When Multi-level Governance Hits the Ground
EUropean nature protection and land-use change in Vrancea and Galicia
Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität zu Köln
2012
vorgelegt von Master Sciances Humaines et Sociales Liviu Mantescu aus 7kUJRYLúWH 5XPlQLHQ
5HIHUHQW DSO3URI'U6LJULG4XDFN .RUUHIHUHQW 3URI'U'UKF:ROIJDQJ6WUHHFN 7DJGHU3URPRWLRQ
2
Acknowledgements 0DQ\SHRSOHKDYHSURYLGHGPHwith KHOSDQGHQFRXUDJHPHQt all along the way from the first FRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQRIWKLVSURMHFWXQWLOWKHODVWUHYLVLRQRIWKHSUHVHQWGRFXPHQW
First of all I would like to thank DOOWKHIDPLOLHVLQWKHYLOODJHVRI3ӽXOHúWLDQG/DEUDGDIRU RSHQLQJWKHLUGRRUVWRPHDQGletting me enter their homes and their lives SURYLGLQJPHQRW RQO\ ZLWK LQIRUPDWLRQ IRU P\ UHVHDUFK EXW ZLWK SUHFLRXV WKRXJKW-SURYRNLQJ OHVVRQV DERXW OLIH , DP HVSHFLDOO\ LQ GHEW WR &XOLĠӽ DQG 5LFD +XúFӽ DQG WR +HQDU 5RPiQ )HUQiQGH] DQG -RUJH &DUUDFHGR 9D]TXH] P\ KRVWV DQG ILUVW ILHOGZRUN JXLGHV IRU WKHLU SDUHQWDO FDUH GXULQJWKHGLIILFXOWSHULRGVRIWKHILHOGZRUNLQFOXGLQJP\VWD\DWWKHPXQLFLSDOKRVSLWDOLQ /XJR
, DP LPPHQVHO\ JUDWHIXO WR P\ VXSHUYLVRU 6LJULG 4XDFN IRU KHU SDWLHQW JXLGDQFH LQ P\ tumultuous academic GHYHORSPHQWDQGIRUKHUSHUPDQHQWDVVLVWDQFHLQEULQJLQJWKLVSURMHFW WRDQHQG , DPHTXDOO\ WKDQNIXOWR)UDQ]YRQ %HQGD-%HFNPDQQ DQG:ROIJDQJ6WUHHFNIRU WKHLU SUHFLRXV DGYLFH DQG SHUPDQHQW HQFRXUDJHPHQW LQ VWRUP\ PRPHQWV RI WKH ZULWLQJ XS SURFHVV
DXULQJ P\ VWD\ DW %HUNHOH\ 8QLYHUVLW\ , EHQHILWHG HQRUPRXVO\ IURP YLYLG FRPPHQWV IURP /RXLVH )RUWPDQQ0LFKDHO:DWWVDQG1DQF\3HOXVR7KHLUFRQWULEXWLRQVIORZGHHSO\LQWKH GHVLJQ RI WKLV GLVVHUWDWLRQ LQFOXGLQJ WKH YHU\ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH HPSLULFDO GDWD from a SROLWLFDOHFRORJ\SHUVSHFWLYH,DPDOVRWKDQNIXOWRDOOP\FROOHDJXHVIURPWKHSRVW-graduate VHPLQDUV HVSHFLDOO\ WR =DF +HQVRQ – , PLVV RXU QHYHU HQGLQJ GHEDWHV GXULQJ WKH VKRUW &DOLIRUQLDQQLJKWV
0DQ\WKDQNVWR7KRPDV6LNRUIRUSURYLGLQJPHZLWKSUHFLRXVFRPPHQWVRQWKH*DOLFLDQSDUW during the seminar on ‘3URSHUW\ 'LVSRVVHVVLRQ DQG 5XUDO ([FOXVLRQ’ at the University of 5RVNLOGH'HQPDUN
$WWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI6DQWLDJRGH&RPSRVWHOD,EHQHILWHGWUHPHQGRXVO\IURPWKHDFDGHPLFDQG PRUDO VXSSRUW RI 0DQXHO 0DUH\ 3DEOR 5DPLO 5HJR )HUQDQGH] 3ULHWR 0DQXHO 5DSRVR (GXDUGR5LFRDQG'DYLG6RWR)HUQDQGH],DPYHU\WKDQNIXOWRDOORIWKHPIRUWKHLUKHOSLQ DFFHVVLQJSUHFLRXVVWDWLVWLFDODQGKLVWRULFDOGDWDIRUWKLVVWXG\
3 $WWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI9LJR,EHQHILWHGIURPWKHVXSSRUWRI;DYLHU6LPRQDQG'DPLDQ&RSHQD DQG DW WKH 3XEOLF 8QLYHUVLW\ 3DPSORQD -oVH 0LJXHO /DQD %DUDVDLQ SURYLGHG PH ZLWK H[WUHPHO\KHOSIXOJXLGDQFHLQHVWDEOLVKLQJP\UHVHDUFKILHOG,DPYHU\WKDQNIXOWRWKHP ,DPHVSHFLDOO\LQGHEt to P\SURIHVVRU *KHRUJKLWD*HDQD from the 8QLYHUVLW\RI%XFKDUHVW for facilitating my DFFHVVWRSUHFLRXVKLVWRULFDOPDWHULDODQGUDUHERRNVDQGIRUVXSSRUWLQJPH VLQFHP\HDUO\VWXGHQW \HDUV ,DPDOVRWKDQNIXOWRP\FROOHDJXHVIURPWKHµ)UDQFLV5DLQHU ,QVWLWXWHRI$QWKURSRORJ\¶QDPHO\$QGUHL6RILFDUXDQG6WHIDQ'RURQGHOIRUWKHLUVXSSRUWLYH JXLGDQFHLQILQGLQJSUHFLRXVUHVHDUFKPDWHULDO
, DOVR ZDQW WR WKDQN P\ IULHQGV 5DOXFD -RVDQ 5,3 - $USDG 6]DER %H]DQD 9ODGLPLU*DQLWNHYLWFK 9ODGHD 6DPLU6DIDU$OLDQGWKHSHUVRQQHODQGWKHNLFNHUIDQDWLFVDW 6R\OHQW *UHHQ IRU VXSSRUW LQ FRQVWUXFWLQJ LPSHWXRXV LGHDV 6SHFLDO WKDQNV WR 0DU\DP ZKR KHOSHGPHZLWKSURRI-UHDGLQJWKHHQWLUHPDQXVFULSWDWUHFRUGVSHHG
It is hard to find words for tKDQNLQJ.ULVWLQDP\EHORYHGJLUOIULHQGDQGIRUP\IDPLO\ZKR HQFRXUDJHGPHGXULQJDOOWKLVWLPH7KLVZRUNLVGHGLFDWHGWRP\PRWKHUDLDúWHSWDWDWkWGH PXOW
4
Table of contents Chapter 1 – Introduction ...... 10 :KDWWKLVVWXG\LVDERXW 10 7KHRXWOLQHRIWKHVWXG\ 12 +RZWKLVVWXG\FDPHDERXW- DSHUVRQDOQRWH
Part I: The Warehouse ...... 19 Chapter 2 – Methodology and Methods ...... 19 7KHFDVHVPXOWL-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\DQGKLVWRULFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQ 21 The selection of cases 21 Multi-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\ The historical investigation 30 0HWKRGVIRUJDWKHULQJWhe data 31 2EVHUYDWLRQ 31 The Film 32 Interviews 34 0HWKRGVIRUDQDO\]LQJWKHGDWD 34 &RPSDULVRQ 34 7KHLGHDOW\SHV 35 Chapter 3 – The theoretical tool-box ...... 