001 she has conducted projects on therapeutic practices, gender and social protection. Scarlett Cornelissen is a professor in the Department of Political Science at Stellenbosch University in South Africa. She has been a fellow with the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University and Leibniz Professor at Leipzig University. She conducts research on broad aspects of Africa in the world, with one of her principal research focuses being Africa- Asia relations, specifically Japan’s diplomacy,O fficial Development Assistance and industry in Africa. Recent books include Africa and International Relations in the Twenty-First Century (paperback edition published 2015); and Research Companion to Regionalisms (2011). She is the current co-editor of the (Review of International Studies), the journal of the British International Studies Association. Notes on Contributors xv

Rosaline Daniel is a senior project officer at the Centre for Conflict Resolution in Cape Town, South Africa. She holds Masters degrees from the University of Cape Town in South Africa and from the University of Westminster in the United Kingdom. Her interests include conflict resolu- tion, gender and peacebuilding, international organisations, the global arms trade, and Russia’s foreign policy. Anne Hammerstad is Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the University of Kent and a Senior Research Associate at the South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA). She was previously a lecturer and ESRC Fellow at the University of Kent; fellow at Royal Holloway, University of London; and Senior Researcher at SAIIA. Her DPhil thesis at Oxford University won the 2003 British International Studies Association (BISA) Thesis Prize. Anne is the author of The Rise and Decline of a Global Security Actor: UNHCR, Refugee Protection and Security (OUP 2014) and a con- tributor to the Oxford Handbook on Refugee and Forced Migration Studies. She has published academic articles, policy briefs, op-eds and book chapters on humanitarianism, refugees, development, and conflict and security in sub-Saharan Africa and India. Hamdy A. Hassan is a professor of Political Science at The College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Zayed University in Dubai. In 1999, Professor Hassan was granted the Egyptian State award in political sci- ence for his book Issues in the African Political Systems. From 2001 to 2005, Professor Hassan served as Vice President elect of the African Association of Political Science (AAPS). He is the founder and director of the Centre for African Future Studies, , since 1996. From 1999 to 2000 he served as a director of the UNESCO Human Rights Chair Located in Jordan. His research focuses on the democratization and development in Africa and the Arab world. He has authored and edited many books and articles in both Arabic and English including Africa and the Transformation of International System (2017), Renewal of Islamic Discourse in Africa (2015) and Regional Integration in Africa: Bridging the North-Sub-Saharan Divide (2011). L. Adele Jinadu is a professor of political science, who previously served as the President of the African Association of Political Science (AAPS), and as Vice President, International Political Science Association (IPSA). His publications include Structure and Choice in African Politics (1979), Fanon: In Search of the African Revolution (1986), Social Science & Development in Africa: Ethiopia, Mozambique, & Zimbabwe xvi Notes on Contributors

(1986), Ethnic Conflict and Federalism in Nigeria (2002); Intellectuals, Democracy and Development in Africa: History of the African Association of Political Science, AAPS, 1973–2003 (2003); and Explaining and Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa: Towards a Cultural Theory of Democracy (2007). James O.C. Jonah is a former United Nations (UN) Undersecretary- General for Political Affairs; and former Finance Minister of Sierra Leone. He holds a doctorate from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States. He has been a Senior Fellow at the Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies at the City University of New York Graduate Centre. He won a Carnegie Scholar Grant to write his 2006 memoirs What Price the Survival of the United Nations? Memoirs of a Veteran International Civil Servant. Gilbert M. Khadiagala is the Jan Smuts Professor of International Relations and Head of Department of International Relations at the University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. Prof. Khadiagala holds a doctorate in international studies from the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), the Johns Hopkins University, Washington, D.C. He is the author of Allies in Adversity: The Frontline States in Southern African Security; and Meddlers or Mediators? African Interveners in Civil Conflicts in Eastern Africa; the co-author of Sudan: The Elusive Quest for Peace; the editor of Security Dynamics in Africa’s Great Lakes Region; and, co-editor of African Foreign Policies: Power and Process and Conflict Management and; African Politics: Ripeness, Bargaining, and Mediation. Dan Kuwali is Extraordinary Professor of International Law, Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria. He is Visiting Professor at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre, Accra, . Professor Kuwali was Visiting Professor at the (Criminal Law), Public Law Department, Faculty of Law, University of Cape Town; at the Institute for Peace and Security Studies (IPSS), Addis Ababa University (AAU), in Ethiopia and also adjunct Professor at the Centre for Security Studies (CSS), Mzuzu University in Malawi. Professor Kuwali is editor of several publications in Law and Africa’s Responsibility to Protect doctrine and also editor of the African Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law. Haifang Liu holds a PhD in history from Peking University, and is an Associate Professor at the School of International Studies, Peking University. She previously worked for the Institute of West Asian and Notes on Contributors xvii

