APPLYING CRITICAL RACE THEORY TO MULTICULTURAL CHILDREN’S BOOKS: RACE AND RACISM IN KOREAN-CANADIAN CHILDREN’S BOOKS
by
CAROLYN KIM
BA., The University of British Columbia, 2002
A THESIS SUBMITTED [N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
(Children’s Literature)
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
December 2008
© Carolyn Kim, 2008 Abstract
The metaphor of Canadian society as a “mosaic” had been used to describe Canada’s diverse society, even before Canada’s adoption of the Multicultural Act in 1988, with the government policy “to recognize all Canadians as full and equal partners in Canadian society.”
The government’s aims suggest comfortable integration, but racism is a part of Canada’s history and remains a problem, though this has been overlooked since Canadians have clung to the vision of Canada as a tolerant society. Canadian children’s books reflect some of the racial oppression that certain cultures endured but they do not overall serve well in representing distinct cultural groups in Canada and their diverse racial experiences.
The year 2002 was a milestone for Korean-Canadian children’s literature with Janie
Jaehyun Park’s The Tiger and the Dried Persimmon earning a place as a finalist for the prestigious Canadian Governor General’s Literary Award for Illustration and winning the
Elizabeth Mrazik-Cleaver Picture Book Award. Canada has not seen an abundance in the publication of Korean-Canadian children’s books as America has seen with Korean American children’s books, but there have been a handful of books that involve Korean Canadian characters and culture, most of which have not been written by Korean-Canadian authors. This observation led to my research questions: “Are there any observable biases in the books that have been published about Koreans and Korean Canadians?” Also, “How does the racial identity of the authors or illustrators shape their views when writing books for children?”
I discovered that the sample size of Korean-Canadian books is very small (only 10 published thus far), as I undertook research to qualitatively determine racial biases through the application of key principles from Critical Race Theory. In looking at Korean-Canadian children’s books and their background, I outlined not only the history of Korean immigration and social history in Canada, but China’s history of racism in Canada, which acted as a precursor to
11 racial sentiments that contributed to stereotyping of Asians to this day. And, since a common mistake among people is the grouping of all Asians as Chinese, I determined to show that
Korean culture has not been treated as distinct. Investigation of the Korean-Canadian books published so far shows that a very limited range of experiences is represented for child readers,
and that crucially missing are the voices from the Korean-Canadian community to tell their
stories for children.
111 Table of Contents
Abstract ii
Table of Contents iv
List of Illustrations v
Acknowledgements vi
Dedication vii
Chapter One: Introduction 1
Historical Background of Chinese in Canada: Immigration and Race Relations 5 Historical Background of Koreans in Canada: Immigration and Social History 13 Multiculturalism in Canada and Its Relation to Children’s Reading 32
Chapter Two: Literature Review 36
Chapter Three: Theoretical Framework: Critical Race Theory (CRT) 55
Background in Legal Studies and Race 56 Critical Race Theory in Education and Its Application to Children’s Literature 56 Critical Race Theory in Canada 63 Chapter Four:. Korean Canadian Children’s Books 67 Criteria and Methodology 67 Discussion 70
Chapter Five: Conclusion 114
Works Cited 120
Appendices 134
A: Carolyn Kim’s Checklist 134
B: Sarah Park’s Checklist 136
C: Annotated Bibliography of Korean-Canadian Children’s Books 139
D: Illustrations 145
E: Chronology: Chinese/Korean-Canadian Children’s Books (spreadsheet) 148
iv 2.
3.
1.
Gold,
Korean Young
Gold
Canada
Boy
in
(cover).
Cariboo
Picture
Artist
(frontispiece)
Book
List
unknown —
of
The
Illustrations
Children
by
[Godfrey
of
(See
Korea.
C.
Appendix
Hilldley]
Artist
unknown
D)
145
146 147 V Acknowledgements
This thesis is submitted for the degree of Master of Arts in Children’s Literature offered by the University of British Columbia’s multidisciplinary Master of Arts in Children’s Literature
Program. This program is offered jointly by the School of Library, Archival and Information
Studies, the Department of English, the Department of Language and Literacy Education, and the
Department of Theatre, Film and Creative Writing.
I owe an enormous debt to many people who supported, encouraged and assisted me in the completion of this thesis. First, I am indebted to my supervisor, Professor Jane Flick for taking me on as a long-distance thesis student, for sticking by me through all these years, for her extraordinary patience, generosity, and loving attention to all details of this thesis. I also wish to thank Professor Judi Saitman for her time, constant encouragement, and inspiration to apply to the program in the first place.
I also wish to extend my gratitude to the following Toronto public librarians: Yuka
Kajihara-Nolan, Leslie McGrath, and Mariella Bertelli from the Osborne Collection of Early
Children’s Books, Toronto Public Library, who went out of their way in assisting me, for always
showing an interest in my topic, and encouraging me with respect to the importance of writing
about it. Also, I wish to thank Theo Heras, a children’s librarian at Lillian H. Smith Library and
Brenda Halliday at the Canadian Children’s Book Centre for their time in enthusiastically
assisting me with my needs as well.
I owe much thanks and love to my friends and family both in Vancouver and Toronto for
all their support and love through these years. And to my parents, to whom I am forever grateful
for the sacrifices they made in immigrating to Canada.
vi Dedication
I want to dedicate this thesis to my loving and faithful husband, James and to our beautiful and awe-inspiring children, Ella and Eva.
vii recording to
my
but “mainstream”
in first connectedness” about
Korean
a
physical
even
university-level
novel 12th
Linda
I
never
more
common
immigrant
century
A
appearance
Single
Sue
an confront and Canadian the appearance. attractive—especially group I Americans. constant my seemingly
sensibility.
frequently
gave
experienced
for
if
unavoidable
Park
feeling
race
it’s
Korea
you
experiences
me.
Shard this
class
like
parents.
Being
surprising
alone—have
is
are the
in
places culture.
much
Let
this
harmless
writing in
of as
your
studying
There
was
Whether
racially
fact
a
being
Chinese-,
visibly
me racism
one,
language
one.
Though
thought
life. like me
of
for
explain
given
was
Also,
Chapter
about
your judged
or
encounters—the
within This
hyphenated
multicultural Korean-Canadians
an
As
for hyphenated
it’s
worked
if
have
hostility
Japanese-, epiphany,
that
I you’re
growing
I an
hyphen
the and because her
is
was before
am
by
the
Asian-American,
a something
One
most we
experiences
sensibility
physical
aware
to
“made”
people
realm blond
only
all
shape
in
I every -
you’re up.
in
part
start children’s
an
Introduction
or
have a
a
of
rarely.
way
assumptions
of experience Linda and American” Reading
Filipino-Canadian.
before racial This
handicap,
in
in
that what
day. being
sounding
too,
that
“multicultural”
old,
moments
Canada,
as far
very that
changed,
others
Not
a
But Sue
sense,
would
resonated as
more
or
you
literature.
seen
I
Korean-American,
is
and
attractive—you
am
I
young,
the always
Park,
immediately
well
or
melodramatic. of
do
I
sometimes
people benign as
when
well
those
Writing
eventually
have
are
profound
countless,
or
however,
not
know
“Life
with
or
say
obese,
aware
Reading in
Canada
we
been experiences
only
made
female,
ways
a
a
as
me as
are negative
With
single
fail
“cultural
visible,
a Korean-Canadian,
made that
or
become
when
one daily,
have
as judged than
Korean-
about
and
Park
blond, Linda
but
to
or
A
Korean
my
born
thing.
understand,
aware
Hyphen:
not
male
experienced
most I
often
she
are
sense,
then
me is
was
family
my
by
Sue
or
in
writing in
a is
based
in
African-
our
you
sitting very Canada
writing
of
Park’s
but
a
how
and
in
on
1 Canadian. I was learning something about the history of my culture not from a dry textbook but from historical fiction aimed at a young audience. That got me excited because I had never read anything like it growing up. And most important of all, to me, was the fact that she was Korean-
American and she wrote well. It gave me a sense of pride seeing someone who shared my bicultural identity being published and critically lauded for her works. It also meant that one could be Korean and have a voice and be distinct from being Chinese. So, it made me wonder what was happening in Canada. Were there any Korean-Canadian authors writing for children?
Perhaps I had just not come across their books growing up. Thus, I began my research.
One of Canada’s most distinctive characteristics is that it is a nation of immigrants.
Among the various groups, Asians make up a large component of the immigrants in Canada.
According to the 2006 Statistics Canada Census, over five million Canadians are visible minorities, with Chinese and South Asians accounting for almost half of this number. Other
major groups are Filipinos, Southeast Asians, Koreans, and Japanese. Asians share common
experiences with Western European immigrants, such as adapting to a new land and language
and many times taking menial jobs to support their families. However, Asian culture and
physical appearances distinctly separated them from the majority and, as Peter Ward observes,
“complicated the process of their integration” (10). Early contacts between whites and Chinese
during the period of the gold rush and railway construction only reinforced “the Oriental’s lesser
nature” (10) as Asians were placed in an intermediate position between blacks and whites in the
“widely accepted colour spectrum of race” (10). Enduring racial oppression during the
acculturation process in Canada is a key theme that needs to be addressed accurately in
children’s literature portraying Asian history in Canada.
2 Depiction
books scant non-Asians
Carroll.
participation in the
Wolley’s and Godfrey him
them
One
Comparatively, fashion. Chinese that
corroborates
English Canadiana 1
Lillian
these
Lillian
grasping
on
Chinese
of
in
with
for
Asians
related
these
a
H.
Canadian
were
Apart
This
C.
garb.
higher
Gold. children
Collection.
Smith of
H. his
with
Hindley,
in
the
men
are anxiously
a
notably to
Smith style
hands
lived
from
While great
the
Canada Library,
Gold
the
elevation
the
not
Chinese
children’s
is
published
not
gold
Chinese
This in
this exception Library’
sitting
on deal equally
shows
in
characterized
the
or
Canada
only a
at
his
Cariboo:
collection rush
Toronto
book, whose
of Caucasians
in
of gold
upright
hips
a
sets
historical
man literature,
human Early
before ground
in
provides
Chinese
writers,
even of
all
nuggets
public
a
casting
him
is
Korean A
book is
others
a
on
Canadian
as
the dark-skinned
Story before
but representative
dressed
apart
illustrators are library,
evidence, man his an
an
particularly
in
on
1
a
an
were
970s
drawn
inferior
Boy
example.
look the
knees
of
visually,
the
inferior Confederation
(see
houses
Adventure
appropriately
Canadiana
portraying
(1955) written
ground; Children’s
of
or
Illustration
realistically,
at
especially
selection
publishers
race.
disdain
with
the
the
in
race
but
The
unique
written
early
and
side
the
two
An
it
in
to
coloured
of
Collection
Asians towards
suggests
in
are
illustrated
traditional
British
Literature
the
as
19th-
from while
illustration works
Caucasian
Osborne
1)
1867,
he
by
associated
gold
dominant on
and
is
Pak
were
1858
the
his
the Columbia frontispiece
found
drawn
miners
in
yet
Collection,
20th-century
in
Jong
by other
hands
queue
a
Chinese
written men onward,
the
with
depictions
of
rather
non-Asians,
culture. in
in
the
in
Osborne
Yong
one it.
Canada.
are
and
a
dressed
(1894),
Canada
which
Chinese
highly
unsubtle
and
man.
of
children’s
positioned
that is
knees
with
This
Clive
standing
of
illustrated
includes
Collection
the
in
them
illustrated Almost
caricaturized
at and
Jock
racist
bent
traditional
fashion
books that
Chinese Phillipps
Asians
behind are
The
behind
low
time.
image
all
in
by
at
by
3 were not welcome during a time of economic boom in western Canada, except as cheap labour.
Matthew MacFie, writing in 1865 in Vancouver Island and British Columbia observes:
Let the [English colonists] show the fruits of a superior civilization and religion,
not in ridiculing and despising these pagan strangers [the Chinese] but in treating
them with the gentle forbearance due to a less favoured portion of the family of
humankind, and they will continue to be useful and inoffensive members of
society. (380-381)
This paper aims to delineate the historical experience of the Chinese and the Koreans from when they first settled in Canada. This historical context will provide a background for exploring how their experiences have been portrayed in books for children, with particular attention to race relations. Anti-Asian racism was not only commonplace but it was also a policy legally enforced in the past (Ward 19) against the Chinese when they first settled in Canada.
Though eradicated by the 1950’s (Ward 17), this policy and its impact will always be a part of
Canadian history. Many Chinese-Canadian children’s writers draw specifically on these incidents in Canada’s history to show the mistreatment of the Chinese because of their race and culture. Contemporary writers such as Paul Yee have created accounts and stories for adults and children that carry themes of Chinese-Canadians’ difficulties in immigrating to and settling in
Canada due to racism. The Chinese experienced injustices in Canada that hopefully will never be repeated again, but the effects are still felt in subtler contemporary forms of racism such as
stereotyping of Asians that persists in today’s society. To that end, eradicating racism by
acknowledging it and discussing its persistence in today’s society, especially towards minority
groups such as Korean-Canadians in Korean-Canadian children’s books, is just the first step towards achieving the manifold aims of multiculturalism.
4 Historical Background of Chinese in Canada: Immigration and Race Relations
Why did the Chinese leave China?
The majority of the Chinese who migrated to Canada in the nineteenth century came from the southern province of Guangdong (Li, “Chinese” 357; Yee, Saltwater City 1-2). In
Guangdong, there was a massive increase in the population as it almost doubled between 1787 and 1850. With no agricultural innovations, the demands in food supply were not being met for the twenty-eight million Chinese living in that area. Particularly in the latter half of the nineteenth century, natural disasters ravaged Taishan, a small county in Guangdong. Suffering fourteen major floods, seven typhoons, four earthquakes, two droughts, four plagues and five famines between 1851 and 1908, the Chinese in Taishan found themselves in dire circumstances.
Furthermore, in 1856-64, more than twenty thousand people died as a result of a local war between clans. Even worse, the Taiping Rebellion, a peasant uprising set to destroy the weak and corrupted Qing dynasty, swept through China between 1850 and 1864 (Chow xv) and millions were killed (Yee, Saltwater City 1). It is no wonder the Chinese sought a better life elsewhere. Also it is not surprising to find that twenty-three percent of the Chinese in British
Columbia around 1884-5 were from Taishan (Li, “Chinese” 357; Li, The Chinese in Canada 14-
15; Yee, Saltwater City 1-2). A large number of Chinese people also came from the delta of the
Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) to British Columbia seeking their fortune in gold mining (Chow xv). A better life for the Chinese at that time was simple: they mainly sought the mere essentials of
food, clothing and shelter (Chow xiv). Initially, they did not intend to assimilate to life in
Canada; rather, they wanted to provide a better life for their families back in their homeland,
where there were not many opportunities for survival.
5 Historical Context of the Chinese Arriving and Settling in Canada
While the claim that the first Chinese person, flwui-Shan a Chinese monk, came to
Canada as early as 499 (Li, “Chinese” 358) is undocumented, the arrival of the first Chinese immigrants in 1858 from California during the period of the gold rush in British Columbia is well documented (Li, The Chinese in Canada 11; Li, “Chinese” 357; Berton 194; Yee, Struggle
Introduction). According to Peter S. Li, the arrival of the Chinese to Canada can be viewed in three periods (“Chinese” 357-358; The Chinese in Canada 265) that “roughly correspond to the major shifts in Canada’s legislation towards the Chinese with respect to civil rights and immigration” (265). That is, the wave of Chinese immigration was restricted or halted due to changes in government policy concerning immigration laws.
The first period covers sixty-five years from 1858 to 1923 when the Chinese Immigration
Act was passed. During this period, Li posits that the Chinese became victims of “institutional racism and legislative controls” (Li, “Chinese” 357). Because the gold rush drew the Chinese to western Canada during the 1860’s and 1870’s, most of the Chinese who came to Canada sought work as miners and labourers (Li, “Chinese” 359). The Chinese were not welcomed as equals; they were viewed as aliens by the white population. Exploiting the Chinese as a cheap source of labour was acceptable at this time, particularly with no continuous supply of white workers in the west. In areas lacking white workers, the Chinese were hired at a lower wage than the whites to work in mining, forestry, railway construction, canning and other jobs for which whites were not available. Large-scale immigration also occurred with the building of the western section of the
CPR (Li, “Chinese” 358). Over 11,000 Chinese arrived in Victoria by ship in 1881 and 1882 alone. Many workers eventually returned home to China since their intent was not to live in
Canada, but large-scale immigration nevertheless increased the number of Chinese in Canada to a significant degree. Census records show that the 4,383 Chinese living in Canada in 1881
6 were increased
white
peculiarities” “who
prostitution, and 1902
the be ironically,
Asians encountered neighbourhoods
crime
immorality
essence,
British
characterized race “better
of
segregated
the
China
they
to
reflected
of
were
workers.
and
During Chinese’s
did
continue
Columbia to
thoroughbred
There
were
during
to
coast”
guide
was
immorality
perceived
seek
was
9,126
opium
direct
(Li,
in
blamed in
overriding
this
was
not
The
to
this
as
to
our
areas (K.
such (Li,
“inassimilability”
“Chinese”
ten
as
raise time,
an
hostility great
increase
no
smoking
two
time,
strong-limbed Iwashita,
a
The
as
years
old
Britishers...” writings
for
issues, way
such
white
their undesirable
commissions however,
among
attitudes
Chinese Chinese “every
the
the
as
later.
by
to
and
man’s 359).
living
“controversies
hostility
qtd.uoted Chinatowns
over
Chinese as
the
whites
moral
social
C
By
outcomes custom, in
against
white
true-hearted
Antipathy
live
province”
45,000 was
standards
(228).
and
Canada
1901
came
against
as
corruption.
could evil” Phillipps-Wolley’
“useful
in
non-assimilable
people
it
the
but
Roy,
or
by
there
Patricia
to
was
at over
(359)
270).
“Little
gain towards
by
Chinese
(Oriental
the 1931
the
a
hearings
wanderers
ammunition
who
Oriental
new
among
were
moving
enforcing
Chinese
same
favour
including
Roy
While
Con
(Li,
Tokyo,”
publicly
one,
the
17,314 who
54).
the
conclusion of “Chinese”
observes
points
because
27).
into
s
in
Chinese
stimulated
it
to
the was
comment
were
Chinese!”
gambling
is light
for
epidemics,
lands
The
in white
Chinese
protested
Furthermore,
Royal
true
out
seen
those The
seen
of
of
that
rhetoric
manifested
that, that 359).
in
with
neighbourhoods,
alleged
the
as
Oriental
by Commission about
which
laws
the as
who
(Oriental
in
an
Asians
Asians
heated
“Opium
Western
regard overcrowding,
taking
Canada.
white
effort
of
sought
suggest
settlement
cultural with
they
the
Ouestion,
in
had
debates.
living
jobs
to
47)
man’s
to
addiction, period
various
merchants
regard
may
the
to in
The
“consolidate
a
that
and
away
tendency
halt
1885
they
in
Chinese
that
beget
argument
numbers
when is
to their
In
social
ways,
Asian
from
and
it
the
on
a
is
to
7 immigration” (54). Henceforth, between 1875 and 1923, BC passed numerous laws restricting the rights of the Chinese (Li, “Chinese” 359, Berton 1942).
These racially discriminatory laws brought even more distress to the lives of the Chinese in British Columbia, denying them their human rights to live as equal citizens. There were small battles that the Chinese fought and won, however. For instance, in 1878, the Provincial
Government imposed a head-tax on all Chinese, which was met with stubborn resistance. The
Chinese merchants protested by refusing to sell goods and services to whites, for example. The head-tax was quickly rescinded when the BC Supreme Court ruled that the tax was unconstitutional (Berton 195). Despite this small victory, the Chinese inevitably had to face the issue of the head tax again in 1885, but this time, with no success in overcoming it. Not only were provincial laws passed that alienated them from white people while living in Canada, but federal laws restricting entry of further Chinese into Canada were eventually imposed.
The first federal legislation against the Chinese was in the form of a head tax
introduced in 1885, after the Canadian Pacific Railway was built ... .The 1885 act
imposed a tax of $50 on virtually every Chinese person entering the country. It
was also stipulated that vessels docking in Canadian ports could carry no more
than one Chinese for every fifty tons of cargo... .The head tax was raised to $100
in 1900 and to $500 three years later at the recommendation of the 1902 royal
commission. (Li, “Chinese” 359)
These laws and taxes led to the greatest restriction of prohibiting Chinese into Canada.
The second period of the arrival of the Chinese to Canada extended from 1924 to 1947, which, according to Li, can be seen as the period of exclusion for the Chinese (Li, “Chinese”
2Pierre Berton notes in The Last Snike, that in 1878, the Chinese were banned from any employment in the public works of the province.
8 were 358;
two “Chinese”
increase” simply
families Canada 148).
in Notable
Chinese
Law
prohibited 1907.
and
“Chinese”
immigrate from
limited House
less
decades
Li,
children
educated
of
Europe This
than
not
The of
The were
1923
entry
over
examples enclaves
(Con
359). Commons
enough
drop
“the
to
360;
a
third
Chinese
after
male.
of
was decade. to
and Canada
(Li
in
148;
Large-scale
composition
landing
Chinese Canada,
in
Yee,
Chinese
China
period
the
360).
were
the repealed.
were
numbers
Chinese
Economic
Morton
in
on
law
United Struggle
in
Also,
sometimes
for
Canada
the in
Li
May
of
who
1947,
especially
had immigration
Canada
quotes
a the
women
Anti-Oriental
immigration
was
conditions
Almost 252).
of time,
States.”
had been
1,
and
“the hardship
Chinese
the
43).
1947:
most
become
Prime
merchants
the
of
Up
Hope
passed,
Canadian
with
in
federal
two
Only
any
likely
Canada
target
to
until
Chinese
in
arrival
meant
the
Minister decades
from 44).
Canada
immigrant
riots,
Canada
Canadian
Chinese
the
government
the
imposition
due
of
population.
and
“to While
the
to number
that
racial
and end which
to
virtually
before
Canada
students
Mackenzie produce
were
orient
most diplomats,
deaths
other of
citizens
of
the
attacks
broke
this
of
any not
of
did
this,
would
Chinese
men
dates Asians
Chinese
Any
and stopped a
were
period, substantial
conducive
not
Asiatic
head
were out
(Li,
an
King
could
children
departures.
considerable
from
consider change
allowed
order-in-council
in
were
were tax
“Chinese”
allowed
the
decreased
during
Vancouver
explaining
race”
not
1947
that
majority natural
to
subject
once
the born
afford
access them
having
(Li rose
this
when
to
Also,
fundamental
oriental
again
366; in
to
360).
enter
population
period
to
the
this from
to
during
Canada
of
34,
into
families the
conditions there
bring
of
Ward
the
equals
allowed
policy
Canada”
627
“Only
$50
1930 Exclusion Canada
immigration
and
Chinese
1887
were
their
but
(Con
54-5
to
of
as
almost
to
had
wives
to $500
who
and
those
the
of
the
(Li,
(Li,
5).
in
9 In
discriminatory to United
were “Canada
“Chinese”
issues media
newsmagazine decades
Canadian focused
portraying Canadians notes
from of
allow
1962,
Chinese
finally
Hong
that
of
has
States”
Even
free the
on following
adopted
race
students
portrayed
in
360).
mounted
Chinese
Chinese
Canadians
Kong
Chinese
declared
access
after the
remained
would, from removing in
alternative
(Li, clause
ran
council.
1980s
a
as racial
the
out
“Chinese”
universal
a
the
of
as
faces.
a
could
and program an
to
that
moreover,
nation-wide
easing Chinese
foreigners
of (67).
many repeal
prevalent “Asian
be
restrictions
the
shaped .