37 *RYHUQDQFHUHODWHGFRQFHSWV 1RQ-state actors and transnational governance A triangular deficit (PSLULFDOQRUPDWLYHDQGFULWLFDOJRYHUQDQFH 40 7UDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHDQGQHROLEHUDOLVP 42 Multi-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHDV(8¶VWUDQVQDWLRQDOSROLWLFDODUHQD 45 Territoriality 46 &XOWXUDOEURNHUV 48 &UHDWLYHFRPSOLDQFH 48 1DWXUHUHODWHGFRQFHSWV The intrinsic value of nature Environmental conflicts 50 (QYLURQPHQWDOMXVWLFH 51 Socionatures and the agency of nature 52 3URSHUW\UHODWHGFRQFHSWV 54 3URSHUW\DQGSURSHUW\UHODWLRQV 54 Access 56 3ULPLWLYHDFFXPXODWLRQ 56 $FFXPXODWLRQE\GLVSRVVHVVLRQDFFXPXODWLRQE\H[WUD-economic means 7LPHUHODWHGFRQFHSWV 7KH3DVWLQWKH3UHVHQW &ROOHFWLYHPHPRU\ 58 0HPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQ
5 Part II: Protecting Nature ...... 61 Chapter 4 - Conceptual mapping ...... 62 1DWXUHZLOGHUQHVVZDVWH– ĠLKHUPRQWHYDVW 62 )URPDQLPLVPWRDQWKURSRFHQWULVP 64 7KHQDWXUDOULJKWWRSURSHUW\ Chapter 5 - From Waste to Parks ...... 70 9DQLVKLQJWKHIURQWLHU 7KH3XEOLF*DUGHQRI
Part III: Access to Natural Valuables and Environmental Conflicts in Galicia ...... 132 Chapter 11 - O Monte ...... 133 7KHXVHV 134 O Toxo and $;HVWD 134 $V)UDJDV 136 7KHMXULGLFDOVWDWXV Chapter 12 - The Roots of State Forest Regulations ...... 140 7KH)ORDWLQJ)RUHVWV 140 7KH3ROLWLFDO)RUHVWV 146 Chapter 13 - Franco’s forests ...... 152 ³/DRUGHQHVGH)UDQFR– %DVWD´ 152 7KHODZRI0RQWHV9HFLxDLVHQ0DQ&RP~Q 155 Chapter 14 - The EUropean environmental coordination ...... 160 6HYHQWHHQZD\VWRGHDOZLWK1DWXUD 160 7KHEXUGHQRIQHZODQG-use 163 $FDVHRIFXOWXUDOEURNHUDJHDQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOK\SRcrisy 164 Chapter 15 - The dynamic of bundle of rights ...... 166 $FRPPXQLW\ 166 3HDVDQWVDQGIDUPHUV
6 3DUW\SHRSOH +XQWHUV :LQG-mills 2QHQLJKW Chapter 16 - Consequences in landuse-change ...... 181 7KHFRPPRQSURSHUW\DQGWKHFXOWXUHRIDSSUR[LPDWLRQ 181 7KHPHQWDOUH-PDSSLQJRIWKHSURSHUWLHVZLWKLQWKHODQGVFDSH 186 7KHOLPLQDOHQYLURQPHQW- )UDJDEHOOD Chapter 17 – Conclusions ...... 197
Part IV: Access to Natural Valuables and Environmental Conflicts in Vrancea ...... 203 Chapter 18 – 2EúWHD ...... 204 ğDUD9UDQFHL 206 3DVWDQGSUHVHQWXVHV 7KHMXULGLFDOVWDWXVQRZDGD\V 213 Chapter 19 – The expansion of transnational markets ...... 216 7ZRODQG-EDVHG(PSLUHV 216 7KH(DVWHUQ4XHVWLRQDQGWKH7UHDW\RI$GULDQRSOH 218 %HLQJSDUWRI(XURSHDQGWKHFXOWXUDOGLIIXVLRQRIFDSLWDOLVP 221 Chapter 20 - The first forest protection measures and their consequences for Vrancea ...... 