African Studies (IWAAS), the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS), and as a visiting scholar at the Institute of Social Studies in The Hague. She serves as Deputy Director and General-Secretary of the Centre for African Studies, Peking University and as the vice president of the Chinese Society of African Historical Studies. She is also a member of the SSRC China-Africa Knowledge Project’s Working Group. Yoichi Mine is a professor at the Graduate School of Global Studies, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, and Professor Extraordinaire at the Department of Political Science, Stellenbosch University, South Africa. His research interests include human security, development and African area study with a focus on . He has published several award-winning Japanese books on peace and development in Africa. His English publication includes: Yoichi Mine, Frances Stewart, Sakiko Fukuda-Parr and Thandika Mkandawire (eds.), Preventing Violent Conflict in Africa: Inequalities, Perceptions and Institutions (Palgrave, 2013). As Visiting Fellow at the JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) Research Institute, he heads a research project on human security in East Asia. Charles Mutasa is an independent development policy consultant. He is the editor of several books on African development issues including the fol- lowing: Civil Society and Constitutional Reforms in Africa; and Africa and the Millennium Development Goals: Progress, Problems, and Prospects. He is the former Executive Director of Mwelekeo waNGO (MWENGO) and the African Forum and Network on Debt and Development (AFRODAD), and former Head of Program Policy at Christian ’s Africa division. He briefly worked for DanChurch Aid as Programme Officer and at Landesa (Seattle) as an intern. He was the first (AU) Economic, Social and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC) Deputy Presiding Officer and representa- tive for Southern Africa region. He is a graduate from the University of Washington (LLM); Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (MA) and University of Zimbabwe (PhD, Msc and Bsc). Dawn Nagar is a senior researcher at the Centre for Conflict Resolution in Cape Town. She works on the political economy and security issues of Africa’s regional integration, African politics, South Africa’s foreign policy and mainly economic and security challenges, international organisations, and on conflict resolution and mediation. She is coeditor of the books: Region-Building in Southern Africa: Progress, Problems and Prospects, 2012; xviii Notes on Contributors and Region-Building in Africa: Political and Economic Challenges, 2016. She holds a Doctorate of Philosophy in International Relations from the University of the Witwatersrand; and obtained her Masters degrees in Philosophy from the University of Nelson Mandela (formerly the University of Port Elizabeth); and in Politics and International Relations from the University of Cape Town (UCT). Vladimir Shubin is Principal Research Fellow of the Institute for African Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences and Research Fellow of the CEMIS, Faculty of Military Science, Stellenbosch University. He has a Doctor of Science (History) degree from the Moscow State University and PhD (Honoris Causa) degree from the University of the Western Cape. Before joining the academia from the late 1960s he was involved in the political and practical support for the liberation struggle in Africa. He is an author of seven books including (in English) Social Democracy and Southern Africa, ANC: a View from Moscow; and The Hot ‘Cold War’: the USSR in Southern Africa. Apart from Soviet/Russian state awards he was bestowed with the South African Order of Companions of O.R. Tambo (silver) for his “excel- lent contribution to the struggle against Apartheid and in Southern Africa”. Danilo Marcondes de Souza Neto is currently a post-doctoral researcher at the Institute of International Relations at the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (IRI/PUC-Rio). Danilo holds a PhD in Politics and International Studies from the University of Cambridge and a bachelor’s and a master’s degree from IRI/PUC-Rio, where he also worked as a lecturer (2010–12). Danilo is a former Junior Visiting Fellow with the Programme for the Study of International Governance (PSIG) at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva (IHEID) (2015–16) and conducts research in the areas of Brazilian foreign and defense policy, South-South cooperation and UN peacekeeping operations. He has pub- lished in the following journals: Africa Review, Journal of Peacebuilding and Development, Journal of the Indian Ocean Region and Cambridge Review of International Affairs; and co-author of a book chapter, “Malleable identities and blurring frontiers of cooperation: Reflections on India’s distinct engagement with and Mozambique”, in a book published by Palgrave in 2017 on South-South Cooperation Beyond the Myths: Rising Donors, New Aid Practices? edited by Isaline Bergamaschi, Phoebe Moore and Arlene Tickner. Notes on Contributors xix

