DOCUMENT RESUME AUTHOR Olsen, Laurie an Invisible Crisis

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 416 273 UD 032 136

AUTHOR Olsen, Laurie TITLE An Invisible Crisis. The Educational Needs of Asian Pacific American Youth. INSTITUTION Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders in Philanthropy, New York, NY. PUB DATE 1997-00-00 NOTE 53p. PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative (142) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Asian Americans; Cultural Awareness; Cultural Differences; Curriculum Development; *Disadvantaged Youth; Elementary Secondary Education; Ethnic Groups; *Immigrants; *Language Minorities; Multicultural Education; *Pacific Americans; Poverty; Racial Discrimination; Refugees IDENTIFIERS *Model Minority Thesis

ABSTRACT An urgent educational crisis threatens the futures of a growing number of Asian Pacific American students, both immigrant and American-born. This crisis is largely invisible to most Americans, even to many in the teaching profession, because many see all Asian Pacific American students as members of a model minority destined to excel. This image is a destructive myth for the many Asian Pacific American children the schools are failing. The number of Asian Pacific American students is large and growing rapidly, and the context for educating these students effectively is changing. While immigrants who came to this country after 1965 were well-educated and well-off, more recent groups of Asian Pacific Americans are poor and poorly educated. The schools' task is complicated by historic problems of poverty and racial discrimination. Language and literacy issues are foremost in the problems of these students. In addition, most schools do not have curricula appropriate to educate multilingual and multicultural student populations. Support for families and youth development is inadequate. Community groups and foundations can offer much-needed support to school's efforts to help this underserved population. Recommendations for foundation help to Asian Pacific American students center on: (1) community/school/family partnerships;(2) institutional change and accountability;(3) curriculum development;(4) language development research and programs; and (5) teacher recruitment and training. Appendixes lists 19 resource organizations for program information and 13 other resource organizationS. (Contains 4 tables, 2 graphs, and 61 references.) (SLD)

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The Educational Needs of Asian Pacific American

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Youth °Mice of Educational Research end Improvement PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS CENTER (ERIC) BEEN GRANTED BY XTros document has been reproduced ea received from the person or organization originating d Mot:jot-16F)1 0 Minor changes have been made to imprOve reproduction Quality. AA PLP Points of new oPnien$ stated ", th.$ dOcu* TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES ment do not necesseniy represent Official OERI position or policy. INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

ASIAN AMERICANS!O4f4,C-1S1.-ANIciIN PHILANTHROPY

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Vale pcodgira@upy aluZiago of this report is Laurie Olsen, co-director, California Tomorrow. The report drew upon the research of Kenji Ima, Professor, San Diego State University, and Hanh Cao Yu, Social Scientist, Social Policy Research Associates. The report was guided by the dedicationO Brian Malloy, Minneapolis Foundation and insights of the AAPIP education committee6 Craig Mc Garvey, James Irvine Foundation chaired by Dianne Yamashiro-Omi, formerly tDon Nakanishi, University of California, Los with the Gap Foundation, composed of: Angeles MarjorieFujiki,AAPIP; David Fukuzawa, Lallie O'Brien, Pew Charitable Trusts SkillmanFoundation;UnmiSong, Joyce Foundation; Ruby Takanishi, Foundation forO Michael Omi, University of California, Child Development; and Sylvia Yee, Evelyn & Berkeley Walter Haas, Jr. Fund. t Wendy Puriefoy, Public Education Network The report was skillfully edited and broughtO Jane Quinn, DeWitt-Wallace Reader's Digest together by Lynne Constantine and Suzanne Fund Scott of Community Scribes. Julie Wong pro-O Sophie Sa, Panasonic Foundation, Inc. vided swift proofreading skills. 0 Donna Sherlock, St. Paul Foundation* AAPIP would also like to thank the follow-t- Ralph Smith, Annie E. Casey Foundation ing individuals for sharing of their time and O Tani Takagi, formerly with the Ms. expertise during the various stages of develop- Foundation ment of this report (*affiliations are indicated at the time of the individual's involvement withO Lance Tsang, ARC Associates our report): 0 Ellen Walker, Zellerbach Family Fund O Amy Agbayani, Hawaii Community O Debbie Wei, School District of Philadelphia Foundation O Patricia White, New York Community Trust, 0 Joe Aguerreberre, Ford Foundation Association of Black Foundation Executives O Cynthia Boynton, McKnight Foundation 0 Katherine Kam, Beth Bernstein, Mamie Chow-Wang and other staff of California O Eleanor Clement Glass, San Francisco Tomorrow. Foundation 1(0 Lucia Corral, consultant* This report was designed by Elaine Joe. O Henry Der, California Department of Many of the photographs were provided cour- Education tesy of California Tomorrow, Asian Pacific O Christine Green, Boston Foundation Environmental Network, and Oakland Asian O Kenji Hakuta, Stanford University Cultural Center. O Bill Ong Hing, Stanford University* We would like to thank the Pacific Telesis O Peter Kiang, University of Massachusetts, Group for its support towards the printing of Boston this report, and general support from: The Ford Foundation,WallaceAlexanderGerbode O Jane Kretzman, Bush Foundation Foundation, Evelyn & Walter Haas, Jr. Fund, tUi Nancy Latimer, McKnight Foundation Edward W. Hazen Foundation, James Irvine O Stacey Lee, University of Wisconsin, Foundation, W.K. Kellogg Foundation, John D. Madison & Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, Charles O Joe Lucero, AAPIP Stewart Mott Foundation, Pacific Telesis Group, O Antonio Maciel, Emma Lazarus Fund, David & Lucile Packard Foundation, Grantmakers Concerned with Immigrants Rockefeller Foundation and San Francisco and Refugees Foundation. AN IiIMW:2111B'aiCRISIS: The Educational Needs of Asian Pacific American Youth

0 0

ASIAN AMERICANS/PACIFIC ISLANDERS IN PHILANTHROPY

1997

4 Uzlhae cy0 Contents

al Executive Summary

7Introduction: From Model Minority to Children in Crisis

0 0 The Changing Context of Effective Education for Asian Pacific Americans: Demographic Trends 0 0 Population Trends 0 0 Income and Poverty Status 0 33 Immigration Trends

0 6 Obstacles to Effective Education for Asian Pacific American Children Language and Literacy 20School and Curriculum 2S Support for Families and for Youth Development

3 0 The Challenge for Philanthropy: Recommendations and Conclusion

33 2 Recommendations

33 Conclusion

339 Appendix I: Resources for Program Information

433 Appendix II: Resource Organizations

414 Endnotes

416 Bibliography AAPIP PAGE 3

EmamatOwe Saammact7

n urgent educational crisis threatens the futures of a growing number of AsianPacific American students, both immigrant and American-born. Although schools should be a nurturing, learning environment for all children, most schools are ill-equipped to cope with the language needs of children who speak an Asian language at home andwith racial, cultural, and socioeconomic diversity in the classroom.

This crisisislargelyinvisibleto most which they immigrated, their social, eco- Americansmost significantly, even to many nomic and educational status before and in the teaching professionsbecause most after immigration, and the American com- see all Asian Pacific American students as munities in which they find themselves. members of a "model minority" destined to The context for effectively educating excel. But for many Asian Pacific American Asian Pacific American students is students, this image is a destructive myth. As changing. Although many among the first theirschoolsfailthem,thesechildren groups of Asian Pacific immigrants who become increasingly likely to graduate with cametotheU.S. afterrestrictive rudimentary language skills, to drop out of immigration laws were changed in 1965 school, to join gangs, or to find themselves in were well-educated and well-off, more low-paying occupations and on the margins recent groups of Asian Pacific immigrants of American life. often are poor and poorly educated. Most The number of Asian Pacific American of the new immigrant parents may not be students is largeand growing rapidly. aware of, or accustomed to, their role as The Asian Pacific American population theirchildren'sadvocatewithinthe doubled between 1980 and 1990, and the American school system. Estimates are that number of Asian Pacific American school- by the year 2000, 75 percent of Asian age children grew sixfoldfrom 212,900 Pacific American school-age children will to almost 1.3 millionbetween 1960 and be foreign-born or the children of recent 1990. By the year 2020, it is estimated that immigrants. there will be 4.4 million Asian Pacific1(G The schools' task is complicated by American children between the ages of 5 historic problems of poverty and and 17. These children come from very racial discrimination. Overall, 14 per- diverse backgrounds: the Asian Pacific cent of Asian Pacific Americans live below American population includes members of the poverty line, compared with 13 per- 34 ethnic groups who speak more than cent of the U.S. population. Although 300 languages and dialects. Even within aggregatestatisticsplace Asian Pacific groups,individuals and familiesdiffer Americans at the top of the family income greatly based on the conditions from charts,data are misleading unless the

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number of wage earners per family, the4 The diversity of Asian Pacific Americans average per capita earnings, and the complicates language instruction and bilin- poverty level within a community are gual education, particularly when schools taken into account. Poverty levels are dis- have small numbers of students who proportionately high among Asian Pacific speak a range of Asian Pacific languages. Americans from Southeast Asia. 4 Highly motivated children may excel in Additionally, Asian Pacific Americans are discriminated against on the basis of race math and sciencesubjects that require and immigrant status, and are frequent tar- less sophisticated language skillswhile their lack of proficiency in reading, writ- gets of bias-motivated violence. ing, and speaking skills is neglected. Despite the increased presence and grow- 4 Asian Pacific American students often are ing needs of Asian Pacific Americans in the misclassified.Learning disabilitiesoften classroom, school districts, teachers, and parent-teacher associations have not yet begun are attributed to the student's limited proficiency in English, and children with no to match needs with resources for these children. The most significant barriers facing learning problems except language-related ones may find themselves in special Asian Pacific American students are in three education classes. areas: language and literacy, school and curriculum, and support for families and for4 There is little support for children's main- youth development. taining proficiencyintheir home language, although research suggests that strong literacy in the home language pro- Langazage and Literacy motes literacy in a second language. 4 Bilingual education resources for Asian Pacific Americans who need them are School] and Caarrticuknon largely unavailable. 4 Most schools do not have curricula appro- ( There has been little research into the spe- priate to educating multicultural, multilin- cific language development challenges of gual student populations. Few schools children whose home languageisan offer students opportunities for serious Asian language. AAPIP PAGE 5

study of multigenerational Asian Pacific Such obstacles can only be overcome Americans.Instead,theyholdInter-through initiatives that understand education national Days that are intended to honoras a process that does not stop at the schoolstudents' home cultures but that may rein-house door. AAPIP believes that strengthen- force stereotypes. ing families and fostering community leadership arecriticalfacets to ensure healthy 4 There isa major shortfall of bilingual, development forallyouth. Community bicultural Asian Pacific American teachers.groups can serve as culturally competent, Even fewer Asian Pacific Americans arebilingual resources to help Asian Pacific school administrators and counselors. youth bridge home and school cultures and 4 Teachers, administrators, and counselorsbecome the well-educated, bicultural, bilin- generally do not have training to under-gualleaders needed inan increasingly stand Asian Pacific cultures and languages. diverse nation. Such community groups can 4 Even when teachers make efforts to teachserve as resources for schools committed to about Asian Pacific cultures, they have dif-educational equity. In addition, they can hold schools accountable for meeting the ficultieslocating appropriate teaching needs of Asian Pacific American students and materials to support the curriculum. their families and for their progress (or lack 4 School personnel do not understand howof progress) toward the goal of equal educa- tointegrate the teaching and learningtional access for all children. strategies of the child's home culture. 4 Schools have not yet developed adequateIReconnmendatOons institutional responses to issues of race and racial violence, class, and gender, all of AAPIP recommendsthatfoundations which deeply affect Asian Pacific students.respond tothe needs of AsianPacific American students by funding initiatives in five areas: $aapport Vag° Famines and gar Vogath DeveDoponent 1. Community/school/family partnerships, t Asian Pacific children struggle to balance2. Institutional change and accountability, bicultural identities, maintaining their ties to3. Curriculum development, traditional family and cultural values while 4. Language development research and pro- learning the ways of American culture. grams, and 4 Many Asian Pacific children struggle with family problemssome resulting from5. Teacher recruitment and training. conditions in their home countries, others AAPIP views efforts in the area of com- from the violence and poverty common in munity/school/family partnerships as funda- neighborhoods where many Asian Pacific mental to the success of the other recom- Americans livethat teachers and coun- mendations. Such efforts reduce barriers to selors are unaware of or oblivious to. educational equity and create an enriched 4 Schools rarely have ties to Asian Pacificlearning environment for children by bring- community organizations that can helping together the full complement of a com- Meet students' and families' needs. munity's resources for each child's benefit.

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I. COMMUNITY/SCHOOL/FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS Pacific Americans, and of anti-racism curricu- Recognize and develop Asian Pacificla that supports direct and honest dialogue American community, parent, and youthamong students. leadership, and support the development of4. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT community-based service organizations thatRESEARCH AND PROGRAMS focus on providing extended opportunities Support research, program development, for youth and their families. Support effortsand evaluation in the area of language devel- to partner these resources with their localopment for Asian Pacific Americans to better schools. inform schools and improve teaching strategies. As an essential adjunct, more funding 2. INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE AND ACCOUNTABILITY should be directed to community-based Encourage efforts that commit schools toefforts focused on dual literacy and language development. make institutional responses to issues affecting Asian Pacific American children's educa-S.TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND tional equityincluding language needs ofTRAINING the limited English proficient, racism and Fund recruitment and training of more anti-immigrantbias,class,and genderAsian Pacific American teachers, administra- issuesand fund efforts that monitor schooltors, and counselors, with particular empha- accountability for meeting the educationalsis on those with bilingual skills and knowl- needs of Asian Pacific American students. edge of new and unrepresented Asian Pacific American populations. Also, fund training for 3. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT non-Asian Pacific teachers to develop the Promote research, development, and staffknowledge and skills they require to under- training in the use of multicultural curriculastand and be responsive to Asian Pacific that portray the history and culture of AsianAmerican students' needs. AAP I P ., PAGE 7

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n urgent educational crisis threatens the futures of a growing number of Asian Pacific American students, both immigrant and American-born. These Asian Pacific American students, like children of other ethnic and racial backgrounds, look to their schools to help them learn to read, write, and think, to prepare them for higher education or for a good job, and to equip them to be happy, productive adults.