225 7KH0RUX]L'HFUHHDQGWKHILUVW)RUHVWU\&RGHV 225 7UDQVQDWLRQDOFRPSDQLHVIRUZRRGH[WUDFWLRQLQ9UDQFHDDQGWKHPHPRULHVRISHDVDQW UHVLVWDQFHLQ3ӽXOHúWL $ODZ\HUIRUWKHSHRSOH 233 Chapter 21 - Fighting “The Red Pest” ...... 236 7KHSORWDQGWKHHOLWHV 236 7KHXVHRIWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\ during communism (QYLURQPHQWDOLVPDQGORFDOSDWULRWLVP Chapter 24 - Property restitution and the establishment of protected areas ...... 242 +RWDU 242 'RXEOH-edged swords 245 ZZZWDUD-YUDQFHLUR 248 Chapter 25 - 7KH3DUN1DWXUD2EúWHD7XOQLFLDQG2EúWHD3ӽXOHúWL ...... 250 7KHODQGDQGWKHDFWRUV 250 7KHPDLQHFRQRPLFLQWHUHVWVLQWKHSDUN 253 7KHGHFLVLRQ-PDNLQJZLWKLQWKH&RQVXOWDWLYH&RXQFLO 254 7KHGHDWKRIWKHIDWKHU 256 ,QVWUXPHQWVDQGWDFWLFVLQWKHIRUPDWLRQRIWKHPHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQ 260 Chapter 26 - Conclusions ...... 264
Part V: Roundown - Crossing Borders for Nature ...... 268 Chapter 27 – Environmental conflicts as political dynamics of property . 268 (DUO\SROLWLFDODQGHFRORJLFDOSUHVVXUHV 268 (DUO\HFRORJLFDOFRQIOLFWV 7KHFXOWXUDOGLIIXVLRQRIFDSLWDOLVP 7KHDXWKRULWDULDQUHJLPHVDQGWKHWUDQVLWLRQVWRZDUGV(8URSH 7KHSUHVHQWFRQIOLFWV Chapter 28 – ‘The Aquarium’ and ‘the Globe’ ...... 284 7KHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶ 286 7KHSROLWLFDODFWLRQLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶ 7KHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVLQµWKHJOREH¶ 7KHSROLWLFDODFWLRQLQµWKHJOREH¶
Conclusion: When multi-level governance hits the ground ...... 294
Literature ...... 300
Table of Figures )LJXUH $QDQDO\WLFDOIUDPHZRUNIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRISURSHUW\UHODWLRQV 55 )LJXUH $QQXDOQXPEHURIELUGVULQJHGLQ*UHHQODQG -6RXUFH /\QJV 101 )LJXUH 6SHFLDO3URWHFWLRQ$UHDV 63$¶V – %LUGV'LUHFWLYH 112 )LJXUH 6LWHVRI&RPPXQLW\,PSRUWDQFH 6&,¶V – +DELWDWV'LUHFWLYH 112 )LJXUH :ULWWHQFRPSODLQWVDJDLQVWWKHDEXVLYHIRUHVWDWLRQEHWZHHQ - 6RXUFH 6RWR)HUQDQGH]DQG3ULHWR 154 Figure 6: 7KHVFKHPDWLFUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRISURSHUWLHVLQWKHVRXWKRI/DEUDGD )LJXUH $QDQDO\WLFDOIUDPHZRUNIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRISURSHUW\UHODWLRQV