Canadian measures
permitted
.regarding
under apply
In
existing
Yee point
of TV
360).
called
fact,
of
immigrants
invasion;”
immigration
be
public
the
independently
the
no
argues
and
in
system
protest
all
of universities. certain
were
a
Canadian Only
matter Chinese “Campus
regulations
naturalization,
same
newspaper
wider
the
effective
views
that
lifted
students
a
for these
and
criteria
to
to
how
few
range
these
restrictions. Immigration
give
assessing Canada.
of
society,
Giveaway,” forced
from control
to
reports
years
respecting long
the
“When
reports
rise of
as
enter
shown
reports
the
Chinese.
immigration
sponsorship
other
they the
later
to
particularly
In
have
government
consequently potential
Canada,
the
described
television
social
were
1967,
In
Act
implied
had
prospective
were
accusing
Asiatic
camera
been
the
He
and
lived
Canadian
and
a
these
fall
“but
immigrants”
for
provides
century
worked
laws,
four
the
the
in
immigration
network
economic
has
scanned
foreigners in
of
those
the
created
there
restrictions
revocation
number
Canada”
immigrants
main
1979
Paul
no
ways
citizens.
after
out.
examples
from
intention
was
to
a
CTV’s Yee
stereotypes
inaccurate
problems...
and
pharmacy
of
in
apologize
of
(Li Confederation,
still
unless
(Yee
Europe
which
immigrants notes
of
forcing
fully
the
360)
Chinese
(Li,
a
W5
[the]
of
from
67).
Chinese
and
removed
that
images the
and
of
class,
for
order
apart
the
Yee
until
the
it
10 Chinese Canadians: “1) All Chinese immigrants were rich, 2) The Chinese were “taking over” the downtowns of Vancouver and Toronto by buying up office towers and hotels, 3) Chinese money was driving up house prices, especially in British Columbia, and 4) Immigrants were a drain on the economy” (67).
In general, anti-Asian racism persists in North American society today. In the United
States, Nadia Kim writes
No matter how long Asian Americans have been in the United States or how
“assimilated” into mainstream society they have become, they remain
“foreigners” in America. Exclusion and foreignness are at the core of the racial
subordination of Asian Americans despite white Americans’ sweeping
valorization of them as model minorities. Although Asian Americans have been
positioned above black Americans along the traditional color line (superior-
inferior), Asian groups have been subordinated along America’s citizenship line
(insider-foreigner). (131) Kim argues that forms of nativistic 3racism against Asian Americans “reveal that Asian Americans’ racial status is not formed solely in the United States but is shaped by their
(ancestral) Asian country’s relationship to the United States” (132).
Nativistic racism against Asian Americans has relied on several ideologies and
stereotypes: economic competitor, organized criminal, “illegal alien,” unwelcome
immigrant (Ancheta 1998:11), and military enemy (“yellow peril”). For instance,
white Americans’ resentment of alleged economic competition from the “yellow
hordes” led to the exclusion acts against Chinese, Japanese and Korean
John Higham defines nativism as an “intense opposition to an internal minority on the ground of its foreign (i.e., ‘un-American’) connections.” (1970:4)
11 Americans in the late th19 and early th20 centuries. In addition, scholars have
considered the alarmist “yellow peril” stereotype, often couched in terms of
“American patriotism,” to be an especially egregious form of nativistic racism.
(132)
White American views of Asians influenced Canada’s views early on as well. For example, Patricia E. Roy notes that, “many white miners brought anti-Chinese prejudices from
California” (84). Kay J. Anderson observes that the racism towards the Chinese began with the
“typification” of all men and women from China into the image of what was named “John
Chinaman,” an image which
collapsed class and gender divisions among Chinese and assimilated an ancient
and medieval baggage of distinctions between “West” and “East,” civilized and
barbarian, master and slave, Christian and heathen, white and non-white into a
doctrine of discrete and immutable types.. . .Darwinism was adapted [sic] to lend
scientific status to the views that there existed such things as races; that there were
lower and higher races, progressive and non-progressive race (“John” being a
prime example of the latter); and that a natural antipathy engendered conflict
between the races. (103)
“Nativism” in the United States might be seen as loosely analogous to the ideology of
“difference” which largely influenced the views of white British Columbians from the 1870s. As
Kay J. Anderson has said, it became “entrenched in the ethos and institutions of the province and, and a whole epistemology of separation had been built between “Chinese” and “whites” thirty years later but would continue to “resound through the decades to come” (103). Violence, such as the riots of 1907 towards the Chinese (Yee, Saltwater 28-29), and “sharp racism that lasted almost a century” (Peter Cocking, dust jacket of Saltwater) may now be part of the past,
12 but
Despite
benefit
Illustrated pride,
that
ever-growing
Cocking also Appendix
Historical
Early
the Chinese
established people numbers.
them preceded
of
Koreans. acculturation process
subtler the
Chinese, things
the
to
to
Immigration
today’s Chinese
The
all
did
most
those
the
and
in Saltwater),
the
History
E)
forms
would
of
Since What
Background
not
Canada
immigration sizable
subtler
other
for
featuring this,
represented
population Koreans
process
who
generation
experience
and
example,
follows Koreans
of
be
of one
Asians.
were
that communities
racism
the forms
the
better
the
is
must
in
the
forms
is
Chinese
necessary
powerless Chinese
of
history
is in
Canada
in
immigrated
and
of largely
who
the diverse
for
such
a Koreans
Koreans
Canada,
recognize
Canadian
racism
history
of
harsh generations
future
began
as
racism of
are
(Li
did.
in
missing
experiences
to stereotypes
Koreans
and
Vancouver,
that
have with
not
forms
of
359),
generations.
in
create
to
to
as children’s
However,
Korean
humiliated,
they
Canada:
only
arrive have
Canada
well,
“considerable
had
from
to
when
of
to
a
endured,
come.
the
racism
persisted backdrop
a
that
created
Canada
in of
immigration
the relatively
Yee
Koreans
considerably
Koreans’
most literature,
the
the
Immigration
They
the
multicultural
but
In
pays
that
Chinese 1850’s
rather
represented
long
hardships
was
the
towards who
political
for
have
the
were
shorter
tribute
physical
2006
with
other markedly
ago
and still
than and
Chinese
been
in
later
just
persist
the
and
edition
over
Korean-Canadians’
Canada
and
carried
the who
literature
Asian “to
history
a
Asian
proven
than
beginning history
Asian
Chinese.
Chinese
Social
those financial
one
different
and
had,
today
groups,
of
the
on.
(Kim
in
group
hundred
other
attributes
correct”
for
by
Saltwater
who
of
Canada
History
Chinese,
They
faced
in
their Therefore,
the
to
children.
influence”
“Gold”
from
in
Asian namely
swallowed
Canada.
arrive
1960s,
Canada,
titles
all
social
(2).
served
compared
subjected
that
acculturation
City:
Korean
had
groups
9-12).
in
for
With
(see
for
a
(Peter
any
faith
An
to
history
but
their
the
who an
to
13 In contrast to the Chinese who were initially drawn to gold rush activity in Canada, the first Koreans to come to Canada were students supported by Christian missionary scholarships around 1910; most returned to Korea after completing their studies. Statistics Canada records
“show what ‘might’ be the first Korean immigrant, a male between 31 and 49 years of age, and literate, who arrived in British Columbia in July 1926 (but was deported in 1934)” (Lehmann and
Lee 52). Another individual, Tae-yon Whang came as a mission-sponsored medical intern in
1948. Whang did not return to Korea after his internship ended but decided to establish permanent residence in Canada. Whang has been viewed as “the pioneer of the present-day
Korean community in Canada (Kim “How Koreans Came” 1;Yoo 884) since he most likely marks the first Korean immigrant to Canada. By the mid-i 960s, almost two decades after
Whang’s arrival, Canada would see the first major influx of Korean immigration.
What accounts for Korean immigration beginning considerably later than Chinese? Cam
Cobb, writing about the history of Koreans in Toronto suggests three reasons. First, Korea’s reluctance to open to the West is seen as delaying Korean immigration to Canada. While Korea presents itself to the world as “the land of the morning calm” (Song 12), its history has been anything but calm, for it has been riddled with one devastating war after another. After a series of invasions by the Japanese in the 1590s and by China’s Manchu rulers in the 1620s and i630s,
“Korea retreated into strict isolationism and became known as the ‘Hermit Kingdom” (Yoo
883). Korea finally opened up to foreign relations in 1876 when it reluctantly signed its first foreign trade treaty with Japan, followed by another one with the United States in 1882. Soon after Korea opened its doors to foreign trade relations, it was under attack again as China and
Japan struggled for control for all of East Asia.
The second reason delaying Korea’s immigration to Canada was the Japanese colonization. Following Japan’s defeat of China in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), Japan
14 invaded
annexed independence international
determined only
these change
few
Liberal implemented
884). on (Lehmann
European Immigration
only
policy, Canadian Canadian
12,
1985,
the
Koreans
686
Japanese
93 devastating
As
the
country’s
their
The
government
Korean Korea.
one
Korea,
Koreans Koreans
noted
peoples
population
population economy.
and
to
third
that
religious
law
were
a
during
destroy
in
to
Lee
racially
which
immigration
And
earlier,
made
schools
economic
(Lehmann
Canada reason
were
in effects,
allowed were
53;
Canada
of
during
the
The
numbers
growth beliefs the
they
family
reported
Prime
Noonan
discriminatory
it
able
that
Japanese
and
strict
Korean was
recession
to
needs”
ruled
the
and
in
to delayed
to
were
to
slowed Minister
emigrate
reunification
only
1965.
limits
steadily
Canada
settle
Russo-Japanese
to Shintoism,
16), Lee
as
national
occupation
be
forced
(Yoo
in
a
brought
“from
52;
Korean
down.
in were
living
But colony
1967
immigration Mackenzie
during
began
grew
Canada.
Noonan
884).
to
the
identity.
laid
one
the much
that
in
take
about
Once
for until
immigration
numbers
in
with
this
Canada
national
As
out that
Canada
War
the
1910,
21;
Japanese
more
the
King.
a period.
yet Canada’s
modest in
policy
emphasized
As
result,
next
Yoo
(1904-05),
terms
mid-1970s
another
Koreans
(Yoo
began
difficult.
a
religion
adopted
result,
thirty-six
In
883).
to
names.
that
more numbers;
of
1947,
884).
economy
Canada
to
change
Japanese
excluded
became
Koreans
of grow
In racial
Japan
an
Koreans
As
when
the
Japan
They
According colonizing
years.
open
a
was
Statistics
rapidly,
Canadian
to
result,
criteria began
reached
a
Japanese
immigration
were
Asian
were Canada’s
immigration
recession at
the
and
When
that
policies to
between
other
Korea, to to for also
allowed
Canada
victory
immigrants
thrive
time.
government
one
Cobb, Korea
subjects
three
ordered immigration
hit
non-
that
and
Japan
of
policy
again
Among
1976 the
reported to and
years
Korean
lost
the
focused very
speak
by
to
(Yoo
was
its
and
in
later
the
15 1980’s, the immigration laws changed to encourage investors and entrepreneurs to come to
Canada (10-1 1). Both Cobb and Yoo admit that Korean population numbers Census Canada reports are only very rough estimates and other sources need to be consulted for a few reasons
(Cobb 12; Yoo 884). According to Canada’s 1996 census, the Korean-Canadian population stood at 66, 655. But Yoo points out that by the mid-1990s, a more realistic estimate of the number of Koreans in Canada would be over 70,000 (Yoo calculates this figure from a variety of community sources). Yoo estimates that over half the population resided in Ontario
(approximately 40, 000), followed by 20, 000 in British Columbia, with the rest spread out across the other provinces. Cobb surmises the numbers could be higher, even higher than Yoo’s, for a number of reasons that Yoo does not cite (12). Cobb says that census figures neglect to include illegal Koreans, Koreans on student visas, and North Koreans. These unrecorded persons could, by Cobb’s estimation, push the Korean-Canadian population in Toronto alone to over 100,000. According to the Human Resources and Social Development website for the
Government of Canada, in 2001, there were 100,660 Koreans in Canada with the majority living in Ontario and British Columbia. Toronto and Vancouver were the top two cities where Koreans resided; together they made up 71 percent of the total Korean population in Canada. For the scope of this study, discussion of the Korean-Canadian community focuses on the largest and most established Korean community in Canada, Toronto and the second largest, Vancouver.
Koreans’ motivations for leaving Korea “are varied and often complex — and to a certain extent they have changed over time. Like members of other immigrant groups, however, many
Koreans have been searching for a better education, a better job, a better financial future, or a
Firstly, Canada saw second-stage migration occur from Korean immigrants arriving from other countries such as 4West Germany and South America starting in the 1960s and then from Vietnam after the Vietnam War, which made it difficult to gather confirmable data on them. Secondly, Yoo explains that a lack of participation in the census by new immigrants is common as they come with a general mistrust of government bureaucracy. Finally, a large number of immigrants did not settle down at first, as they were forced to live transient lives, going wherever they could find work.
16 better
America.
observed: pot.
(Noonan Korean the
others to
declined to
reports
From
425,000
as
relegated
(Song
uncommon Korea.
back
Settlement movement
Canada rise
they
United
Canadian
life
to,
present
want
as
12),
that communities
Settlement
come
As
With
96).
(Noonan (Canada’s
especially
for
Canada
“in Edward
to
surged
States;
has
noted,
to
the
in
for
in a
their
Canada,
to
from Canada
a join”
minority
society
South
Canada
proved fastest
Korean
strong
year
continues
between
consequently,
Kim,
children”
96).
Koreans’
in
a
Growing
after
(Noonan
in Korea.
country
2017,
Canada
all offers
is
growing
economy
to
A
Toronto
status,
an
Americans
much
Korea
cultures
be
Canadian
accountant
1991
these
to
(Noonan
first
a
challenging
Canadian
Visible
vastly
54-55).
has
be
good
more
and
visible
hosted
and and
the
and
contact
an
groups
however
are
working
and
health-care
different government outcome
increasingly
relaxed.
2001, Vancouver
stable
Minority
28). accepted
The
and
minorities
the
missionaries
Canadians
with
could
for
numbers secretary
In
while
1988 proved
political
long
many
from fact, is
You
Canada
Population).
as
more
“a system,
and,
Summer
2005
hours
Korean
popular
they
are
some
to
thriving have
to
and
Canada.
reveal
of
status,
in
than
often,
be
move the
was
study
are.
the
Korea
the
in
high-quality
the
challenging
have
immigration
West
Olympic
destination.
a double,
this
Canada through
nemesis
Korea group
The
retail an back
freedom
Learning predicts
provided
a
easier
phenomenon Asian,
preference
United
to
business
of
became ranging
Korea
Games
the
their
for
Korean
for
to
time education,
Korean
Koreans a
to
Barbara
Canadian
some.
not
be
States
new
many
the homeland
Society
entering
in an who
to
(Noonan
for just
United communities
as
language,
size
Canadian
make
attractive
has
It Korean Canada
A.
and
Koreans you
pastoral
established
was
mission
from
in
Mitchell
its
Canada
ends
Arab
country,
are”
92; States
Toronto,
not
melting
immigrants
over
being
200,000
numbers
place
Yoo
care,
moving
meet
groups.
that
than
884).
to
but
to
go
17 medical and educational outreach to Koreans. Additionally, as a result of Canadian missionaries’ developing relationships with the Korean people, Koreans began to adopt the
Christian faith as their own. In fact, this was Korea and Canada’s only point of contact with one another until bilateral government relations were established between Korea and Canada. Only in 1963 did Korea open a mission in Ottawa where formal diplomatic relations between Korea and Canada had begun. Later in 1973, a Canadian Embassy was opened in Seoul as a result of
Canada’s desire to strengthen relations in the Pacific Rim countries (Kim, “How Koreans Came”
176). But, in many ways, the first Koreans to come to Canada had already been influenced by
Canadian Christian faith and culture through the work of the missionaries.
In order to discuss the settlement characteristics of Koreans in Canada, it is necessary to defme the terms Korean Canadians use to distinguish themselves among the varied groups.
Noonan remarks that the terms and definitions that refer to Korean Americans reflect what other
Asian immigrants use as well, in particular Korean Canadians (17). Three main groups exist to express the different backgrounds of Korean Canadians: first-generation, 1.5-generation and second-generation. Standard American usage of the term “first-generation” refers to children born in the country to which their parents immigrated, but Korean Canadians use the term to mean parents who emigrated from Korea to Canada as adults. The 1.5-generation was born in
Korea but came to Canada when they were children or young teenagers and this generation usually immigrated with their parents. The second-generation refers to those who were born in
Canada to parents who had emigrated from Korea. Noonan writes, “each generation has unique characteristics and its own perspective on what it is like to be a Korean American or Canadian”
(18). In general, there is very little published on Korean Canadians but from what little there is most has been written about the first-generation, those Korean pioneers to Canada holding the longest history in Canada. For 1.5-generation Korean Canadians very little has been published
18 as
experience
generation
a represented
subculture,
little
also describe
First-Generation
culture
number
Korean
Having hierarchical,
protecting
homogeneous.
heritage
egalitarian regardless
better to relationships
brief
they
their
draw
has
one
are
life,
For
they
ancestry,
developed
of
personal
the
been
while
upon
Korean a
in in
ways. just the
of
first-generation particularly
by
one
very
struggles
had
vertical Canada. comparison
written
sex,
(Yoo
family Koreans.
participating
having
The my
structured
come
specialized
lives and
Korea
Hawaiian Korean
age
under
own
nation’s 887).
social
until about name.
and
The
from. or
grown
in
with
experience
is
Second-generation
Confucian
ethnic how to
hopes
A
according
the a
only Canadians
Korean
model
them,
the
in
multicultural Americans homogeneous
regard
further
group;
Canada,
Korean
into
they
1900s
a
other
background. material
they
common
some
adulthood
that
think
Canadians
to to
nonetheless,
complication
ways
to
Korea culture
face. generations,
known
education
inform
emphasized
a
(Danico).
examples
found
and
horizontal
of
policy
Canadian
society.
Being
had
Korean
thinking,
with can
act as
this While
the
on
a
very
for
in
they
be
encourages
country
is
section some
a drawn sacrifice to
this
I
the
respect
second-generation
model the seen
their Everyone
Canadians culture. decided
Koreans
show
little
represent
traditional
group
world
Korean
starting
from
as
children,
of
of
contact
the
that
for to
antithetical
discussion.
to
diverse
immigrants
Furthermore,
was
have
around
immigrate
on
diversity
Korean
elders,
are include seeks
a
language,
their
Korean
part
the
what
with
many
come
still
cultures,
them
Korean
own
equal
of
obedience
Americans
Korean
their
was
a
the to
of
the was
to
to
find relatively
values
which
Canadian
families.
backgrounds
and
Canadian
rest
rights
Canada retain
published
Korean-Canadian
background,
Peninsula
great
a
is
Canadian,
in
major
of
far
were
to
has
their
for
their
are
the
given
new
parents
from
seeking
culture So
a
society
all
useful
based world.
disruption
about
completely
cultural
while
shares
citizens,
the
albeit
I
will
and
in
a
on
to
1.5-
is
a
an
a
19 different alphabet, sound system and set of grammar rules than English. Few newly arrived
Koreans had a good command of English. So, coming to a new country and learning English for the first time was (and is) a particularly daunting task, especially for adults who have a more difficult time grasping a second language than young children do (Noonan 70). These are some key differences between the cultures of Korean and Canada that have posed particular hindrances to the first-generation and their ability to acculturate and even, sometimes, to cope with a new life in Canada.
For a better understanding of the first-generation Koreans, a few factors that have greatly shaped Korean Canadian culture need to be discussed. Although many of these are also important in the societies of other Asian immigrants, for Koreans these are family, church and education!employment. Of first and foremost importance to Koreans is family. Whether one is to speak of family in Korea or in their new country of settlement, Koreans place great importance on familial ties. First-generation Korean parents, even those who have embraced
Christianity as their faith system, can still stress Confucian ideas within the family. For example, the first-generation makes tremendous personal sacrifices for their children for the sake of providing them a good education. Typically, they are prepared to make every effort possible, such as leaving their home country or working multiple jobs to ensure that their children can achieve the highest level possible. The children, in turn, are expected to respect their parents by excelling in school and taking on the responsibility to care for their mothers and fathers when they become elderly (Yoo 886, 887; Noonan 57). Often, strains in the parent-child relationship develop if the demands are too great. Also, the child may have other interests beyond those of pursuing a profession of their parent’s choice, such as becoming a doctor or a lawyer. Yoo also found that the second-generation, having grown up in a more open society that emphasizes egalitarian and individualistic views, are not bound to closed Confucian ways of thinking.
20 Noonan
appears
parents surveys begun
immigrant
and
as
cause
depend
(Noonan
Korean
“obedient,
women,
marriage,
this
more
emerge, reports,
report because
against educational
first-generation
Toronto
view
strains
to
egalitarian
that (84).
to
Immigrating that
on notes
relationship
in
according change. “in
they
such
71).
be
of
and
community,
their
the
feminine
first-generation
their
Toronto
to
women,
background.
in on
This
that
were
as
sons
workplace
be
communication
children
a
rising
marital
ways
For
downward the
established
represents
parents
to
not
when
between
to
and
alone,
which
traditional
example, Confucianism
of
the Canada
divorce able
to devoted relationship
widowed”
and thinking.
and
Sometimes
federal
translate
males
six
they
to
trend
a
husband
to
are
their
cope major
has
Korean rates
with
and
address
Korean
consider
to
forced
struggle
government
(84).
also
children
home-making”
in
with
are for
the (Noonan These
and
was
societal
this and
traditional
women
proven
them,
stated
growing
this custom
to
wife
abuse
Studies
more
the
wife.
has
with
take differences
have
concern
change,
ideal,
78, abuse
which
led as,
approved
committed
in by
important
jobs
frustrations
of
Confucian
numbers
found relationships.
79).
different
“to some
to
their
children
(Yoo
but
in
that husband-wife
“reverses
(Yoo
obey
and
the in Many
their husbands”
adult cases
funding
are
887).
views
than
Korean
of
Korean suicide
887). dominant father
taking
teachings
of
inferior
view
elderly
Korean
Korean
to
being
their
the
The
have
For
be
for
Also,
at
communities
between
directly
parent-child
Canadian
care
(887).
tensions
a
home, relationship
three
instance,
people
racially
nursing
to
strain
languages;
caused males
Americans
describe
generational
their
of
“obediences”
Lehinann
their
contradicts
husband
on
1987
have and
in
community.
expectations serious
discriminated homes
parents
the
the
the
relationship”
aging
have,
in
with
this
responded and
grown
traditional
Korean
ideal extreme
after
in
and
gaps
issues
factor
1993
their
as parents
can
Western,
Markham
for
wife
up
a
Lee
widen
often
and result,
Yoo
aging
to
can
with
cases,
in
as
21 wife abuse (66). Counselors have also hypothesized that economic recession and the inability of
Korean husbands to adequately provide for the family as “all-power patriarchs” have led such men to take their anger out on their wives.
Another cultural disruption occurs when women work. Many first-generation women have had to leave the home to work, to help out with the long hours at a family store or business or to find employment to help pay bills. This change in traditional roles also contributes to
Korean husbands feeling undermined by their wives having to work. Not surprisingly, as more
Korean-Canadian women gain access to well-paying jobs, they refuse the role of the traditional, subordinate wife. These are some examples of how the traditional Korean family structure has been challenged by Canadian culture and the difficulties many of the first-generation Koreans face as they acculturate to a new society.
Church is probably the most important institution that the first-generation Koreans have in Canada. Given the history of missionary support for students to study, it is natural that
Koreans’ strongest ties with Canada are with the church. Some of the first Korean-Canadian churches were formed when Korean immigrants first came to Canada in 1965 (Lehmann and Lee
57). Church was not only a place of worship but it also became, “the center of social and ethnocultural life” (Kim, “How Koreans Came” 178). Noonan explains that the church was and is the primary place for most first-generation settlers to make friends, form networks of support, and exchange information about everything from jobs, social service programs and schooling for children. Most importantly, they can discuss all these matters in their mother tongue, Korean.
Overall, church plays a crucial role in providing a place for Koreans to connect on many levels to receive the support they need during the difficult transition of immigrating to a new and vastly different country than the one they came from.
22 Korean
education.
obtaining
immigrate
level
in
however, and So,
averaging
needs
at Korean-Canadian
parents, 1.5-Generation
one
level.
However,
entirely interviewed perspectives
of
Korea jobs
first-generation
many
open
major
of
to
Education
Most
that Canadians.