All too often, however, their schools are ill-but they often don't find it. equipped to cope with racial, cultural, and Asian Pacific American students often are socioeconomic diversity in the classroom andplaced in the wrong grade level, placed in with the language needs of children whothe wrong bilingual classroom, or misplaced speak a language other than Englishatin special education. Teachers do not have home. As their schools fail them, these chil-the training and resources to deal with lan- dren become increasingly likely to graduateguage and cultural differences in their class- with rudimentary language skills, to drop outrooms. School administrators do not know of school, to join gangs, or to find themselveshow to reach non-English-speaking parents in low-paying occupations and on the mar-who may not be aware of, or accustomed to, gins of American life. their role as their children's advocates within Thiscrisisislargely invisibleto mostthe American school system. Americanseven to many in the teaching professionsbecause they findit hard to believe that Asian Pacific American studentsWG"Dv $11vOadd this tinvOstaDe areatrisk.For nearlythreedecades,crisis lye og pressOng concern American media have created a one-dimen-to gmanclatton grantmakers? sional image of Asian Pacific students as The number of children potentially at "model minority" students: quiet, hardwork- risk is largeand growing rapidly. ing, smart, self-sufficient, and high achiev- The Asian Pacific American population ers.1The myththatallAsianPacific doubled between 1980 and 1990, and the Americans are alike and that all will experi- number of Asian Pacific American school- ence the same success in school obscures the age children grew sixfoldfrom 212,900 struggles of recent immigrants, of average or to almost 1.3 millionbetween 1960 and below-average students, of students from dis- 1990.2 Estimates are that, by the year advantaged backgrounds or troubled fami- 2020, therewill be 4.4million Asian lies, and of students who have difficulty find- Pacific American children between the ing their place as bicultural Americans. These ages of 5 and 17.3 In some school districts students need help to succeed in school inNorthernCalifornia,AsianPacific

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Americans already consti- their programming than other tute nearly 50 percent of PARTNERSHIPS WITH students in schools that are the student population.4 COMMUNITY-BASED extremely underfunded often tThe context for effec- INSTITUTIONS CAN leadstoresentment within schoolsandcommunities. tively educating Asian BRING TO SCHOOLS Pacific American stu- Compounding thetension dents is changing. The THE BENEFITS OF from cuts in education spend- last30 years have seen CULTURALLY ing are the cutsin public assistancebenefits,pitting successive waves of Asian COMPETENT, Pacificimmigration. The immigrant non-citizen recipi- first waves consisted large- BILINGUAL PEOPLE ents of benefits against citizen ly of educated, well-to-do WHO CAN SERVE AS recipientsof benefits. The political climate surrounding families with some prior BRIDGES BETWEEN contact with Americans. the welfare reform debates With each successive THE SCHOOLS AND filters down totheplay- wave,however, income ASIAN PACIFIC ground, where one will find six-year-oldstellingeach levelsandeducational AMERICAN FAMILIES. attainment have dropped, other to "speak English" as a while poverty rates have risen. For exam- taunt. ple,a recent report published by thet' The Asian Pacific American popula- American Council on Education on the tion is extremely diverse. It includes status of minorities in higher education members of 34 ethnic groups who speak noted that "although 42 percent of Asian more than 300 languages and dialects.6 Pacific Americans had attained bachelor's Yet most research that includes Asian degrees, almost twice the proportion for Pacific Americans fails to break out find- the general population, 9.8 percent of ings fully enough to give detailed infor- adults of Asian and Pacific descent had mation about thisdiversity. There are never progressed beyond theeighth especially large gaps in knowledge about grade, compared with6.2percent of PacificIslanders,SouthAsians,and whites."In1990,54.9percentof Southeast Asians.7 Americans of Hmong descent, 40.7 per- American schools face their most difficult cent of Cambodians, and 33.9 percent of challenge in meeting the needs of a student Laotians had not completed thefifth grade.5 population with an unprecedented mix of languages, cultures, and experiences. The The schools' task is complicated bymost important finding of this AAPIP report historic problems of poverty andis that schools cannot and need not attempt social discrimination. Even the minimalthis task alone. Partnerships with communi- efforts that schools are making to assistty-based institutions (social service agencies, studentswithlimitedproficiencyinchurches, temples, after school programs, lit- English may fuel a community's smolder-eracy/language programs) can bring to ing anti-immigrant sentiments. The per-schools the benefits of culturally competent, ception that students with limited profi-bilingual people who can serve as bridges ciency in English receive more funds forbetween the schools and Asian Pacific Amer- I i AA PIP PAGE 9

ican families. Such partnerships can give As this report will show, this level of communities a new and more approachablefoundation activity is far from commensurate setting in which to provide needed serviceswith the need. The foundation community to Asian Pacific American families andcan take a vital leadership role by helping children. communities, educators, and Asian Pacific Until now, only a small fraction of philan-American organizations work together to find thropic dollars has been specifically targetedinnovative solutions for the invisible crisis to address issues confronting Asian Pacificaffecting Asian Pacific American students. American communities. Asian Pacific Americans comprise 4 percent of the total population of the United States, but only 0.3 percent of philanthropic dollars in 1995 went to organizations working in these communities.8 Only a small percentage of these grants directly addressed education. From 1983 to 1990, $1.6 million, or just 4 percent of grants made to Asian Pacific Americans, were for education. 9 By comparison, more than 25 percent of grant dollars reported to the Foun- dation Center for 1995 were for education.1°

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The Changing Context of a= ffective Educati n for Asian Pacific Americans: Demographic Trends

e live in the midst of a demographic revolution that is dramatically changing the population of the United States. Immigrants from all over the world, but mainly from Asia, the Pacific Islands, and South and Central America, are trans- forming our already diverse nation into a land increasingly rich in languages, cultures, national backgrounds, and traditions.

These changes are already having a signifi- The percentage of Asian Pacific Amer- cant effect on the nation's educational sys-icans who are foreign-born is rising dra- teman essential institution in the lives ofmatically.In1990, some 65 percent of the these immigrants and their children, as wellAsian Pacific population in the United States as in the lives of American-born Asian Pacificwere foreign-born. More than 40 percent of people. today's school-age Asian Pacific population are foreign-born. By the turn of the century, Popubition Trends -- CHARACTERISTICSOF ASIAN PACIFIC The Asian Pacific American AMERICANS, BY COUNTRYOF ORIGIN, 1990 population is diverse and is % OF TOTAL ASIAN PACIFIC NATIONALITY growing rapidly. Asian Pacific POPULATION IN U.S. % FOREIGN BORN Americansthe fastest-growing Chinese 22.8 69.3 population group in the United Filipino 19.6 64.4 Japanese Statesconstitute a total of 10 12.0 32.4 million, or 4 percent, of the U.S. Asian Indian 10.9 75.4 population.11 Korean 11.0 72.7 Within and among the 34 sep- Vietnamese 8.2 79.9 arate Asian Pacific American eth- Laotian 2.0 79.4 nic groups, there are significant Cambodian 2.1 79.1 differences of culture,history, Thai 1.3 75.5 immigration history, and socioe- Hmong 1.3 65.2 conomicstatus.AsianPacific Pakistani 1.1 77.3 American students reflect the het- Indonesian 0.4 83.1 erogeneity of the Asian Pacific American population. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census.1990

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STATES WITH THE LARGEST ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN POPULATIONS,1990

ASIAN PACIFIC % OF TOTAL AMERICAN ASIAN PACIFIC POPULATION, % OF STATE % INCREASE, AMERICAN RANK STATE 1990 POPULATION 1980-1990 POPULATION California 2,845,659 9.6 127.0 39.1 2 New York 693,760 3.9 123.4 9.5 3 Hawaii 685,236 61.8 17.5 9.4 4 Texas 319,459 1.9 165.5 4.4 5 Illinois 285,311 2.5 78.7 3.9 6 New Jersey 272,521 3.5 162.4 3.7 7 Washington 210,958 4.3 105.7 2.9 8 Virginia 159,053 2.6 140.2 2.2 9 Florida 154,302 1.2 171.9 2.1 I0 Massachusetts 143,392 2.4 189.7 2.0

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 1990 an expected 75 percent of Asian Pacificfollowed by Hawaii, Illinois, New York, and Americans of school age (ages 3 to 24 years)Texas. However, significant rates of growth will be immigrants or the children of immi-are occurring rapidlyinother regions, grants who arrived after 1980, and will facealthough absolute numbers may remain low. language, cultural, and social adjustments.12Rhode Island,for example, has had an increase of 245 percent in its Asian Pacific Among Asian Pacific Americans, 73.3American populationin only ten years. percent speak a language other thanAmong U.S.cities, those with the fastest English, compared with 13.8 percent ofgrowing Asian Pacific American populations the total U.S. population.13 For Asianinclude Atlanta, Dallas, Boston, Houston, and Pacific persons born in America, English isSacramento.14 their first (and often only) language. The The tendency of Asian Pacific Americans majority of newly arrived immigrants live into cluster geographically means that, in these non- tolimited-English-speaking environ-areas, a far greater response will be required ments. A segment of the immigrant Asianof schools, social services, and community Pacific American population is multilingualorganizations than might be expected if one or bilingual, and some speak more than onewere to consider only the Asian Pacific Amer- dialect of an Asian language. ican presence in the U.S. population at large.

The Asian Pacific American population is geographically concentrated,[Income and Poverty Statilas largely in urban areas and in western Family income statistics paint a mis- states.In1990, 90 percent of all Asianleadingpictureof AsianPacific Pacific Americans lived in urban areas, withAmericans' economic status. Asian Pacific three out of five living in the western UnitedAmericans statistically are reported to have a States. California has the highest percentage,higher median family income than other

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POVERTY RATES AMONG ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN GROUPS, 1990

70% 64%

60%

50% 43%

40% 35%

30%

20% 140/0 12% 13% 10% 10% 7% 6% 1I1 0% i to to 0 a.) a_ 0 C+ 01 0 E 0 -J U To I0

Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1 990 Census of Population, Social and Economic Characteristics, (CP-2- I ),1 993.

Americans do. The data are misleading, how- among Asian Pacific American ethnic ever, unless the number of wage earners per groups. For example, per capita income family, the average per capita earnings, and among Japanese Americans is$19,373, the poverty level within a community are compared to$14,420 among Hmong, taken into account.15 Filipino,Southeast Asian, and Korean 4 Compared with other groups, Asian Pacific Americans.16 Americans reported the highest percent-4 Overall,14 percentof AsianPacific age of families with three or more wage Americans live below the poverty line, earners. Within the Asian Pacific American compared with 13 percent of the U.S. pop- population, Filipino and Vietnamese Amer- ulation.Those who arrived in the U.S. after icans report the highest percentage of 1985 are significantly more likely to be families with three or more wage earners. poor. Economically, Samoan, Vietnamese, 4 Per capita income levels differ significantly Cambodian, and Laotian households lag far behind Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Fili- 15 AAPIP PAGE 13

pino, and Asian Indian American house-comprise two very different groups. The first holds. Among Southeast Asians, 49 per-group emigrated mainly for family reunifica- cent live in poverty, compared to fewertion from countries with large populations than 10 percent of Japanese, Chinese, andalready in the U.S. (mainly China, Korea, and Asian Indians. Among Asian Pacific Amer-the Philippines). The second group consists icans, there are significant pockets of eco-largely of immigrants and refugees from nomic hardship exceeding even that expe-Southeast Asia, who arrived in the U.S. in rienced by other communities of color.17 several waves following the Vietnam War. Each succeeding wave had less successful Whenever data are collected on Asian educational outcomes. Educational needs, Pacific Americans, the data must be disag- support needs, and the resources and family gregated to break out figures for each Asian Pacific American group. As the data onor community capacity to welcome newcomers differ greatly between these two groups. income and povertylevels demonstrate, Historically, the United States has placed group data can mask important intergroup severe restrictions on immigration from Asian differences. countries that were not placed on immigrants from European nations. A turning point OmmOgratOon 'Trends occurred when the 1965 Immigration Act abolished the National Origins quota sys- To understand the changing needs oftems, which had discriminated against immi- foreign-born Asian Pacific Americans, itgrants from Southeast Asia and East Asia. In is important to understand the differ-its place, the U.S. adopted a new immigration ences among the groups of recent immi-policy that focused on family reunification grants. Recent AsianPacificimmigrantsand specific job skills needed in certain occu-

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pations. Consequently, the number of new-American population. comers from Asia rose dramatically. In 1960, The diversity among the refugee waves none of the ten countries sending the largestwas significant. Earlier groups were often the number of immigrants to the U.S. wereurban elite,primarily from Vietnam, with Asian; by 1985, four of the five largest send-experience working alongside Americans. ing nations were Asian Pacific. In fact, duringLater waves brought the poorest people, the 1980s, peoples from Asian and Pacificincluding great numbers of Hmong, Mien, regions constituted nearly 42 percent of alllowland Laotians, and Cambodians. Many new immigrants to the U.S.18 were farmers and villagers with minimal In 1975, the war in Southeast Asia ended,experience with Western culture and tech- prompting anunprecedentedflightofnology. Each successive wave had a higher refugees from that part of the world to theincidence of post-traumatic stress syndrome United States. More than 2 million peopleand health problems caused by years of war were displaced from Vietnam, Cambodia,and dislocation, less prior contact with the and Laos, and more than half eventuallyEnglish language or with Americans, and came here,doubling the Asian Pacificmore fragmented families. Likewise, educa-

PERCENTAGE OF ASIAN PACIFIC ISLANDERS AMONG IMMIGRANTS TO THE U.S., 1871-1990 10

n Asian

2 Other

0 1870s1880s1890s1900s1910s1920s1930s 1940s1950s1960s1970s1980s

Source: INS Statistical Yearbook 1990; INS Statistical Branch, Advance INS Report. 1992. Note: Figures for 1980s include almost 3 million immigrants granted amnesty under 1986 legalization aNs. AA PIP PAGE I5

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF THE ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN POPULATIONOVER 25, BY SELECTED ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN GROUPSIN THE U.S., 1990

LESS THAN BACHELOR'S MASTER'S BACHELOR'S DEGREE DEGREE DOCTORATE (PERCENT) TOTAL (PERCENT) (PERCENT) (PERCENT)

15.6 3.5 Chinese Americans 1,074,009 59.3 21.7 0.5 Filipino Americans 866,022 60.3 31.9 7.3 8.8 1.3 Japanese Americans 623,511 65.6 24.4 27.3 5.8 Asian Indian Americans 461,631 41.6 25.3 10.6 1.9 Korean Americans 452,333 65.6 21.9 3.9 0.5 Vietnamese Americans 300,999 83.2 12.4 0.4 Cambodian Americans 62,367 93.6 4.8 1.2 0.7 0.3 Hmong Americans 27,114 96.8 2.2 1.8 0.2 Laotian Americans 65,002 93.4 4.6 12.3 1.0 Thai Americans 57,443 66.8 19.9 2.4 Other Asian Americans 136,082 58.3 21.9 17.4 2.9 0.3 Hawaiian Americans 107,185 88.7 8.0 2.3 0.5 Samoan Americans 23,977 91.8 8.4 1.2 0.1 Tongan Americans 7,467 95.1 3.6 2.5 0.5 Guamanian Americans 25,512 89.9 7.1 0.4 Other Pacific Islander Americans 12,303 89.5 7.7 2.4

© 1996, Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990, 5 PercentPublic Use Microdata Sample (PUMS). Copyright University. Larry Hajime Shinagawa, Ph.D., Department ofAmerican Multi-Cultural Studies, Sonoma State Reprinted with permission of the author tional levels fell with each consecutive wave.nities had the language capacities, training, For example, those who came before 1978or cultural awareness to ensure the inclusion had an average of almost ten years' school-of the newcomers. Refugee children arrived ing. Those who arrived in the 1980s typical-in communities woefully unprepared to ly had six years.19 assist them. Despite responsibility for the refugees' sit- The differences among Asian Pacific uation, the federal government committedimmigrant waves are reflected in statistics itself to their aid only for a short term, andon educational attainment. For example, 58 the resettlement process was chaotic and inpercent of Asian Indians hold at least a bach- many cases inadequate. At first, the federalelor's degree, compared to only 3 percent of government provided resettlement and emer-Hmong.2° gency immigrant education programs, but by Many of the immigrants received their the mid-1980s, almostallresponsibilities,degrees from foreignuniversities.Such financial and otherwise, fell on state anddegrees often are not treated comparably to local agencies. Not only did these entitiesdegrees from U.S. universities. lack money, but also few schools or commu-

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iven the diversity of the Asian Pacific American population, the stereotype of Asian Pacific students as a homogenous model minority, with all Asian Pacific students bound for academic success, is clearly inaccurate. Though large numbers of Asian Pacific students excel in the classroom (as measured by traditional benchmarks of grades and math scores), significantand often hiddenpockets of Asian Pacific students are at high risk for academic failure.