Figure 8: 7KHVWUXFWXUHRIWKHSURSHUW\V\VWHPRIIRUHVWVLQ5RPDQLD 6RXUFH 1DWLRQDO Forestry DeSDUWPHQW 213 )LJXUH 7ZRW\SHVRI 2EúWHD 215 )LJXUH 7KHEX\LQJRIDFFHVVULJKWVLQ9UDQFHD'DWDUHSURGXFHGIRUP6DYD ;/,, )LJXUH 7KHLQWHUQDO]RQLQJRIWKHSDUN6RXUFH 7KH0DQDJHPHQW3ODQRI3913 251 )LJXUH 7KHFDWHJRULHVRIODQGXVHLQ3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUNDFFRUGLQJWRWKHSDUN¶V PDQDJHPHQWSODQ 251 )LJXUH 7KH6WDNHKROGHUVLQ3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUN 251 )LJXUH 7KHODQGRZQHUVLQ3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUN 253 )LJXUH 7KH$TXDULXP WKH*OREH 286
Table of Pictures 3LFWXUH )LOPLQJKRZZRPHQZDVKSRUNLQWHVWLQHVLQWKHULYHUORFDWHGLQWKH1DWXUD VLWHFORVHWRWKHYLOODJH 33 3LFWXUH 7KHLQDXJXUDWLRQRI3DUTXH1DFLRQDOGHOD0RQWDxDGH&RYDGRQJDRQ6HSWHPEHU 84 3LFWXUH LGHP 85 3LFWXUH 8 3LFWXUH: $OH[DQGUX%RU]D &HQWHU LQ5HWH]DW1DWLRQDO3DUN 3LFWXUH: 7KHORJRRIWKHILUVWWRXULVPFOXELQ5RPDQLD 3LFWXUH: 7KHLQWHUQDO]RQLQJRIWKH1DWXUDVLWHVLQ6HUUDGR;LVWUDO 123 3LFWXUH: 3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUNLVVXSHUSRVHGRQWKHWZR1DWXUDVLWHV 3LFWXUH : O Toxo and $;HVWD 135 3LFWXUH 3LFWXUH: %DQQHUVXVHGE\$$VRFLDFLyQSDUDD'HIHQVD(FROy[LFDGH*DOL]D $'(*$ WRSURWHVWDJDLQVWWKHZLQGIDUPLQJLQ;LWUDODQGRWKHUSDUWVRI*DOLFLD 163 3LFWXUH: :LQGIDUPVLQ;LVWUDO 3LFWXUH 3LFWXUH )URQWFRYHURIDORFDOPRQRJUDSKDQGDSLFWXUHRI+HQDULQWKHVDPH document 3LFWXUH: 7KH*DOLFLDQFRZ³&DFKHQD´ 3LFWXUH: 5HVHDUFKHULQWKHILOHG'HFHPEHUth 203 3LFWXUH 3LFWXUH: 5RPDQLDDQG-XGHĠXO9UDQFHD 205 3LFWXUH 3LFWXUH /DQGVFDSHVLQ9UDQFHDLQIDOO 3LFWXUHV: :RRGH[WUDFWLRQFUDIWLQJDQGWUDQVSRUWLQ9UDQFHDLQ DQG 210 3LFWXUH: 7KHURXWHGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHLQGXVWULDOUDLOZD\RI7LúLĠD&RPSDQ\ 231 3LFWXUH: ,QWHUQDO]RQLQJRIWKH3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUN 253 3LFWXUH 3LFWXUH: 7KHIXQHUDORIWKHPD\RURI7XOQLFL 3LFWXUHV: /RFDOPRQRJUDSKLHVLQ9UDQFHD 262 3LFWXUH 7KHVWRQH-FURVVGHGLFDWHGWRWKHYHFKLOL 263 Annexes $QQH[, 6HFWRULDOSODQRIZLQGIDUPVLQ*DOLFLD $QQH[,, /LVWRILQWHUYLHZV $QQH[,,, 6WURQJKROG– 7KHHWKQRJUDSKLFILOPRIWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\ Chapter 1 – Introduction 1.1. What this study is about ³)LOOWKH(DUWKDQGVXEGXHLW´*RGEOHVVHG$GDPDQG(YHDIWHUWKHLUFUHDWLRQ%XWDVVRRQDV +HFORVHGWKHGRRUVRI+HDYHQRQWKHPWKH\SUREDEO\ORRNHGDWHDFKRWKHUDQGDVNHG ³2. so how dRZHJRDERXWLWWKHQ"´7KHUHVSRQVHWRWKHILUVWSDUWRIWKHEOHVVLQJFDPHLQµD QDWXUDOZD\¶ $VIRUWKHVHFRQGSDUWWKHLURIIVSULQJKDYHEHHQORRNLQJIRUDQDQVZHUHYHU VLQFH 7KHVWRU\RIJRYHUQLQJQDWXUHLVDYHU\FRPSOLFDWHGRQH$SDUWIURPUHOLJLRus view SRLQWVLWHPERGLHVYDVWWKHPHVRIKXPDQNQRZOHGJHLIQRWDOO:KHQQHZDWWHPSWVWRJRYHUQ QDWXUHWDNHSODFHWRROGRQHVZHDUHWHPSWHGWRVHHWKLVDVDVWHSIRUZDUGLQFLYLOL]DWLRQ:LWK HYHU\QHZXQYHLOLQJRIQDWXUH¶VP\VWHULHVZHKRSDKHDGLQWLPHDQGKRSHIRUEHWWHU *RYHUQLQJQDWXUHLVWKHUHIRUHQRWKLQJEXWKXPDQKLVWRU\DQGQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLVWKHPRVW recent mode of mitigating human-QDWXUHUHODWLRQVLQWKLVH[WUHPHO\NQRWW\SK\OXP$Q\ DWWHPSWVIRUJRYHUQLQJQDWXUHDUHVHWLQVSHFLILFKLVWRULFDODQGJHRJUDSKLFDOFRQWH[WVZKHUH µWKHQDWXUHVRIJRYHUQDQFH¶VKDOOEHFRQVLGHUHGDWILUVW7KHVXEMHFWPDWWHURIWKLV3K'WKHVLV H[DPLQHVWKHVLWXDWLRQZKHQDPXOWL-level governance regime meets village modes of JRYHUQLQJWKHVDPHJHRJUDSKLFDOVSDFHEXWZLWKGLIIHUHQWO\GHILQHGQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV 7KHSURMHFWLVVLWXDWHGDWWKHFRQYHUJHQFHRIWZRYDVWWKHPHVRIDFDGHPLFLQTXLU\ QDWXUHDQGSURSHUW\,WGHDOVZLWKHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQDQGVRFLDOFRQIOLFWVIURPD KLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFWLYHDQGVKRZVKRZ WKHODWHVWWUDQVQDWLRQDODWWHPSWVIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ WKH(8¶VSURJUDP1DWXUDDUHSHUFHLYHGE\ORFDOSHRSOHLQ*DOLFLD6SDLQDQG9UDQFHD 5RPDQLDDVQHZPHDQVRIODQGGLVSRVVHVVLRQ1DWXUDLVDPXOWL-level mode of governance within the EU¶VJRYHUQDQFHIUDPHZRUN*DOLFLDDQG9UDQFHDDUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\ WKHVXUYLYDORISHFXOLDU\HWVLPLODUIRUPVRIFRPPRQSURSHUW\UHJLPHVIRUIRUHVWVDQG SDVWXUHV)RUKLVWRULFDOUHDVRQVWKHODQGRIWKHVHYLOODJHVLVRXWVLGHWKHPDUNHWUHDOP LWFDQ neith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ow GRWKHlocal DFWRUVLQYROYHGLQWKH(8¶VPXOWL-lHYHOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ XVHWKHRSHQSROLF\-PDNLQJFKHVVERDUGDVDUHVRXUFHIRUDWWDLQLQJWKHLUDLPV" 5HFHQWVFKRODUO\ZRUNIURPWKHJRYHUQDQFHILHOGGHDOLQJZLWK(XURSHDQ HQYLURQPHQWDOSROLFLHV Jordan and Liefferink 2004; van