Hala Thabet is an Egyptian Academic and researcher, currently working as the Assistant Dean for Students Affairs at the College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Zayed University (ZU), in Abu Dhabi—UAE. She trained as a political scientist in Egypt and the UAE, before joining ZU, she worked in the Egyptian Parliament (People’s Assembly) as a political researcher. Thabet specializes in African political systems, Ethnic Identity, conflict management, Military and civilian rule, and comparative political systems. She has published on African Institutions, Nation Building, Democratization and African Political Systems. She is currently working on Gender and African Politics. Roel van der Veen studied History, Medicine and Philosophy, and is cur- rently professor of international relations at the University of Amsterdam and an expert on historical development issues. In 2004 he obtained his doctorate from the University of Groningen on research on fragile states in Africa. He has also served in the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) for almost thirty years in various positions in The Hague and at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Jakarta, . His work for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs has focused especially on Dutch relations with Africa and Asia, and on policy development and strategy. Since 2007 he is the Academic Advisor of the Netherlands MFA. Over the years he has also taken up academic work. Besides various articles, he has written a book on the development problems of Africa What Went Wrong with Africa: A Contemporary History and one on the rise of Asia Why Asia is becoming Rich and Powerful—to be translated into English. Roel van der Veen has also served as a secretary of the Dutch Advisory Council on International Affairs and researcher at the Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’. Bernardo Venturi is a researcher at the Rome-based think-tank Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI—Institute for International Affairs), where he focuses on EU foreign policy, African affairs, peacebuilding and develop- ment. He holds a PhD at the University of Bologna and he worked for different think-tanks, universities and NGOs. Among his jobs, he is a co- founder of the Agency for Peacebuilding (AP) and an elected member of the European Peacebuilding Liaison Office (EPLO) steering committee. In the last few years, he also conducted evaluations and assessment for international NGOs, mainly focused on Africa. xx Notes on Contributors

Alex Vines has been Head of the Africa Programme at Chatham House since 2002 and in 2008 became director for Regional Studies and International Security. In 2012 Alex was appointed Director for Area Studies and International Law. He chaired the UN Panel of Experts on Côte d’Ivoire from 2005 to 2007 and was a member of the UN Panel of Experts on Liberia from 2001 to 2003. He was a member of the Commonwealth Observer Group to Ghana in 2016 and was also a UN election officer in Mozambique and Angola. He worked at as a senior researcher and is a senior lecturer at Coventry University. He was awarded an OBE in 2008 in recognition of his work including founding and developing Chatham House’s Africa programme and is an Hon. Fellow of the Nigerian Institute of International Affairs in Lagos. He sits on the editorial boards of the South African Journal of International Affairs, Journal of Southern African Studies and Africa Review (of the African Studies Association of India). Kudrat Virk is an independent researcher and consultant based in Cape Town, South Africa. She currently serves as Acting Executive Director at the Centre for Conflict Resolution in Cape Town. She holds a DPhil in International Relations from the University of Oxford in England. Most recently, Dr Virk is co-editor of The ACP Group and the EU Development Partnership: Beyond the North-South Debate (2017). She has contributed chapters on aspects of India’s foreign policy to several volumes published by, among others, Oxford University Press and Routledge. Her work has also appeared in the journals Global Responsibility to Protect and International Review of the Red Cross. Dr Virk’s research interests include the responsibility to protect (R2P) and humanitarian intervention; interna- tional peacekeeping and the protection of civilians; and emerging powers, in particular, the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa). She is currently working on edited volumes on South Africa’s for- eign policy; and peacemaking, peacekeeping, and peacebuilding in Africa. Mariama Williams is a Senior Fellow and Senior Programme Officer, Global Governance for Development Programme, the South Centre, Geneva, Switzerland. She is also a director of the Institute of Law and Economics (ILE), Jamaica. Dr Williams is the author of Climate Change Finance—Coming out of the Margins (Routledge, 2015); Trading Stories: Experiences with Gender and Trade (co-edited with Marilyn Carr, Commonwealth Secretariat, 2010), co-author, Gender and Trade Action Guide: A Training Resource (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2007), and Notes on Contributors xxi author, Gender Issues in the Multilateral Trading System (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2003). Her current research areas are the debt and financial crisis, climate change and climate change financing, and gender . Dr Williams has extensive experience in the areas of sover- eign debt crises, international trade policy and macroeconomics and eco- nomic development. Dr Williams is currently a member of UN Women External Advisory Group for the “Gender Equality in the 2030 Agenda for ” Report, and member of Dawn. Douglas A. Yates is a professor of African Studies at the American Graduate School in Paris (AGS) and a professor of Anglo-American Law at the University of Cergy-Pontoise. He has written six books about , the oil industry, and French African policy, including The Rentier State in Africa: Oil-Rent Dependence and in the Republic of Gabon (1996), The Historical Dictionary of Gabon 3rd ed. (2006) and 4th ed. (2018), The French Oil Industry and the Corps des Mines in Africa (2009), and The Scramble for African Oil (2012). List of Abbreviations