This latter group has a high dropout rateaslenges require looking beyond the narrow high as 60 percent in one urban school dis-definition of education as only what takes trict for Southeast Asian immigrant youth.21place in school. Issues of culture, language, Because schools are often unprepared torace, and family support that affect Asian educate Asian Pacific students with limitedPacific students are fundamental contributors proficiency in English, many such studentsto a child's educational success or failure. will not develop adequate English skills, andThis section discugses the most important therefore have few prospects of entering theissues affecting the education of Asian Pacific mainstream economy. students, whether American- or foreign-born, Even Asian Pacific youth who are high-and the implications of these issuesfor achievers or advantaged may be at risk, aschanges needed in schools and communities. they too face increasing hostility toward theThe concerns fall into three general areas: growing number of Asian Pacific immigrants,language and literacy, school and curricu- little support for bridging cultures and devel-lum, and support for families and for youth oping strong multicultural identities, and adevelopment. dearth of culturally and linguistically appropriate services to help them become fully involved in school and community. Personal,language and Eigerrarif social, and educational pressures threaten to LANGUAGE BARRIERS AND relegateincreasingnumbersofbothBILINGUAL EDUCATION American-bornandforeign-bornAsian "There is lots of teasing me when I Pacific Americans to the margins of society, don't pronounce right. Whenever I open depriving the United States of the talents of a my mouth I wonder, I shake and worry, growing proportion of its young people and will they laugh? They think if we speak depriving those young people of the full Tagalog that we are saying something promise of adulthood in the mainstream of bad about them, and sometimes they American life. fight us for speaking our language. I To understand and respond to these chal- am afraid to speak English. I am afraid AAPIP PAGE 17

understanding of second language acquisition to make the promise of educational access real for non-English-speaking students. Many of these children are American citizens; but because they are raised in non-English- speaking households, they come to public schools with limited proficiency in English. Although most such students learn con- versational English relatively quickly, they generally need three to five years to become fluent enough to fully comprehend the language and use it as a medium of academic learning. During this period, students need a way of learning all their other subjectsor they willfallfurther and further behind. Immigrants, particularly those coming from war-disrupted nations or very poor and rural areas, are in greatest danger of being seri- ously hampered because they often begin to try. And I find myself with fear about school already behind academically. speaking Tagalog. Nationwide, two-thirds of the students 10th-grade Filipino boy, who need bilingual servicesstillare not immigrated at age 14 receiving them. These services are even less available to students from language groups The abilityto understand and to feelthatare more geographically dispersed understood is fundamental to a child's abilitythroughout theU.S.and representedin to learn. In 1970, Chinese parents sued thesmaller numbers at any one schoo1.23 Most San Francisco Unified School District, argu-Asian Pacific immigrant students receive a ing that placement of their non-English-limited amount of English as a Second Lang- speaking children into classes taught only inuage instruction and spend the rest of their English denied them the federal constitution-school day in regular English-taught classes al right of equal access to an education. Inthat do not offer them special support to this landmark case, Lau v. Nichols, the U.S.help them understand what is being taught. Supreme Court agreed with the parents. It School districts often do not properly cat- stated: egorize Asian Pacific American students and "There is no equality of treatment merelytherefore do not receive funds that are avail- by providing students with the same facili-able to serve these students' language needs. ties,textbooks, teachers and curriculum;Many school districts with relatively small students who do not understand English arenumbers of Asian Pacific American students effectively foreclosed from any meaningfulstillcategorizealltheirAsianPacific education. "22 American students as "other," making no dis- Twenty-five years after the Lau v. NicholstinctionbetweenAmerican-bornAsian decision, vast numbers of schools still lackPacific American students and the foreign- the commitment, teachers,materials,orborn Asian Pacific American students in need

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of bilingualservices. dents are misplaced in Districtsthatmake Spanish bilingual such distinctions often classes because there failtodisaggregate is no Asian language theseAsianPacific bilingual program at American students by the school. ethnicity (or language Amongeducators groups). A National tai and researchers con- Center for Education cerned about second Statistics study found / languageacquisition, that73 percent of there is growing con- Asian Pacific Amer- 1 sensus that develop- ican eighth grade stu- ing strong literacy in dents were language minorities, but only 27one's native language first is an effective and percent were recognized as such by theirappropriate strategy to promote both English teachers. In 1990, the Council of Chief Statefluency and academic achievement. School Officers estimated that only 36 per-Nevertheless, very few Asian Pacific immi- cent of all U.S. students who had limited pro-grant students have had access to the prima- ficiency in English had been identified asry language instruction and support they such.24 need in order to take advantage of the full Some school districts are reluctant to pro-curriculum. videbilingual education classesdespite In the field of second language acquisi- growing numbers of Asian Pacific Americantion, educators have begun to amass a strong students in need of these services. The rea-base of knowledge about program models son most often cited is a lack of teachersfor Spanish-speaking immigrants, but there qualified to provide that instruction. Many ofhas been comparatively littleresearch or these schools feel little parental pressure tomodel development for Asian Pacific lan- fully implement bilingual education for Asianguage speakers.25 Schools that are struggling Pacific American students. The parents ofto educate the new populations of Asian these students may have little informationPacific immigrants do not have the capabili- about the premises of bilingual educationties and the support to serve their students' and about the school's responsibility to edu-needs. cateallchildren equitably. Lacking such information, some immigrant parents fight to..cr. BOOSTING LITERACY AND EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT keep their children out of bilingual education Students' poor writingskills, and their programs because they feel strongly that the inability to speak in class discussions, fre- only way their children will learn Englishquently stand inthe way of academic (and this is viewed as their ticket to success progress. Because of strong family and com- in America) is to immerse themselves in themunity emphasis on academics and hard language. Their views are bolstered by the work, many determined Asian Pacific stu- inadequate language performance of Asiandents do many hours of extra homework, Pacific American students who are placed in looking up word after word in the dictionary inadequately implemented bilingual educa- in an attempt to make sense of lessons taught tion programs, particularly when these stu- them in English.26These strategies allow

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such students to learn the curriculum despitetests. Of those Asian Pacific American stu- the unavailability of native language teach-dents who manage to graduate from high ing, but seldom enable them to use Englishschool and go on to college, many experi- as a medium of academic expression. Oftenence problems in college-level English lan- such students will receive high grades inguage courses and tests. On the California math and science, where language skills areState University campuses, more than half of not as important, but will be struggling inthe Asian Pacific Islander language minority subjects such as literature or history, wherestudentsfailtopass writingproficiency reading, writing, and speaking are para-tests.28 mount. Sometimes these students' deficien- cies will remain hidden because teachers D.,SUBTRACTIVE BILINGUALISM reward their hard work and good behavior, Whether people who learn a second lan- and because of the assumption by manyguage continue to use their home language teachers that all Asian Pacifics are smart. may depend, in part, on society's valuation Widespread weakness in English languageof that home language. In "additive" bilingual skillspersists among many Asian PacificsituationsaswiththeSwisslearning immigrantstudents,even German or French, where years after their arrival in the FAMILIES FEAR THEIR the status of the Swiss lan- United States. A dispropor- CHILDREN WILL LOSE guageis highthe native language retention is secure, tionatenumber of Asian THEIR CULTURE AND Pacific American students are and the second language incorrectly tagged as learning THEIR LANGUAGE- servesasenrichment.In disabled and placed in spe-THE GLUE THAT HOLDS"subtractive"bilingualism, home language usage has cial education because teach- THEM TOGETHER. ers do not understand their low status, is not institution- languages or the process of language devel-ally supported, and is assumed to be tempo- opment. Conversely, Asian Pacific Americanrary until replaced by the dominant language students with learning disabilities are notas the group assimilates. Many immigrant identified because their academic strugglesand refugee youth follow a pattern of sub- are labeled as related to their limited profi-tractive bilingualism: as they learn English, ciency in English. they lose their native language. The younger Even students considered proficientinthe age of arrival in the United States, the English face tremendous literacy problems ingreater the tendency to lose the home lan- mainstream English-speaking classes. Moreguage.29 Such a loss cuts them off from the than two-thirds of Asian Pacific Americanpast, from family, from their homeland, and high school graduates had taken collegefromamajorindividualandsocietal prep courses, yet their average verbal SATresource. score was the lowest of any group.27 As the This pattern can appear as early as tod- K-12 school system moves increasinglydlerhood. Because immigrant mothers are towards standards and proficiency tests asoften compelled to work outside the home, engines of educational reform, more andmany children spend time in child care out- more Asian Pacific immigrant and languageside thefamily. Of alllanguage/cultural minority students are unable to pass the writ-groups in the U.S., Asian Pacific children are ing portions of their high school proficiencythe least likely to be cared for by child care AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE 20

Samoa and Cazirolca.dunD D.r LACK OF APPROPRIATE CURRICULUM "I was so excited when my history teacher talked about the Vietnam War. Now at last, I thought, now we will study about MY country. We didn't really study it Just for one day, though, my country was real again." 11th-grade Vietnamese girl, immigrated at age 15 providers who speaktheirfamilylan- guage.3° This severely hampers their early As public schools enroll more and more language development in the home languagestudents of color and immigrants from and contributes to the weakening of theirthroughout the world, teachers face the ardu- connections to their families. ous and creative task of having to reshape Families fear their children will lose theirtheir teaching approaches and curricula to culture and their languagethe glue thatmake them appropriate to the new multicul- holds them together. Some communitiestural, multinational, and multilingual student establish Saturday Schools to provide bothpopulation. This task is complex. It includes cultural and language maintenance, but therefinding materials representing the national, is little mirroring support for the maintenancecultural,and immigration experiences of of home languages in the public schools oftheir students, developing approaches to this nation. build on the rich range of human experiences among their students, and finding 0*- LACK OF RESEARCH IN LANGUAGE ways to teach the appropriate curriculum to DEVELOPMENT build strong literacy in first and second lan- There has been relatively little research onguages. In this era, when our textbooks and effective, appropriate models for languageformal curricula are still lagging behind the development and bilingual education forneeds of a diverse society, it falls most often Asian Pacific American students. It is unclearto teachers to inject a broader range of how applicable the large body of research onhuman experience into the curriculum by bilingualeducation of Spanish-speakingadding supplementary materials and encour- immigrants might be to speakers of Asianaging students to speak about, write about, languages. Asian languages bear far less sim-and share their experiences with others. ilarity to English than do Spanish or other Few students know about the historical European languages. Most Asian languagesand contemporary realities of Asian Pacific are tonal; words are pronounced with differ-American communities and other communi- ent tones to express different meanings. ties of color. In cases where a multicultural Research alsois needed regarding thecurriculum exists, it sometimes is reduced to social context for learning. School learning is"honoring" Asian Pacific Americans through a social as well as a cognitive process, influ-International Days on which students wear enced by the relationships between studenttheir "native dress." Such an approach may and teacher and among students. perpetuate stereotypes and may seem irrele- 2 3 AAPIP PAGE 21

vant to Asian Pacific American students. Aproficiency in English.32 Although 15 per- third- or fourth-generation Japanese Amer-cent of all college students major in educa- ican, for example, is removed from the tradi-tion,only6percentof AsianPacific tions of children in Japan and does not viewAmericans do. In addition, very few of the that as an accurate reflection of who he oradministrators and counselors in the public she is. Such an approach should be re-exam-schools are Asian Pacific Americans.33 ined, with strong participation from Asian Without well-trained,culturally compe- Pacific American communities, in an effort totent, bilingual Asian Pacific American teach- ensure that the curriculum reflects the fullers, administrators, and counselors, strong Asian Pacific American experience, includinglanguage programs cannot be delivered, stu- generationaldifferences among differentdents in need of mental health or health ser- Asian Pacific American groups. vices to support their involvement in school are neither identified nor served, and Asian icr. LACK OF TRAINED EDUCATORS AND immigrants become increasingly at risk for SCHOOL PROFESSIONALS educational difficulties. To teach and to provide needed supportservices,AsianPacific RATIO OF BILINGUAL TEACHERS TO immigrant youth require profession- STUDENTS WITH LIMITED PROFICIENCY als who speak their language and IN ENGLISH, CALIFORNIA who understand their culture and CHILD'S HOME LANGUAGE TEACHER-STUDENT RATIO the challenges faced in making the Spanish 1:81 transition to a new land. Yet, there Cantonese 1:108 is a major shortfall in the numbers Vietnamese :662 of bilingual and bicultural teachers Hmong 1:1,1 and counselors, and the numbers of Khmer 1:4,129 Asian Pacific American students en- Cambodian :21,000+ tering the teaching force are slowly shrinking. Source: California State Department of Education, as cited in Nguyen-Lam ( I 997). In 1990, Asian Pacific American students made up 3.2 percent of all children between the ages of 3 and 17 Teachers ofallcultural backgrounds must become knowledgeable about the strengths nationally,but only1.2percent of the of the diverse Asian Pacific cultures and how nation's teaching force was Asian Pacific a child's home culture contributes to learning American.31 In California, for example, whileand development. For example, in recent the Asian Pacific American student popula-years, teachers noticed that some Hmong tion has climbed dramatically to 11 percent and Mien kindergartners and first-graders of the school children, the percentage of lagged behind other children in the develop- teachershas AsianPacificAmerican ment of memory skills, motor skills, eye- remained at just over 4 percent for the last hand coordination, and concentration skills. ten years. The majority of these Asian teach- The teachers were surprised. Only ten years ers are not bilingual. In 1990, only 2.5 per- ago, Hmong and other Laotian children had cent of all bilingual teachers and paraprofes- appeared very advanced in these areas. Then sionals in the California schools spoke Asian teachers discovered that the families were no languages. There is one bilingual teacher for longer teaching their children these skills every 561 Asian Pacific students with limited AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE 22