This education
when to work
and
up
a
the
decide
twelve
(Noonan
they
For
way
university
either
do
a
group
of
a the
return
are.
small
to
they not
group
the
the
are and
Korean work
the
help
and
the or
they
immigrants.
take
She
first-generation,
of
that a
They 1.5-generation
are 29;
that for
more business,
only
unique
of
first-generation
appropriate
degree Korean
maintain
related
found earned
advantage
children effort
Yoo
characterized
1.5-generation
is
place
Canadians
lucrative
hours
their
886).
subset
in
that
is
Canadians to
such
in
much
the
North
ability not
or
a
it
Korea.
work the
day
of
also
often
teenagers.
In way
business.
as
the
of
worth
education
emphasis or
fact,
1.5-generation
them
a
America
can Korean
to
retain Canadian Hawaiian-Korean
are
retail to
second-generation
do
But
refers
acquire
the
take
make
many
also
as not
for
the
Overall grocery
time
hot
They Canadians
levels a
translate to on
is
matters
a
many
toll Korean
Korean education
the
often
those
tempered,
living
the
and
are
expressed
as
English
then,
are
store
value
of
work
one
most
distinguished who of
into
in
immigrants
language
in
serious
Americans the
great
Koreans.
doing
or Canada
system
of
that
of
money-hungry
immigrate,
the
storeowners
of
first-generation,
language,
a
the
a
being
the dry
importance they
high-quality work
detractors
exhausting
major
to
is
is time,
cleaning
to came
find
held Mary
embarrassed
to
from
a
they
find
fluent
usually
become usually
motivating
the
put
that
in
to
the
can
Yu
for
and
for
out
business. whole
high
work
Canada
university
into
the
they
level
first-generation
this
Danico
get
to first-generation
what
with
pushy.
their
degree
regard,
it.
a
by
and
in
cannot
generation
family
as
proficient
factors
their
Work with their
stereotypes
Canada.
own
well.
working
Often,
They
level
earned
and
relate
a
boss also
to
days
high
also
of
in
23 felt alienated from the second-generation who did not share their “FOB” (“fresh off the boat”) experience. As a result, this generation of Korean immigrants gravitated toward others of 1.5- generation status or non-Koreans to avoid the stigma of being immigrants. They wanted to present themselves as Korean American or on par with locals. While I could find only American sources that documented this unique group of Koreans, through my experience of being second- generation, I can confirm the existence of a 1.5-generation group in Canada as well. And like
Korean Americans, the second-generation of Korean Canadians do not share their experience of being “ FOB.” The second-generation sometimes make fun of the less acculturated 1.5- generation Korean Canadians, seeing their dress and manners as awkward and calling them
“fobby.” The 1.5-generation are caught not just between two worlds of Korean and Canadian culture but also between two subcultures. At the same time, with their fluency in both languages, they do have the tools to participate in both Korean culture and Canadian culture.
Second-Generation Korean Canadians
Of the three generational groups, second-generation Korean Canadians are the most acculturated to Canadian society. Born in Canada, where English is the dominant language, they can speak it fluently. However, most do not necessarily speak Korean very well, if they know the language at all (Noonan 81). With a generational and cultural gap already existing between the two groups, the language barrier can further disturb communication and understanding between the first and second-generation groups. The second-generation are truly caught between two cultures. Their home life is usually built around their parents’ more traditional Korean values, but as they grow up in Canada, they become enmeshed in Canadian life outside of the family. Some parents, hoping to preserve some semblance of Korean culture at home, will allow only Korean to be spoken at home, which can cause a communication rift in the parent-children
24 relationship.
children
Canadian
Canadian. program.
accent
subway, to converse
to
“between-two-worlds”
connected
culture reactions
accent.
experiences was
second-generation
minority,”
Peterson
society”
In
speak make
“Success
born
that
Often
if
come
The
(21).
mistakes
When a
Korean
fluently
culture.
they from I
who
because
complete
to During
I
encountered
a
Story, had
second-generation
make Or,
the
He
their
category
to
have
first
I
Caucasian
supports
resent say parents
in grown
second-generation
in
Japanese-American
or
I
my
family’s
of
me
public.
(Noonan
coined
have
never
stranger
Korean.
I have
the
was
third-year
feel
into
this
issue
up
his
Koreans
enroll
found way
an
Canadians been
born
statement
that the in
which
I
heritage. as
wondered, loudly
77-7 opportunity
is
the
Situations
I
it
term
their
I a look.
this
are
to
in
leaves
will
of
growing who West.
8).
most
Korea
Canada,
Style,”
by
also
undergraduate
“model do in scolded
children
always who
There
These
saying
knew
my
not
little
Asian
how subject
While like
(Noonan Peterson
to
concern
own
are
feel
they
minority”5 use that
are me
right
free
sentiments
this
be my
in
groups
surprised
I
experience as
Japanese Korean to few that
perceived it,
then
was
portrays time Korean made
away
though
various
especially 77). studies,
for
opportunities
I
conversing
ask,
are
should
to
the
me
from
are
language
in Conversely, that are
the
socialize
would
grouped.
they
“but
second-generation
as
stereotypes
1966.
considerably intelligent, as
I
Japanese
common
went I
be my a
in
a
can
belong
what
foreigner
second-generation
ever an
ashamed
with
style
schools
to
According speak
to with
immersion
ii
as
are
law-abiding,
Korea
in
learn
improve
in
“better
Hyun
one
fully
of
including
Canada,
friends
personal
you?”
English less
in
dress
that
on
of
the
for the
to
than Lim
confident
my
Saturdays
who to
if
either language I
setting?
an
outside and
country
These
have
could
a
I
I any
the
without cousins refers
accounts
still
was
class
exchange
wish
Korean
Korean
other
a
term
Korean
strong
not
receive
types
not
in
school.
to paper
where to and
This
and
group
in
an
wanting
“model
William
allowed
remain
of
sense
the
of
or
the
by
in
I
our
of
25 Korean American, Hannah Seoh, the term “model minority” has been used broadly to refer to all persons of Asian descent, which she believes began widespread stereotyping of Asians:
Chinese, Japanese, Thai, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Koreans alike have all been
grouped into the same category. This is largely due in part to others’inability to
distinguish between these ethnic groups as many people of Asian descent
undeniably share similar physical attributes. However, what society must realize
is that this method of classification may be perceived as insulting and the people
who use this classification as ignorant. (N.pag.)
I, too, have encountered this time and time again--being mistaken for another Asian group and hearing that all Asians look the same. As time passed, the term “model minority” came to mean academic overachievers and introverts, quiet, submissive and hardworking (Noonan 17) or in general, economically and academically successful individuals (Kim, “How Koreans Came”
197). Generalizing this stereotype to all Asians would be erroneous. Some of the second- generation have experienced other ethnic groups holding this stereotype of them and resenting them for it (Seoh). If such perceptions persist, damaging effects can occur. Immigrants are not encouraged to reach out for the help they need when they need it and when they do, others may not view their needs as valid. A case in point is a study on Korean’s acculturation process by
Uichol Kim. Kim found that many Korean Canadians, while appearing well adjusted on the outside, internalize their sufferings and so are not free from many various “illness behaviors”
(197). The tendency to internalize may also stem from traditional Korean ways of thinking that one must always uphold the family name and “save face” in front of others by not letting them know of one’s hardship, lest one bring disgrace upon one’s family. Thus, stereotypes such as the
pride, and have a compelling respect for authority. The term eventuallytransferred over to all people of Asian descent.
26 “model
Canada.
emphasis
conducted
generation that
dispassionate and
the
emphasize
more their
cultural Community
upon
generation
acculturation
found Swan
and American certain
“cultural
one-third
one-third
were
only
diversity
most
and Attitudes
that minority”
Helen
Korean
preservation,
than
avenue by
grateful
Korean
Jill
spiritual
culture
the
of
youth
in
rigidity”
a
no
attitude
were
these process.
the
Song,
Weissbrot
in
children
Canadian
Ontario,”
customs,
to
longer
can
their
in
to first-generation
Canadians
where, for
church
active
matters issues
Canada
finding
a
be
toward
of
participation,
the
second-generation
beliefs
But
attended
agreed
hurtful
the
pastor, notes
studied
such
churchgoers,
sacrifices
for
so are
one
at
first-generation,
social
have
far
church
and example,
than
home
also
as
with that
to
small
Mm
except
church.
25
bowing
not
places their
Koreans
networks
changing
their
the
the
their
their
members
(Noonan
compared
Ho
been
study
views
one-third issues
bowing
changing
for
parents’
on
Song,
Korean parents
first-generation
to
Song
studied
youth. and
the
in
one’s
and in
or
and
6
second-generation
of
America
to
1-62). second-generation suggests who
is church. might a
a community
generation,
described made
Canadian,
hindrance role
the involvement not
elder
Korean-American
as
Still
interviewed
first-generation’s
far
customary.
of
simply
Thus,
for
is and a
Noonan
that
women,
as
parents relatively
helpful.
them.
themselves
I
to
in
compared
the
the
for
information.
have
reflect
their
her
in
they
second-generation
second-generation’s
three
community reports
and
on
church. However,
One
Korean
overview
found
Noonan
young
acculturation
the
the
do
church
youth
hundred
them
youth
as
might
values
not fact on
with
“marginal”
His Canadians,
generation,
a
reports
(12).
they
to
see of
that youth
must
says, research
be
regard
findings
standards
the
placed
second-
the
their
questioned
parents
process
I
confront
“Korean “you
group.
that
have are
church
to
Christians,
with
reaction
study the
on
showing
showed
their Charlie
have
touched
did of
in
family
second-
They
less
as
are:
not
both
to
27 cultures kind of mixing in, and they don’t really mix that well” (83). Swan and Weissbrot also found that. overall, the participants of their study “found self-definition and support through their relationships with other Korean-American youth, who were experiencing these same vital conflicts and changes” (83). In other words, they found that rather than choosing one culture over the other, they relied on the empathy of their peers to share the blended world they have come to know.
Conclusion
Clearly, within the world of Korean Canadians there are distinct groups and experiences that depend on the level of acculturation they have reached in Canada. And more importantly, within each of the first-generation, 1.5-generation and second-generation groups, there can be great diversity among individuals. As time passes, attitudes and values will continue to grow and change as each generation faces their own set of struggles and hopes. By providing this historical backdrop on immigration and acculturation of Koreans in Canada, I hope to have shown a distinct culture from the Chinese as well as provide the background that will help account for the gaps in representation of the diverse experiences of Korean Canadians in children books.
Background on Korean-Canadian Publishing History
One may simply say that since Koreans have had a shorter history here in Canada, compared to that of Koreans in America, it only makes sense that there would be fewer books by
Korean Canadians, particularly books for children. But according to Sarah Park, most of the
Korean American books have been published only in the last decade or so (9-10). Park suggests that this late publishing phenomenon could be the result of the more liberal Immigration Law, established only in 1965 that allowed for the third wave of Korean immigration to the United
States. A couple of generations needed the time to acculturate, as:
28 books
has Korean-Americans’
more
American
have
injustice
structures. literature
literature, for
Association
the
author
author.
and
Once
been
children.
Coretta
culture
resulted
fertile
published
Upon
If
Park
and
The
more
and
time
was
children’s
more
And the
and
Scott
of
suggests
developed a
unequal FOCAL
Encouragement from
many
English,
no adulthood. were
their experienced
World
proactive
California.
Pura
avenues receptive
by
it
exception
King
allowed
the
now
experiences
the
occurred
first-generation
Beipre
books.
Book
that
treatment
Award
Civil
and
Medal,
only
awards
given
in
opened
the
to
As
issues
doors The
dealing their
Award
(10).
Award
factor, Rights publishing
around
both is
timing
also
that
awarded
that
Simon
given
in
and
second-generation
to
to
with
the
With
the
to emerged
Korean
with
that
encourage
then
recognized
Movement.
be
emotions
Korean
of the
honour
to
first
1960s
immigration,
Wiesenthal opened
the
recognizes
multicultural
increased to
issues
the we
mid-1960s
the
and
Canadians’
growth
through
should
most Americans
and
children’s
into
ethnic
most
for
of
second-generation
writers
Minority
l970s;”
race,
distinguished
representation
minorities;
Center stories
the of
have
Korean
distinguished
as
acculturation
awards.
groups
books,
Korean-American
most well.
thereby of first
had
literature
seen
this
a
for
Museum
groups
particular
American
major
the
distinguished
to
and
What
children.
For
allowed publishing
more
write
setting
chance book
of specifically
that spoke
instance,
book
and wave
Korean
I
of
Korean minority
postulate
about
that
ethnic
celebrates children
Tolerance
change
identity,
up
(10)
to
by
out
of
children’s
of
an
promotes
become
Americans book
an
immigration,
their
the
Canadian
ethnic
against
background
environment
groups
more
African-American
in
is
American
matured
they
by
own
that
existing tolerance,
administers
more
children’s
Korean-
a books
“segregation,
the
transcribed
in
Latino
America
experiences
children’s
children’s
diversity
into
fluent
like
such
social
Library
could
that
the
the
as
is
in
29 diversity, human understanding and social justice. Park states “the existence of these ethnocultural awards encourages and recognizes the publication of quality books in their respective categories” (11). In America there are publishing houses dedicated to multicultural books for children whereas in Canada there are none with such a focused mandate to work with minority writers. For example, the website for Lee and Low Books states that they make “a special effort to work with artists of color, and take pride in nurturing many authors and illustrators who are new to the world of children’s book publishing”
(http://www.leeandlow.com/p/about us.rnhtml). Co-founders Tom Low and Philip Lee are both
Chinese American, making Lee and Low Books one of the few minority-owned publishing companies in the United States.
A comparison of Korean-Canadian and Korean-American publishing in the last twenty years is instructive. Korean-Canadian children’s book publishing does not show an increase in production in the 1990s, with only one book published in Canada, as compared with 94 in the
United States as reported by Brenda Louie in a search of Korean-American titles (174). She notes that “93 were located through the local library systems and book purchase” and that 90 percent of the titles she located were published after 1990 (174). In the 2000s, four of the ten
Korean-Canadian books under discussion were published.
The difference is not in numbers only. A comparison shows many more books for children reflecting a wide range of diversity in the Korean-American culture than there are for
Canada. For instance, Louie’s search of Korean-American titles showed that books published before 1990 consisted mainly of folktales that reflected only life or culture in Korea, the far away land. Park came to the conclusion that it was not until after the 1990s that Korean American children’s books began to address other issues besides adoption stories written by non-Korean writers such as Understanding Kim (1962) and Chinese Eyes (1974), and focused on different
30 issues relevant to contemporary Korean Americans (9). Novels such as A Step From Heaven by
An Na (2001), which won the Michael L. Printz Award, confront sensitive issues that sometimes arise in Korean immigrant families. In An Na’s novel a Korean father dreams of a new life in the United States, only to have those dreams shattered as he struggles to provide for the family with little success. He cannot accept that his wife has to work to support the family. His pride leads to alcoholism, then domestic violence, drurilcendriving, arrest and finally abandonment of the family. Louie writes, “The Confucian ideal and reality clash when the husband and father demand obedience and inflict pain and harm” (185). But Louie also points out that there are other books that show Korean men adapting at different paces to life in America. Thus, diversity in role adjustment exists in Korean immigrant families and is portrayed in children’s books such as Tae’s Sonata (1997) and Stella: On the Edge of Popularity (1994). For a culture such as
Korea’s that had such insular beginnings, a book like A Step from Heaven with the issues it raises about Korean immigrant family life is a breakthrough, something we have not yet seen in
Canada. In Canada, we are still publishing folk tales.
Authorship also warrants comparison. A higher percentage of Korean-American children’s books were written by authors of Korean-American background than were Korean-
Canadian children’s books. Louie comments that the “trend of authorship” is worth noting. Of the 93 books accessed, 43 of the 69 authors are Korean or Korean-American (62%) (174-175).
In Canada, of the 10 Korean Canadian books, with 8 known authors, only 3 are of Korean or
Korean-Canadian descent (38%). Considering the multicultural metaphors that represent the
United States and Canada, much irony exists in the fact that the United States is seen as the
“melting pot” and Canada, the “mosaic” given that the trend of authorship reflected in Korean
American children’s books suggests that Korean-Americans are being recognized as separate entities. Publishers in the United States have clearly responded to pressures to address race and
31 have provided significantly more opportunities for unique Korean-American voices to be heard.
Those voices represent a spectrum of experiences not yet in evidence in Korean-Canadian books for children in Canada.
Multiculturalism in Canada and Its Relation to Children’s Reading
Compared with the United States’ metaphor of a “melting pot” for immigrants to assimilate into, Canada’s metaphor of a “mosaic” fits with Canada’s official multiculturalism policy that states ethnic groups in Canada are encouraged to retain their ethnic heritage as they acculturate to Canadian society. Canada is globally recognized as the first country to adopt the
Multiculturalism Act in 1988, and prides itself at being a world leader in this regard.
Considering Canada’s history and identity of being a nation of immigrants, where large waves of immigration occurred during the twentieth century and where more than 200 ethnic groups were reported in the 2006 Census (Statistics Canada), it is not surprising that the term multiculturalism most likely originated in Canada. Introduced in the 1970s under Liberal Prime Minister Pierre
Trudeau, Multiculturalism became official government policy in 1988 when the Parliament in
Ottawa passed into law the Canadian Multiculturalism Act (“Part 1” Canadian Heritage).
The metaphor of Canadian society as a mosaic can be misleading in that it suggests that different races co-exist in Canada in contiguous and harmonious fashion, erasing any doubts that ethnicities do not co-exist harmoniously and that racism exists. Louise Saldanha, a scholar in the field of multicultural children’s literature, comments:
Yet, despite its widely publicized and self-acclaimed commitment to cultural
plurality, Canadian multiculturalism does not live up to what some claim to be its
original ideals of recognition and acceptance. Instead, it has functioned to
neutralize-rather than seriously engage-the cultural and racial diversity it permits
to take shape in Canada. (“White Picket Fences” 13)
32 Moreover,
skepticism
expectations
Bissoondath
(1994)
cultures
remains believe
with.
Colour-Coded:
In
2003 and
fact,
the
Constance
Ipsos-Reid
that
Despite
that
live
a
when
Globe
serious
in
concerning
huge
racism
as many
so
regards
Canadians
The very rightly
Dionne country,
still “Unlike racism closely multiculturalism’s and
innocence” A
these
(Backhouse
and
Backhouse,
problem
survey Legal
people
does
ideology
Mail,
gets
much
to
complex
would
its pointing
exists
together
Brand,
“the
the
or
History asked
not
commissioned
feasibility,
are
74
attach
in
in
at
(178).
United
appear letter 14)
exist
percent
of keeping
and
polled
least
Canada,
a
problems
an
in
distinguished
out
racelessness,
as
of to
interviews:
has
African-Canadian
in
and A
being is
they
Racism States, it”
in
to
anonymously,
Canada
“mythology
if
much
of
a
with
Selling
but
be
the
(Petzold
not
history,
respondents
do
emerge
by
enshrined
the
is
spirit
where
our its
in
less
the in
overlooked
and,
twin
“Is
a
Canadian
Canada.
Illusions: desirability,
Canada,
national
hallmark
Centre
in
so
178).
of
when
there
there
of
therefore,
this
pillars
than
the
they
in
racelessness”
expressed historian,
Canadian
In
country
people racism Canadian
for
is
1900-1950,
our
mythology
legal
The
do
as
particular,
of
of
at
Research
exists-partly
such.
admit
the
southern
the least
do
Cult
scholar
of in
poet
one
their
not
Canadian
Canadian
government
this
Multiculturalism
so
an
of
to In
and
see is
that writes:
many
and
Petzold
admission Multiculturalism
and view
awareness
general,
neighbour, country?”
and
faced
“stupefiing
it
because
Canada
writer
Information
as
historical
author
different history that
with
an
notes
policy,
Canadians
there
recounts
issue
of
of Her
is
the
of
of
stupef’ing
of
the
Neil
racism.
not
Act,
the
races
innocence”—
the
tradition,
response:
United is
race.
racism
to
on
fact
in
a
still
too
be book
much
that racist
tend
Canada Canada
and
that
dealt
In
high
States.
she
a
to
is
33 considerable racism in Canada. Furthermore, 36 percent of visible minorities feel they have experienced discrimination and unfair treatment because of ethno-cultural characteristics (“A
Canada for All”). Canadians likewise need to admit to the inadequacies of multiculturalism policies. Petzold asserts that multiculturalism needs to be seen as a goal rather than something already achieved, much more than just “a political program governments can implement by fiat” and a concept that should not be merely reduced to “folk dances, costumes, and ethnic food”
(178). Acknowledging the problem of racism, instead of painting a myth of happy cohesion among cultures, is the start to engaging and dealing with it as a problem requiring attention.
Canada is widely known as a nation of immigrants, those immigrants contributing to the pieces that make up the mosaic of different cultures. To better understand the Canadian identity, we need to learn about the variety of different cultures that make up this mosaic — and this applies most importantly to children. Learning about other cultures needs to begin at a young age as studies have shown that by the age of nine, children’s attitudes towards diversity are more inclined to remain the same unless challenged by life changing events (Aboud, 1988). A study by Wham, Barnhart and Cook (1996) titled, “Enhancing Multicultural Awareness Through the
Storybook Reading Experience” demonstrates that there are positive effects multicultural literature can have on the attitudes of elementary school students towards diversity when exposed to it at school and at home. Researchers hoped and expected to see these kinds of results. However, a surprising outcome from the study was that in the control groups, where students were not exposed to multicultural literature, there was an overall negative change in their attitudes. Students’ attitudes were measured by a questionnaire at the beginning and end of the study and rather than remaining constant throughout the study, their attitudes showed a decrease in tolerance towards people from diverse backgrounds by the end of the study. This study supports the fact that it is not just the regular practice of reading to our children that is
34 to crucial
for members represented
children own accurate be
that
found.
the
cultural
can
sake in
Canada’s
from
and
of developing
make
of in
a
heritage authentic
minority
minority
Canada
enhancing
a
publishing
difference
reading
reflected
in
children’s
group
groups.
texts.
Canadians’
industry
in
skills
are
in
their
It
Charlotte
validated
books
the
is
but
particularly
outlook needs
attitudes literature
it
showing
is
Huck
in
to
also
on
their
produce
towards
they
has
the
people
important
a
cultural diverse
kinds
read”
said,
books
diversity.
from
“all
of
(22).
in range
identity
books
different
that
the
readers
In
in identity
reflect
But
the
our
when
their
should
more
backgrounds.
case
children
its
experiences
development
they
of
multicultural
importantly,
be
Korean
see
able
read
their
to
or
are
Canadians,
of
find
culture
are
yet
society
read
their
to
35 experiences
Pamela Children English-language is
problematic, since that
rare, Canadian
together grouped published
works,
Vietnamese
folktales children’s
Printz
Single
174),
written
bibliographies
as
“gaining
and
In
award),
In
leaving Shard, J.
Ko
Chinese-,
under works
and
(3),
formulating
and/or McKenzie’s
many
works
bibliographic in
books
and
in
books
however, light
Young
picture
awarded children’s
access
one
I
out
not
McKenzie’s
ways,
with wanted illustrated
produced
children’s
Japanese-,
of
that
for
autobiographies
well subject
Adults.”
their
books
to Asian-American
my
as
article
children because
did the
resources” children’s served
to
books,
Ko
thesis
also
heading.
know
Newbery
by
focus
in
(1)
fiction annotated
Vietnamese-, and
“At
the
Chapter
In
Canadians.
receiving
and few by
cites
topic
I
it
McKenzie
more
on
the United
based
subject
works they
that
(14), fiction
published
and
Asian
a
While
and
Margins
on
mere
bibliography
works.
about
Two
provide features
non-fiction part
high
the
it
States An
with
access
and (1).
themes
is
Ko
explain, 5
of lack
Na’s -
the
not
honours
Korean-Canadian bibliographies
of
Literature
Asian-Canadian
Furthermore,
Korean-Canadian
and my
Given
from
an
East-Asian
multicultural
Mainstream?
comprehensive
in
of
A
in
hypothesis
annotated
McKenzie’s
works.
libraries
representation of
their
Step
the children’s
the
(as, 117
1990s
From
bibliography
outpouring
Review
for
Chinese,
themes
specifying
and
include
bibliography
publishing
on
example, East-Asian-Canadian
themes
onwards
Heaven, books
texts.
annotated
as
not
characters
what
of
it
or
Japanese,
widely
them”
of focuses Korean-Canadian
would significant
These
I
and
is
country
Korean-American
Linda found
(Sarah
awarded
the scene
bibliography
of
characters
(13).
and
available
first often
are
only
117
Korean
in Sue
Park in
of
themes
comprised
Grace
characters
the They
texts
of
Canada.
origin
on
put
Park’s
Fiction
its
8;
Michael
in
fictional
remains
and
Asian-
of
Louie found
kind
are
“pulls Ko
was
A
often
and
of
for
and
L.