AAF-SAP African Alternative Framework to Programmes for Socioeconomic Recovery and Transformation ABC Agência Brasileira de Cooperação ABE Africa Business Education ACDEG African Charter on Democracy, Elections, and Governance ACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights ACIRC African Capacity for Immediate Response to Crises ACJHR African Court of Justice and Human Rights ACP African, Caribbean, and Pacific ACP group of states ACP African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries ADF African Development Fund AFD Agence Française de Développement AfDB African Development Bank AFISMA African-led International Support Mission in Mali Afri-Can Japan Citizens’ Network for TICAD AFRICOM Africa Command Afrocom Coordination Committee on Economic Cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa AFSI Aquila Initiative

xxiii xxiv List of Abbreviations

AGA African Governance Architecture AGOA African Growth and Opportunity Act AIDA Accelerated Industrial Development for Africa AIIB Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank ALBA Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of our America AMISI I AU Mission in Darfur AMISOM African Union Mission in AMU Arab Maghreb Union ANC African National Congress ANGOSAT Angolan National System of Satellite Communications and Broadcasting AoA Agreement on Agriculture APF African Peace Facility APPER Africa’s Priority Programme for Economic Recovery of 1986–1990 APRM African Peer Review Mechanism APRRP African Peacekeeping Rapid Response Partnership APSA African Peace and Security Architecture AQMI Al Qaida au Maghreb Islamique ASA African Studies Association ASA Africa–South America Forum ASCM Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASF African Standby Force ASPA Summit of South American-Arab Countries AU African Union AU-ECA African Union Economic Commission for Africa BAAP Buenos Aires Action Plan BATUK British Army Training Unit Kenya BIS Bank for International Settlements BITs bilateral investment treaties BMATT British Military Advisory Training Team BME Black and Minority Ethnic BNDES Brazilian National Development Bank BPS TEA British Peace Support Team List of Abbreviations xxv

BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa CAR Central African Republic CARD Coalition for African Rice Development CARICOM Community of Caribbean States CCCE Caisse Centrale de Coopération Économique CCECC Chinese Civil Engineering Construction Company CCFOM Caisse Centrale de la France d’Outre-Mer CCR Centre for Conflict Resolution CDC US Centres for Disease Control CDSP Common Defence and Security Policy CET common external tariff CFA Communauté Financière Africaine C-FTA Continental Free Trade Area CGFOME General Coordination for International Actions Against Hunger CIA US Central Intelligence Agency COBRADI cooperation for international development COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa COP Conference of the Parties summit CPA Cotonou Partnership Agreement CPLP Community of Portuguese- Countries CRA Contingent Reserve Arrangement CRRs Transformation Country Review Reports CSDP Common Security and Defence CSOs civil society organisations CSSF Conflict, Stability, and Security Fund DAC Development Assistance Committee DFID Department for International Development DFIs Development Finance Institutions DGCID Direction Générale de la Coopération Internationale et du Développement. DKK Danish kroner DPKO UN’s Department of Peacekeeping Operations DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DTI South Africa’s Department of Trade and Industry EAC East African Community EACTI Counter-Terrorism Initiative ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States xxvi List of Abbreviations