through traditional means: participation in broke our lockers, threw food on us in oral rituals, embroidery, and silver work. The cafeteria, said dirty words to us. Many family patterns had been broken up by the times they shouted at me, `Get out of many yearsinrefugee camps and the here you chink, go back to your own processes of dislocation and relocation in the country' I have been pushed, I had gum United States. Few immigrant families teach thrown on my hair. I have been hit by these skills the way many other American stones, I have been insulted by all the familiesdo: with crayons and coloring dirty words in English. All this really books, scissors and cutouts, and by reading made me frustrated and sad. I often to their children nightly.34 asked myself; `Why do they pick on me?" Educators must find ways to tap into the Christina Tien, traditional wisdom of communities and to Chinese immigrant high school student, offer immigrant parents more access to the Public testimony, Los Angeles Americanwaysofteachingchildren. Educators who have a deeper understanding Asian PacificAmerican students often of the practices and beliefs AMERICAN SOCIETY enter unwelcoming, even of Asian Pacific families and hostile and violent, school communities are better able LARGELY CONSTRUES campuses and communi- to support Asian Pacific stu- RACIAL JUSTICE AS A ties. In the last ten years on dents and enable others to MATTER OF BLACKS school campuses, there has benefit from the knowledge, been a startling rise in hate skills, and insights of their VERSUS WHITES, crimes and other harass- communities. EXCLUDING THE REALITYment, much of it anti-immi- P., RACISM AND RACIAL OF RACE RELATIONS grant and anti-Asian. No VIOLENCE INVOLVING ASIAN PACIFICdistinction is made between "My memories through foreign-born and American- AMERICANS, LATINOS, ORborn Asian Pacific Amer- thesethree years are actually full of tears. NATIVE AMERICANS. icans; both groups become Many of my friends are new immi- targetsof anti-immigrant grants. When we talk about the first harassment. Schools have not yet developed two years we were here, we are sad- an adequate institutional response to this vio- dened by the experiences. Working lence. Xenophobic attitudes have swelled as extremely hard didn't make us feel sad, political leaders have increasingly blamed facing challenges didn't make us feel sad, but some of the Americans' atti- the nation's economic woes on immigrants. The passage of Proposition 187 in California tudes towards us did break our hearts. (which, if it survives legal challenges, would Before I came to America, I had a beau- prohibit undocumented immigrants from re- tiful dream about this country. At that ceiving public services), followed by federal time, I didn't know that the first word I learned in this country would be a legislation cutting off both undocumented and legal non-citizen immigrants from public dirty word. American students always services, were fueled in part by images of picked on us, frightened us, made fun boatloads of Chinese immigrants landing on of us, and laughed at our English. They our shores. This anti-immigrant sentiment AAP IP PAGE 23

was manifested in the increase in number ofschool campuses. Peter Nien-chu Kiang anti-Asian violence incidences reported fornotes that some gangs are formed "specifi- 1996.35 cally and explicitly to defend themselves In schools, there have been several well-against racial harassment in school or in the known tragedies.In1989,inStockton,neighborhood. A 21-year-old former Cambo- California, five Southeast Asian children weredian gang member states unambiguously: murdered and many others injured at an ele-`Racism has shaped my life, my experience mentary schoolyard by Patrick Purdy, whoever since the first day I set foot in this coun- aimed an AK-47 rifle at Southeast Asian chil-try...In the gang,I watch your back, you dren and gunned them down as they played.watch my back. We look out for each The killings of 13-year-old middle school stu-other.'"38 dent Vandy Phorng in Lowell, Massachusetts, These prejudices are even more difficult to in 1987, and of high school student Thong Hyaddress because many non-Asian Pacific Huynh in Davis, Americans do not California,in1983, even recognize that by white classmates racism and discrimi- are the most visible nation affect Asian tip of a growing ice- PacificAmericans. berg of hate crimes In one national poll, and intoleranceto- 81 percent of non- ward Asians and im- AsianPacificre- migrants in general. spondents said they In one study of believed Asian Pa- more than a thou- cific Americans suc- sand immigrant stu- ceedbecauseof dentsinCalifornia, hard work and high 93 percent cited vio- achievement, and lence,harassment, a wish foranabout half said they simply do not believe Americanfriendasmajorconcerns.36that Asian Pacifics really suffer from discrim- Violence, whether actualor threatened,ination. Yet, in a study conducted by the affects students' opportunities for learningNational Conference, approximately one English, their confidence, and school partici-third of non-Asian Pacific Americans feel pation. A survey of Vietnamese students at aAsian Pacificsare wary, suspicious, and Boston high school indicated that everyoneunfriendlytoward non-Asian Pacific surveyed had witnessed or experiencedAmericans, are unscrupulously crafty and racial harassment as part of their dailydevious in business, and feel superior to lives. These students developed survival stra-people of other groups and cultures.39 tegies: "I try to keep myself very, very care- American society largely construes racial ful, you know, Ithink about where I'mjustice as a matter of blacks versus whites, going before I'm going there...my eye openexcluding the reality of race relations in- ...so I can get out of some situation quicklyvolving Asian Pacific Americans, Latinos, or as I can."37 Native Americans. Educationalinstitutions Youth violence and youth gang activity areview race similarly, leaving little room for often a response to the racial harassment onconsideration of or acknowledgment of

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racism against Asian Pacific Amer- icans. This leaves Asian Pacific students with little support as they face racial hostility in school. Teachers must be trained to facilitate open and honest conversations 4 among students about race and racism, instead of ignoring differences or promoting "color-blind- ness."Racism,racially motivated C violence, and anti-immigrant sentiment have common roots, regard- less of the racial or ethnic group that is the target of a particular act of vio- intergroup interactions will increase rather lence or harassment. Once this acknowledg-than reduce intergroup tensions.° ment occurs, schools must develop programs to help all children unlearn prejudice and03- SCHOOL GIRLS: GENDER ROLE EXPECTATIONS AND EDUCATION racism, develop the skills of reaching across cultures and languages, and assist them to "My family has such stuck values, and connect and learn from others who are dif- they hold on to the old ways. It is very ferent from them. Such efforts are essential to difficult to explain something to them the future of our increasingly diverse demo- about my life now. We end up always cratic society. arguingabout school, religion, how I Research on cooperativelearning and dress, what I can and cannot do. They interracial contact in schools with white, get mad at me for arguing. They say I African American, and Mexican American shouldn't talk back. I hate my family. students confirms that cooperative interracial We fight all the time." contact has positive effects on both student 11th-grade Cambodian girl, interracial behavior and minority students' immigrated at age 10 academic achievement. An essential charac- teristic of this learning was that in such Just as there is little institutional response to planned contact, students needed to have a race and culture issues in schools, there is lit- structured intervention ensuring all students tle understanding of the potential effects of had "equalstatus."This meant breaking gender role identity on an Asian Pacific Amer- down society's imposed lower statusof ican girl's chances to get an education. Culture minority groups. and history play out in the classroom and in Researchers found that both minority and the roles that individual students have in the white students attributed higher status to context of their families and communities. whites, perpetuating white dominance. Such Foreign-born Asian Pacific American girls programs must therefore have an essential may face especially hard adolescent years if component that helps students understand the gender role expectations of their home and discuss status judgments based on race, culture clash dramatically with those of their class, and gender. Without such interven- new land. For example, the Hmong place tions, research has consistently found that cultural value on girls marrying and bearing AAPIP PAGE 25

children during the early teen years. This&Lippert goo.' Pandines and goo., practice arose to help ensure the biologicalYcya.ath Devellorment survival of the Hmong, who have been LIVING IN THE CROSSFIRE OF tremendously threatened through war and CULTURES now through dislocation. In the U.S., many "I don't know who I am. Am I the good Hmong girlsstillmarry and have babies Chinese daughter? Am I an American when they areas young as13 to15. teenager? I always feel I am letting my However, this gender role conflicts with U.S. parents down when I am with my educational practices, in which girls that age friends because I act so American, but still attend school. Teenage Hmong mothers who go to school find that they and their I also feel I will never really be American. I never feel really comfort- families must make tremendous sacrifices. able with myself anymore." Ultimately, most Hmong mothers fail to graduate from high school. Many do not make it 10th-grade Chinese girl, out of middle school, and almost all are immigrated at age 12 dependent on Temporary Assistanceto Needy Families (formerly known as Aid to Immigrant and refugee youth must com- Families with Dependent Children).41 prehend a whole new culture and integrate it Like Hmong girls, foreign-born Cambo-with the old. With a foot in two nations, two dian girls also face significant cultural barri-cultures, two worlds, immigrant children face ers in their pursuit of education. In her studya wrenching struggle to create bicultural, of Cambodian refugees in Boston, Nancybilingual selves. Often they do so with little Smith-Hefner found that heavy householdsupport, and amidst great pressures. responsibilities and the family's intense con- The experience of being marginal is cen- cern for not losing face, with a primary focustral in the lives of most immigrant children on maintaining "female virtue," negativelyand continues to affect first- and second-gen- affected school achievement among adoles-eration children of immigrants. They live in cent Cambodian girls.42 Some research sug-the crossfire of culturesfacing the chal- gests that even American-born Asian Pacificlenge of determining what their home cul- girls experience such conflicts and pres-tures and traditions will mean for them in their new land, while also coming to terms sures.43 Because few teachers or counselors arewith the way their new culture views them trained or sensitized to understand the reli-and other Asian Pacific Americans. gious values and cultural practices among They soon learnthat few non-Asian Asian Pacific ethnic groups, they cannot pro-Pacific students or teachers understand the vide support and counseling to girls facingdistinctions among the many national, ethnic, such cultural dissonance; nor can they helpcultural, and language groups that comprise immigrant parents understand the conflicts orAsian Pacific Americans. Often, these stu- bridge the gap. Instead, they may uninten-dents are treated as one conglomerate mass: tionally undermine parental authority andAsian immigrants. A Laotian child may find family harmony, and increase pressure onherself being called "Jap" or "Chink" on the these girls by simply encouraging a kind ofschoolyard. She may be placed in a class- independence prized in the United States butroom with other Southeast Asian immigrants disruptive of some cultural systems. who do not speak English, despite the fact

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that she does not share a language or culturethat immigrant children increasingly come to with them. equate with being white, being Christian, At the same time, the process of accultur-and speaking English without an accent. At ation involves painful, sometimes uncon-home, they feel pressure to remain part of scious, but oftentimes agonizing decisionsthe family and community fabric.Often, about what to save from their old ways, whatbecause the ways of immigrant communities to sacrifice, what to adopt, and what todiffer vastly from the larger American culture, reject. "How American can I be and still beyoung immigrants may feel that traditional me?" is a constant question in the minds ofnorms belong to a world that no longer many immigrant children. exists except in the behavior of their elders. U.S. schools are the major and sometimesPainful rifts can divide immigrant families as only public terrain in which immigrant chil-children see-saw back and forth between the dren confront "American"life. Here,theynew and theold,caught somewhere face the social challenges of between their grandmoth- coming to understand WITH A FOOT IN TWO ers and MTV. themselves and others, asNATIONS,TWO CULTURES, Asian Pacific students are well as challenges in com- not only caughtinthe TWO WORLDS, IMMIGRANT prehending the schooling crossfire of cultures as they system. Some adjustments CHILDREN FACE A balance biculturalidenti- are simply the immediate WRENCHING STRUGGLE ties. Often they also find orientation to a new soci- themselves confronting the TO CREATE BICULTURAL, ety. Many students are in differenceswithinand large, industrialized, urbanBILINGUAL SELVES. OFTENamong Asian Pacific ethnic- areas for the first time. InTHEY DO SO WITH LITTLEities.Asgenerationsof large schools, they have to AsianPacificsclaiman SUPPORT AND AMIDST learn the oddities of bells American identity, the gulf ringing, lockers, and cafe- GREAT PRESSURES. widens between American- teria lines. More difficult is bornandforeign-born, the adjustment to U.S. methods of teachingthough they may be from the same ethnic and learning. For example, the relationshipgroup. Historical differencesand even ani- between U.S. students and teachers is moremositiesthat are not well understood by informal than that in many Asian countries.non-Asian Pacific people may for the first The tests that are given do not determine thetime become of personal significance. For direction of one's future, as they often do inexample, Chinese immigrantsoften lumped their home countries. Another big adjust-together in the same classrooms and cate- ment for many Asian Pacific immigrant stu-gories, and addressed as if they have the dents is being expected to speak up in classsame traditions, histories, and culturesin and voice their opinions and perspectives.fact, may come from very different situations Many Southeast Asian schooling systemswith tensions between them. The education- have students recite as a group, discourag-al, social, and political systems of China and ing individuality. Taiwan provide different versions of what it At school, most immigrant children facemeans to be Chinese to young people. enormous pressures to reject or soften theirNationalists in Taiwan promote traditional home ways and to act "American"a termConfucianism; Communists from the main- AAPIP PAGE 27

land emphasize nationalisticsentiments. Hong Kong, which was a British colony until 1997,is another different kind of Chinese experience. Chinese Vietnamese have the experience of being an ethnic minority in a nation that did not accept them fully as Vietnamese, while their distinctness from other Chinese is marked. Here in the United States, they find themselves labeled as one, grouped as one, and they begin to confront and comprehend the complexities of identity. The sense of being forced to choose is an underlying theme in the lives of newcomers. There is a critical shortage of bilingual/bicultural counselors or community forums and supports to help youth negotiate between their worlds, to hold onto bicultural or bilingual identities, and to form comfortable, resilient identities as Asian Pacific Americans. Asian Pacific American youth often carry os THE NEED FOR FAMILY SUPPORT the burden of family problems that frequent- SERVICES ly are well-kept secrets. "I worry a lot about my mother. She's Many Southeast Asian refugees are chil- gone crazy now. Her mind is gone. She dren of war. They and their families have won't eat anything, just drinks water been victims of violence and chaos, and and is old and sick. She can't get up and helpless witnesses to the horrors of warfare. sometimes she doesn't know me. She Most have lost family members or been sep- thinks the soldiers are outside waiting. arated from them in the displacement war She thinks we are still back there." creates. Post-traumatic stress syndrome is fre- 9th-grade Laotian girl, quent among both the children and their immigrated at age 11 families. Even members of the second generation, who may not have been eyewitnesses "The tragedy during the war hurts to war, are still scarred as children of sur- inside when I remember what hap- vivors. Young people who suffered emotion- pened in the past. I try to not think al traumas often have physical problems, too, because hardships deprived them of health about it, but at night I dream and see care beginning early in theirlives.44 my brother who they killed. I dream The communities in which many such about him trying to find us. I dream immigrants settle are themselves war zones they keep shooting and shooting him of another kind: economically disadvantaged until I wake up." areas with high levels of street crime and vio- 10th-grade Cambodian boy, lence. Children of refugees with post-trau- immigrated at age 12 matic stress syndrome are likely to be affected by the dysfunction of their parents and AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE 28