36 Although
multicultural States,
Books
multicultural
ones retellings,
Jaehyun
content Stars: Korea:
Book
books,
fmd
H.
“The
my Yong
Smith
list
in
them
Children
(2003), there of A
Pak,
the
Ko
Veterans Young
for of
Park’s Korean
Toronto
there
states Library
with
ten
United
and
children,
was
are
books,
picture
which
Korean-Canadian
this Many
of who are
society
Canada
McKenzie’s
of
also
the more
on co-authored
Legend
Tell
this
stand
Korea.”
in
States.
a
age
the
help
through
have
good
Canadian
books.
Toronto.
has
of I
recent
hemisphere
Their
was is
of
Picture company
out,
our
of
not
only (2005).
contributed
global
number
Groundwood
special able
And
books
Stories
and circumstance
list
publication
In
always
with
one
publishers
Even Book
general,
to
of
Korean Tradewind
publishing
children’s website
After
have
Jock
of
page tell
add
Korean
collections
of
visible.
then,
publishers
(1911)
significantly;
the the
two
always Carroll,
conducting
on however,
of Boy,
Books,
that
who,
Korean
have stories
Young
works
Korean
her
information
books
by Books
and
although
librarians
second been
though media
been
who
of
publisher
Korean
of
could
these
Canada
War,
in
multicultural
martial
of
my
James
people
a
helped
hand,
marginalized
Vancouver
conglomerates.
special
illustrated
not
own
considered
houses
be
books:
1950-53
at
Boy
contained
Lorimer
of
exclusively
arts. just
expanded the
whose
Pak
library
Janie
(1955),
interest,
Osborne
publish
Linda
one-tenth
For children’s
come
(2004)
folktale,
has
voices
and
an
Jaehyun
of
catalogue
the only
a
also I
Granfield’s
Halifax Books
autobiography
as
to
publishers
little
was whose
far
Library
remaining and
Canada have
of are
a
produced
The
fewer
books
two-page
fortunate
Park’s
bit
what
The
by
not
search
contribution
and
those
Love
more
housed the
Martial books
always
to
has of in
I
Groundwood
couple folktale
Remember
First
study.
some
the
of
of
for
by
with
enough
spread
been
others
Two
than
in
United
Jong
Korean
heard
Arts
Peoples
find
of Janie
Lillian
to
With
titled
the
to
our
in
37 produced in the United States, I as a second-generation Korean Canadian could not identify with or connect myself to most of the books. In fact, most of the books were marked by stereotypes or limited views of the Korean culture. This discovery led me to the next part of my research study, an investigation into possible racial biases and stereotyping in Korean-Canadian children’s books.
The earliest article in the journal Canadian Children’s Literature/Litterature canadienne pour laleunesse 6(CCL/LCJ) discussing Asians and stereotyping in Canadian children’s books is Diane Shklanka’s “Oriental Stereotypes in Canadian Picture Books” (1990). Shklanka begins her article referring to a 1970s study of 66 children’s books with Asian-American themes conducted by The Council on Interracial Books for Children. The study concluded, “that with one or perhaps two exceptions, the 66 books are racist, sexist and elitist, and the image of Asian
Americans they present is grossly misleading.” Shklanka notes that while Canadian picture books up until the 1990s are not as blatantly racist and sexist as their American counterparts, they “are still open to charges of stereotyping and misrepresentation” (81). She focuses her discussion on eight Canadian picture books on Chinese and Japanese experiences but with a caveat that “Books in which the central characters are Chinese or Japanese are so uncommon, however, that any examples are lavishly praised and promoted, often before being critically evaluated” (81).
Shklanka finds that while it is relatively easy to assess the accuracy of historical details in such books, she admits to the difficulty in determining the extent of racial stereotyping. She asserts, “The best books individualize the main characters and thus avoid the stereotypes; they depict characters with whom children may identify imaginatively, they recreate experiences,
6 CCL/LCJ is a bilingual refereed academic journal that has existedsince1975. It beganoutofaneedfora serious scholarly journal about children’s literature in Canada where none had existed before. For a complete background, history and searchable index of pastissues of CCL/LCJ visit http://ccl.uwinnipeg.cal
38 fictional
excellence”
she as
impressions John
others
Shizuye Chinese to
New Shklanka
Bamboo from
Berg
features
does
dance
includes
in
woman, several ‘
Gail
“the
certain
Prison
looks
Lim
Year
remark
Gold
and
Edwards
are
by
primary
critics
The
as
or
Takashima.
as
and
Brush
at
Wallace’s
--At
does
conclusions
LaRouche’ implying
West
women Camp
recollected, (1980)
they
Mountain
(81).
are
other
of
who
expressions,
that,
and
Grandmother’s
a
not
memoirs,
aim
(1981),
Coast
are
past
traditionally and
said
Judith
In
four
by
frame
“Wallace’s
that
set
of
book
particular,
“it
Tales
s
way However,
Shelley
(1989)
Chinese
about
Chinese each illustrations
Saltman that
in
was
Ian
it
her
which
on
Singapore,
of she could
from
impossible
are did Wallace’s
memoir
each
life”
her
written
analysis
Tanaka,
does
House
(2001)
book
not
Boy
convincingly she and
Sbklanka
be
are
Gold
list
of
(82).
participate
points
suggest not
danced
Japanese
(1979)
the
seems is
the
of
discuss
by for
his
(1977)
in
illustrated
Mountain. Chin
also
remark the
ones Chin
Paul
Of
books.
any
South
is
out
books
by to by
Wallace’s the
open as stereotyping
Chiang
mistaken
Chiang
type
and
that
authentic;
Yee, picture
be
dragon
that
two
Sing
this
four
East
to
by to
Merchants
best
that
of
She
four illustrated
people”
to
in
communicate
the Lim
and memoirs
portrayal Ron
dancers”.
Asian
theory,
books
learn
Wallace’s in
best
convey
concludes:
out
charge
and
the
and
believing
due
Berg,
the
avoid
country
of
(93)7
that
Dragon’s
they
she of
of
A
to
steps
by
that
the
the
the
that
the Adelle Child
little
Shklanka
does
Simon
illustrations.
are
stereotypes,
eight
not
Chinese
to
Chinese Shklanka
Nevertheless,
that
Mysterious
it
of
the
marked
differences
misrepresents
in
not only
Dance
origin.
Larouche’s
John
Dragon’s
Canadian
Ng.
Prison
culture
explain
discusses
facts and
refers
Lim’s
While
by
(1984),
along
Also,
However,
East Japanese
Camp
as Dance
but
aesthetic
in
Sbklanka
picture
how
being
to,
Binky
books
characters’
she
the
with
(1981). also
because
are
and
from two
(1971)
she
questioned
notes
dragon’s
Michi’s
culture
books A
Shklanka
Tales
and
are
are
an
comes
Child
The elderly
by
that
by
the
by
39 We now need more picture books which portray Chinese and Japanese. . .in a
wider range of occupations, living in communities other than Vancouver,
participating in the mainstream of Canadian life, and facing the problems of living
in a white or multicultural society. I am not advocating that we deny or play
down historical realities, only that we make available a broad spectrum of
experience; and that we have more stories which encourage young readers not just
to observe an alien culture, but to participate imaginatively in new cultural
experiences. (Shklanka 95)
Shklanka fails to note that other Asian groups living in Canada (i.e. Koreans, Singaporians,
Filipinos, South Asians etc.) also need representation in Canadian children’s books, though she may perhaps have omitted to do so since she was writing about Japanese and Chinese-Canadian books. Although Shklanka observes that four of the eight books that best represent their cultures are memoirs and that two of three books that avoided stereotypes were also minority writers of the culture they portrayed, she makes no mention of the possibility that the cultural background of the author could play a factor in the quality and authenticity of the story. To conclude,
Shklanka’s article may provide the first analysis of stereotyping in Asian-Canadian books in a
Canadian scholarly journal but her analysis is not fully critical, as it is not grounded in theory.
In the 1990s, there were changes in the Canadian multicultural children’s book publishing world noted by scholars in the field. Ron Jobe observed a shift occurring whereby ethnic groups began writing about their own cultures, “Although the majority of available books in English about other cultures have been written by non-natives, a remarkable development is occurring in that cultures are now being written about by members of them” (67). In addition,
Perry Nodelman and Mavis Reimer also observed, “in recent years, more and more writers of color have managed to gain access to mainstream publishers” (Pleasures 171). They point out
40 that
“increasingly introduced scholars multicultural
rather children
and achieve have danger
in therefore
multiculturalism,
ethnic and minority could
appropriating the
group”
subject
specific
viewpoint
many
critique
ethnicities
had
than
be
group
of
Donna
tolerance (Nodelman
and who
is
open
and
writers part
to “misrepresent[ingj
multicultural
the
to
groups
the
the
discuss
should
popular
them continue classrooms.
of
the
place
Norton that
to
differences
but
culture
literature
what
writing
charges
remarking
of
“right
anyone
in
is
and
also
have
other
a
how
educational
the children
part reported
to
greater
should
Reimer
to
about
texts
have
show
of
written ownership
to
classroom
groups.
who
(33).
give
of
One
“cultural
that
best
the
what
a
be
need emphasis a for
on
writes
characters
voice
175).
strong
cultural
approach “Many
Therefore,
promote
by
able
actual
focus
responses
children
But
to
does
others...”
of
at
appropriation”
to
On
with to
understand
effect Nodelman
the
schools
on what of
situation
experience,
write
on
the
indeed tolerance
not
the literature Jobe
sensitivity
multicultural
choosing had
the by
on other
it
participants
about
(605).
to
educators
means (171).
people’s
commonalities
suggests
appeared
make
in
about be and
hand,
through
or our and
other
the
so
a
Otherwise,
and
Reimer
or
“voice
But
range
people
being
culture”
real
be
Norton different
diversity”
feels
lives.
attending
for does
than
felt
on
encouraged differences
the
world,
of
appropriation”
selecting
human”
believe
like the
strongly
their
the
different
books
For
and
books
also
(605).
non-minority
after
to market
required
a
more
better
in
own,
similarities
roundtable
reports
belong
that
educators
which
(Pleasures
that
that
of to
books
all
from
and
are
write
or
opinions
in
and
only
research show
could
to
that
worse,
whereby doing
color seen
more
writers’
one
for
a
that
the
on choose
members among
particular
“Others
different
172).
as
help
multicultural
and
literature
so,
arise
another--and
children
membership
through
into
claiming
non-
we
works
ethnicity
for
children
peoples
the
among
argued
of
are
races
their
are
an
an
in
or
41 Nodelman and Reimer highlight another key issue that cultural critics note as dangers in multiculturalism such as “essentializing” — that is, “assuming that there’s something identifiable as, say, a black soul or a Jewish character shared by all members of those groups” (Pleasures
171). Just as negative stereotyping does, so too does positive essentializing assume that characteristics are shared by all those of the same cultural origin leaving little room for “the possibility of individual growth or change, or of different but equally valid ways of being black or Jewish or Asian or Native American” (Pleasures 172).
Nodelman and Reimer make a significant contribution in their challenging of existing multicultural viewpoints about race and ethnicity. They offer suggestions for what they deem to be the best approach when evaluating and selecting multicultural texts for children. In supporting a process that cultural theorists call “hybridization,” which means “the process by which the values and attitudes of members of minority groups and members of the dominant group are influenced and changed by their dealings with one another” (173), Nodelnian and
Reimer emphasize that race and ethnicity are complex categories. They opt for a method based on the following principle:
Evaluators could avoid essentializing by selecting books that accurately represent
real racial and ethnic differences but also making it clear that these differences are
more significantly cultural than basically genetic, and that they are historically
constructed-group characteristics that have emerged because of the group’s
history and the history of its interactions with other groups. (Pleasures 172)
They also bring up pertinent issues that inform my research study such as voice appropriation, authenticity of a multicultural book and essentializing. However, though their aim is primarily to provoke readers to ask important questions and to re-think existing mindsets on multiculturalism,
42 race they
study
Children’s
“other” past
heard
history contextualize
ways
the
the an
coast
multiculturalism contributions
Othemess:
example
forces
interaction
and
do
so
of
of
(xxv). from
In
many
not
of
as
A
Korean-Canadian
ethnicity.
seeing”
searching
oppression
few
“the
of
Literature
offer
minority
The
of
cultural
decades”
minority
to
articles
a
between people
The
moment.
increased
other,
stereotypes,
Discourse
(xxii). minority
any applying
in
for
emergence
children’s
writers.
kind
and
domination
and
it
in more
writings (xxi).
a
Moreover,
the
unmistakably
McGillis’s
theory
the
tolerance On
writer
postcolonial of
children’s
[to
of
Chinese
written
and
theoretical
Postcolonial the
McGillis’
Difference
He
liberate]
literature.
of
within
that
who
narratives.
one
recognizes
and
posteolonial
he
and
about
Voices
and
could
books,
hand,
has
racial
sees
mirrors
postcolonial
the
criticism
s
understanding
framework
non-Chinese
aim,
as
taken
In
than
Context.
study
properly the
it
an
intolerance” of
(1) the I
that
testifies
through found
a
postcolonial the
Unfinished
narratives writing,
up
world
first
to
of
many
Other
both
the
literature
for
thought
address
McGillis,
Roderick
article,
to
community,
the
saturated
of
ongoing
analyzing
more
more the
a
are
(xxiii).
racial
dialectically
essays
changed
Project,”
history
writer
as issues
“Rethinking worth
from “voices
spoken
MeGillis’s
in
a
and discussions
with
means
his
he McGillis
texts
as
traditional
of
especially
noting
of
world
cultural
Shaobo
edited
introduction,
one
about
of
imperialist
race
the
marks
for
to
the
the who
Chinese
Voices
characterized
because
acknowledge
and
what
refers
and
than
other”
surrounding
difference;
Xie
Identity
a
on
and
“confronts
ethnicity
compiled, complex
they
speaking,
states:
Canada’s
ideas,
to
of
Eurocentric
talks
in
of
are
Paul
the
Canada
say
their
of
being
about
on Other:
by
in
“the Cultural
historical
Yee
about
directly
is
these my
west
the
to
and
as
the
43 Xie the
recuperated
identity difference difference
postcolonial article literature
Literature”
position
effectiveness diversity
focuses (Himani Allen’s ‘difference’
her
She
same
argues
class
demonstrates
“a
Louise
of
her Why
of that
Bannerji’s
and clear
“within
a
has as
cultural
the
privilege
“predominant
addresses
as
analysis
project
as
the
has
the
of Me?);
to
importance counter-hegemonic
with For
towards introduction appreciate
Saldanha’s
an
Canada’s
end
be
reigned
criticism
a
alternative
through
the otherness
liberal
celebrated postcolonial
in
Coloured
these,
on of
at
“the
world
the
the
a
history.
three
globalized
for
racial/ethnic
tendency
humanist multiculturalism of long
article,
contemporary
of
she
multicultural
expense
to
as over
always enabling
children
lifestyle
children’s
Pictures,
postcolonial
and
argues,
run,
radical
Rather
education,
two
“Bedtime
strategy”
radicalized
to
of
postcoloniality. framework
ultimately
assign
rather
literature the thousand
minority
represent
difference,
difference
Vinita
it
books
readings
insistence
is
differences
thought”
policy
and
to
(8-9).
Stories:
than
pedagogical
Srivastava’s
in strive
written
belongs
peoples” that
as
years,”
if
a
the
as
and is
truly they that
as having
In
of
not,
encourages
an
Canadian
(xxix).
towards
moment
(13)
being
the
of
responses
the
would
by
are
oppositional
postcolonial
and
to
cultures
however,
(McGillis
end,
value
Canadian
the
dominant
children.
encouraged
A
one
to
Xie
tremendously a
ability now”
Giant
Xie
now
Multiculturalism
utopian
that
to
the
to
ends
to
these
to
points
these
be
xxx).
confront
women Named expression (13).
contains
society
body
subjectivity”
If
to
assert
with
“reinstated
today’s
to
be future
texts
books
out
understand
McGillis
of
Saldanha
the
a
the
expedite Azalea, writers to
work “the
focus
the
that
within
of
most
perpetuate
children
politics
of
from
and
unity
notion
“To imperialism
(167).
one’s and
in
on
calls
of
effective
questions
and
Children’s
the
the
students
Canada.
and
rethink
children’s
colour
that
of
grow
of
Lillian
progress
Xie’s
She
its
up
the in
the
of
44 conventions usefully although transform multiculturalism
nothing and
poses Books” moral
their historical
by childhood
perspective. historical (1986)
children in
postcolonial
can
explore
looking
a
variable
achieve
limited
authenticity.
history
issues,
McGillis
as
as more
The be
thought-provoking
multiculturalism
(and
the
events
a dimension,
an memory,
regarded
at
form
of
articles categories”
view,
this
society
(Naomi’s
terms human happy in important
than
for
liberal
relation
points
might still
difficult
of
adults)
shades
and
He
by
autobiographical
their
endings
from
as
by history
has
multiculturalism” Petzold
argues,
which
so
an
cause
Road to
call
making
to
and
yet
lies
remembrances
task
Voices distort
of “is
Dieter
opportunity
ideas
issues
for
with white” until
and “to
in
far is
one their
asserts
however,
can
adapted serious
“the
the
comprehend
from of truth.
unpleasant
Petzold’s
of
a to
it
“teach
while
diversity
personal
steady
utopian can, (175).
the
think
task
that
writing
an
for
consideration
Other
that
from For
(174).
may “the
applying
oppositional of
the
the
that etbnocultural
eye,
article
explaining
idea
example, is truths.
for
experience,
kind
challenge from
Canadian concepts
possibly Kogawa’s
discussed
testament
instituted”
yet
She
children’s
of
“Multiculturalism
postcolonial
of
a without
multiculturalism
summarizes Autobiographical
child’s
wisdom
of
Petzold
discourse,
be
of
human
mosaic
for
minorities
the
here novel,
ethnic of
race
exaggerated (175).
writers
all
giving
personal
point history
present
that
refers
writers
and
depravity
criticism
will
Obasan.)In
identity,
her
According
its
of
it
in who
ethnicity
to
of
continue
takes vision
remarks
to
in
view
experience
to
work”
well-formed
engage,
of
writings
cultures
or
Kogawa’s Canadian
are
despair.”
the
historical to
without
idealized,
to
providing
of
recognizing adults
a
(191).
as to
simplification
create
variety
by
to
inclusiveness
counter,
social, Saldanha,
(xxx). based
be
would
saying
excusing Children’s
recounting
Naomi’s Only
arguments
fiction
read
a
or
a
of
truly
on
historical,
restricted constrained
Petzold
resist,
guarantee
that
books
the
as
for
it,
of
Road
can
a
that
and
that
45 multicultural works. Postcolonial criticism certainly is relevant in presenting racism and ethnicity in a new light in multicultural children’s books because it centralizes the history of the oppressed as well as racial intolerance. But contextualizing Korean-Canadian children’s books in postcolonial criticism is, in my view, not sufficient for my purposes; unlike the Blacks and the
Chinese, Koreans do not share the same experiences of having been part of a nation colonized by
European countries, namely Britain. Certainly, Koreans do have a history of being colonized by the Japanese; and when they immigrate to and settle in Canada, they are subjected to any effects of previous British colonization. Even so, their experiences are not necessarily the same as for those historically colonized by the British. Therefore, because postcolonial literature and postcolonial criticism is based on how previously colonized countries such as “Canada,
Australia, South Africa, India, the islands in the Caribbean” (McGillis xxiii) resist Eurocentric concepts and images through writings revealing a sense of “national identity and pride separate from an attachment to England” (McGillis xxiii), I have found postcolonial criticism to be inadequate in fully encompassing the Korean-Canadian experience.
Analyzing multicultural children’s literature in light of the ways in which the works contribute to Canadian identity is another phenomenon worth mentioning. Ko and McKenzie’s aim, in “At the Margins of Mainstream? East-Asian-Canadian Fiction for Children and Young
Adults,” was not only to provide an annotated bibliography but also to apply some of the
“mainstream” Canadian characteristics that Nodelman and Reimer developed from some
Canadian children’s novels. Some of the “mainstream” themes Ko and McKenzie chose to look at are: ways of confronting injustice; “outsider” protagonists; home and away issues; and the support of adults in addition to peers (16-19). While Ko and McKenzie discuss some of the
Chinese works, they dealt with none of the Korean texts, which is not surprising given there is not a lot that can be known about Korean-Canadian culture through the present books published.
46 multiculturalism
Others: Chinese immigration influenced their
since books
Saitman children’s multiculturalism
Canadian
this.
“mainstream” Louise “multicultural” texts
“Canadian recognition the
“home”
cultural
stories
their
In by
and
Gail
Nodelman
Multiculturalism
Saldanha
and
“White
offer writers
is
experience
books,
beginnings make
Canadian
considered
multiculturalism
Edwards
and
and
and
Japanese
policies
pertinent
Canadian
in
Picket
of
images
racial
acceptance. reflected
solid
or
challenges
all
relation
and
colour
“mosaic”
in
children’s
in
and
in
Canadian
observations
in
to
diversity
Reimer
Fences:
light
the
background
children’s of
children’s
the
in
be
Judith
to
in
to regional
1
Canadian
part
these
make 960s does of Canadian
1970s
“mainstream”
Instead,
cannot
discuss
At
Canada’s
literature”
stories. it
Saitman
of
not
and
permits
notions
Home
for books
have
literature,
noting
life
information
even
Children’s
live
it
themselves its
the picture
and
has
mapped
They
provide
with official
multicultural and
up
to
notions of be (2).
stereotyping
a
functioned (129).
take
“home”
to
discussed
how
culturally and
books believe Multicultural
They
what
about
Picture
adoption an
a
shape
Ko
a
of
Korean-Canadians
historical
She
‘home’
intentionally
in
conclude
“home”
some
and and
the
Canadian
policies.
to
“Looking
and
asks
since
diverse
in
Books
“away” MacKenzie
impact neutralize-rather
of
Canada”
claim
in
diversity
Children’s
“What
multiculturalism survey
there
and
Canada?”
that
in
society”
Once
publishing
of
to
Canadian
at
“away”
in
English.”
“Canadian
are
does
(“White”
be Canada’s
Ourselves,
and
the
in
reflect
have
again,
few
its
Literature
Chinese-Canadian
context
(7).
discussion
it
Saldanha
as
original
mean than
titles.
also
geographic
houses
traits
They
a
the
Edwards
130). change
picture
in
part
Looking
commented
seriously
of
Korean-
for
1971
in
of
ideals
include
the
states,
of
for
of
As
Canada?”
children’s
in books
Canadian
position
“deeply
and
children’s
reality
long
at
of
engage
on
as
in
of
47 the Eurocentrically bounded Canada, our “away,” as people of colour, remains,
for [sic] all intents and purposes, outside of things, our exoticness perhaps
celebrated but not actually included in any material, transformative, manner. To
this end, the participation of non-white cultures is encouraged and financially
supported mainly within the cultural and symbolic sphere rather than within the
social and economic sphere. (“White” 131)
In other words, the very terms “multicultural” and “mainstream” are problematic in achieving true equality and inclusion of all racial and ethnic groups in Canada. The term “multicultural,” representing the minority groups here in Canada, distinctly separates them from what is considered “mainstream.” Hence, minority groups will always be seen to represent “away” while never feeling at “home” in Canada.
In order to adequately frame my discussion of Korean-Canadian children’s books in light of the issues of race and racism, I needed to address the history of racism the Chinese faced.