ECDPM European Centre for Development Policy Management ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EDF European Development Fund EEAF ’s Forensic Anthropology Team EEC European Economic Community EGA Environmental Goods Agreement E-HORN East Horn of Africa Election Observers Network EMBRAPA Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation ENI Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi EPAs economic partnership agreements EU European Union EUAVSEC EU Aviation Security Mission EUBAM EU Border Assistance Mission in Libya EUCAP EU Civilian Capacity Building Mission EUCAP Nestor Somalia EU Civilian Capacity Building Mission in Somalia EUCAP Sahel EU Civilian Capacity Building Mission in Nigeria EUCAP Sahel in Nigeria EUCAP Sahel in Mali EU Civilian Capacity Building Mission in Mali EUCAP Sahel in Mali EUFOR EU Force to protect civilians EUPOL EU Police Mission EUROSUR Frontex European Border Surveillance System EUROSUR EUSEC EU Security Sector Reform Mission EUTM Mali EU Training Mission in Mali Exim Bank Export-Import Bank of China FAC Fonds d’Aide et de Coopération FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office FDI Foreign direct investment FIDES Fonds d’Investissements pour le Développement Économique et Social FIFA International Football Federation FIOCRUZ Oswaldo Cruz Foundation FNLA Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola FOAR Argentine Horizontal Cooperation Fund FOCAC Forum on China-Africa Cooperation FRELIMO Mozambique Liberation Front FTAs free trade agreements List of Abbreviations xxvii

G5 South Africa, Mexico, Brazil, India, and China Group of Five G8 Group of Eight G20 Group of 20 G77 states Group of 90 states GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GCA Global Coalition for Africa GCC Gulf Cooperation Council GDP Gross Domestic Product GNI Gross National Income GNP Gross National Product HIPCs heavily indebted poor countries HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IBSA India, Brazil, and South Africa IBSAMAR Brazil military cooperation and trilateral naval exercises ICC International Criminal Court IDA International Development Association IFTF Trade-Related Technical Assistance IFU investment funds for developing countries IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development’s IIRSA Regional Infrastructure of South America IMATT International Military Advisory and Training Team IMF International Monetary Fund IPEA Institute of Applied Economic Research IS Islamic State ITA (WTO) Information Technology Agreement ITA (Italy) Italian Trade Agency ITA ITC International Trade Centre JAES Joint EU-Africa Strategy JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation JETRO Japan External Trade Organisation JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JSPS Japan Society for the Promotion of Science xxviii List of Abbreviations

LAC Latin American and Caribbean nations LAS League of Arab States LDCs least developed countries LGBTT lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and transvestite LPA Lagos Plan of Action LRA Lord’s Resistance Army MCA Millennium Challenge Account MDC Movement for Democratic Change MDGs Millennium Development Goals MENA Middle East and North Africa MERCOSUL Southern Common Market MFN most favoured nation MINURSO United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara MINUSCA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilisation Mission in the Central African Republic MINUSMA Multidimensional Integrated Stabilisation Mission in Mali MINUSTAH United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti MISA African-led International Support Mission to the Central African Republic MOFA Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs MONUSCO United Nations Organisation Stabilisation Mission in the Democratic MoU memorandum of understanding MPLA People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola MPs members of parliament MRTAs mega-regional trade agreements MTN Mobile Telecommunication Network NAM Non-Aligned Movement NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NAVFOR EU Naval Force NDB New Development Bank NDF Nordic Development Fund NEN New Economic Neighbourhood programme NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development List of Abbreviations xxix

NERICA New Rice for Africa NGOs non-governmental organisations NHS National Health Service NKR Norwegian kroner NLC Nacala Logistics Corridor NTBs non-tariff barriers NTC National Transitional Council OAS Organisation of American States OAU Organisation of African Unity ODA official development assistance OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OECD-DAC Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development-Development Assistance Committee OIC Organisation of the Islamic Conference OIF Organisation de la Francophonie. ONUMOZ United Nations Operation in Mozambique OPEC Organisation of Exporting Countries P5+1 USA, China, France, Britain, Germany, and Russia PAIGC African Party for the of Guinea and Cape Verde PALOP Portuguese speaking African Countries PARLACEN Central American Parliament PEAP Poverty Eradication Action Plan PEPFAR President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief PIDA Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa PMDB Brazilian Democratic Movement Party PNF National Fascist Party PRC People’s Republic of China PRGF Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PSC Peace and Security Council PSDB Brazilian Social Democracy Party PSI Pan-Sahel Initiative PwC Pricewaterhouse Coopers xxx List of Abbreviations