families.In many Asian A COMPREHENSIVE SET OFtrouble with their teachers Pacific American communi- or the law. ties, the incidence of alco- SUPPORTS MUST BE IN Problems can become holism,drugaddiction,PLACE FOR CHILDREN ANDworse when young immi- domestic abuse, and gam- THE FAMILIES IN WHICH grants lose the motivation bling addiction is high. or the ability to speak their Immigrant children alsoTHEY LIVE.YOUNG PEOPLEhome language, or never must establish a new sense MUST BE ABLE TO develop it. As they reject of family as they arrive to PARTICIPATE AND LEARN INtheirparents'traditions joinrelatives who came and language in a quest to earlier and as they leaveSCHOOL AND TO FIND THEbecome American, com- behind others who have POSITIVE ROLE MODELS munication between par- been dear to them. AND SOURCES OF MORAL ents and children breaks In many communities down. No longer is there a with large concentrations GUIDANCE THEY NEED TO common language to talk ofrefugeesand immi- BECOME PRODUCTIVE, about expectations, moral- grants,schools serve an HAPPY PEOPLE. ity,ethics,beliefs,and increasingly large group of behavior. Yet these youth Chinese and Vietnameseunaccompaniedare in critical need of positive role models minors. Teenagers from Taiwan and Hongadults they can relate to for moral guidance. Kong may be sent here alone to get an edu- Families concerned about their children's cation. Families from China and Vietnamfutures often place extreme pressure on with limited resources may manage to sendyouth to succeed in school, while giving lit- only one family member to the United States,tle recognition to children's emotional needs. often a teenage boy, to live with relatives orFamily expectations can be excessive, espe- friends who may, in fact, be unable to sup-cially for immigrant youth who have few port him. The young people may move outsupports available to them in school to help on their own, live in group houses with otherthem achieve. As one extreme but not unaccompanied minors, or may end up inuncommon example, a report by the Asia foster care. The absence of family membersSociety tells of a Korean American sentenced profoundly affects the social and educationalto six months in jail for beating his daughter development of youth and increases theirbecause her grade point average was 3.83 likelihood of getting involved in delinquen-rather than a perfect 4.0. cy, gangs, and crime. Family disruption, the difficulties of living As immigrant youth strive to be acceptedbetween two cultures, and the pain of being by their peers in the American world, theymarginal in this new land result in high rates sometimes get into trouble by imitating theof depression and mental illness, particularly behavior of students who seem "cool." Theyamong females. The rate of suicide among feelpressurednottobeacademic.Asian Americans has risen threefold in the Furthermore, some young people from war-last two decades. The suicide rate among torn countries or refugee camps learned toChinese American young people is 36 per- survive through physical defense and vio-cent above the national average, while Japa- lence ortheft.Repeating thesesurvivalnese Americans rates are 54 percent higher. behaviors in the United States lands them inIn one study of immigrant young women, AAPIP PAGE 29

for providing essential links between schools and communities areoften overlooked, because m1/4. they do not follow a traditional liAN1 FR,(00M United States model of a community organization that would be O familiar to funders or to school O E personnel. In many Asian Pacific It American communities, the resources for responding to the if needs of youth and families are at \, a crisis low. All of these problems may affect achild'sabilityto succeed in nearly half of the Filipinas had suicidal pre-school. A child who is suffering from culture occupations. Vietnamese females had highshock, from post-traumatic stress syndrome ratesof suicideattempts. Asian Pacificas a result of war-related experiences or of American youth also show significantlylife in a violence-ridden community, or from lower levels of self-esteem when compared tothe break-up of families that often accompa- Caucasian and African American youth.45 nies immigration seldom has the resources to Whether or not immigrant Asian Pacificconcentrate on learning academic subjects. A youth and their families have access to socialcomprehensive set of supports must be in supports to help them cope with the pres-place for children and the families in which sures of lifein their new country varies,they live. Young people must be able to par- because the presence of community institu-ticipate and learn in school, and to find the tionsdiffers widely among Asian Pacificpositive role models and sources of moral immigrant communities, as well as the capac-guidance they need to become productive, ity of community organizations to get fund-happy people. ing for their programs. Some more estab- o=- LACK OF INSTITUTIONAL EFFORT lished ethnic groups, such as Chinese andTO INVOLVE ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN Japanese, have an infrastructure of organiza-PARENTS IN EDUCATION tions and agencies to support children and Most parents from Asian Pacific nations families in geographic areas in which theirview school as a separate realm from the population is concentrated (such as the Westhome, with parental involvement unneeded Coast). However, these programs are seldomand undesired. In Cambodia, for example, coordinated with the schools. In other cases,the schools are traditionally in complete con- thereare community-basedinstitutions,trol of a child's education; parents simply do structures, and networks, such as Mutualnot question the teacher or school policies. Assistance Associations, that provide neededImmigrant parents carry with them their tra- supports to youth and families, recreating inditional views, and so they never doubt the many ways the familial village relationshipsschool's authority. Few immigrant parents from homelands that are so critical in sup-even have a relationship with their children's porting and reaching new immigrant groups.teachers because of language barriers, long Yet, these organizations and their potentialwork hours, difficulty arranging transporta- AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE 30

tion, and the responsibilities of caring forexpectations,traditions,and needs. Such other children may make it difficult for theminformation is not always effectively con- to go to the school. veyed. Children are also put in the position Schools can be a critical initial place inof representing their adult parents and fami- which immigrant parents discover that alies when translating for government services democracy requires effective advocacy andor other bureaucratic systems. Conflicts arise participation. Although bridging the gapin some families when children, by virtue of between home and school is critical to Asiantheir English language facility, gain authority Pacific families and schools, strong partner-over their parents. Schools feed these pat- ships between Asian Pacific parents andterns by providing information only in schools are not the norm. Few schoolsEnglish and by relying on young people to actively work to ensure that immigrant par-be the conduit of essentialinformation ents are connected to the life of the school.between home and school. Most schools exclude immigrant parents Stronger connections are needed between from participating by failing to be culturallyschools and the community groups that work sensitive, by failing to reach out throughwith Asian Pacific families, such as Asian newsletters or forums, and by having fewPacific churches or religious groups, cultural staff members who can speak the families'societies,youth serviceproviders,health home languages. Few schools invite immi-clinics, refugee resettlement agencies, and grant parents to participate, and even fewermany more. Such groups typically employ explain the reasons why it is desirable. Evenstaff or are operated by volunteers with in school districts where there is a large pop-knowledge of Asian Pacific languages and ulation of Asian Pacific Americans, Asiancultures, and they may also be able to pro- Pacific American parents often are not repre-vide information to Asian Pacific families sented on policy-making bodies such asabout the ways they might advocate for their boards of education or PTA groups. children in school. These agencies have the Consequently, immigrant parentsoftenpotential to serve as liaisons between schools have to rely on their children to translate forand parents and represent tremendously them (literally and figuratively) about schoolunderutilized resources. /1 3 AAPIP ... PAGE 3 I

4he Chanenge .g©T PhoDanthrropyg ne¢grromendatOgns and Condaasogn

sian Pacific American children and youth clearly have educational requirements that are not currently being met. For the most part, schools do not have the resources, the cultural understanding, and the commitment to address these requirements. They also are without a vital connection to the Asian Pacific American communities they serve and to the organizations within these communities that might act as bridges between the cultures of home and school for children and their families.

There is an urgent need to build strongereducationalbarriers,languagebarriers, partnerships between schools, families,racism, and violence in schoolsfunders will Asian Pacific American community groups,have to rethink and stretch beyond tradition- and both public- and private-sector organi-al patterns of giving. For example, in taking zations to develop a comprehensive supportinto account the cultural and family environ- system for Asian Pacific American students.ments, funding initiatives in both the com- Such partnerships could help to bring valu-munity and school arenas may require that able knowledge and resources to schoolsgrantmakers blend funding streams within that are ill-equipped to meet their Asianand across program areas, and across foun- Pacific American students' needs.dations as well. Funders also should consid- Partnershipsalso take advantage of theer proactive efforts, such as issuing requests potential contribution that schools could befor proposals and increasing the number of making to the health and well-being of Asianplanning grants. Grantmaking can thereby Pacific American families and communities.become a means to encourage collabora- Community-wide partnerships recognize thattions, partnerships, alignments, and coordi- education is much more than what goes onnated efforts between schools and Asian in the classroom, and that the job of educat-Pacific American communities. ing America's youth cannot be accomplished Issues affecting Asian Pacific American by the schools alone. Through such partner-students in the classroom are integrally con- ships, the educational process can becomenected to what is going on in their families fully integrated into the texture of a commu-and communities, and to how they view nity's life. themselves or are viewed by mainstream For philanthropy to take a leadership rolesociety. For this reason, AAPIP urges funders in forging new partnerships and fosteringto cast a wider net when considering projects new understandings to benefit Asian Pacificto fund. The recommendations in this report American studentsand, indeed, students ofare directed not only to foundations that sup- other ethnic and cultural groups who faceport education, but also to those that fund

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children, youth, and family issues, race rela-munity's resources for each child's benefit. tions, immigration, and community building. The rest of this section provides a brief AAPIP views efforts in the area of commu-rationale for each of these recommendations. nity/school/family partnerships as funda-Projects that address the issues raised in the mental to the success of the other four recom-recommendations are included in Appendix mendations in this report. Such partnershipsI. Appendix II lists resource organizations that reduce barriers to educational equity forcan provide information about educational Asian Pacific American children and createequity, bilingual education and other subjects an enriched learning environment by bring-related to the education of Asian Pacific ing together the full complement of a corn-American children.

P Recommendations 1. COMMUNITY/SCHOOL/FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS Recognize and develop Asian Pacific American community,parent, and youth leadership, and support the development of community-basedservice organizations that focus on providing extended opportunities foryouth and their families. Support efforts to partner theseresources with their local schools. 2. INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE AND ACCOUNTABILITY Encourage efforts that commit schools to make institutionalresponses to issues affecting Asian Pacific American children's educationalequityincluding language needs of the limited English proficient, racism and anti-immigrantbias, class, and gender issuesand fund efforts that monitor schoolaccountability for meeting the educational needs of Asian Pacific American students. 3. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Promote research, development, and staff training in theuse of multicultural curricula that portray the history and culture of Asian PacificAmericans, and of anti-racism curricula that support direct and honest dialogueamong students.

4. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH ANDPROGRAMS Support research, program development, and evaluationin the area of language development for Asian Pacific Americansto better inform schools and improve teaching strategies. As an essential adjunct,more funding should be directed to community-based efforts focused on dual literacy andlanguage development. 5.TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING Fund recruitment and training of more Asian PacificAmerican teachers, administrators, and counselors, with particular emphasison those with bilingual skills and knowledge of new and unrepresented Asian PacificAmerican populations. Also, fund training for non-Asian Pacific teachersto develop the knowledge and skills they require to understand and be responsiveto Asian Pacific American students' needs.

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0 o ComovimanOty/Schoo0/17anday appropriate ways. Teachers and counselors 0:DartnershOps must be prepared and trained to link Asian Recognizeand developAsian Pacific children and families with the services Pacific American community, par- they require. Administrators must build bridges ent, and youth leadership, and sup- with community-based organizations that can port the development of community- assist in efforts to build parent participation. based service organizations that To make community/school/family partnerships work, school staff must identify focus on providing extended opportunities for youth and their fami- and involve the range of leadership within lies. Support efforts to partner AsianPacific Americancommunities. these resources with their local Schools seldom tap into the existing leadership in immigrant communities. One Chinese schools. mother on a school committee does not represent the entire Asian student population. Education includesfar more than the Each ethnic/language/national group may events that occur in the classroom.Strong, well haveits own healthy, and learning structures of leader- children are rooted in ship.Every school strong, healthy fami- site should have a lies and communities. community map of Schoolsarefor the important ethnic, many groups an ideal national, and lin- forsocial location guistic groups in its supportsandser- neighborhood, in- vices. Asian Pacific cluding the major Americanfamilies 12 community institu- may be more open to tions and the formal linguistically accessi- F1 and informal leader- ble services on the 3 school grounds be- ca,) ship of those communities.This knowl- cause the school is a edge should be the basis for all community respected community institution and often outreach and involvement efforts. does not bear the stigma of some other ser- Activities that offer parents, community vice organizations.Because schools are open to all children and youth, not just tomembers, and youth opportunities for leadership development are essential elements in those identified as requiring services, educators also may be able to detect concernsany comprehensive approach to promoting educational success among Asian Pacific related to a student's physical,social, or students. Possible sources for such programs mental health before a problem becomes a are Saturday schools, camps, youth groups crisis. Most effective is a coordinated system runby communityinstitutions,Mutual that cuts across community agencies and that Assistance Associations, temples, churches, involves the school site as both a means of and community-based organizations. So, too, outreach and delivery to children and their are activities that promote a sense of well- families. Services should be delivered in the being, community ownership, and civic languages of the families, and in culturally

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pride for young people and their families. cational needs of Asian Pacific Particularly important are programs specifi- American students. cally designed to help immigrant students become oriented to their new culture, face Educational equity for Asian Pacific Ame- the challenges of bridgingcultures, andrican children will not just "happen" as their make friendships with young people whonumbers in the student population grow. have been in the United States longer. Meaningful change requires a positive com- A vital part of this effort is the develop-mitment on the part of the school adminis- ment of school readiness programs designedtration, at the school district level, as well as specifically to meet the needs of Asian Pacificat the level of the individual school. Such American families. Linked to schools, suchcommitments must not be just empty state- programs can provide support for childrenments. They must be backed by resources, and their families during critical transitionsshort- and long-term planning, and, above from child care to elemen- all, by school officials pub- tary school to secondaryIT IS IMPORTANT TO FUNDlicly making themselves school and can prepare PROGRAMS THAT TRAIN accountable toAsian parents for their roles in the COMMUNITY-BASED Pacific students and their public education system. families. To learn and to grow GROUPS TO ADVOCATE Because Asian Pacific intoproductive,happy EFFECTIVELY FOR THEIR Americans historically have adults, children must feel LEGAL RIGHTS AND TO been excluded from the themselves to be part of a mainstream of American total environment support-BUILD THEIR CAPACITY TOculture, it is imperative to iveoftheireducation. MONITOR AND ENFORCE create accountability Linking the resources avail-THOSE RIGHTS OF ACCESS.mechanisms that monitor able at school with those at Asian Pacific American stu- home and in community-based service orga-dents'participation and achievement in nizations can give studentsand their par-school. Statistics should be reported for spe- entsthe resources they need to becomecific ethnic groups and should include infor- leaders in their communities. mation on national origins, English language fluency, and generational status to create a more informative and accurate picture of 2 [InstOteztOonma Change and Asian Pacific American communities. Such AczoaantabOraty data allow educators, parents and communi- Encourage effortsthat commit ty advocates to assess the effectiveness of schoolstomakeinstitutional school programs for the various Asian Pacific responses to issues affecting Asian American groups, so that the individual cir- Pacific American children's educa- cumstances of each group do not become tional equityincluding language lost in the aggregate picture. needs of the limited English profi- It is important to fund programs that train cient, racism and anti-immigrant community-based groups to advocate effec- bias, class, and gender issuesand tively for their legal rights and to build their fund efforts that monitor school capacity to monitor and enforce those rights accountability for meeting the edu- of access. AAPIp PAGE 35