Chinese immigration preceded that of Korean immigration and the racism the Chinese endured set a pathway of racism towards subsequent Asians. Various sources informed my research in outlining China’s history of racism in Canada, especially since the topic has been well documented in scholarly works. Part of the historical section draws upon scholar and author
Peter S. Li’s work in The Chinese in Canada and his article in the Multicultural History Society of Ontario’s The Encyclopedia of Canada’s Peoples on the “Chinese” (355 — 373). I also refer to
The Last Spike: The Great Railway 1181-1885, Pierre Berton’s saga of the building of the
Canadian Pacific Railway. Berton devotes a section to the thousands of Chinese workers who worked and died in the canyons of the Fraser Valley. UBC history professor Peter Ward’s White
Canada Forever (1990) provides insight into the development of race relations and racial policy
48 and in
Patricia
work and
opposition
newspapers Timothy
of histories
informed.”
legal
experience students
History
Canadians
work giving
and
weight
issued
Canadian
Canada.
theory”
cited
“The
archivist
is
history
particularly
Two
voice
valuable in
Roy’s
to
Paul
of
has there. of
Stanley,
Colonial
2006,
his Other
and
to community.
the
(1998)
racism racism
historians in
Stanley
appeared
and
to
Asian Yee’s
but
writing
The
particular,”
Chinese he
the
with
as
works,
race,
is
also
sees
important
provide
Sojourners,
Oriental
and is
investigations
Chinese
works
that immigration.
points
problematic.
an
about
have
a
in to this
of
in
In
Chinese valuable
it
additional
Canada,
illustrate.
British
Vancouver
is though
on
his
integral to as
Question:
been
Chinese-Canadian
in
“deeply for
the
unfortunate
history
review
1858-187 the
my
Canadian
especially
work
Columbia’s but
a
into
A he
midst
chapter personal
literature
Stanley
research.
major
rooted
does
of
counterbalance
(1986,
of
Consolidating
the
of
lesser
the
1”
of
Constance
given
reasons
comment
to and
strength
are
the
important
says new in
background
2006)
that
history,” update
importance
As
the
a
history
racism
a
that
continuation
that edition, writer
has
well,
and
primary
and
of
that
“significant
a
Backhouse,
readers
Roy’s
Roy’s
often
for
White
Roy’s
they forces
in
but
Yee
Struggle
for
her
information
Canadian
children’s
my
are
the
English-language
children.
benefited
faced.
work.
book is
account
on
work,
Man’s
behind
study,
noted
of
not
absence
the
her
and literature
a
is
only
distinguished Saltwater For
scholar
according
changes
an books. in
Patricia
Province,
earlier
British
Hope:
is
of
Yee’s
from
my
this
“invaluable
of
“largely a
Chinese
professional
the
historical on
being
reason, Christopher
work,
The
background
Saltwater
Columbians’
in
Roy
City:
sources
voices
racisms
to
1914-41
the
immune
Story
historian
Canadians,
professor
theoretically
and -
An
Chinese
I
reference (1989).
discussion
of found
and
Paul
and historian
City
of Illustrated
those
(2003)
Lee
gives
to
Chinese
in
their
Yee.
of
was
Yee’s Her
issues
who
for
re
49 observes that the preface to the new edition is markedly different from that to the “celebratory tenor” of the first, as it reveals “newer forms of racism” that the Chinese Canadians have faced in recent years. Yee’s books provide an accurate historical background and include personal voices to show the racism that historical as well as contemporary Chinese Canadians faced and continue to face today. Lee points to Yee’s attempt to show the growing diversity of the Chinese community today “--large-scale immigration from Hong Kong, Taiwan, the People’s Republic of
China, Vietnam, and other places,” by giving glimpses into these different experiences, but remarks that Yee does not do justice to each group’s experiences as “[Saltwater City], simply cannot adequately represent them within the limited space of the text” (167). Lee says he is not intending “to fault Yee in any way for writing an incomplete community history” for “it may no longer be possible to write a general history of the Chinese in Canada” given the growing diversity of experiences in the Chinese Canadian community. While Lee believes that Yee is
“correct to underscore the centrality of race over ethnicity,” he feels that “we should nonetheless ask why Chinese Canadians should be considered independently of other racialized groups, especially other Asian Canadians” (167).
I, too, believe in the necessity of the writing of multiple narratives as Asian histories intersect and diverge from one another. All these texts, which contribute to tracing Chinese-
Canadian history of racism to different degrees help answer the following necessary questions; when did the first Chinese arrive to Canada? Why did they leave China? How were they viewed in Canada? What were their contributions to Canadian society and most importantly, what forms of racism did the Chinese face?
Providing a complete history of Koreans in Canada is not an easy task since so few scholarly works about them exist. Some useful sources were obtained through the following: government websites that published articles, as for example, “A Profile of Koreans in Canada”
50 and online Cam
notably searches
Koreans Identification, proceedings Adolescents.”
Korean “Korean
and Encyclopedia
settlement Immigration
Becoming some generation Korean were
“Just Minority
Weissbrot’s
“Canada’s
social
Cobb
not
Call sections
as
Helen
Immigrants
Americans
which
Came
Immigrants
an
as
Model,
information
titled Me
and
Korean
Korean
article
recent
on
“A
The
of
Song’s and
specifically Growing
Doctor:
Also,
to
issues
revealed
Asian-Canadian
Generation
“Toronto’s
Canada’s
but Call
Changing
Locus
in
American as
Canadians.
that
in
published
in
Am The
the were
“Korean
Toronto
Toronto:
The about
British
could
Visible
a
of published
I
Electronic
few
to Peoples.
found
‘The
(API)
Face
Control
Korean
in
Korean
Korean
in
also
social
Transition:
Community
Columbia,” Their
a
A
What
Minority Hawaii
issues
Model
few
of
mostly
American
few
be
materials
North
Canadian
of
More
Journal
history
Home,” Canadians
decades
Canadians.
applied
are
online
proved
Korean,
Minority’?”
(2004)
in
Population:
the
A
current America:
as
in
American
Dream”
articles
of
Study
Hidden articles just
and
to
ago,
well
Ontario-An
Community:
useful:
was
Inclusive New
was
Korean-Canadian
Mary
noted. Bo
published
two
as
of
useful
published
(2002) Immigration
an
(2001),
Korean-Canadian
also
Costs?” Kyung
Uichol
Generational
Korean-American
sources.
Fritz
Yu articles
article
These
Education;
provided
Overview,”
for
Danico’s
and 1948-2005,”
Lehmann
materials
Hannah Kim’s
Kim’s
comparative
Another
written
over
Sheila selected
articles
Charlie
Since
experiences,
Challenges”;
useful
“Attitudes,
a
“Illness
The
Seoh’s
and
couple
Smith
and
by
about
Jung-Gun
main
and
for
include
1965 Swan
which
Youth”
1.5
Young-Sik
library
information
Robert
information
conference
Canadian
Behavior
Noonan’s
Korean-Canadian
“I
Generation.
of sources
(2004)
and
Could Parental
he
decades
Ji though
(2001). a
catalogue Kim’s
J.
Hyun
Jill published
class
Lee’s
devotes
of
Yoo
Be Patterns
about
Korean
these
for
historical
“How paper
ago,
Lim’
a
in
1.5
jJç
s
by
of
51 Since very few Korean-Canadian children’s books have been published, it is not surprising that I found virtually no scholarly works in Canada written specifically about them. In the United States, however, I located a relevant Master’s thesis by UCLA student Sarah Park,
“Korean American Children’s Picture Books: Critical Analysis and Annotated Bibliography”
(2004). In general, Korean-American experiences bear similarities to Korean-Canadian experiences, so I found that I could relate to the experiences in many Korean-American children’s books far more than I could to the existing Korean-Canadian children’s books. Park analyzes 26 Korean-American picture books, excluding folktales, by employing content analysis.
She used a checklist that she adapted from the original checklist developed by the Council for
Interracial Books for Children in 1974 to identif’ racism and sexism in multicultural children’s books. Park adapted it to suit Korean-American experiences. Park’s thesis project was to determine if there were any biases in the picture books and whether the racial identity of the authors and/or illustrators contributed to their perspective. Summarizing her results of content analysis, Park’s results proved that those writers of Korean background told more believable and accurate stories than those who were not from Korean background. Sharing similar research questions to Park, I was eager to see what theoretical framework she used.
It was in Park’s thesis that I first came across critical race theory. Unfortunately, Park provides only a very short explanation of her intentions and methods in using critical race theory
(just over one page in length); she gives one-line definitions of race and ethnicity as well as a very short argument on the importance of the minority writer’s perspective. She does not offer a history or summary of critical race theory itself or discuss its relevance and application to her books of analysis. While I was intrigued by critical race theory, this gap of knowledge obliged me to do my own research. Therefore, I reviewed key titles in the field of critical race theory to gain a working knowledge of it.
52 Stefancic’s
These Words theory
science. Billings
Tools application
Wanda a well.
children’s
historical analysis
Also,
experiences
today, is
exposition
of
these
experience
Coretta
a
this
fresh
texts
Therefore, in
critical
in was
That
The
in
thesis. Brooks’s
A
and
Teacher
of Articles
this
Scott
particular
lens
contexts
number
books
founded Critical
key
historical are
of of
Wound,
in
William
through
thesis.
race
critical the
through
books
the
King
titles
because article,
I Education
such
critical
theory
found
foundation of
and
Race
in
creating
and
For
Award that
storytelling
published F.
contexts
questions
race
law
as
which
relates
Tate
“An
Carol Theory:
example,
critical
“Toward
race built
provides
of
theory
it
Policies
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its
an has
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Author
to
theory
for
of them
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Aylward’s
focus
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and
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to
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175).
to
experiences
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the
some
ideals
opportunity
move
conducted
such be
Korean-Canadians
from more
while
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of beyond
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the
stories
diverse “Are
British
short
recognizing
in
of
Asian-Canadian
the
will
the
Eurocentric.
need
achieving
Korean-Canadian
can about
there Scholars
multicultural
in
writings
different
ones
of
of
be
Empire
experiences
and
has
important
including
be
their
to multiculturalism
addressed
criticism
any
their
available
substantively passed
achieved
be
histories
have
experiences
of
its prominent
pursued or
shades
experiences
Researchers
all
goals European
those
observation
mindset.
cultures. as
demonstrated
of is
marginalized
in
presently
so
a
useful
of
South
of
experience
my
framework
and
as
minority
that
oppression
perspectives.
transform
South
to
is
for
paper,
ideals.
nations.
As
for it
in
More
how the Asians
need
children
also
can
is
creating
Louise
children
Asian
profound
lacking,
groups,
that
many
more
groups
in
to
be
questions
for
emerged
There
the
and and
books
explore The
more
or
and
more
to
and
the
is
54
a the chosen
thinkers different
the unlikely
picture
control world
language critical of common (8).
social capable
55). related are background
social
notion
perspective
crucial
Thus,
Minority
which
conflicts
In Chapter
critical
books Ethnicity
race over.
to
may
to
of
histories
thought
origins
and/or
my
their of
know”
the
speaking
in
theorists
and
a a
be
examination
As
forming about
race
unique white
definition
writers
of
history
and
able
Three
other
who
of
can
Sarah
and
and
a
(Delgado
theory
what
minority
interests ethnic
about
person
to
be
seek
relations”
share
voice
experiences
cultural
the speak
and -
Park
communicate
defined
Theoretical
that of
voice
(CRT) to of
race experiences,
experiences
certain race
of has
and
points
from
by revise over possible
background
characteristic”
color.
and
(7). referring
not
and as
Stefancic, has
to
that
experiences
with
“group
physical
out,
concepts
racism.
experienced”
frame
perspective
been
They
to
Framework:
The
racial
of
oppression,
speaks this but
their
a
to
expanded contributes
“voice-of-color”
my also
characteristic
white
Critical
being
different traits biases is
Therefore,
of
white
(Delgado
analysis, “not
formed
significantly
believe
race
of
person
such (21).
ethnic
in
9).
the to
counterparts
black,
to
Critical
and
types
Korean-Canadian
to
say
by
a
that story. as This
the and
using
his
for
concept
often
does race
race
that skin
Indian,
history of
race
thesis
or Stefancic, reasons
to view
Race
relations,
some
provide These human
white
based
her and color,
my
is
matters
“which
emphasizes
holds
Asian
perspective
more analysis
therefore
and
Theory
of
that
authors ideas
on
physique
bodies”
a
Critical its
experiences
to
children’s
national
that certain
than
the
and
that
signifies
major
see
of
of
(CRT)
white
“because
are cannot
Latino/a
the
the
just
(Omi
these the
the
in
and
146).
perspective
themes,
presumed
origin,
author’s whites
Korean
importance “people
author’s
and
person
books
hair
of and as
write
However,
writers
of
symbolizes
the
“products
texture”
ancestry,
are Winant
namely
their
I
race
has
good
with
author
have
to racial
of
be
and
of
no
the
55 Canadian children’s books. Moreover, in order to contextualize my study of these books and of possible misrepresentations and stereotypes, I provide an overview of Chinese and Korean
immigration history in Canada.
Background in Legal Studies and Race
Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic, two leading scholars of Critical Race Theory,
explain that it is a movement of scholars and activists concerned with studying and remodeling the relationships among race, racism and power (Critical 2). Critical race theorists are generally
concerned with “disrupting, exposing, challenging, and changing racist policies that work to
subordinate and disenfranchise certain groups of people and that attempt to maintain the status
quo” (Milner 333). CRT origins can be traced back to the mid-1970s when a group of lawyers,
activists, and legal scholars across the United States came together to discuss how the progress
made by the civil rights era of the 1960s was in danger of losing ground. While subtler forms of
racism also needed to be addressed, the existing legal theories were inadequate in placing race
and racism as central issues to address in the legal system (Delgado and Stefancic Critical 3- 4)•8
Critical Race Theory in Education and Its Application to Children’s Literature
Delgado argues that CRT has not been constrained to studying racial matters only in legal
structures. He says, “although CRT began as a movement in law, it has spread rapidly beyond
that discipline into such areas as education, political science, ethnic studies and American studies
departments” (3). In their article, “Toward a Critical Race Theory of Education” (1995), Gloria
Ladson-Billings and William Tate demonstrate critical race theory is necessary in education
because “race, unlike gender and class, remains un-theorized” (49). In addition, they argue for a
new perspective on multicultural education, one that critical race theory offers, “because of the
8 Derrick A. Bell is considered the movement’s “intellectual father figure” (Delgado 5). He wrote two law review articles that set the foundation for critical race theory: “Serving Two Masters: Integration Ideals and Client Interests in School Desegregation Litigation” and “Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest Convergence Dilemma” (Mimer 333).
56 failure
education
just
They rights Ladson-Billings
justice order” by
permitting difficulty
multiculturalism
perspective
those
as
also
law,
of
multiculturalism
(62).
to
in
scholars
(60-62).
minority of
draw
in
the
critical
for
maintaining
They
that
ever-expanding
allowing
among
difference”
hegemonic
The law. reforms rights
paradigm
order. a
education
and
for parallel
critical
to
make
They legal groups
current
theorize
Tate
education Instead
law
these
Thus,
are
a
is
studies,
clear
argue
the
race
proliferation between is
found
is
as
“mired
rule —
still
routinely multicultural
differences
mired
based that
of
they
spirit
critical
race”
that theory
multicultural
of
under that
being
creating
critical
is, but
the
argue in
in
they multiculturalism
on and
(60)
the
that
liberal
race
Ladson-Billings
liberal
“sucked
oppressor.” grew
subordination as
a
of
intent
by is
foundation
legal
that: as
ineffectual all radically
paradigm
theory
difference.
[sic]
well no
out
difference
ideology
ideology
paradigm
of
studies
means
back
of
rarely
as
justice
in
dissatisfaction
new
In
other
education, of
functions
into
as
by
and
that essence,
intend
to
that interrogated, and Unfortunately,
human
is
critical
paradigms follows
the
for
be
the
critical
limitations
both
offers
Tate
offers
more
dominant
the
system”
to
in rights,
analogous
Ladson-Billings legal
like
belittle the
oppressed
desire
legal
no
a
no
concerned with
that manner
traditions
its
presuming
radical
studies
radical
of
the
and
culture.
the
studies,
to
antecedent
critical
ensure the
multiculturalism
current
“underscore
and
just
tensions
while
similar
scholarly
change
was change
with
of
equivalent.
as justice,
legal
based
They
a
and
liberalism
for simultaneously
traditional
multicultural
“unity
human
in
to
between
in
in studies.
Tate
advancing
seek
legal
efforts
on
civil
the
the
multicultural
the
of
civil
in
rights
see
(62)
current
a
rights current -
new
civil and
made
57 scholarship, is a radical critique of both the status quo and the purported reforms.
(62)
Furthermore, current research in education is advancing CRT as a valuable analytical tool. In his article, “Critical Race Theory and Interest Convergence as Analytic Tools in Teacher Education
Policies and Practices,” H. Richard Milner points to a principle called “interest convergence” from critical race theory. He explains, “Interest convergence stresses that racial equality and equity for people of color will be pursued and advanced when they converge with the interests, (333)9 needs, expectations, and ideologies of Whites” Milner argues that interest convergence, as a conceptual tool, is useful for analyzing and explaining policies and practices in teacher education. He discusses some broad themes of “raced” interests in teacher education to show how interest convergence correlates with them, notably in curriculum and instruction, racial diversity in enrollment of students, and the participation of students of colour. He concludes with a proposal of a theory of disruptive movement in teacher education in order “to disrupt dominant, raced interests and to ultimately locate spaces of negotiation” (339).
Even in the field of literature critical race theory is emerging as a useful tool for literary analysis. Wanda Brooks discusses the application of CRT to Mildred Taylor’s The Land, which won the 2002 Coretta Scott King Award. Brooks argues for the importance of applying critical race theory to literary studies for three reasons. First, she argues that CRT provides a lens to
“systematically understand some of racism’s enduring influence from the perspective of those exploited” (9), and she says that counter-stories can reveal experiential knowledge as a valid way of portraying one’s life circumstances. Second, CRT focuses close readings of historical fiction in such a way that racism becomes the center of literary analysis” (9). CRT shows racism
Based on Derrick Bell’s classic article in the Harvard Law Review. “Brown v. Board ofEducationandInterest Convergence Dilemma.” Bell invites readers to question why the American legal system suddenly gave in to the NAACP Legal Defense Fund that had been litigating school desegregation cases for years with little success. Refer to Delgado and Stefancic’s Critical Race Theory: An Introduction 18-19 for complete details regarding the case.
58 towards
revealing
remains represents
involves
of
historical of
“historical
(Aylward
multicultural sometimes
surprisingly that “learning
would
However,
of
identity
minority
aspects
Kap-Sung points
oppression
racism
the
the
story
Another naturally
out
a
important
child
of
institutionalized
and
ways
minority
background in
character’s
to
31).
a
he
race,”
historical
tend
how
Ferris
contemporary
multicultural
and
accept small
needs
children’s
found still
protagonists’
in
In
way
to
history
the
involve
defined
which
(1977) multicultural
maintains
not
role.”
be
group
to
their
in
character
that
events
experience
marginalized.
stay
of to
some
is
books,
they
a disproportionately
the
ethnic
critical a to
racism
as Rather,
children’s
marginalized.
connection
that heightened
story
journey
be
that
the
ethnic a
of
have
(182). pervasive
a
way;
the that
identity children’s
history
have
about social
in race
or
he
been
books,
the
group. journey
towards “prejudice,
books otherwise, found
Dieter
Petzold theory
shaped between
awareness
a
form
construction
of
and
oppressed.
hold
Korean
(I
books
a
history
that
In
is
discuss
Petzold
situate
in particular
finding
of acceptance
can
through
white in
argues
critical
discovering
the
property
child
authors racial
society
girl
be
the
of
played
past
injustices
this
used views
characters’ found
Third, that
their
history
adopted
that
protagonists
race
slurs re-contextualizing
group’s
and
text, can
today.
of
ownership,
is
to
history
only own
theory of
in
Brooks closely his themselves
and
water identify present
of
too,
his minorities
in
into
place
a or
racialization
minority
downright history
the
marginal
readings
is
in her
this
a down
were
linked
asserts
closely
past”
Canadian are the
stereotypes
Brooks
in
identity
concept
and
society.”
and
evoked
analysis
frequently
in
the
characters
books
(9).
to
of
role
that,
the discrimination
their
linked
cultural
in
authenticity
notes the
Canadian
by
family,
is
As past.
a
in
“because
for
against
group’s
and
given
portion
place
known
eliminating
the
Petzold
The
to that
portrayed
readers.
can
background.
In
other
ethnic
development
Petzold
Land
in
society”
this
discussing
the
as
history
of
of
society CRT
assumes
play
forms
form
this
a
It
key
as
a
59 “cleverly study). childhood material
character efforts, home inner at
The
the “Chink” that person”
explanation perspective. is
There
Stefancic
the
titled
origins,
racial
“Chink,”
struggles
receiving
from
is
and
In
in
“Redskin,
(50).
One as
no
and
in
and
note
1978
slurs
any
school,
her
part
uses Kap-Sung
suggestion
of
sympathetically
Bealby
can
as
maturity”
not “Hey!
stared You
with
classroom
that it.
background
end
Kap-Sung
that
of
a
and
even
racial
In
for
the
Eskimo
they
even
with
of
racism:
Kim
meanings
Canada, explains,
straight You
me.
rhetoric
racial Ferris.
find
here
hear
(50);
epithet
the
though
experiences
where
with
Ferris
For
and
this
remains
she
that
chink!”
slurs
this:
ahead
learns
depict[ing]
in
Wilson
“The
of
Kim.
of
Chink” the
term
has
is
this the
immigrant
the
was
hate
racial
because
frequently
chink!”
been and
“Peeps
very
a
term slang
“Chinky,
term
in
praised I
lead highlighted
mystery,
words
peeked
and
early
epithets, kept
traditionally
little the
is
was
names
me
of
one
it
children
at
derogatory—just
transitional
in on mistaken
by her
Canadian
is
Many to
chinky
originally
about
at
even
of
Understanding
obviously
walking
reviewer
Delgado
they her.
Asian
for
the
them
are
Lands”
at her
a
book
Chinaman!
devote Her viewed
Chinaman
for
the
literature
appearance.
yelled.
present”
Korean
meant
at phase
Barbara
and
written
being
head
end
as
the
series
three
that
potentially
as
Stefancic
of
same Words
of
to
was I
cultural
Chinese
a
(55).
as
was
are
Slant-eyes!” the
it from
development
refer
Wilson
derogatory
by
pages
early
is
up.
As
speed.
Chink
story.
mortified
J.T.
a
That
But
to a ‘
slang
Kim
s
background
She
white
or
to
as
“useful
discussion
Chinese
as
Bealby,
Kim,
Wound.
“Chink,”
Japanese and
“Hey, 1915,
She
and
“well-written”
term. term
(64)
man’s
between —
Celestial”
experiences
the
her
discussion
along
chapter
people,
Red!
for
Delgado
main
In
of
despite
ffiend
and
and
a
outlining
the
Chinese
with
note
she
sixteen
(88).
term
walk
and
her
and
is
an
60 people “lately,
World
after. was
College “chink people
Korea
Orientals
ideas
37-47).
Stefancic
spray-painted
have
They
War
was of
bastards,”
believing
the
As
Another
students--Korean-American
In
Asian
come
assert
a
tenn
a been
the
II,
cite
Korean
distinct
increasing
chapter
viewpoint, Critical
understanding
autobiography
and
examined others
construct from
descent”
an
has
way
that
built
me
“bitch,”
with
incident
personalities,
expanded
Canadian,
to
country,
in
China.”
upon
do
entitled
be
race
“f---ing
which
(Understanding
use
narratives—theories not.
narrative
and
Chinese.
and
storytelling
that
theorists
after
they
of
“faggot,”
beyond
critical
and
Still
the
I
“Legal
chinks.”
occurred
too,
how
frequently
the
power
did
‘counter-stories,’
others theory
Even
and
have
have
Americans
race
Vietnam
describing
not
Storytelling
and
written
Chinese-American
And
50).
of in
when
study
care found
in
built
theory
personal
stories
1996,
ignored
an
they
of
They
to
War,
on on
the effort I
myself
a
people see
tried
hear
intersects
when
case—that
the
everyday and note,
and
way
note
and
narratives
in and
race.
to
but
front to
Narrative
the
persuasion
at an
of
lawyers “The
have understand
greater
some
explain
brushed
the
casebooks.... They
Asian-Pacific
purely
with
door
males--found
experiences
they
investigated
same
receiving
expansion
(Delgado
use
have
this
consciously
that
Analysis,” of
Chinese
to
hope
off
their
year,
why
still
study
come
I
written
my
was
end
will
in
Other with and
dormitory
certain
American
two
of
racial
rejoinders
the
descent
is
to
the
Korean
Delgado the
of
resonate
or
Stefancic
in
parables,
Dartmouth a
perspective,
factual
racial late
scholars
better
that
unconsciously
term
slurs,
stories
to
and
1980’s
room”
residence
many
with
during slurs
and
include
with
background
including
Critical
that
work
have
“all
of
from
(53). and
the
its
all
and
61 jury and cause it to adopt their interpretations of what happens and reject those of
the other side. (Critical 38)
It is through personal stories that a window can be opened to ignored or alternative realities (39), and they can reveal how there can be different perspectives to one event (41).