RCEP Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme RECs regional economic communities RENAMO Mozambican National Resistance RMs regional mechanisms SACU Southern African Customs Union SADC Southern African Development Community SADR Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic SALs structural adjustment loans SANDF South African National Defence Force SAPs structural adjustment programmes SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SDR special drawing right SEC Securities and Exchange Commission SEK Swedish krone SHEP Smallholder Horticulture Empowerment and Promotion SICA Central American Integration System SIDS small-island developing states SMEs small and medium-sized enterprises SMMEs small, medium, and micro enterprises SOEs state-owned enterprises SPS sanitary and phytosanitary measures SRE Mexican Ministry of Foreign Affairs SSR security sector reforms SWAPO People’s Organisation TAAG Angolan national airline TBs tariff barriers TDCA Europe-South Africa Trade Development Corporation Agreement TFA Trade Facilitation Agreement TICAD Tokyo International Conference on African Development TIKKA Turkish Cooperation and Development Agency TISA Trade in Services Agreement TPP Trans-Pacific Partnership TRIMs Trade-Related Investment Measures List of Abbreviations xxxi

TRIPS Trade-Related Intellectual Property System TSCTI Trans-Sahara Counter-Terrorism Initiative TWN Third World Network UAE United Arab Emirates UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA UN Economic Commission for Africa UNEFI UN Emergency Force in Sinai UNEP UN Environment Programme UNFCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change UNGA United Nations General Assembly UNIFIL United Nations Interim Force in UNITA National Union for the Total Independence of Angola UNMOGIP United Nations Observer Missions of unarmed military officers: in India and UNODC United Nations Office Against Drugs and Crime UNSC United Nations Security Council UNTSO United Nations Observer Missions of unarmed military officers: in the Middle East UPA Union of the People of Angola USA United States of America USAID US Agency for International Development VEB Vnesheconombank WAEON West Africa Electoral Observers Network WEF World Economic Forum WHO World Health Organization WTO World Trade Organisation YALI Young African Leaders Initiative ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s Union ZOPACAS Zone of Peace and Cooperation of the South Atlantic ZTE Zhongxing Telecommunications Equipment List of Figures

Fig. 6.1 UK remittance flows into Africa from leading developed countries, 2014 ($ billions) 121 Fig. 6.2 UK’s share of Africa’s bilateral trade, 2016 (percentages) 123 Fig. 6.3 UK FDI positions with Africa, 2005–14 (£ billions) 124 Fig. 7.1 objectives of the Community of Portuguese-Language Countries 155 Fig. 7.2 CPLP members’ integration in regional organisations 156 Fig. 8.1 Italian embassies in Sub-Saharan Africa, 2017 176 Fig. 8.2 Italian diplomatic network abroad, 2016 177 Fig. 8.3 Italy’s official development assistance, 1970–2015 181 Fig. 8.4 Italy’s bilateral and multilateral official development assistance, 2015 182 Fig. 8.5 Italy’s export partner share, 2015 183 Fig. 11.1 India-Africa trade, 2001–16 250 Fig. 11.2 Regional shares of India’s imports, 2005–06 and 2015–16 253 Fig. 11.3 Regional shares of India’s exports, 2005–06 and 2015–16 254 Fig. 14.1 Europe’s mental map of Sub-Saharan Africa 317 Fig. 15.1 Turkey’s top five trading partners in Sub-Saharan Africa, 2006 ($ millions) 345 Fig. 15.2 Turkey’s top five trading partners in Sub-Saharan Africa, 2012 346

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Fig. 15.3 Total trade between Sub-Saharan Africa and Arab States, 2008–14 347 Fig. 15.4 Total trade between Israel and Sub-Saharan Africa, 2001–15 349 Fig. 18.1 Power cascades from the metropole to the periphery 405 List of Tables

Table 7.1 Imports to Portugal of assets and services from Africa, 2011–15 (€ millions) 159 Table 11.1 India’s top ten export partners in Africa in 2015–16 251 Table 11.2 India’s top ten import partners in Africa in 2015–16 252 Table 21.1 Past presidents and chief economists of the World Bank 478 Table 21.2 Substantive managing directors of the IMF since 1946 478 Table 21.3 Ten largest countries by voting power in World Bank institutions by number of votes 479 Table 21.4 Special drawing right (SDR) quotas and voting shares for top ten IMF members 480 Table 21.5 Select list of World Bank-funded projects in Africa, May–July 2016 490 Table 21.6 International Monetary Fund (IMF) loans to Africa, 2012–2016 493 Table 21.7 Arrangements approved and augmented by the IMF under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust in FY2016 in millions of SDRs 494

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