der HHLMGHQ DPRQJRWKHUV ORRNVDWKRZFRPSHWHQFHVDUHVKDUHGLQWKH(8¶VPXOWL-OHYHOSROLF\-making system among various state and non-VWDWHDFWRUV7KHVHVWXGLHVWDNHDVDEDVLFDVVXPSWLRQWKHZLOOLQJQHVVRI ORFDODFWRUVWREHFRPHLQYROYHGLQWKHRSHQFKHVVERDUGRISROLF\-PDNLQJSURYLGHGE\WKH (8:LWKIHZQRWDEOHH[FHSWLRQV 3DDYRODDQG/RZH %lFNVWUDQGHWDO DQRWKHU FRPPRQIHDWXUHRIWKLVVHWRIOLWHUDWXUHLVWKDWLWSD\VOLWWOHDWWHQWLRQWRWKHUHVRXUFHVWKDWWKH local actors have in ordHUWRXQGHUVWDQGDQGDFWLQWKHQHZUHJXODWRU\VSDFH0RVWRSWLPLVWLF arguments in multi-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOUHJLPHFRPSOH[LW\VWXGLHV 'HOOD3RUWD DQG7DUURZ$OtHUDQG0HXQLHU VWDWHWKDWORFDODFWRUVGHVSLWHWKHLUODFNRIPHDQV WRZRUNLQWKHODE\ULQWKRIDPXOWL-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHZLOOXOWLPDWHO\FUHDWHSDUDOOHO LQVWLWXWLRQVDQGWKHUHE\IRUFHSRZHUIXODFWRUVWRGHDOZLWKQHZLQVWLWXWLRQDOUHDOLWLHV )URPDQRWKHUSHUVSHFWLYHVWXGLHVLQWKHILHOGRISROLWLFDOHFRORJ\ORRk at modes for JRYHUQLQJQDWXUHIURPDEURDGHUSHUVSHFWLYH%HVLGHVWKHKLVWRULFDODQGJHRJUDSKLFDO FRQWH[WXDOL]DWLRQWKHVHVWXGLHVDGGUHVVWKHRYHUDOOVRFLHWDODQGHQYLURQPHQWDORXWFRPHVRI ORFDOUHJLRQDOQDWLRQDORUVXSUD-QDWLRQDOSROLWLFVZKLFKEHDUa ZLOOWRLPSURYH /L ERWK WKHKXPDQDQGWKHHQYLURQPHQW6RPHFDOOHGWKLVHQYLURQPHQWDOLW\ $JUDZDO RWKHUV address it as JOREDOQDWXUH 3HHWHWDO EXWPRVWRIWKHVWXGLHVLQWKLVILHOGORRNDW human and natural transformations in tighWLQWHUFRQQHFWLRQ DVDVHQWLHQWHFRORJ\ $QGHUVRQ RUDVKXPDQ-QDWXUHGLDOHFWLF 3HOXVRDQG9DQGHUJHHVW 7KLVFRUSXVRIVWXGLHV looks at social conflicts in close connection with environmental degradation and search to SODFHWKHPZLWKLQEURDGHU SROLWLFDOLGHRORJLHV6RFLDOMXVWLFHLQWHUIHUHVZLWKHQYLURQPHQWDO MXVWLFH Shrader-Frechette 6FKORVEHUJ LQFRPSOH[VRFLRQDWUH QHWZRUNLQJ &DOORQ :KLOHPRVWRIWKHVHVWXGLHVGHDOSULPDU\ZLWKFRQIOLFWVLQUHPRWHDUHDVIURPWKHQRQ- westHUQZRUOGQRVWXG\IURPDSROLWLFDOHFRORJ\SHUVSHFWLYHKDVEHHQPDGHRQWKH FRQVHTXHQFHVRIWKH(8¶VQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQSROLFLHVRQWKHJURXQG0DLQO\IROORZLQJWKHSDWK RIWKHSROLWLFDOHFRORJ\WUDGLWLRQRILQTXLU\WKLVVWXG\DGGUHVVHVWKHJDSVLGHQWLILHGDERYHLQ the field of multi-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHOLWHUDWXUH 7KHFDVHRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDWWKHOHYHORIWKH(8LVSDUWLFXODUO\LQWHUHVWLQJIRUWKH