The hope is that well-told stories describing the reality of black and brown lives
can help readers bridge the gap between their worlds and those of others.
Engaging stories can help us understand what life is like for others, and invite the
reader into a new and unfamiliar world. (41)
I share this hope and would argue that Korean-Canadian writers need to tell their stories rather than have others tell it for them, as has largely been the case in what has been published for
Korean-Canadian children. Of course, this can be said of all writing for minorities. Only then can all readers gain the perspectives of varied and complex experiences of minority groups who have been subordinated historically and are at the present, through different forms of racism.
Diane Shklanka in “Oriental Stereotypes in Canadian Picture Books” noted, over one and a half decades ago, that out of the eight Canadian picture books focusing on Chinese and Japanese experiences which she was reviewing, four were memoirs and that these were the books to best provide information about Chinese and Japanese culture (81-82). While there are a growing number of children’s books published that portray the Asian-Canadian experience by Chinese and Japanese authors, to this day there is still not one autobiographical account or historical fiction work of the immigrant experience, in picture book or novel format, written by a Korean
Canadian for children.
With overlapping issues and ideas, critical race theory has important implications and connections to education, multiculturalism, and literary analysis in that it casts a new perspective and focus on race, racism and equity in the respective areas. Applying critical race theory to
62 these
kinds literature.
stereotyping
experience
Critical history
critical
those their
failed
legal
Aylward States
the
States oppressed
it
was should
quotes
is
world
usually
areas
dissatisfaction and
of
structures
in
to
in
but
Since race of
not Peter
books
the
Race
include
that
is
asserts
critical
In
[an
in can
by
of
reflect in
United
theorist,
of
seen
turn,
my Canada
Rosenthal
there the
enlisting
the
image Theory
we
shed
minority
Many discrimination
of
that an
study
world.”
race
as
United
this
need
society.
on
is
States.
analysis
with new
an
Canadian
of
most
it
“pervasive
Canadian
ethnic theory
can
in
focuses
Korean “aberration,” is
to
a
to
groups,
light
Canadian
States,
Canada society
difficult
produce
Aylward
have
people
elucidate
During
However,
of
and
in
on
in critical
the
on Canadians
society a Canada.
but
this
denial
racial noted existing
the
profound
would
to
Korean-Canadian
if
roles the
legal
points
also
the
does
we “merely even
past.
issues
race
1980s,
groups for]
as of
ways
that
are
discourse,
publishing
acknowledge
paradigms
According
not
reach the a to out
Today,
theory
effect
racial
whole”
to
of
race
write
the
mean
in scholars
very
that
achieve in
race
this
which
action
Canada
and
upon
and
developed
if
discrimination
about
existence
which,
that
(40).
in books
issue
racism on children’s
to
racism
cultural
Canada
and of
the
racism
how
Carol
how
of
it
their
have colour
While
as
does
that
like goal
a
agree
is
we
few
we
Canada
of have
along
A.
experiences
seen
tolerance.
plays
differ been
are
its
books,
not
of
racism produce
read
in
racism
misguided Aylward,
that
persists
American
not played
true
Canada
exist as
similar
victims
out
from is
past
racism
a
only
I
in
to
said
problem
may
will
covertly
books .
in .
Canadian
in the
in
and
a
those
for
theoretical Canada’s
began
reducing
Canada.
mecca
to
individuals
of
the
forms
outline
counterpart,
exists
not
Korean-Canadian
children. present
“wish
direct
as
political
in
be
at
in
to
well
more the for
in
all
society:
society”
as
a
articulate
Aylward
leading
to
and
the
brief
children’s
lines
the
in
overt
United
as
portray
that
difficult
and
Canada,
had
United
what
explicit
to
as
(40).
it
to
63 Canada:
the Walker
Examples Kelley
that, selected but,
discusses
and
promised McLaren
children’s
that
criteria ‘°As
immigration
some
equal rather,
“neither
do
In is
and
notes Delgado
Essential
readings
erroneous.
races
his
the
asserts
land
include
opportunity
stories
Michael
was
Introduction
a
prevailing of
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to
two
much
gentle or two
concluding
describes
child very
ago. child’s highlight
Caucasian
racial
images
with
Historical
to
Korean
men
as
from
(“Transition”).
to
hurry, an
the
Rather
far
chiding reading
perspectives
the
the
background
this
archival first
have
checklist
away
primary
of
Korean
children Young
gentlemen
background
children
and
they book,
themselves
than response
Background
to an
Young
and
I
the book
are
unsmiling,
will
attempting
Canada
children such sources
that
quite
do
boy’s In
will
“queer-
Canada
in
tell
to
not
such
fact,
as
the
close
view
of
you
in
as
as
72 normal
“Almost can
and children, smart.”
her girls behave view for
the In insist
mother’s counterparts. 2) Macmillan
in family’s
The consider
doing
Korean Canada
that
afford.” son
notion
white
have
cover
today
that
children
just
see time
Korean
The
She
as
so, “Korean
experience
because
efforts
or
their
all
that
about
for
soon
past
Boy is
like
Canada, there
only
ends
coloured
She to
people
that
But
Korean
acceptance
dolls
encourage
Boy
whose
himself. the
by
as
can
also
the
illustration
her
of is
children
it
in
he
Jong
physical
can
a
is
are the
fleeing
Korean and
certainly
light
description
describes
1955, short lack
can
Boy
the
mothers
basically instill
impression
the
Yong
One
her
of
toddle,
first
of
of make
shows
coat;
Autobiography
from
boys
appearance culture.
in the
minority
appreciation
son be may
in
and
Korean
the buy Pak
antipathy
mud
a seen by children
the
the
the
their
to
a
long
applaud
dress
so
their
young it
with
saying
form
Communist same
Korean little
pies
makes
far,
as
people
toys
Boy
coat
of
a
of
girls
Jock
a
only a
towards
of tolerant
and boy
boy
despite the
that
this way little
more
and
is
is
on
the
Boy
is
“the
the
play Korean worn
is
autobiographical
stooping
Carroll
mother’s even
based the
kites.”
of
boys reality
put
tolerant regime
cover,
recounts
their
view.
prettiest
Asians
thinking
reader
soldiers
when
though
into
that
on
boys
Her of
apparent
down
but
during
effort
how
the
view.
during
difference do
before
they
the
and
just
that
and
instructive
they
cover
dress
not
similar
to
true
and
want
brightest-coloured
the
to
as can
account
However,
pick
differences”
correspond
this
he
look
art
see
English of
story
in
Korean
“in
or
to
and
time
a
they
up
for
fact
different
them
she response
man-full
make
the
for
his of
an
novels
see
in are
the
even
children
a name
War.
as
eventual children
suitcase
to
history,
Korean
him
(Pleasures
to it
danger
children
the
from
as
reads
white is
is
their
of
look
clothes
meant
progressive
important
illustration.
do.
tolerance,
published
and
English
teenager’s the
leading
with
white
the
trousers,
very
who
The
172).
looking
to
story.
they
this
help
to
to
73 up
Unfortunately, matter
blends
the in
very
through
to features
illustration
indication Korean. job
design
Because
where
to an
million
editors to
Montreal
skin
say over
go
this hairstyle
interest
as
generic,
to
that
because
in
a
colouring, he
for
his
opportunity-
The
of the
as
poor
houseboy
an
of
A with
met
in of
there the this
noted),
shoulder,
in does
photograph
title, agricultural
the
inside
is
the
who
simple,
Korean
Pak
the
one
Standard the
short the
memoir,
war
is
not
plane
but
are
brown
the
male
and
no the hues of
in of
Pak
resonate
and
“to
in where
the and the
the known
farmers
Korean
illustrator
details
kept
of
terms
of
portrayed
are college
sponsored
especially
him had
it
jacket background
Correspondents’ correspondents,
the
almost
the
appears
in brown the
to
to it
Minister
with
are of
with
in
touch
author
was
give
art have
to
cover
physical
is,
Korea.
cartoon-like.
not
on
fulfill the
in editor
Pak since
tanned
wavy,
but
a
up
with
more
accurate
tone, the miracle, might
of
provides
more
of
to I
his
the
the
would
his
cover
has Defense, To
features
him.
Jock
unlike
come
skin Billet,
of
passion not
have
book’s
common
book
dream
Pak’
positioned
a
particularly
in
yellow.
Carroll The
yellow and does
Through
a
speculate
to
depicting a
been brief
Eighth
s
contains (the
Korean
Canada.
the
good
to
of
wavy cover. only
not
physical
study
improving
Honorable background
a skin
of skin
In
more the look
Army fortune,
indication letters,
the
hair that
addition
since
male’s
a
Asians,
no
colouring, tone
farming
title The
Korean
Standard
Korean
it but
photographs. suitable
attributes
Headquarters
was
he Carroll
jacket
than
of
the
the
Brooke
hair.
for
while the was of
the that
to
male.
someone
offices lives
or
a a
how
hair
and
of
colouring
book
earn The
cover brown
memoir
flown this
learned
even
of
darker
Montreal.
Claxton.”
of
the
type,
captivating
Koreans.
Of
facial
a is
of
(See
the
in
notes
Asian
living,
who
from
one.
two a
course,
Carroll
Taegu. set
of
Korean
than
and
twenty-five
of
features Illustration
Pak’s
authors
was
in
Pak’
Korea the
Furthermore,
for
Carroll
facial
Concluding
so
Caucasians
There
Korea,
this
cover
and
That
skin
that not
he
s
boy
passion
response
to are
got is
met.
the
is
took
is
is
not
this
3).
no
a
74 remarks to
to y.
of
helped
(similar had details
readers.
details
evident
he Carroll’s
end, writing
gripping,
then
their
Many that
English,
go
Canada
Pak’s
helped
to
back
the
would
translates
Since
backs
endure
to
could
can of
With
say that to Throughout
his
family
public
study
involvement they,
the
to
personal
to
considerably
the
be
the
memoir
that
be
on
Pak
study
Korea
have regard
words
through
deduced.
account
commonly
sound our memoir
in them after
declaration
Pak
could
Canada
shown
his
happy
tale
to
to
on
or
the
studied the
into
awkward,
passion teach
the
co-authorship that
in
phrases
communicate
his
of
is
with
story,
In Korean
the
how
English.
home
war. set would one
used
own
a
Song
of
what
modern
short
writing
content
in
co-authorship
Pak
boy about
he
that
in
At without
Korea,
and
as
War.
Nan
have
could
he
Korean
letter
writes
and the
does
For
are
left
had agricultural
agriculture
and
of of in
Zhang
made
very
The
his
transliterated
example, a
pursue the English Korean
the
“land to
for
learned.
editing
decision
Korean
and
family’s
Carroll
details
story
least,
help
moroo
for reveals
gives
of
have
his
Boy,
to
a
at
of since farming
unknown
Pak is
phrases, they
wonderful
Unfortunately, was
that
some dreams
from in Macdonald
nun
not Carroll.
struggle
much
that
and
the A
writes,
would he
made
the
stated,
kot,
Tiger
Pak
degree,
Pak
arrangement
then
are
was
meaning.
jacket
transliterated
despite
destination.”
land
No
for
on
to
addition
“Thus
not
Jong
have
in
a
translated
but
College
end
the
professional
survival
matter
the
but
included
of
blurb
these
the
it
Yong
been
inside
the
unknown our
Chinese
was is
When
to
difficult
made
reasonable
and the gives
details story
family
into a
Pak’s
into in was
not
Some
fine
of
in
process,
their
directly
afterwards
is
journalist.
English the Night). fluent. the
with
about
English
not
destination”
personal
epilogue not of
struggle
of
of
jacket
text
war-torn
capable
how
eight
to
the
the
clear
how
translated
the
The
assume
of
sounds,
These
are
re-uniting
grammatical
Pak
planned
cover,
turned
his
story
Korean
account
for
but
In Pak
extent
phrases
of
country.
came
(24).
the
family
young
some
that was
is
and
into it
of
a
is
75 errors and the transliteration of Korean phrases make the story more believable to me as Korean-
Canadian reader. Because it is a memoir, Korean Boy gives Pak’s perspective and is to some
degree aimed at a Korean-Canadian audience — at least to those who can not only read English
but also possibly understand the transliterated phrases from the Korean. It may be the case,
however, that some librarians would not have chosen to buy the book for their collections if they
felt the book provided any extra challenges for the reader. As Nodelman and Reimer comment
about those who are responsible for book selection in various capacities,
most people who select books at publishing houses and in libraries and
classrooms are not members of minorities and their proceeding in this way
(looking for books that show the universal nature of humanity despite differences
between race) usually leads them to under-represent or even eliminate books by
and about members of minority groups in their publishing plans or their book-
buying. From this point of view, such books seem too “special” and untypical to
represent the goal of inherent human sameness. (172)
Pak opens his autobiographical work with a description of Korea that fits well with its being dubbed the “Hermit Kingdom” during pre-modem Korean times (Yoo 883). Pak writes,
“It is said the people of India stay in their native land more than any other people in the world.
But it is just as true of most Koreans, certainly of the people of North Chung-chong province, and I am one of those people” (3). His life, along with many other Koreans’, changes drastically to one where he lives in the roaring of guns and the cries of people in pain” (3) as the Communist regime begins taking over North Korea where Pak lives. His family must flee to the South and the rapid turn of events forces Pak’s parents to pack quickly and leave their home with five children and only the money in their pockets. The date is July 10, 1950 when Pak recalls that his family “set foot on a road of suffering. We knew only the aches and pains of our bodies under
76 the
standing of represents Since
needed
neutral family
This missionaries, from
occupation that enemy
during
independence
the
burning,
Communism
piece
the Korean
U.N.
friend’s
ground. “evangelizing”
the
from
Part
out
Communist
is
of
Japanese
and
of
dry
like of
the
whom
Boy
identification
Mr.
Korea
Proudly presented
and on read
Smith we’ll
Korea’s gentleman
adventure
U.S.
sun;
presence
jewels
the
Cho was
is
protect
Korean.
they
have army
occupation, set the
during
regime. back.”
12/25,
right
as
could
Mr.
history,
on
entirely
weight
are to
the
of of
to
good
troops
their
our
me
Cho
confirms
for
making the
Christian
trying
1920.” send
Smiling, make
The
first
skins.
Because
by
Korea.
luck.”
noted
Korean
of
Second
held in
many
fighting
them inscription
Caucasians
Father
the
Korea,
to this
The
it
his
up
escape,
Worst
earlier,
missionaries. he
heavy
(143) to
Koreans
positive over
After
identity.
of
World
the
ID.
M.P.
the
handed
Smith
in
the
Korea’s
cross
the
to
of
front
bundles
papers on
having
but is
to
only
took
the War.
all,
its when
connection believed war.
the
Korea
it
Pak
he
[on
lines
Korean
being
we white
back.
historical
it
back,
remembers
and
Koreans
their
In on
and
One shows a
I
did
were
was
rosary]
of
Korean
our
eventually
colonized
perspective
that
To
looked
in
national
war not
historical
M.P.’s
with
a
heads
Korean,
missionaries.
the
the
connections
were
Communism
schoolboy.
know
just
for
Boy,
a
times
the
interpreter
at
time
anyway.
and the
to
identity
first
under
it
leads
where
U.S.
feature
said,
for
the be
wisely,
to
M.P.
backs
when
seen
able
Koreans
be
Communists
to Army.
with
the
You
“To
Pak
we taken was
Tell he
confusing to
that
Mr.
as
he
to and
as Japanese
were see.
can
said, Christian
C.K.
describes a
the
reach
himself
though
the
Cho’s Korean
country
away
the
is
see
way
“This
the
old
“Tell going”
Cho-Father
sweat
U.N.
for
are
the
military
freedom
from
he
presence
to
believed
Boy
one
that
them was
the
sign
could
gain
(25).
them
77 youngsters best
degree
immigrant may grandparents with
Korean-American
the interview
Korea’s shows including
families. talking. Japanese
however, therefore
historical time
children’s will
Japanese
for
have
them,
be
in
with
young
Contemporary
their
Not
history. disappointed. .
history .
rule,
and
heard reveal about
making Park’s
Canada
novel
families
to
that
or
Pak’s
all
future.
most
government’s
actually
readers
talking” their
“but
Korean
is.
the of that
or
a
Readers
parents
experience
Koreans
has
history
children’s
likely
what
family’s
or a
after writing
takes
memoir
what
understand
are
Korean-Canadian
not
And
(“Linda
families
life
had
experienced she
who recent
that
produced
place
life
take
policy
process
since
immigration
was
began
writer never
such in
second-generation
expect
was
Sue
Japanese Korean find
in
immigrants,
like
Korean
what
from
as
the
talked
her
like
behind and
Park”).
such
it
in
Korean
the
to
last
easy
having
research,
Korea
Newbery in
Boy.
1910
children find
experience
books
war
Boy
names.
to
the
century,
her
to
When
her
representations
Korean-Canadian
Boy
onward
at
is
talk 1940’s their
during
Since
novel
by
some
about most
they
would
Korean
Korean winner
has
about
Korean-Canadian My
the
own
and/or
Koreans
When
the
during of
opened
likely its level
their
Name Korean
most
erasing
country
these
limits
Korean
for
Canadians
Boy
experience and
My
painful
not
the
or
A
likely
up
Was
in
recounts
darker
War
children’s
reflections Single
or
so Name
used
Korean
war,
Canada
could and
War--if
rather,
Korean-Canadian
Keoko
experience
be
1950-53
may
they
citizens.
in
and
times
Shard,
Was
able
of
look
another
any
traditions
are
speaks not
their
it
growing
parents
did
and
of
to
Keoko.
shows
as
like
classrooms either
and
know.
Korean-Canadian
notes
start
empathize But
Korean
Linda
parents
of
major
only and
its
living or
and
even
the from
up
talking.
in
The effect
To
what
children
Sue
of
in
an
event effect
Boy
shared customs,
an
as date,
under
a
Canada
novel
to
Park,
specific
was
on
part
And
can
some
in
of
it
of
78 a has
catalogue available
an
foundational
relation
3) case
Toronto:
title
protagonist, involving
her
referred
Korean
cultures,
background outstretched
not.
obscure
similar
diminished
multicultural
Kap-Sun oppressive
even
Korean
of
the
The
the
Kap-Sung
of
black last voice
this
to
the
them
so
of
Burns
lines
some
individuals
story
as
given
too name.
library
Kim,
which
fact
valuable methods and
in
and
Ferris “Kim”
and
of
literature
(Information
are
front
kind does
and
that
Korean-Canadians. colours
and
pivotal
name Ferris
skates
white
so
is
Just collections).
cover
by
of
of throughout
the
she
a
MacEachern,
faint window of
to
blend
bicultural
a
and
as collection,
Frances
is
line critical
obscured. their
cover
are
is
time
dramatically
the
illustration Canada’s
and
an
on
the
bold
drawing
of
history
title
ice into
in
portray
library
feathery
last her race
the
This
Korean
Duncan
(shades
skater struggle.
suggests On Korean
as
Korean
name,
story.
first
1977, theory
in
appears
it
gap
imply
holdings
the
large,
a
is
that
order
by
clash
history
novel
of
not
reveals
cover,
Ferris,
history
novel
Kim
making
and First, is
a
they
red
a
intricately
juxtaposition
to facing available
juxtaposition the
of
portraying
is
Canadian
and is
foreground for
two
her
emphasize
the
is providing
available
the
and
her
barely
her
young
fusehia),
the
petite
title
worlds
lack
legal
culture
in
coiled
adopted
title
of
public names.
of a
visible
readers
frame
of on
middle
of
of Korean-Canadian
a
Kim’s the
with page,
contemporary
the
unique
Kim’s
through
Asian
www.worldcat.org,
cultures,
a
book
parents’.
country’s
libraries,
line
seems
Kim the
The
in with
name slim
dragon.
Korean
and Canada.
blades
drawing
is
the
first
on
hinting
full
the
swallowed figure
as
essential
ice
But
books
no
history
hyphenated
personal
name
dragon
well
on
and
child
skates,
While
character.
Kap-Sung
of
One
but
at
her
that
Canadian as
Kim
of
a
and
the
they
voice,
in
of up
ice
and
story
a
the
the
accounts
arms
are
common
Canada
world the
the
herself
by
skates.
name
also
The
Ferris
in
the
this
is
is
of
A
79
is billowing dragon coiling behind her and the dragon’s head also looms directly above Kim’s
head, moving the focus away from Kim. Kim’s posture is stiff and her face is downcast. The
cover suggests a story of bicultural struggle, but unfortunately the story inside Kap-Sung Ferris
fails to bring out this struggle or the Korean culture in any authentic way. The Korean culture is just as foreign for Kim as it would be for most white people in the 1970s when Koreans were just
beginning to immigrate to Canada.
Though Kap-Sung Ferris portrays the first Korean-Canadian character in any Canadian
children’s book published so far, Kim is not a child of Korean immigrant parents but a Korean
adopted by parents of Canadian Caucasian descent when she was six months old. Therefore,
Kim presents a unique background in that she has been raised in the white culture by white parents. Frances Duncan writes not through Kim’s eyes but through those of her best friend
Michelle, who is also white. Hence, the Korean-Canadian voice is absent, that is, the voice from
a Korean-Canadian immigrant family struggling with two cultures. One reviewer, Jocelyn
Laurence comments on the absence of a cultural identity clearly marked from the mainstream:
By making Kim adopted, Ms. Duncan avoids (perhaps wisely) the whole cultural
schizophrenia that results from children not only looking different but also having
a home life that is radically different from their peers. If Kim’s friends had to eat
dim sum when they came over for supper instead of hamburgers, the situation
would have been further polarized. As it is, Kim has a nice soft white pillow to
fall back on when things get too tough. (15)
“Cultural schizophrenia” is a telling phrase here. Or Laurence, bicultural identity is the problem, not its absence in this text. It is significant to note that Duncan’s goal was not to explicitly explore issues of race or cultural history; Duncan reveals that Kap-Sung Ferris is “an exploration of the anxieties of three adolescent girls” (Jones and Stott 109). Duncan also noted that her
80 novel within
(Jones of
confirms
little culture been try restaurant Unfortunately,
in Laurence but
are through Such possibly role
chosen
Although was
Korean
the
Korean
also
in
in not access
fully
is
carelessness
book.
the
the
and
Kim’s
would
Kim’s
One
concerned for
interchangeable
Kim’s
a
their
her
uses
painfully people
framework
to
established more Kim
Stott
food,
this
to
way
go
one
So,
bicultural
derive
struggle foreign
the
“dim
the
coach, would
reason..
to
prominent
109-110).
the there
Duncan
connection
to
Korean
(never for
with differences
cute
write
sum”
Korean
from
of
her
in status
likely Mrs.
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experiences has
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reminds night
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101
a Magazine, notes that Park’s “wording is fluent and, while occasionally formal, should be easily understood by young audiences” (n.pag). Not only will Korean-Canadian children find a certain sensibility through the illustrations that is distinctly Korean and part of their heritage, children of all backgrounds will find a richly illustrated popular Korean folktale that provides them with a window into another culture. While The Love of Two Stars, like the other folktales discussed earlier, does provide a valuable window into Koreans’ history, publishers need to move beyond having Korean Canadians write and illustrate only folktales. Other stories by Korean Canadians need to be told for children that reflect more diverse contemporary experiences of Koreans living in Canada. Doing both is possible, since this has been achieved for the community of Chinese-
Canadian readers, as the efforts of a single publisher demonstrate through the work of Paul Yee.