School officials must rec- Even the best prepared EVEN THE BEST- ognize that educational suc- andmostknowledgeable cess for Asian Pacific children PREPARED AND MOST teachers are hampered if they requires a two-way flow of KNOWLEDGEABLE do not have the materials to information and responsibil- teach about AsianPacific TEACHERS ARE ity between parents- and American groups, their litera- schools. A comprehensiveHAMPERED IF THEY DOture, histories, and traditions. effort to strengthen relation- NOT HAVE THE New materials are needed in ships must include parent a variety of formats, including and community involvement MATERIALS TO TEACH audio tapes, books, comput- in children's learning.ABOUT ASIAN PACIFICer-aided instruction, videos, Teachers and school adminis- AMERICAN GROUPS. and other media. Texts based trators must be aware that on the folklore and stories of immigrant parents need basic information onimmigrant communities written in the lan- theU.S.schoolsystem. To encourageguages of Asian Pacific groups should be parental involvement and advocacy, schoolsdeveloped to document those experiences must actively reach out to Asian Pacific fam-for future generations. Such texts can help ilies, and therefore must have staff who canthe "bridge generation" deepen its under- speak the students' home languages. standing of and ties to its culture and nation of origin. Asian Pacific American studies centersinuniversitiesareexcellent 33. CaarrOmaknom DD evegopment resources for multicultural curricula and Promote research, development, research. Support is needed for the small and staff training in the use of mul- community presses and ethnic curriculum ticultural curricula that portray the projects that often are the publishers of history and culture of Asian Pacific authentic materials by and for Asian Pacific Americans, and of anti-racism cur- American communities. Better dissemination ricula that support direct and hon- mechanisms must be established to ensure est dialogue among students. that such community-generated materials reach the teachers who need them. To prepare students adequately for an Clearly, the dramatic shift in classroom increasingly global economic and politicaldemographics requires Asian Pacific world, schools must transform curricula andAmericans to be part of the public discourse practice to reflect the diverse history and ex-regarding race and education. The view of periences of people in the United States andrace as simply a question of black and white the world. Such curricula must 'include theis no longer a reality, and new thinking and experiences and contributions of Asianapproaches must receive funders' support to Pacific Americans, as well as of other com-address the new face of education in this munities of color. Efforts to broaden the cur-country. riculum should go beyond just academic sub- In schools, children learn the norms of jects to include such areas of instruction associal relationships beyond their families, art and music. Proficiency in languages otherincluding those with people of other racial than English and an understanding of differentgroups. To address the alarming increase of cultures should be held as important values.hate crimes, intolerance, and anti -immi- AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE 36

4. Language DD eueDopment Research and Programs Support research, program development, and evaluation in the area of language development for Asian Pacific Americans to better inform schools and improve teaching strategies. As an essential adjunct, more funding should be directed to community-based efforts focused on dual literacy and language development. 0 fluencyin w For students with limited English, the Lau decision requires schools grant sentiment, schools and communitiesto provide access to the core curriculum, must develop strong programs that engagewhether through bilingual programming or students in an active process aimed atthrough Englishasa Second Language strengthening human relationships. An(ESL). ESL is most effective when combined essential component of such programmingwith a focus on academic language re- must be an intervention that recognizes,quired for understanding the curriculum. addresses, and eliminates perceived racialSchool programs should emphasize literacy and ethnic group status differences. Unlessand language development across the cur- programs contain this vital element, thericulum, with particular attention to oral increased contact among the groups mayexpression, reading comprehension, and serve only to increase intergroup tensions. writing skills for Asian Pacific immigrant Because divisions among young peopleand refugee students. often reflect those of adults around them, all School libraries and community associa- school staff from the principal to the jani-tions should have take-home reading materi- tors and lunchroom monitors, must haveals in both English and in the languages of the benefit of training. Professional develop-the immigrant or refugee communities. ESL ment programs for all staff should includeprograms for adults, and family literacy pro- such training. grams for children and parents, should Anti-racismefforts should also includeemphasize speaking, reading, and writing programs to develop: (1) personal awarenessskills. These programs are most effective and communication skills;(2) cross-racialwhen they combine the development of dialogue and prejudice reduction; (3) conflictEnglish literacy skills with efforts to docu- resolution and mediation programs;(4)ment and write the oral histories, family sto- engagementofstudentsinchangingries, and traditions of a communityprod- inequitable and harmful policies and prac-ucts that contribute to learning about and tices; (5) a curriculum that helps studentspreserving culture. learn each other's histories; and (6) anti-vio- Beyond formal literacy programs, after- lence projects, particularly in neighborhoodsschool clubs and recreational activities can marked by gangs and youth violence. be important opportunities to reinforce kin-

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guage arts skills.Incorporating languagePacific Americans. Furthermore, Asian Pacific skill-building into such activities must beAmerican communities themselves must be done consciously, as part of an overall lan-empowered with the knowledge and skills to guage development plan. conduct systematic research and policy In addition, it is essential to foster devel-analysis on educational issues. opment in a child's home language. Com- ponents in supporting the retention and value of the home language include SaturdaySolreacheno RecrazOtment and Schools, community-based home languageIroga6n6ng programs, availability of books in the home Fund recruitment and training of languages prevalent in the community, and more Asian Pacific American teach- basic literacy and literature courses using the ers,administrators, and coun- home language. selors, with particular emphasis on Major demonstration projects and basic those with bilingual skills and research efforts are needed to fill the gaps in knowledge of new and unrepresent- knowledge about effective educational ap- ed Asian Pacific American popula- proaches for Asian Pacific Americans. tions. Also, fund training for non- Research is needed in second language liter- Asian Pacific teachers to develop acy and in methods of developing content- the knowledge and skillsthey area learning among students with limited require to understand and be proficiency in English. Researchers should responsive to Asian Pacific Amer- focus on new program models for serving ican students' needs. Asian Pacific Americans when the numbers of students from each language and cultural The critical shortage of teachers, adminis- group are relatively small. Of particular inter-trators, counselors, and other professionals est are research initiatives that include suchwith knowledge of Asian Pacific American elements as innovative uses of technology,cultures and languages calls for immediate flexible grouping, cross-school site programs,and aggressive implementation of targeted and community-based instruction. Anotherstrategies for recruitment, training, and pro- subject worthy of investigation is how to usefessionaldevelopment of AsianPacific home language literacy as a bridge to EnglishAmerican college students. Outreach targets literacy when the home language is not ashould include Asian Pacific American com- Romance language and is ideographic. munity agencies and leaders. Career path Well designed and implemented programsprograms and incentives to enter the teach- serving Asian Pacific Americans should being field may help to attract Asian Pacific well documented and formally evaluated.American candidates with linguistic or cultur- They should also include strategies for dis-al expertise. In the area of teacher recruit- semination and program replication. ment, programs should be developed that Foundation and government fundersbuild on and broaden existing foundation must take greater responsibility to includeprogramming support for recruitment of Asian Pacific American students in researchminority teachers to include recruitment of studies, especially national surveys, and toAsian Pacific American teachers from the disaggregate data to allow for a compara-various Asian Pacific ethnic groups. Similar tive look at the experiences among Asianrecruitment programs are needed to encour-

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age Asian Pacific Amer- Conehavion icans to enter doctoral The invisiblecrisis programs for administra- among AsianPacific tors and counselors. American students is a Professional development programsare real and urgent one. This report has sought needed for all teachers, to illustrate how toimmerse themin knowledge of second schools havelargely ignored theplight of language acquisition and bilingual teaching skills, these students, as the false assumption that topreparethemto 0 assemble and teach a Asian Pacific American studentsalwayssuc- strong multicultural cur- H ceed in school has pre- riculumusingAsian vailed.AAPIP urges Pacific American litera- philanthropy to exercise tureandhistory,to leadership engage them in inquiry, to revamp and to connect them to theeducationalres- ponse to Asian Pacific the communities. Such efforts would be fur- American students and their families. This thered by policies thatinsist on teacher preparation in these areas as a basis forresponse must include meaningful partnerships with Asian Pacific American communities. teacher assignment and that support ongoing Without a major change in the education- professional development in these areas. al response to Asian Pacific American stu- An essential but underutilized resource is dents' needs, these students will continue to the immigrant community itself. In some be denied an equal education. This crisis places, schools that have recognized and portends serious ramifications for the future, respected the valuable language capabilities as increasing numbers of Asian Pacific of the Asian Pacific American communities have very successfully recruited teacherAmerican students make their way through an inadequate educational system and fall assistants from the immigrant communities, and then provided training support tofurther and further behind, unprepared to engage fully in and contribute to American enable the assistants to pursue their teach- society as adults. ing credentials. Immigrant adults, some of As the demographics of our country con- whom may have been teachers intheir tinue to shift, and the margins become the homelands, provide not only the bilingual mainstream, once-marginalized people will skills so desperately needed to deliver strong increasingly challenge our democratic tenets. educational programs, but also can serve as We must ensure that we have a diverse pool essential cultural bridges and supports for of leaders to meet those challenges. It is in immigrant youth. society's interest to create a truly equitable educational system that will benefit not just Asian Pacific American children but all children, and our diverse nation, operating within our global society. AAPIP PAGE 39

/6\ppendhe Resgaunges 'goy' Prggrtmum DuAgnmattign

genikyudatz pringfrEIMIS demonstrate the many ways in which foundations can work successfully with Asian Pacific American organizations, schools, school boards, community groups, and other groups to improve educational access and equity for Asian Pacific Americans. Although some of these projects were not designed for Asian Pacific American students, families, and communities, they are included because elements of the program may be adapted to or expanded to include the needs of Asian Pacific Americans. Each project is listed alphabetically under the appropriate recommendation of this report.

0. Cenramaanfity/SchooH/Panro011y tive operates in Chicago, Philadelphia, Des Partnerships Moines, Seattle and Minneapolis. Funded by the DeWitt Wallace-Readers Digest Fund. ASIAN AMERICANS UNITED 801 Arch Street ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT Philadelphia, PA 19107 OF HMONG WOMEN (215) 925-1538. 1518 East Lake Street, Suite 209 Contact: Ellen Somekawa Minneapolis, MN 55407 The Community Youth Leadership Project(612) 724-3066 works with low-income and working class high Contact: Ly Vang school age Asian Pacific American youth. They A full-service organization that focuses atten- are trained to tutor children with limited profi-tion on the needs of newly arrived Hmong ciency in English and to work as communitywomen, children and teens in the Minneapolis activists, building relations with neighborhoodarea. The organization helps them adjust to parents to facilitate their active involvement inAmerican culture while honoring and continuing school and community efforts. Funded by thetheir own heritage. Provides training for self-suf- Philadelphia Foundation. ficiency, employment, and leadership positions.

NATIONAL ASIAN FAMILY/SCHOOL BICULTURAL TRAINING PARTNERSHIP PARTNERSHIP PROJECT IN NONPROFIT MANAGEMENT National Coalition of Advocates for Students The Wilder Foundation 100 Boylston Street, Suite 737 919 Lafond Avenue Boston, MA 02116 St. Paul, MN 55104 (617) 357-8507 (612) 642-2067 Contact: Buoy Te Contact: Vijit Ramchandani Works with six community-based organiza- A collaboration between the Amherst H. tions nationally to improve the education ofWilder Foundation and the Metropolitical State immigrant students and to provide support forUniversity in St. Paul, provides intensive train- parents to monitor children's education, advo-ing in nonprofit management, leadership, and cate for educational services, and participateadvocacy for the staffs, boards, and volunteers more fully in the life of the school. The pro-of the area's Southeast Asian Mutual Assistance ject'sconstituentsare Cambodian, ethnicAssociations. It also provides management con- Chinese,Hmong,Laotian,Tai Dan andsultant training for Southeast Asian community Vietnamese parents. A project of the Nationalmembers who will become resources for their Coalition of Advocates for Students, the initia-communities. In its second phase of operations, AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE 40

the project was established in 1993 by the St.THE LAOTIAN GIRLS HOPE INITIATIVE Paul Foundation and is supported by moreAsian Pacific Environmental Network than 20 local and national funders. 310 Eighth Street, Suite 309 Oakland, CA 94607 THE CHILDREN'S AID SOCIETY (510) 834-8920 105 East 22nd Street Contact: Grace Kong New York, NY 10010 In Richmond, California, located in Contra (212) 949-4800 Costa County, site of four SuperFund toxic Contact: Philip Co ltoff cleanup areas, ninth-grade girls develop envi- Operates three community schoolsinronmental awareness, leadership skills, and Washington Heights for recent immigrants fromcommunity activism skills designed to help Latin America and the Caribbean with a com-build their community. Funders include the prehensive program of innovative educationalCaliforniaWellnessFoundation,theMs. practices and in-house health and social ser-Foundation and Vanguard Public Foundation. vices. The schools are supported by a partnership among parents, schools, community-based PARENTS AND CHILDREN TOGETHER organizations, health care providers, local busi-1475 Linapuni Street, Suite 117a nesses, and universities. Technical assistance isHonolulu, HI 96819 provided to more than 80 schools nationwide.(808) 847-3285 Funded by the Carnegie Corporation of NewContact: Haaheo Mansfield York,Charles Hayden Foundation, Hasbro A 29-year-old organization in the largest low- Children's Foundation,the Jacob Bleibtreuincome housing project in Hawaii; among its Foundation, Inc., and the Clark Foundation. programs are four that directly address culturally-appropriate early childhood education and COALITION FOR ASIAN PACIFIC parenting and include a lending library. All AMERICAN YOUTH (CAPAY) sitesserve immigrant children and Native c/o Institute for Asian American Studies Hawaiians who speak English as a second lan- University of Massachusetts, Boston guage. PCT's Family Literacy Project is funded 100 Morrissey Boulevard by the Hawaii Community Foundation. Boston, MA 02125-3393 (617) 287-5658 CHINATOWN BEACON CENTER Contact: Trinh Nguyen SAN FRANCISCO BEACON INITIATIVE The only statewide network in the country777 Stockton Street, Suite 202 that focuses on leadership development amongSan Francisco, CA 94108 Asian Pacific American youth, this youth-run(415) 391-4721 membership organization provides peer sup-Contact: Sylvia Horn port, networking, mentoring, community ser- Located in the heart of Chinatown and serv- vice opportunities, and leadership for an annu-ing a population that is 75 percent Asian Pacific al Asian Pacific American Heritage Month inAmerican, the Chinatown Beacon Center is part local high schools. Funders include the Bostonof the San Francisco Beacon Initiative to trans- Foundation, the Hyams Foundation, the Reebokform public schools into neighborhood centers. Foundation, the Haymarket People's Fund, theWu Yee Children's Services leads the center, in Lenny Fund, and the Massachusetts Office forcollaboration with eight community agencies Refugees and Immigrants. The Instituteforwith bilingual and biculturalstaff.Funders Asian American Studies at the University ofinclude the Evelyn and Walter Haas, Jr. Fund, Massachusetts, Boston provides in-kind support.the S.H. Cowell Foundation, the San Francisco Foundation, and the Gap Foundation. AAPIP PAGE 4I