Tradewind Books of Vancouver has published Bamboo (2005), a traditional tale; The Bone
Collector’s Son (2003), an important historical fiction focusing on the race riots in Vancouver in
1907; and Shu-Li and Tamara (2007), a chapter book about Shu-Li and her family, new immigrants to Canada running a Chinese deli.
Summary
Using my checklist (Appendix A) to serve as a guide in determining racism in Korean-
Canadian children’s books, I discuss each book’s standing in each of the categories. My results can be based only on qualitative observations since there are too few books to conduct a quantitative analysis for this study. I would also like to note a limitation in the use of a checklist for my study. In some cases such as in my discussion of My King Has Donkey Ears, using a checklist that looks for aspects of racism does not take into account that certain illustration styles may not allow for very much variation in character’s faces. Therefore, signs of racism may not be intentional or may even be due to carelessness of the author or illustrator; instead, the illustrator may be constrained to work within a certain style to retell a story for a young
102 audience. published
Author such
written
(Korean
authorship,
of Korean
Illustrations
did books
Canadian written
books contained
books
The
Korean
from
My
Korean
not
as
King
Martial
traditional
did
Out that only
by Young
In
display
descent, and
or
Boy
Canadians
from
But
my
children’s
an descent
Has not
only illustrated
of
represented particularly
four
Illustrator’s
Arts
and
author
discussion, the
what
apply.
Canada
Donkey the
stereotypical
archival-style
who
did
Korean
Korean
ten
Book,
are
1
the
in
970s
of
not
books:
by
Korean-Canadian is
The
different both
Picture
Korean
checklist
Ears, no
for
also
an represent
and
times
onward
Folk
I
Backgrounds
Mole’s
stereotypes,
demonstrated
Korean
by
author
it
Korean-Canadian,
The images.
without
photographs,
does
one Book.
Tales),
descent. who
contexts
does
Love
are
Daughter
characters
or
author,
Boy.
not
dress
much illustrator
considering
When
reveal
which
of Korean contain
children’s
Two and
that Furthermore,
completely Two
Janie
more
and
does
considering
settings.
is
may
in
only of
that
Stars Folk Korean
has
of
an
no
Jaehyun
these
subtle not
not
art
Korean books
half exotic
original
published
the
Tales,
there
meet
style,
differently qualify
books
The
the
forms characters of
forms
results,
Park.
discussed,
or
the
ethnic
are the
three other
could The
illustrations.
stereotyped
had
the
Korean-Canadian of
children’s
no
criteria of
In
Tiger
racism
two based
I
from racism
background.
books some
representations
be
or
reality, noted
fewer
seen
Korean
books
and
for
Korean
on
form
found
as
than that
fashion. books
Of
this as
only
folktales
the
than
having
written
stereotyping
the
of
illustrations
culture
in
Dried
study
in
Canadians
I
one
in half
co-authorship
the
children’s
remaining
Remember
the
of
Canada.
But
full
writer
depict by
earlier
(4)
contemporary of
Persimmon,
and books
in
Korean
an
were
Korean-
the
is
because
for
author
today.
of
Koreans
works
books
not
eight
Korea
four
two
103 particular it
Author’s
three
perspective
representation other
published children’s
Loaded
remaining
essentializing. Kap-Sung
of
of
character,
the does
descriptive
a
lacks
Korean-Canadian
the
fiction.
Korean
of
books
contain
strategy
This
variation
This
the
Words
topic,
Perspective
in
books,
Kim five,
Ferris
This ten
was
are category
or
category
boys Canada
“small,
of
positive.
of Korean-Canadian
Young written
and
experiences,
Korean
defined
novel
in
views
also
as
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who
facial
not
can
child
thus
checks
“quiet,”
author
applied
showed
also
work Canada
from
indicates
all Nevertheless, Boy
by
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features
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reader
Korean
provided
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said
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for
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a experiences
to
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portrayed
show
for
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only
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unable that
books
the and
Canadians
but
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author’s
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the
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Martial
a
soldiers.
expressions. the
Korean
others
greater Eurocentric
contained
to
main
and
that
assumptions
presence
of
see
the perspective,
“smart,”
Arts
are confusing
practice
sources
character
the part
of
Within
books,
not
racial
Book a
intent
of
of
view
Also,
Korean-Canadian
uncommon
these
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for
that through
Tae
the
perspective.
those
slurs
Kim struggling
did
of
has
based
The
multicultural
example,
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Koreans
Kwon
the
words
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dominated
and
with
which
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folktale
soldiers
on
contain
for
stereotyping
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might Chinese
their
with
however,
as
were
are This
Asians.
Arts
characterizing
perspective
text
children’s
interviewed.
not
racist ethnic
loaded
Korean-Canadian
have
the
disproportionate
Book
or
and
folktales.
these same
Japanese
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attitudes
that a
origin.
words Remember
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negative
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books
and
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Chinese.
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work
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104 a
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on Empathy
Korea
be no
years
window
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Korean-Canadian
of child’s her
Storyline
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category
Korean
illustrates
army
“benevolent
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able
contemporary
contemporary-Canadian
novel.
category
such a
relate
Carroll’s (i.e.,
provides
Given
to
character
experience
Arts
into
characters
also
empathize
as
Koreans
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a
white Young
that
determines
time
checks
and
role
in
empathetic
have
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half
fighting children.
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in
solving
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Canada,
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history encounters
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books
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experiences,
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111 from People of colour and aboriginal people” (2). Lui argues earlier that words like “ethnic,”
“visible minorities,” and “diversity” which she does not like to use, have a marginalizing effect.
She realizes that some may view her example of inclusive language as being “reverse
discrimination,” but she believes that “until companies use inclusive language, there can be no
institutional change.” Once publishers consciously and actively hire people of colour, they can
be more involved in recruiting writers from minority communities. People of colour who work
in publishing can make connections and relationships between writers from minority
communities and editors. These relationships could evolve into mentoring relationships that can
provide a place for minority writers to be introduced to the publishing process and be encouraged
in developing their literary or artistic endeavours to create quality books for children that carry a
distinct style and voice.
Issues of race and racism are real and alive in Canada and critical race theory seeks racial
reform in society at all levels. Reform is also necessary in discourse. Therefore, literary analysis
must also include the ongoing dialogue and action in the workplaces where “society organizes
itself along racial lines and hierarchies” (Delgado 3). In addition, early childhood researchers,
Jean Mendoza and Debbie Reese, in “Examining Multicultural Picture Books for the Early
Childhood Classroom: Possibilities and Pitfalls” urge teacher educators to recognize the need for
more dialogue regarding race and racism in education:
Given the potential of good multicultural children’s literature for fostering
awareness of and empathy toward other perspectives, we invite early childhood
professionals to begin bringing critical race theory and related ideas into the
discourse about that literature and its role in the lives of young children. (N.pag.)
Mendoza and Reese believe that teachers and teacher educators do not need to wait for support
from institutions to begin making a difference in how they read and encourage children to begin
112 reading
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Lillian.
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Canada:
2008.
Toronto:
1999.
Desegregation
Review
Stewart,
J.T.
1994.
Pierre.
Angelo
Haemi.
Carol.
Himani.
Kay
Constance.
Neil.
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v. A.
90-105.
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J.
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Me “Introduction.” Racism Had Juvenile Scholars’, Longman, Reese. of Doctor: the No Encyclopedia House. Island The Schools Possibilities Boy. Publishing in East. Poiagi: Desire New Literature.” Mole’s Canada: “Examining The and 2008. Montreal: Montreal: Green, York: Montreal: and to (API) Voices Traditional British Daughter Be Myths Does of Essential and 69-81. Garland, 1865. 1_i Set World American Children’s Multicultural Tundra, Pitfalls.” of Columbia: Tundra, Tundra, Exist.” 0_i Apart’: of the Facsimile by Values British 2/feature.html>. Readings. Biography: 2000. Other: Julia 1979. Dream.” 1977. Ouill Forced 1981. Early Literature Their and Egalitarianism.” Gukova.” xix-xvii. Children’s Picture ed. & Childhood Changing Ed. Notable History, Segregation Quire Toronto: 12-18 in Barrington Books Education Quill 66.6 Literature Oct. Biographies. Resources Times Research Coles, for (June and The of 2001. the Walker. Black in Quire. 36.2 History 1972. 2000): and Early a 28 & and Survey (2005): Students Practice Online. Sept. 64.2 13. of of 127 Mimer, Morton, Mueller, Na, Nodelman, Noonan, Norrie, Norton, Pak, An. “Teaching Jong (an 29 (Fall Teacher 332-346. J.J. (Feb. Allyn Richard Literature 2006). Since Helen. Children’s Catalogue James. Donna, A Mary. Sheila Dec. internet-only Yong Douglas, Step Perry 2001): 2004): and 1965. 2008 Canadian 23 Education “Rev, H. Smith. “Rev, In From with with and Bacon, 98 Apr. lists the Literature. N. “Critical 162-163. Broomall, 1974. (2000): Sandra Mavis Jock of pag. Heaven. of Sea the 2008 journal). Korean The I Children’s 2003. Policies Remember of author Carroll. Reimer. Race Norton. 15-35. Love Sterile 4th PA: Asheville, Immigration: ed. College as Theory and of Mason Korean Literature: Pak, Mountains: Englewood Two The Through Korea Practices.” Chong of and Pleasures NC: Stars: Crest, Boy. by Education The Interest the Front Learning Linda the Cliffs, Yong.] A 2004. Toronto: Changing Eyes Journal 12/no Korean of Chinese Street, GranfiekL” Convergence Children’s of NJ: of to 1 2/theloveoftwosstars.html>. Illinois of a Macmillan, Legend.” Merrill Know Face 2001. Child: in Teacher British of at Literature. More.” Prentice, School An North Urbana-Champaign. as CM Education Columbia. Analytic Introduction 1955. Canadian Magazine America: Library 1995. 3’ [National Tools ed. 59.4 Vancouver: Journal to Children’s Boston: Immigration 12.12 (2008): in Library 3.2 50.2 (Feb. 128 Park, Park, Park, Peterson, Petzold, Philbrook, Phillipps-Wolley, Rev, The When A Trottings Janie Linda Sarah of Excerpts Multicultural March Single Bibliography.” Me History.” Roderick Kwon. [1894], Tiger Dieter. The William. My Jaehyun. John. Doctor: Sue. Y. Mole’s Shard. and 11, of Name School “Korean 1910. from “Multiculturalism a “Life McGillis. Voices “Rev, 2006. Dried Clive. Tenderfoot. The “Success Daughter. Literature The Was New a Library [Title With Unpublished paper (API) of American Posted Persimmon. of Love Gold, Keoko. York: The the New page a Story, given American Hyphen: Journal of London: for Adapt. Other: Moles on Gold York: Clarion, Two printed New Children Children’s Paper in at Japanese MA in Canadian Toronto: Reading Children’s and 39.7 and Stars: Reading Garland, York: Richard Cariboo. Dream.” Thesis. Tigers as 2001. the Illus. (July and Gold, A American Picture Clarion, Mireuk: the Douglas Korean Children’s Young website. and Bentley, 2000. by 1993): Literature U [Illus. Gold 12-18 World of Julia Writing Books: California, 2002. A Adults. Legend. Style.” 177-192. in & 81. Godfrey Oct. Gukova. Korean Conference June 1884. McIntyre, Carriboo.] Books: and as Critical 2001. 2008. Qtd. a the University Toronto: C. Korean Folktale 2004. Kirkus The Post-Colonial in Hindley]. 28 2002. Analysis VIII. 29 Ji Embarrassments Sept. Nov. American.” Hyun.Lim, Groundwood, by of Celebrating 2008 San Holly 2008 and London: Context. Francisco, Annotated “Just Blackie, 2005. of Call Ed. 129 Rochman, Rosenthal, Roy, Saldanha, “Scandifflo.” Scandifflo, Scheps, Schmid, “White The A Patricia White Reviews 2005): 6. Racism British Scholars’, Immigrants. Voices McGillis. Words: ON: Gukova.” Oriental Susan. Andre. Toronto: Hazel. Louise. P. Picket Laura. Wilfrid B. Manes ‘tThe 5 Author Columbia of in 1-52. Discourses 66 “The “Rev, “Korean Question: the 2008. Canada: “Rev, New Fences: Criminality “Bedtime School (15 Carswell. The Province: 1858-19 Laurier Other: profile. Colonial May, of York: of Martial 82-89. P, The Studies Library Essential At The of Consolidating 2003. Children’s UP, 14. 1998): Stories: Home Children’s Garland, British Mole’s Annick 1989-90. of Love Sojourners, Arts Vancouver: 2008. Racial in Journal 738. Readings. with Canada.” of Book. Canadian Columbia Daughter: Press. 2000. 129-143. Literature Two 113. Harassment.u Literature Multicultural a 44.8 1858-1871.” White Illus. U Stars: 15 165-175. Review Ed. of Multiculturalism (Aug. Politicians An Dec. Nicolas and British Man’s A in Barrington Adaptation Korean 2008 1998): Canada. the Canadian of Children’s The Columbia Province. Korean Post-Colonial Debon. and 154 Legend.” History Chinese Walker. Ed. of and Human (1). Studies a Literature Toronto: Mavis P, 1914-41. Korean Children’s of 1989. and Booklist Context. Immigration Toronto: Rights 10.30 Reimer. Annick, Folktale Japanese in Vancouver: Canada?” (2006): Literature.” Yearbook. 102.4 Canadian Ed. Waterloo, 2003. by and Roderick (Oct. 45-64. Julia U Home Vol. of 130 Seoh, Shklanka, Sims, Song, Stanley. Srivastava, Swan, Takashima, Tanaka, Taylor, “The Hannah. Transition Helen. Rudine. Charlie Global 2008 Literature Fiction. Community Youth.” 1986, 2008 Mildred. Timothy Shelley. Diane. Vinita. Shizuye. 11-16. “Korean Studies and “I Shadow Urbana, Electronic of 60 Could J. “Oriental The Michi’s Jill the A Conference. by (1990): “Review Giant A Course. Land. Weissbrot. Community Patricia Standard and Be IL: Child New Magazine Stereotypes a Named National Substance: 81-96. New Minority of in Wright E. Year. Beauty.” The Toronto: Prison Roy.” “A York: in Azalea. Oriental Council of Ontario Generation Illus. State Model, Afro-American in Camp. Labour/Le Multicultural Phyllis Korean Canadian Change Ron U, Toronto: Question: of — but Dayton, An Montreal: Teachers Fogelman, Berg. in Conference Am of Travail Overview.” Transition: Picture Faces. Sister Education. I Toronto: Experience Ohio. Consolidating ‘The of Tundra, 56 2001. Books.” Vision, English, 2005. Model Advisory (2005): 13 A Koreans PMA Feb. 2.1 Study 1971. in Face 1991. Minority’?” Canadian 1982. Contemporary (2001). 310-312. a 2002. Books, Committee. White of of in the Ontario. Korean-American N. 20 1980. Man?s Children’s Koreans. pag. Nov. Essay A Children’s Feb. Province, 15 2008 for Oct. 5 7-8, Nov. 131 United United Walker, Wallace, Ward, Waybill, Wham, Xie, Yee, The Saltwater Tales Shu-Li Struggle Shaobo. Paul. Peter. States. Dec. factbooklprint/ca.html. States. updated world-factbook!print/us.html>. Canadian Through Education Difference and Mary Douglas Barrington, Bone Marjorie Ian. from Bamboo. the 2008. and White Ann, and Chin “Rethinking Central City: Central Collector’s Postcolonial 18 Gold the Tamara. & Scholars’, Hope: 30.1 Ann. Dec. as 22 McIntyre, June Chiang An ed. Storybook Canada an Mountain. Illus. Dec. Intelligence Intelligence (1996): 2008. Illustrated Unfinished Barnhart The Chinese The Illus. Son. the 2008 and Shaoli 2008. Forever. Context. History Story 1988, Identity 22 Reading 1-9. the Shaoli Vancouver: Eyes. Illus. and Dec. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world History Wang. Agency. Agency. Dragon’s of Rev. Project.” of 2’ Greg Ed. Chinese Wang. of 2008 Simon Immigration Scottsdale, Experience.” ed. ed. Cultural Vancouver: Roderick of Cook. “Canada.” Tradewind, “United 2006. Toronto: Dance. the Voices Ng. Vancouver: Canadians. Chinese Otherness: “Enhancing Vancouver: PA: McGillis. in of States.” Vancouver: Tradewind, Journal McGill-Queen’s Canada: the Herald The 2003. in Tradewind, Toronto: Other: Vancouver. World The The of New Multicultural Press, Douglas Essential Research Douglas 2005. Discourse Children’s World Factbook. York: Umbrella, 1974. 2007. UP, and Vancouver/Toronto: Factbook. Readings Garland, and and 1990. McIntyre, of Awareness Literature Last McIntyre, Development 1996. updated Toronto: 2000. Last 1989. 1984. 1-16. 18 in 132 Yoo, Young Yu, Chai-Shin, Young-Sik. Canada Toronto: Toronto: Picture Shiu U Kensington “Koreans.” of L. Toronto Book. Kong, Educational, Encyclopedia and Toronto: P, 1999. Ruth Musson, W. 882-890. 1986. Yu. of Canada’s Korean [c. 1911?]. Folk Peoples. Tales. Ed. Thus. Paul Bang, Robert Hai-Jai. Magocsi. 133 Carolyn Park Sexism Annotated biographies, of 2. 1. tokenism, oversimplified to colored 3. as who ethnocentric question, Eurocentric, substantially characters 4. whole, the see well Author Illustrations Author’s Loaded in were author whether The her and as not in Kim’s read which a white to Bibliography” with MA and original at Racism” personal Words: or perspective and/or give or perspective: weakens individual carefully ethnic generalizations, reading thesis illustrator’s do Checklist phrases — and is the stereotypes, minority when checklist illustrator’s who by context. This minorities appearance titled or about The to such words has minorities strengthens 2004, were category for determine No “Korean cultural Council dominated backgrounds: (1974) as authors Children’s Checking author members such out tokenism, 24-26. “study,” last played of of checks essentially name, being perspectives titled as American on the whether and/or context. can being passive children’s Interracial APPENDIX books value of “school,” for be “Ten ethnic. roles to checking the illustrators This Racism wholly smart, see the of in look middle Children’s roles, Quick of whether also the his/her direction category literature The Books and characters: white religious, the objective. past in or A appear? Ways characters class, “quiet,” in Korean-Canadian dust leadership written the have for in other Picture was of in jacket to the with text Children the or Canada. All traditionally Analyze inferred etc. books, This illustrations, work. subservient. author’s in essentializes one Books: authors roles. for the This category result was author Is articles, With illustrations by Children’s looks the perspective Critical write a adapted Books come being any superficial perspective but and/or It checks Korean at or also out book are the Analysis from websites. that for Books by are of checks tinted illustrator’s story for in Sarah a Canadian Children a authors checked reading single cultural, solely for as and or for a 134 with 5. realistic be. of 6. the with characters social or 7. ceremonies 8. characters. 9. for will illustrations. 10. success are Empathy: Storyline Lifestyle: Relationship Identity approval the Effect the be white injustice, still benefit proud or experiences themselves. is wearing whether middle on and It of of for — or checks This This child’s of success, Heroes: peers? and holidays. living ashamed between the class traditional category they category whether of Korean who self in It the resolution suburbia. are This also society of holds people: image: characters simply checks problems checks the Canadian checks checks Korean power, cultural — It does This of what This whether whether also to to in problems: hanboks, are character, see see takes a category the category and the looks character solved whose whether stories, minorities authors Korean ethnic leadership, at which considers by or This whether speaks interest have which images the Koreans perceived benevolent Canadian in category are white to today’s to and the Koreans speaks living reflected whether become the are makes resolution characters? children Korean power checks white passively society in to wear “white” such Korean whether important in dynamics people Canadian the to will is of Canadian a see or reserved way text conflict be Canadian to the actively or what decisions. succeed able and/or that by between stories experiences style the the serves to for contrasts resisting children empathize standard Korean and special are clothing, the — gain it to 135 is Appendix B Sarah Park’s Checklist (2004) This was the checklist that Sarah Park used in her thesis “Korean American Children’s Picture Books (24-26). She adapted it from the original Checklist “10 Quick Ways to Analyze Children’s Books for Racism and Sexism” (1974) published by the Council on Interracial Books for Children. 1) Illustrations — stereotypes, tokenism, roles of characters This category checks for oversimplified generalizations, such as being smart, religious, or subservient. It also checks for tokenism, which is when minorities essentially look white in the illustrations, but are tinted or colored in to give the appearance of being ethnic. The characters in the illustrations are checked to see whether ethnic minorities played passive roles, or leadership roles. 2) Storyline — success, resolution of problems, role of females This category checks to see what the standard of success is for living in society — does a character have to become “white” to succeed and gain the approval of peers? It also checks to see whether Koreans are passively or actively resisting social injustice, and whether problems are solved by benevolent white people or by the Korean characters themselves. The role of females is also checked to see if they are represented intelligently or only in their relationship to males. 3) Lifestyle This category checks whether minorities are living in such a way that contrasts with white middle class suburbia. It also looks at whether Koreans wear American style clothing, or are still wearing traditional Korean hanboks, which in today’s society is reserved for special ceremonies and holidays. 136 4) power, 5) This Korean 6) will illustrations. This 7) experiences 8) whether “study,” Checks out This 9) Bishop: This Relationship Identity Effect Empathy Author’s Loaded of be checks category category category context. takes proud American the a) b) to children they “school,” on social melting see of conditions Words to of child’s leadership, perspective are or Heroes checks whether speaks checks see the between ashamed are conscience simply character, pot whose characters and exactly self whether to the — of the “quiet,” the and written image: what their interest perspective people of text power like — the makes or in the Korean characterized fellow the essentializes etc. the for cultural American This the authors dynamics white important both stories, This resolution humans; of American category the and ethnic characters? looks perceived children which author Korean as ethnic between decisions. stories considers and at of children the speaks conflict using images white except Korean American story the about concepts to whether will characters. readers serves reflected for as whether American ethnic a be the characters whole, able — to Korean color created people is inform in the It to its experiences the not checks of empathize stories for with American by to their text at them the help Rudine individual phrases and/or who are benefit skin. that whites to realistic with holds children Sims be. nonwhite such of words the know the or as 137 c) culturally conscious — written primarily, though not exclusively, for ethnic readers, that attempt to reflect and illuminate both the uniqueness and universal humanness of the ethnic experience from the perspective of an ethnic child or family. (Sims, Shadow 14-15) 10) Author & ifiustrator’s backgrounds These categories were inferred by a superficial reading of the author andlor illustrator’s last name, checking the dust jacket for author and/or illustrator’s biographies, or reading about authors and/or illustrators in other books, articles, or websites. 11) Publishing company & copyright date This information was taken from the information provided on the title pages or verso inside the picture book. Categories 1 through 8 are assigned a grade of 1-5, with 5 being the most satisfactory, and 1 being the least satisfactory. The author’s and illustrator’s backgrounds are labeled according to what the author and/or illustrator claim to be ethnically, or are perceived to be. Although this is a shallow analysis, it helps approximate how many authors are from Korean American backgrounds. The copyright date is listed simply to show what year the picture book was published, and the publishing company to show which companies tend to publish more ethnic stories. 138 Duncan, six physical instead mistaken find mother. battles Harber, Winds, grown This Luckily, King. the is leaves idea: and appeased, months secret out consequently angers to affect donkey The of are In This, more 1986. sew appearance The Frances. Frances. the for her this by sending by tailor the tailor a it a her the novel shouting Korean about a adapted Chinese magnificent is ears. Canadian King, first skating not sews whether manages Annotated Kap-Sung his Illus. ends her as The long Korean-Canadian name so it folktale, message a an and biological with turban perfonnances. out the Maryann royal family. Asian before the hat Japanese. “Kap-Sung,” to to King Kim escape Ferris. secret List for tailor the around a in makes the vain The issues the mother all accepting bamboo of Kovaiski. royal cannot is directions. the King Kim Korean Korean-Canadian story Toronto: the her talked novel APPENDIX She a enters death and tailor, command King’s begins a fields that keep takes even her target published, King about her My sentence high is adopted struggling Macmillan, Fortunately, himself only attempts place culture. to head so not King wakes or question school to heavy C to not only to have as by is family realize Has from hide Children’s Kim, up Kim to doesn’t about to that coming and for the run one the her Donkey 1977. keep his laughing racial is the begins known as too tailor’s Kim, away tailor’s adopted morning a donkey matter. well the King up gifted late slurs, Books Ears. a with to to secret by as head that at Korean wife has realize Korea status skater ears. her her this to but a the a chopped Toronto: find to solution comes Canadian middle hard ridiculous also himself, While rustling to girl and but that that find time for adopted wants her up her name for he off. the being North her identity. with inner bamboo leaks hearing has sight. the King to birth at an 139 Granfield, were their draws 1950-53. affected worked Awards is 2005. Annick, Gukova, mole illustrated that husband mole investigates be falls qualities by married the lives part instantly a daughter. from upon Korean This This in won: Stone the for 1998. by Julia. of Markham: as a by Linda. the to different Korean information MASH the the simply Korean his soldiers, Julia the Nominated in Wall woman; ground U.S. perfect wall’s He The love mole, Gukova, I burrowing searches is people unit. folktale, Remember perspectives, and Mole’s with including Fitzhenry supremel, having suitability the daughter. giving book Canadian for the rest and concerns everywhere Daughter: adapted the burrowed contains mole’s underneath the are how some standing & 2005-2006 Korea: as During chiefly reason by forces Whiteside, a the a by marriage interactions daughter. white 32 mole war his Julia An for Veterans firm that his in recollections from it, way male affected the Korea Adaptation Stellar father’s they search, he Gukova against partner 2004. war mightiest from When could war are with during Tell Award, veterans’ their the pursuit permitted one veterans all with the for the surpass and Their anthropomorphized forces of of side families the the mole’s Korean photographs editorial Red a of all experiences, Korean Korean mole to Stories and the a to creation, of Maple husband the daughter marry. nature. people. back Stone one daughter, help other. War Folktale. of Book female home of to Wall’s from the worthy to Only When (1950-53). men declares be The wind show Award Korean out as the veteran Annick and one simple supreme well Toronto: the pops of tells perfect how her women his recollection nominee family as War, Granfield who Press a the mole perfect the wish to simple father show war who and to 140 The last page of the picture book includes a note from the publisher that many versions of this folktale exist “ranging in country of origin from India through Southeast Asia and Japan and Siberia. Some feature rats or mice as the protagonists. The version adapted by Annick Press is from Korea and the only one we found that featured a family of moles.” Pak, Jong Yong with Jock Carroll. Korean Boy. Toronto: Macmillan, 1955. Korean Boy is the first Korean-Canadian memoir but it is not a work solely by a Korean- Canadian. Rather, it is co-authored by a Korean, Jong Yong Pak with Jock Carroll, a Canadian journalist. Korean Boy recounts Pak’s family’s separation during the Korean War 1950-53, their struggle to survive and their eventual reunion. Pak tells his story of how sudden disaster came upon his town as Communists came from the North to invade the South. His family and many others had to flee with only the money they had in their pockets. After his mother insists that the family separates in order to keep her husband and son safe from the Communists, Pak joins his father to escape further south. His mother and siblings stay in a remote village subsisting on the little that their mother can find for them to eat. Pak and his father make their way to Pusan, the one region that the Communists do not reach before the US troops’ intervention. They meet friends along the way who are trying to escape and they form bonds so that they can mutually help one another. In the narrative, Pak switches back and forth from his journey with his father back to the trials his mother and siblings are facing at the same time. Pak’s family members, in each of their own ways, are hopeful and determined, yet fearful of whether they will see their family reunited again with the devastating effects of the war surrounding them. But reunite they do and despite having lost everything by way of material possession, they find everything they need in one another. 141 Park, Janie Jaehyun. The Love of Two Stars: A Korean Legend. Toronto: Groundwood/House of Anansi, 2005. Park’s tale is set in a kingdom in the starry sky. A farmer who raises the strongest cattle and a lady who weaves the finest cloths are the chief characters. One day they meet in a flourishing garden where they fall in love instantly. But, they neglect their former lives and work and the King of the starry kingdom grows angry at them because the people are going hungry with scarce cattle and the people’s clothes are wearing thin. He commands them to return to their work and allows them to see one another only once a year on the seventh day of the seventh month. When that day comes, they try to meet but they cannot get across the Milky Way. Then, they cry very hard and their tears provide the explanation for why it rains so much on that day each year. Magpies and crows take pity on the young lovers and form a bridge by connecting their wingtips to one another. The lovers are able to meet and when they have to part again, they cry again; this time their tears are a gentle rain that bears fruit in the land. The folk tale also explains why magpies and crows grow bald at that time of the year: the lovers must stand and walk upon their heads to cross the Milky Way to meet one another. Park heard this folktale from her grandmother when she was a young girl while they were watching a rainfall. Awards won: ALA Notable Books List - (2006: Selected), CCBC Our Choice - (2006: Selected) Park, Janie Jaehyun. The Tiger and the Dried Persimmon. Toronto: Douglas & McIntyre, 2002. Another folktale Park heard from her grandmother tells of a hungry tiger out hunting one day for a meal after a long nap. He is startled by the sound of a crying baby inside a farmhouse. He hears the mother trying to quiet the baby’s cries by telling the baby that the cries may wake a bear or tiger. The baby keeps on crying to the tiger’s fascination with the baby’s fearlessness. Then, the tiger hears the mother say “Shhh! Be quiet, my baby, and I will give you a piece of 142 dried persimmon. Here it is.” Instantly, the baby stops crying. The tiger comes to the conclusion that the “dried persimmon” must be a truly frightening animal if it was able to quiet a crying baby. So, the tiger becomes fearful and tries to sneak away from the farmhouse. Then, a thief jumps on his back, thinking the tiger is an ox. What follows is a hilarious run of events as the tiger fears that the dried persimmon has jumped on his back. Both the tiger and the thief are in a fright and it isn’t until the thief frees himself by grabbing a tree branch that the two become separated. The thief vows he will never steal again while the tiger vows never to go near the village again. Awards won: Governor General’s Award (Illustration) - (2002: Finalist), Elizabeth Mrazik Cleaver Award - (2003: Winner) and White Ravens - (2003: Special Mention) Scandifflo, Laura. Illus. Nicolas Debon. The Martial Arts Book. Toronto: Annick, 2003. This illustrated information book touches on Korean martial arts, but is more broadly concerned with the genre as a whole. The author breaks down the various forms of martial arts by introducing its readers to the history, spirituality, styles, and weapons. The author then discusses the movement of martial arts into the modern age and into contemporary society. The illustrations portray the evolution of martial arts from just a sport that Asians took part in to one that adults and children from diverse ethnic backgrounds participate in today. The book is included here for discussion since it devotes one page to Korea’s martial art form, Tae Kwon Do. Awards and distinctions: Bank Street College of Education’s Best Children’s Books of the Year, Silver Birch Award finalist, Ontario Library Association, “The Year’s Best” List, Resource Links, Hackmatack Children’s Choice Book Award finalist and Red Cedar Book Award finalist. Unknown author and illustrator. Young Canada Picture Book. Toronto: Musson [1911?] In this children’s picture book, the earliest in the Osborne Collection of Early Children’s Books to show Koreans in Canadian writing for children, Korean content involves a two full- 143 page spread, comprised of one page of text of a child and mother dialogue and an opposing page illustration of “Korean boys at play” (See Illustration 2). The text reveals what is most likely a young, Caucasian!white child’s reaction to first seeing a picture of Korean boys and wondering if they are Chinese. His mother gently points out that the children and parents are very similar to Canadian (or British) families in their loving and providing for their children. Vu, Chai-Shin, Shiu L. Kong, and Ruth W. Vu. Korean Folk Tales. Illus. Hai-Ja Bang. Toronto: Kensington Educational, 1986. This is Canada’s first set of folktales written and illustrated by Korean-Canadian authors and a Korean illustrator. The authors introduce the collection of nineteen illustrated traditional folktales as “expressions of the people’s gentle nature, their dreams and humour, their ethics and spiritual beliefs, their artistic and romantic ideas.” They assert that, “An appreciation of these stories will help the reader to understand the Korean consciousness” (Introduction). The folktales included are “Kotgam” (“Dried Persimmon”), “The Love of a Princess,” “The Noble Tiger,” “The King’s Sacrifice,” “Sim Chung — The Loving Daughter,” “The Contrary Frog,” “The Sky Maiden,” “The Gourd Seeds,” “Princess Pyonggang and Ondal the Fool,” “The Grateful Ants,” “The Turtle and the Rabbit,” “Choon Hyang” (“Spring Fragrance”), “The Three Riddles,” “The Talking Turtle,” “The Man Who Saved Four Lives,” “The Tiger’s Tail,” “The Clever Wife,” “The Mirror,” and “The Sparrow and the Snake.” 144 Appendix D — Illustrations Illustration 1” GOLD, GOLD TN FLAKES AND LUMPS AND NUGGETS Courtesy of the Osborne Collection of Early Children’s Books, Toronto Public Library, Canada. 145 Canada. 12 Courtesy of the —. Osborne —E-m Collection — of KGREAN Illustration Early --- DOYS Children’s AT 212 ILAY. — Books, Toronto Public - Library, 146 Illustration 313 13 Courtesy of the Osborne Collection of Early Children’s Books, Toronto Public Library, Canada. 147 APPENDIX E See attached 2-page Excel spreadsheet with title: Appendix E: Chronological List of Chinese-, Korean-Canadian Children’s Books. 148 Appendix E GENRES: FIC Fiction Novel Chronological List of PB Picture Book AJB = Autobiography Chinese-, Korean-Canadian FT = Folktale Children’s Books No. Year Country Genre Title Last/Author First/Author Last/Illus First/Illus Publisher 1 Publisher2 1893 China FTC Gold, Gold in Carriboo [sici Phillipps-Wolley Clive Hindley Godfrey C. London Blackie 1904 China FTC - illus The Brownies in the Philippines Cox (Cdn) Palmer unknown New York Century 3 1911 Korea PB Young Canadian Picture Book unknown unknown Toronto Musson 4 1926 China FTC Tea From China Wallace Frederick William N/A N/A Toronto Musson 5 1928 China FTC Magic Journeys Graham Bonner Mary Price Luxor New York Macaulay 6 1955 China FTC The One-Winged Dragon (Hunter & the Medicine Anthony Clark Catherine Bice Clare Toronto Macmillan Man) 7 1955 Korea A/B Korean Boy Pak, with Carroll Jong Yong, Jock N/A N/A Toronto Macmillan 8 1956 China FTC The Aqualung Twins Find Chinese Treasure Falkner Frederick Little Donna London Dent 9 1966 China FTC - illus Stories for Canada’s Birthday McKim Audrey Bagshaw Ruth Toronto Canadian Council of Churches 10 1977 Korea FTC Kap-Sung Ferris Duncan Frances N/A N/A Toronto Macmillan 11 1978 China FT - single, illus The Maiden of Wu Long & the Axe and the Ling Frieda Lau Mee-Shan Toronto Kids Can Sword 12 1979 China PB - A/B Westcoast Chinese Boy Lim Sing Lim Sing Montreal Tundra 13 1980 China FTC Who’s a Soccer Player? Kidd Bruce Smith Jerrard Toronto Lorimer 14 1981 China PB Binky and the Bamboo Brush Larouche Adelle Larouche Adelle Toronto Gage 15 1983 China FTC Teach Me to Fly, Skyfighter! Yee Paul Lee Sky Toronto Lorimer 16 1984 China PB Chin Chiang and the Dragon’s Dance Wallace Tan Wallace Tan Vancouver Douglas and McIntyre 17 1984 China PB Barnaby and Mr. Ling Morgan Allen Hammond Franklin Toronto Annick 18 1984 China PB Good Morning Franny, Good Night Franny Hearn Emily Thurman Mark Toronto Women’s 19 1985 China FT - collection Fables and Legends from Ancient China Kong, Wong Shiu L., Elizabeth Ying Wong Toronto Kensington Educational 20 1986 Korea FT - single, illus My King has Donkey Ears Harber Frances Kovaiski Maryann Toronto North Winds 21 1986 China FT - videorecording The Fox and the Tiger: A Chinese Parable Leaf Caroline N/A N/A Montreal National Film Board 22 1986 China PB The Emperors Panda Day David Beddows Eric Toronto McCleJland and Stewart 23 1986 Korea FT - collection Korean FoLk Tales Yu et al. Chai-Shin Bang Hai-ja Toronto Kensington Educational 24 1986 China FT - collection, illus The Magic Pears Kong, Wong Shiu L., Elizabeth Ying Wong Toronto Kensington Educational 25 1986 China FTC The Curses of Third Uncle Yee Paul N/A N/A Toronto Lorimer 26 1987 China FT - single, illus The EnchantedTapestry: A Chinese Folktale San Souci Robert D. Gal Laszlo Vancouver Douglas and McTntyre 27 1987 China FTC Starshine! Schwartz Ellen Wallace Laura Winlaw, BC Polestar 28 1988 China FTC The Chinese Mirror Major Alice N/A N/A Toronto Irwin 29 1989 China FtC Next-door Neighbours Ellis Sarah N/A N/A Vancouver Douglas and McIntyre 30 1989 China FT - single, illus The Buffalo Boy and the Weaver Girl Downie, Mann Mary Alice, Huang- Gilliland Jillian Hulme Kingston, ON Quarry Hwa Hsu 149 GENRES: Appendix E FIC = Fiction Novel Chronological List of PB Picture Book A/B = Autobiography Chinese-, Korean-Canadian FT = Folktale Children’s Books No. Year Country Genre Title Last/Author First/Author Last/Illus Firstllllus Publisher 1 Publisher2 31 1989 China FT - collection, illus Tales From Gold Mountain Yee Paul Ng Simon Vancouver Douglas and Mcintyre 32 1990 China FTC Forbidden City Bell William N/A N/A Toronto Doubleday 33 1990 China PB Jeremiah and Mrs. Ming Jennings Sharon Levert Mireile Toronto Anniek 34 1990 China PB Mei Ming and the Dragon’s Daughter Bailey Lydia Springett Martin Toronto Scholastic 35 1990 China PB The Sleeper (Folk Tales from Around the World) Day David Entwisle Mark Toronto Doubleday 36 1991 China FT - single Nightingale The Bedard Michael Ricci Regolo Toronto Oxford UP 37 1991 China PB Roses Sing on New Snow Yee Paul Chan Harvey Vancouver Douglas and McIntyre 38 1992 China FTC The Dragon’s Pearl Lawson Julie Morn Paul Toronto Oxford UP 39 1992 China PB When Jeremiah Found Mrs. Ming Jennings Sharon Levert M[reille Toronto Annick 40 1992 China PB Chung Lee Loves Lobsters MacDonald Hugh Wales Johnny Toronto Annick 41 1992 China FTC Spud Sweetgrass Doyle Brian N/A N/A Vancouver Douglas and McTntyre 42 1993 China PB Sleep Tight Mrs. Ming Jennings Sharon Levert Mireille Toronto Annick 43 1993 China FIC Absolutely Invincible Bell William N/A N/A Toronto Stoddart Kids 44 1993 China FTC White Jade Tiger Lawson Julie N/A N/A Victoria Beach Holme 45 1993 China PB - A/B A Little Tiger in the Chinese Night Zhang Song Nan Zhang Song Nan Toronto Tundra 46 1993 China PB The Magic Paintbrush Muller Robin Muller Robin Toronto Doubleday 47 1994 China PB Where is Gah Ning? Munsch Robert Desputeaux Helene Toronto Annick 48 1994 China PB No Such Thing As Far Away Langston Laura Amos Robert Victoria Orca 49 1994 China FIC The Dragon’s Egg Baird Allison Tyrrell Frances Richmond Hill Scholastic 50 1994 China FTC Breakaway Yee Paul N/A N/A Vancouver Douglas and McTntyre 5 1994 China FTC The Charlotte Stories Jam Teddy Zhang Ange Toronto Groundwood 52 1994 China FT - single, illus Five Heavenly Emperors Zhang Song Nan Zhang Song Nan Toronto Tundra 53 1995 China FTC Dance of the Snow Dragon Kemaghan Eileen N/A N/A Saskatoon Thistledown 54 1995 China PB The Golden Risk Bell William Kilby Don Toronto Doubleday 55 1995 China PB The Tiny Kite of Eddie Wing Trottier Maxine Van Mil Al Toronto Stoddart Kids 56 1995 China FTC Spud in Winter Doyle Brian N/A N/A Vancouver Douglas and McIntyre 57 1995 General FT - collection, illus Telling Tales on the Rim Wakan Naomi Wakan Naomi Asia 58 1995 China FTC There Goes the Neighbourhood Lupini Valerie N/A N/A Red Deer Red Deer 59 1995 China PB To the Mountains by Morning Wieler Diana Zhang Ange Toronto Groundwood 60 1996 China FT - single, illus River my Friend Bell William Campbell Ken Victoria Orca 61 1996 China FT - single, illus Too Many Suns Lawson Julie Morn Paul Toronto Stoddart Kids 62 China 1996 FIC The Chinese Puzzle Brouillet Chrystine Gagnon Nathatie Charlottetown, Ragweed PEI 63 1996 China FTC Molly Brown is Not a Clown Rogers Linda Van Krugel Rick Vancouver Ronsdale 150 GENRES: Appendix E FIC = Fiction Novel Chronological List of PB = Picture Book A/B = Autobiography Chinese-, Korean-Canadian FT = Folktale Children’s Books No. Year Country Genre Title Last/Author First/Author Last/Illus Firstllllus Publisher 1 Publisher2 64 1996 China PB Ghost Train Yee Paul Chan Harvey Vancouver Douglas and Mcintyre 65 1996 China FT - single, illus The Story of the Three Buddhist Monks Ding Jing Jing Daboud Nelson Toronto Boardwalk 66 1997 China FT - single, illus The Crickets Cage; A Chinese Follctale Czemecki Stefan Czernecki Stefan New York Hyperion 67 1997 China FTC Clever-Lazy Bodger Joan McLeod Chum Toronto Tundra 68 1997 China PB The Fishing Summer Jam Teddy Zhang Ange Vancouver Douglas and Mcintyre 69 1997 China PB Thor Valgardson W.D. Zhang Ange Toronto Groundwood 70 1997 China PB Three Monks, No Water Ye Ting-xing Chan Harvey Toronto Annick 71 1997 China FT - single, illus The Great Race: A Chinese Zodiac Bouchard David Huang Zhong-Yang Vancouver Raincoast 72 1997 China PB A Turtle Called Friendly Sanguine Jean Lau Bernardette Oakville, ON Rubicon 73 1998 Korea FT - single, illus The Mole’s Daugher: An Adaptation of a Korean Gukova Julia Gukova Julia Toronto Annick Folktale 74 1998 China PB The Red Corduroy Shirt Kertes Joseph Perko Peter Toronto Stoddart Kids 75 1998 China A!B - novel Leaf A in the Bitter Wind Ye Ting-xing N/A N/A Toronto Doubleday 76 1998 China PB The Boy in the Attic Yee Paul Xiong Gu Toronto Douglas and Mcintyre 77 1998 China PB Weighing the Elephant Ye Ting-xing Langlois Suzane Toronto Annick 78 1998 China PB Legend The of the Panda Granfield Linda Zhang Song Nan Toronto Tundra 79 1998 China FT - single, illus The Ballad of Mulan Zhang Song Nan Zhang Song Nan Union City, CA Pan Asian 80 1998 General FT - collection, illus The Village of a Hundred Smiles and Other Baker Barrie Jorisch Stephane Toronto Annick Asia Stories 81 1999 China FTC Naomi: Strawberry The Blonde of Pippu Town Shreyer Karmel N/A N/A Winnipeg Great Plains 82 1999 China PB Me and Mr. Mah Spalding Andrea Wilson Janet Victoria Orca 83 1999 China PB Share the Sky Ye Ting-xing Langlois Suzane Toronto Annick 84 1999 China FT - single, illus The Dragon New Year Bouchard David Huang Zhong-Yang Vancouver Raincoast 85 1999 China FT - collection, illus The Moon Festival: A Chinese Mid-Autumn Chan Arlene Debon Nicholas Toronto Umbrella Celebration 86 2000 China Non-FIC The Kids Book of Canada’s Railway Hodge Deborah Mantha John Toronto Kids Can 87 2000 China FTC Mei Ling Discovers Jack Miner Buttery Jane Lamouve Yolanda Harrow, ON Truelight 88 2000 China FTC Emily Across the James Bay Bridge Lawson Julie N/A N/A Toronto Penguin Canada 89 2000 China FTC - illus White Lily Ye Ting-xing Lau Bernadette Toronto Doubleday 90 2000 China PB Grandfather Counts Cheng Andrea Zhang Ange New York Lee & Low 91 2000 China FT - single, illus The Mermaids Muse: The Legend of the Dragon Bouchard David Huang Zhong-Yang Vancouver Raincoast Boats 92 2000 China FT Who is Queen of the Forest? Lin Beijia Thurman Mark Howack, Que Essay International 93 2000 China PB From Far and Wide; A Canadian Citizenship Bannatyne-Cugnet Jo Zhang Song Nan Toronto Tundra Scrapbook 94 2001 China PB Wild Bog Tea LeBox Annette Chan Harvey Toronto Groundwood 95 2001 China FTC Lambs of Hells Gate: Chinese Workers and the Bright Mary Liz N/A N/A Gabriola, BC Pacific Edge Building of the CPR 151 GENRES: Appendix E FIC = Fiction Novel Chronological List of PB = Picture Book A/B = Autobiography Chinese-, Korean-Canadian FT = Folktale Children’s Books No. Year Country Genre Title Last/Author First/Author Last/Illus First/Illus Publisher 1 Publisher2 96 2001 China FT - single, illus Buddha in the Garden Bouchard David Huang Zhong-Yang Vancouver Raincoast 97 2001 China PB The Chinese Violin Thien Madeleine Chang Joe Vancouver Whitecap 98 2001 China PB Bullets on the Bund Whan Steve N/A N/A Autumn Jade Autum Jade 99 2002 China FTC A Singing Bird Will Come: Naomi in Hong Kong Schreyer Karmel N/A N/A Winnipeg Great Plains 100 2002 China PB The Jade Necklace Yee Paul Lin Grace Vancouver Tradewind 101 2002 Korea FT - single, illus The Tiger and the Dried Persimmon Park Janie Jaehyun Park Janie Jaehyun Toronto Douglas and McIntyre 102 2002 China FT-collection The Chinese Storytellers Book: Supernatural Tales Kwan Michael David N/A N/A Boston Tuttle 103 2002 China PB Courage to Fly Harrison Troon Huang Zhong-Yang Calgary Red Deer 104 2002 China PB - collection of Dead Man’s Gold Yee Paul Chan Harvey Toronto Douglas and stories McIntyre 105 2002 China FIC The Emperor’s Pendant Whan Steve N/A N/A Autumn Jade Autumn Jade 106 2003 General Non-FTC - illus The Martial Arts Book Scandifflo Laura Debon Nicolas Toronto Annick Asia 107 2003 China FT - collection The Painted Wall Bedard Michael Deines Brian Toronto Tundra 108 2003 China FTC Throwaway Daugher Ye, Bell Ting-xing, William N/A N/A Toronto Doubleday 109 2004 China FTC An Ocean Apart: The Gold Mountain Diary of Chan Gillian N/A N/A Markham Scholastic Chin Mei-ling 110 2004 General Non-FTC In Your Face: The Culture of Beauty and You Graydon Shari N/A N/A Toronto Annick Asian 111 2004 Korea Non-FEC I Remember Korea: Veterans Tell Their Stories of Granfield Linda N/A N/A Markham Fitzhenry and the Korean War, 1950-53 Whiteside 112 2004 China PB Red Land, Yellow River Zhang Ange Zhang Ange Toronto Groundwood 113 2005 Korea FT - single, illus The Love of Two Stars: A Korean Legend Park Janie Jaehyun Park Janie Jaehyun Toronto Groundwood/Hou se of Anansi 114 2008 China PB- non-FIC The Day I Became a Canadian: A Citizenship Bannatyne-Cugnet Jo Zhang Song Nan Toronto Tundra Scrapbook 152