2 Onstitaationa0 Change ami 33. CaarrficaaguzumDDevegopment AccasantabOOlity BAY AREA IMMIGRANT LITERACY EDUCATION LAW CENTER OF INITIATIVE PHILADELPHIA San Francisco State University, English Dept. 801 Arch Street, Suite 610 1600 Holloway Philadelphia, PA 19107 San Francisco, CA 94132 (215) 238-6970 (415) 338-3103 Contact: Len Rieser Contact: Gail Weinstein

Da'An advocacy organization working to hold Assists San Francisco Bay Area community- the Philadelphia School District accountable forbased organizations in developing curricula educational services to Asian Pacific immigrantthataddress the needs of immigrant and students.Offers professional developmentrefugee families. Fosters collaborations among opportunities for teachers to learn about sec- ESL/literacyproviders,nurtures connections ond language acquisition, recruits Asian Pacificbetween the university and the community, teachers, develops and identifiestexts andand creates opportunities for university ESL materials in Asian Pacific languages, and reach-teacher trainees to teach in community settings es out to Asian Pacific parents. The Centerwhile learning about family and community works to ensure that the district's overall school issuesin immigrant neighborhoods. Funded reform agenda is designed and implemented inthrough San Francisco State University by the ways that take account of the needs of AsianLila WallaceReaders Digest Fund. Pacific students and families. Funded by the Philadelphia Foundation. STOCKTON YOUTH VIOLENCE PREVENTION INITIATIVE MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION, Boys and Girls Club of Stockton TRAINING AND ADVOCACY, INC. P.O. Box 415 240-A Elm Street, Suite 22 Stockton, CA 95201 Somerville, MA 02144 (209) 466-1264 (617) 628-2226 Contacts: Lincoln Ellis and Conway Hill Contact: Roger Rice The Rites-of-Passage curriculum is part of this A national organization specializing in themultiethnic collaboration, whose objective is to rights of Asian Pacific,Latino, Haitian, andreduce the incidence of violence, enhance self- other immigrant linguisticminority groups.esteem, develop leadership skills, and teach Informs students and parents about their edu-critical thinking and conflict resolution among cationalrights,helps parents advocate onLatino, African American, and Asian Pacific behalf of their children, evaluates state andAmerican youth between the ages of 11 and 24. local programs and policies related to immi-The primary Asian Pacific American groups grant education, and promotes the develop-served are Laotian and Filipino. Funded by the ment of policy initiatives to advance immigrantJames Irvine Foundation in collaboration with students'rights.Support has included thethe California Wellness Foundation's Violence Rosenberg Foundation, the CarnegiePrevention Initiative. Corporation of New York, the Joyce Mertz- Gilmore Foundation, the ARCO Foundation,YOUTH TOGETHER the Ford Foundation, the Public WelfareArt, Research and Curriculum Associates (ARC) Foundation,the Charles StewartMott 1212 Broadway, Suite 400 Foundation and the James Irvine Foundation. Oakland, CA 94612 (510) 834-9455 Contact: Margaretta Lin P.- Youth Together is a youth development and school-basedviolencepreventionproject

4 AN INVISIBLE CRISIS .11111.. PAGE 42

developing the leadership of youth from fiveTHE PROGRAM IN IMMIGRANT EDUCATION high schoolsinBerkeley,Oakland, and Richmond. A multicultural,multiracial, andCenter for Applied Linguistics 1118 22nd Street, NW multi-agency collaboration between established youth development and education agencies,Washington, DC 20037 the goal is to address rising racial and ethnic(202) 429-9292 conflicts between Asian Pacific, Latino, andContact: Donna Christian African American students. Funded by the U.S. A national research effort coordinated by the Department of Education with support fromCenter for Applied Linguistics in Washington, private sources. D.C., with the goal of creating effective programs for immigrantsin middle and high schools. A series of publications for policymak- ers,practitioners, and thepublicwill be 4. Language Deue0opment released in 1998. Funded by the Andrew W. Research and Pvograms Mellon Foundation.

CLEARINGHOUSE FOR IMMIGRANT SHUANG WEN ACADEMY EDUCATION New York New Visions School CHIME/NCAS Victim Services, Inc. 100 Boylston Street, Suite 737 2 Lafayette Street Boston, MA 02116 New York, NY 10007 (800) 441-7192 (212) 577-3898 Contact: Karen Hartke Contact: Larry Lee A free, interactive clearinghouse and net- Shuang Wen Academy is a newly established working service offering customized databaseelementary school (K-5) rooted in a commit- searches, free information packets, referrals,ment to language proficiency and cultural liter- bibliographies,andotherresourcesthatacy in both Chinese and English. The program address how schools can improve educationalwill document strategies to address differences access for immigrant and other vulnerable stu-in learning styles and intellectual processing dents. Funded by the Ford Foundation and thebrought to the classroom by Chinese-speaking Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. children. Extended hours provide tutoring, folk dancing, music, calligraphy, art, drama, chorus, THE DEMONSTRATION SCHOOL martial arts, with strong parent involvement. University of Massachusetts, Lowell 1 University Avenue Lowell, MA 01854 (508) 934-4660 S. 'Teacher Dleznafitoment and Contact: Ann Benjamin Vra5nOng An observation, research, and demonstrationPATHWAYS TO TEACHING CAREERS facilityin which children fromEnglish-, PROGRAM Spanish-, and Khmer-speaking homes learnDeWitt WallaceReader's Digest Fund and play together. Native-speaking teachers of2 Park Avenue, 23rd Floor the same three languages strive to model theNew York, NY 10016 best educational practices in language acquisi-(212) 251-9710 tion and multicultural education.OperatesContact: Jane Quinn under the joint auspices of the Lowell Public Provides grants to participating universities School System and the College of Education, and colleges to support training of teaching can- University of Massachusetts, Lowell. didates with the goal of increasing the number of highly qualified teachers, particularly minority teachers, working in public schools. Funded by the DeWitt WallaceReaders Digest Fund. 5 AAPIP PAGE 43

AppencAK nes©118M8 grganOE2tOgns Mils 11'3550 :111303 01%189 far from being complete, is provided for informational and referral purposes. ART, RESEARCH, AND CURRICULUM INDOCHINESE REFUGEE STUDIES CENTER (ARC) ASSOCIATES George Mason University 310 Eighth Street, Suite 220 4400 University Drive Oakland, CA 94607 Fairfax, VA 22030 (510) 834-9455 (703) 993-3722 ASIAN AMERICAN COMMUNITIES FOR LEADERSHIP EDUCATION FOR ASIAN EDUCATION PACIFICS (LEAP) 2012 Pine Street 327 East 2nd Street, Suite 226 San Francisco, CA 94115 Los Angeles, CA 90012 (415) 921-5537 (213) 485-1422 ASIAN AMERICAN CURRICULUM NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR ASIAN PROJECT AND PACIFIC AMERICAN EDUCATION 234 Main Street ARC Associates San Mateo, CA 94401 310 Eighth Street, Suite 220 (650) 343-9408 Oakland, CA 94607 ASIAN AMERICAN STUDIES CENTER (510) 834-9455 University of California, Los Angeles NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR 3230 Campbell Hall EDUCATION AND ADVANCEMENT OF CAMBODIANS, LAOTIANS AND 304 Hilgard Avenue VIETNAMESE AMERICANS Los Angeles, CA 90095 Department of Comparative Ethnic Studies (310) 825-2974 University of California, Berkeley ASSOCIATION FOR ASIAN AMERICAN 506 Barrows Hall STUDIES Berkeley, CA 94720 Dept. of Educational Foundations (510) 643-0796 Hunter College, City University of New York NATIONAL CLEARINGHOUSE ON 695 Park Avenue BILINGUAL EDUCATION New York, NY 10021 8737 Colesville Road, #900 (212) 772-4736 Silver Spring, MD 20910 CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON (800) 647-0123 EDUCATIONAL DIVERSITY AND EXCELLENCE POLYCHROME PUBLISHING CORPORATION University of California, Santa Cruz 4509 North Francisco Santa Cruz, CA 95064 Chicago, IL 60625 (408) 459-3500 (773) 478-4455 CIVIL LIBERTIES PUBLIC EDUCATION FUND, WEST COAST OFFICE c/o U.S. Equal Employment Opportunities Commission 901 Market Street, Suite 500 San Francisco, CA 94103 BEST COPY AVAILABLE (415) 356-5020 AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE 44

Mndrigtes

1 In 1971, Newsweek magazine (June 21, 1971) fea- 10 Foundation Center, Foundation Giving, p. 65, 1997. tured agroundbreakingstoryonAsian Americans, entitled "Success Story: Outwhiting 11 United States Bureau of the Census, Population the Whites." A subsequent article by Anthony Estimates and Projections, Washington,D.C., Ramirez in Fortune magazine (November 24, 1996. 1986) focused on Asian Americans as "America's 12 Kim-Oanh Nguyen-Lam, "Meeting the Needs of Super Minority" of the 20th century. In 1987, Our AsianAmericanStudents,"California Time magazine touted the academic success of Association for Bilingual Education Newsletter Asian Americans in an article entitled "The New (p. 33), February 1997. Whiz Kids" (August 31, 1987). 13 Hune and Chan (1997). 2 Paul Ong and Linda Wing, "The Social Contract to Educate All Children," in The State of Asian 14 Larry H. Shinagawa, "The Impact of Immigration Pacific America: A Public Policy Report.Los on the Demography of Asian Pacific Americans," Angeles: LEAP Asian Pacific American Public Reframing the Immigration Debate, (pp. 59-126). Policy Institute and the UCLA Asian American LEAP AsianPacific American PublicPolicy Studies Center, 1996, p. 226. Institute and the UCLA Asian American Studies 3 Ong and Wing (1996), p. 226. Center, 1996. 15 Hune and Chan (1997). 4For example, according to an article in the San Francisco Chronicle (May12,1997)entitled 16 Hune and Chan (1997). "Bridging the English Gap," 48 percent of students at Union City's Pioneer Elementary School 17 Stanley Karnow and Nancy Yoshihara, Asian are Asian Pacific American. Americans in Transition. The Asia Society, New York. 1992. Also Rumbaut, R. and J. Weeks, 5Shirley Hune & Kenyon S. Chan, "Special Focus: "Fertility and Adaptation: Indochinese Refugees AsianPacificAmericanDemographic and in the United States," International Migration Educational Trends," in D. Carter & R. Wilson Review, 20(2), (pp. 428-466), 1986. (eds.),Minoritiesin Education(Vol.15) Washington, D.C.: AmericanCouncilon 18 F.Arnold, U. Minocha, and J.Fawcett, "The Education, 1997. Changing Face of Asian Immigration to the United States" in J. Fawcett and B. Carino (eds.), 6Included among Asian Pacific Islanders are: East Pacific Bridges: The New Immigration from Asia Asians (Chinese, Japanese, Korean); Filipinos; and the Pacific Islands (p. 111). Staten Island: Pacific Islanders (Fijian, Carolinian, Chamorro, Center for Migration Studies, 1987. Chuukese, Hawaiian, Marshallese, Melanesian, Palauan, Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, Trukese,19 Rumbaut and Weeks (1986). See also Wendy Yapese); Southeast Asian (Cambodian, Hmong, Walker-Moffat,The Other Side of the Asian Khmer, Indonesian,Laotian,Malayan, Mien, American Success Story. San Francisco: Jossey- Singaporean, Thai, Vietnamese); and South Bass Publishers, 1995. Asians(Bangladeshi,Bhutanese,Burmese, Indian, Nepali, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Sikkimese). 20 Shinagawa (1996). 7Unfortunately, the scope of this report does not21 Most school districts do not report dropout rates allow a discussion of the complexities of the edu- for southeast Asians as a discrete population. cational needs of PacificIslanders or South Several studies, however, have reported figures Asians. around thislevel. Ruben Rumbaut and Kenji Ima's The Adaptation of Southeast Asian Refugee 8Foundation Center, Foundation Giving,1997. Youth: A Comparative Study, Vols. I and II of the United States Bureau of the Census, Population Southeast Asian Refugee Youth Study, Estimates and Projections, Washington,D.C., Department of Sociology, San Diego State 1996. University, December 1987,reports numbers consistent with McNall, M. and T. Dunnigan. 9Asian Americans andPacificIslandersin "The Educational Achievement of the St. Paul Philanthropy, "Invisible and In Need: Hmong," Anthropology and Education Quarterly, Philanthropic Giving to Asian Americans and Vol. 25: No. l(pp. 44-66), March 1994. Pacific Islanders." San Francisco, 1992. 22 Lau v. Nichols, 414 US 563, 39 L. Ed 2d 1. Decided January 21, 1974.

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23 National Center for Education Statistics, "A Profile United StatesCivilRights Commission,"Civil of Policies and Practices for Limited English Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the Proficient Students: Screening Methods, Program 1990s," (pp. 88ff), Washington, D.C. February Support and Teacher Training." SASS 1993-94. 1992; and Rumbaut and Ima (1987). Washington,D.C.,1997.Also, UnitedStates Department of Education, Office of Educational37 Peter N. Kiang and Jenny Kaplan, "Where Do We Research and Improvement. NCES 97-472. Stand? Views of Racial Conflict by Vietnamese Washington, D.C., 1997. American High-School Students in a Black and White Context," The Urban Review, Vol. 26, no. 2 24 Ong and Wing (1996), p. 236. (p. 109), 1994. 25 National Research Council, Improving Schooling 38 P.N.Kiang, "When Know-Nothings Speak for Language-Minority Children: A Research English Only: Analyzing Irish and Cambodian Agenda, Diane August and Kenji Hakuta (eds). Strugglesfor Community Development and National Academy Press, 1997. Educational Equity," in Karin Aguilar-San Juan (ed.), The State of Asian America: Activism and 26 Ruben Rumbaut, "The Crucible Within: Ethnic Resistance in the 1990s (pp.125-145). Boston: Identity, Self-Esteem and Segmented Assimilation South End Press, 1994. among Children of Immigrants." In Alejandro Portes (ed.), The New Second Generation. (16- 39 Lou Harris poll, "Tensions and Hopes in America: 17). New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1996. A Survey of How Minorities and the White Also Laurie Olsen and Marcia Chen, Crossing the Majority Perceive Each Other and Stepsto Schoolhouse Border: Immigrant Children in Achieve Intergroup Harmony." Prepared for the California Schools.San Francisco:California National Conference, January 1994. Tomorrow, 1988. 40 National Research Council (1997), p. 97. 27 Marsha Hirano-Nakanishi, "It Ain't Necessarily So," paper presented at the Annual Meeting of41 Walker-Moffat. See also S.J. Lee, "The Road to the American Educational Research Association, College: Hmong Women's Pursuit of Higher San Francisco, CA April 1992. Education." Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 67 No. 4, 1997. 28 Conversation with the office of Robert Suzuki, President, California State Polytechnic University42 Nancy Smith-Hefner, "Education, Gender, and at Pomona, in April 1997. Generational Conflict Among Khmer Refugees." Anthropology & Education Quarterly,24,(2), 29 National Research Council (1997), p. 31. (pp. 135-158), 1993. 30 HedyChang,AffirmingChildren'sRoots: 43 Hune and Chan (1997), p. 56. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in Early Care and Education,SanFrancisco:California 44 Various research literature discusses this phe- Tomorrow, 1993. nomenon, including Michael Aronowitz's "The Social and Emotional Adjustment of Immigrant 31 Viadero, Debra, "Asian-American Teachers on the Children: A Reviewofthe Literature," Decline, Study Finds," Education Week, June 10, International Migration Review,1984;Carol 1997. Ascher, "The Social andPsychological AdjustmentofSoutheastAsianRefugees," 32 Nguyen-Lam (1997). ERIC/CUEDigest, Number 21, National Institute of 33 Victoria Jew, "The Shortage of Asian Languages Education, Washington, D.C., April 1984; Neil Bilingual Teachers inthe United States and Boothby, "Children and War," Cultural Survival California," presented at the National Forum Con- Quarterly, Vol. 10: No. 4, Cambridge MA 1986; ference in Pomona, California in August 1994. J.E Carlin, "The Catastrophically Uprooted Child: SoutheastAsianRefugeeChildren,"Basic 34 Walker-Moffat (1995). Handbook of Child Psychiatry, Vol. I, New York: Basic Books, 1979. 35 National Asian Pacific American Legal Consortium, Audit of Violence Against Asian45 Rumbaut (1996). See also "Youth Risk Behavior Pacific Americans, Fourth Annual Report, 1997. Survey," San Diego City School's Report to the School Board, February 22, 1994; and Valerie 36 Olsen and Chen (1988). See also Joan First and Ooka Pang, "Caring for the Whole Child: Asian John Wilshire Carrera, New Voices: Immigrant Pacific American Students," paper presented at Students in U.S. Public Schools. Boston: National Defining the Knowledge Base for Urban Teacher Coalition of Advocates for Students, 1988; and Education Conference, Emory University, Atlanta. 1996. BLE PSO COPV ;.) U AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE 46

ObOuograpliv

Aronowitz, Michael. "The Social and Emotional Schools. Boston, MA: National Coalition of Adjustment of Immigrant Children: A Review Advocates for Students, 1988. of theLiterature,"International Migration Review. 1984. Foundation Giving. Foundation Center, 1997.

Ascher,Carol."The Social and PsychologicalGibson, Margaret and John Ogbu. Minority Status Adjustment of Southeast Asian Refugees," and Schooling: A Comparative Study of ERIC/CUE Digest, no. 21, April 1984, National Immigrant and Involuntary Minorities. New Institute of Education. Washington, D.C. York, NY: Garland Publishing, 1991.

AsianAmericansandPacificIslandersin Hing, Bill. Making and Remaking Asian America Philanthropy. InvisibleandInNeed: Through Immigration Policy, 1850-1990. Palo Philanthropic Giving to Asian Americans and Alto: Stanford University Press, 1993. Pacific Islanders. San Francisco, CA, 1992. Hirano-Nakanishi, Marsha. "It Ain't Necessarily Boothby,Neil."Children and War,"Cultural So," a paper presented at the Annual Meeting Survival Quarterly, Vol. 10, no. 4, Cambridge, oftheAmericanEducationalResearch MA, 1986. Association, San Francisco, CA, April 1992.

"Bridging theEnglish Gap," San Francisco Hune, Shirley & Kenyon S. Chan. " Special Focus: Chronicle. May 12, 1997. Asian Pacific American Demographic and Educational Trends," in D. Carter & R. Wilson "Language BarriersAre Blacks Being (eds.),Minorities in Education,Vol.15. Shortchanged?"CaliforniaDepartmentof Washington,D.C.:AmericanCouncil on Education and San Francisco Examiner analy- Education, 1997. sis. May 14, 1997. Ima, Kenji. "Testing the American Dream: Case Handbooks forTeaching Japanese-Speaking Studies of At-Risk Southeast Asian Students in Students, Hmong-Speaking Students, Korean- Secondary Schools," in Ruben Rumbaut and Speaking Students, Khmer-Speaking Students. Wayne Cornelius (eds.), California's California Department of Education, Immigrant Children: Theory, Research and Sacramento, CA, 1988. Implications for Educational Policy (191-208). San Diego: Center for U.S. Mexican Studies, Caplan,Nathan,MarcellaChoy and John University of California, 1995. Whitmore. "Indochinese Refugee Families and Academic Achievement," Scientific American,Jew, Victoria. "The Shortage of Asian Languages (36-42). February 1992. Bilingual Teachers in the United States and California," a paper presented at the National Carlin, J.E. "The Catastrophically Uprooted Child: Forum conference. Pomona, CA, August 1994. Southeast Asian Refugee Children," Basic Handbook of Child Psychiatry, Vol.I. NewKarnow, Stanley and Nancy Yoshihara. Asian York, NY: Basic Books, 1979. Americans in Transition. New York: The Asia Society, 1992. Chang,Hedy.AffirmingChildren'sRoots: Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in Early CareKiang, Peter N."Southeast Asian and Latino and Education. San Francisco, CA: California Parent Empowerment: Lessons from Lowell, Tomorrow, 1993. Massachusetts," in Catherine E. Walsh (ed.), Education Reform and SocialChange: First, Joan and John WilshireCarrera. "New Multicultural Voices, Struggles and Visions (59- Voices:ImmigrantStudents," U.S.Public 69). Matwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996.

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Kiang, Peter N. "When Know-Nothings Speak Mc Nall, M. and T. Dunnigan. "The Educational English Only: Analyzing Irish and Cambodian AchievementoftheSt.PaulHmong." Struggles for Community Development and Anthropology and Education Quarterly,. Vol. Educational Equity," in Karin Aguilar-San Juan 25, no. 1, (44-66). March 1994. (ed.), The State of Asian America: Activism and Resistance in the 1990s (125-145). Boston, Nakanishi, Don T. and Tina Yamano Nishida MA: South End Press, 1994. (eds.). The AsianPacificAmerican Educational Experience. New York,NY: Kiang, Peter N. and Jenny Kaplan. "Where Do We Rout ledge, 1995. Stand? Views of Racial Conflict by Vietnamese American High-School Students in a Black andNational Asian Pacific American Legal White Context," The Urban Review, Vol. 26, no. Consortium. Audit of Violence Against Asian 2 (95-119). 1994. Pacific Americans. Third Annual Report. 1996.

Kiang,PeterN.and VivianWai-FunLee. National Center for Education Statistics. "A Profile "Exclusion or Contribution? Education K-12 of Policies and Practices for Limited English Policy," The State of Asian Pacific America: ProficientStudents:ScreeningMethods, Policy Issues to the Year 2020, (25-48). Los Program Support and Teacher Training." SASS Angeles, CA: LEAP Asian Pacific American 1993-94. Washington, D.C., 1997. PublicPolicyInstituteand UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1993. National Research Council. Improving Schooling for Language-Minority Children: A Research Kim, Heather. Diversity Among Asian American Agenda. Diane August and Kenji Hakuta High SchoolStudents, Princeton, NJ: (eds.), National Academy Press, 1997. Educational Testing Service, January 1997. Nguyen-Lam and Kim-Oanh. "Meeting the Needs Lee,LeeC.Asian Americans: Collages of of Our Asian American Students," California Identities.Cornell Asian American Studies Association for Bilingual Education Newsletter Monograph Series Number 1. 1992. (33). February 1997.

Lee, Stacey J.Unraveling the 'Model Minority"Okihiro, Gary. Margins and Mainstreams, Asians Stereotype. Teacher's College Press, 1996. in American History and Culture, Is It Yellow orWhite?Seattle, WA: Universityof Lee, Stacey J."The Road to College: Hmong Washington Press, 1994. Women'sPursuitofHigherEducation. Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 67, no. 4, Ooka Pang, Valerie. "Caring for the Whole Child: 1997. Asian Pacific American Students," a paper presented at Defining the Knowledge Base for Lou Harris poll. "Tensions and Hopes in America: Urban Teacher Education Conference. Atlanta, A Survey of How Minorities and the White GA: Emory University, 1996. Majority Perceive Each other and Steps to Achieve Intergroup Harmony," prepared forOlsen, Laurie and Marcia Chen. Crossing the the National Conference. January 1994. Schoolhouse Border: Immigrant Children in California Schools. San Francisco: California Low, Victor. The Unimpressible Race: A Century of Tomorrow, 1988. Educational Struggle by the Chinese in San Francisco.SanFrancisco,CA:East/WestOng, Paul and Suzanne J. Hee. "The Growth of Publishing Company, Inc., 1982. the Asian Pacific American Population: Twenty Million in 2020," The State of Asian Pacific McKay, Sandra Lee and Sau-ling Cynthia Wong. America: Policy Issues to the Year 2020 (11-23). Language Diversity: Problem or Resource? Los Angeles, CA: LEAP Asian Pacific American Cambridge, MA: Newbury House Publishers, Public Policy Institute and the UCLA Asian 1988. American Studies Center, 1993.

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Ong, Paul and Linda Wing. "The Social ContractTe, Buoy, Joan May, T. Cordova, Wendy Walker- to Educate All Children," The State of Asian Moffat and Joan First.Unfamiliar Partners: Pacific America: A Public Policy Report. Los Asian Parents and U.S. Public Schools. Boston, Angeles, CA: LEAP Asian Pacific American MA: National Coalition of Advocates for Public Policy Institute and the UCLA Asian Students, 1997. American Studies Center, 1996. "The New Whiz Kids," Time. August 31, 1987. Ramirez, Anthony. "America's Super Minority," Fortune. November 24, 1986. Turbo, Henry, Lisle Jacobs and Elizabeth Kirton. Cultural Conflict and Adaptation: The Case of Rumbaut,R. andJ.Weeks."Fertilityand the Hmong Children in American Society. Adaptation:Indochinese Refugeesinthe Basingstroke, UK: Falmer Press, 1990. United States," [20(2), (428 -466)] International Migration Review. 1986, United StatesCivilRights Commission,"Civil Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the Rumbaut, Ruben. "The Crucible Within: Ethnic 1990s," (88ff) Washington, D.C., February 1992. Identity, Self-Esteem and Segmented Assimilation Among Children of Immigrants,"United States Department of Education, Office of in Alejandro Portes (ed.), The New Second Educational Research and Improvement. NCES Generation, (16-17). New York, NY: Russell 97-472. Washington, D.C., 1997. Sage Foundation, 1996. Viadero, Debra. "Asian-American Teachers on the Rumbaut, Ruben and Kenji Ima. The Adaptation Decline, Study Finds," Education Week. June ofSoutheastAsianRefugee Youth: A 10, 1997. Comparative Study,Vols.IandIIof the SoutheastAsianRefugeeYouthStudy,Walker-Moffat, Wendy. The Other Side of the Department of Sociology, San Diego State Asian American Success Story. San Francisco, University, December 1987. CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1995.

SaintPaulFoundation,BiculturalTrainingWang, Ling-chi."Lauv.Nichols:History of Partnership, Voices and Visions: Snapshots of Struggle for Equal" and "Quality Education," in the Southeast Asian Communities in the Twin Asian Americans: Social and Psychological Cities. St. Paul, MN, July 1996. Perspectives, Vol.2, (181-216). Russell Endo, Stanley Sue and Nathaniel Wagner (eds). Palo Shinagawa, Larry H. "The Impact of Immigration Alto, CA: Science and Behavior, 1980. ontheDemographyofAsianPacific Americans,"ReframingtheImmigrationWong-Fillmore, Lily. "When Learning a Second Debate (59-126). LEAP Asian Pacific American Language Means Losing the First,"in Early Public Policy Institute and the UCLA Asian Childhood Research Quarterly, Vol.6, (323- American Studies Center, 1996. 346). 1991.

Smith-Hefner, Nancy. "Education, Gender, and"Youth Risk Behavior Survey." San Diego City Generational Conflict Among Khmer School's Report to the School Board. February Refugees,"in Anthropology & Education 22, 1994. Quarterly, 24, (2), (135-158). 1993. Zhou, Min and Carl Bankston III. "Social Capital "Success Story: OutwhitingtheWhites," and the Adaptation of the Second Generation: Newsweek. June 21, 1971. theCase of Vietnamese Youthin New Orleans," in Alejandro Portes (ed.), The New Takaki, Ron. Strangers from a Different Shore. Second Generation. New York, NY: Russell Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1989. Sage Foundation, 1996. AAPIP MISSION To help transform U.S. philanthropy to include Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders and to serve the community's needs. AAPIP'S GOALS ARE TO tU Educate grantmakers about and advocate for Asian Pacific Islander issues, communities and concerns to increase philanthropic resources to the Asian Pacific Islander communities. tU Develop and implement strategic efforts to increase Asian Pacific Islander trustee and staff representation in philanthropy.

AAPIP BOARD OF DIRECTORS Jon Funabiki, Chair Adrienne Pon Program Officer, The Ford Foundation Consumer Affairs Director, Pacific Telesis Dianne Yamashiro-Omi, Vice Chair Group Formerly Program Officer, Gap Foundation Peggy Saika Unmi Song, Secretary Trustee, New World Foundation Program Officer, Joyce Foundation Ruby Takanishi Joe Lumarda, Treasurer President/CEO, Foundation for Child Vice President of Development, California Development Community Foundation Lori Villarosa Jessica Chao Associate Program Officer, C.S. Mott Senior Advisor, Open Society Institute Foundation U.S. Programs Richard Woo Gerry Ching Executive Director, Levi Strauss Foundation Distribution Committee Member, Sylvia Yee The Mclnerny Foundation Vice President of Programs, Evelyn & Mallika Dutt Walter Haas, Jr. Fund Program Officer, Ford Foundation Laurie Garduque STAFF Program Officer, John D. & Catherine T. Marjorie Fujiki MacArthur Foundation Executive Director Stewart Kwoh Joe Lucero Trustee, The California Endowment Manager, Program Services q ASIAN AMERICAIVSr /PAC.JFIe1SLANbERS IN PHILANTHROPY r, I 16 EAST I 6TH STREET,nit ;.71-H FLOOR NEW YORK, NEW YORK 10003 TEL 212 260-3999 FAX 212 260-4546 EMAIL [email protected] 02/11/199818:28 2122604546 AAPIP PAGE 02 eleefeti4601 V.02

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