VWXGLHVERWKLQPXOWL-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHDQGLQSROLWLFDOHFRORJ\EHFDXVHQDWXUDOSURWHFWHGVLWHV arHORFDWHGLQ(8URSHDQUXUDODUHDVZKLFKKDYHSRRUWHFKQRORJLFDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUHDVLVWKH 11 FDVHLQ5RPDQLDRUDUHKLJKO\GHSRSXODWHGDVLQWKHFDVHRI6SDQLVK*DOLFLDRUODFN DGHTXDWHNQRZOHGJHDVLQWKHFDVHRIERWKRIWKHP7KHIDOORIIDVFLVPLQ6SDLQRI FRPPXQLVPLQ5RPDQLDDQGVRRQDIWHUWKHDGKHVLRQRIWKHVHVWDWHVWRWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ OHIWOLWWOHWLPHDQGVRPHWLPHVRIIHUHGOLWWOHURRPIRUVRFLDODGDSWDWLRQ,QWKLVFRQWH[WWKH DELOLW\RIORFDODFWRUVWRPRYHZLWKLQWKHPXOWL-OHYHOZHERIJRYHUQDQFHLVVHYHUHO\OLPLWHG$ multi-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHKDUPVWKHORFDOFDSDFLW\IRUSROLWLFDODFWLRQZKHQWKHDFWRUV KDYHQRPHDQVWRUHVLVWVRFLDOLQMXVWLFHDQGDVLQWKHFDVHDWKDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQ +DYLQJULJKWVLVQRWHQRXJKRQHDOVR QHHGVUHVRXUFHV%HLQJDOORZHGWRSOD\LQFKHVV WRXUQDPHQWVLVRQHWKLQJNQRZLQJKRZWRSOD\LVTXLWHDQRWKHUPDWWHU,QDQDWLRQDO JRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHthe JDSEHWZHHQULJKWVDQGWKHPHDQVWRDWWDLQWKHVHULJKWVLVUHODWLYHO\ VPDOOEHFDXVHLWLVDFOHDUO\ ORFDWHGVHDWRIDXWKRULW\7KLVVWXG\VKRZVWKDWWKHVDPHLVQRW true for the EU multi-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQEHFDXVHWKHUXOHVRIWKH JDPHDUHLQILQLWHO\PRUHFRPSOH[7KHLGHDWKDWUXUDODFWRUVLQSRVW-VRFLDOLVW9UDQFHDDQG SRVW-FUDQFRLVW*DOLFLDZLOOIRUPSDUDOOHOLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGWKHUHE\IRUFHSRZHUIXODFWRUV SD\ DWWHQWLRQLVDSLSH-GUHDPDIWHUFDUHIXOO\REVHUYLQJWKHUHVRXUFHVZLWKZKLFKWKHVHSHRSOHDUH HQGRZHGZLWKDQGWKHODFNRIRULQHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIDOWHUQDWLYHFKDQQHOVFDSDEOHRIHYHQWXDOO\ HQDEOLQJWKHLUYRLFHVWREHKHDUGDOOWKHZD\XSWR%UXVVHOV 1.2. The outline of the study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n 7KH:DUHKRXVHQDPHO\FKDSWHUVDQG,GHVFULEHLQGHWDLOWKHPHWKRGRORJLFDO DQGWKHRUHWLFDOEDVLVRIWKHVWXG\7KLVVWXG\EXLOGVXSRQWKHFULWLFDOUHDOLVWWUDGLWLRQDQGDVD FRQVHTXHQFHSD\VLQFUHDVHGDWWHQWLRQWRWKHH[SOLFLWDQGPRUHLPSOLFLWRUODWHQWPDQLIHVWDWLRQV of social DFWLRQ7KLVRQWRORJLFDOSUHVHWFRQWULEXWHGWRWKHPDNLQJRIWKHPHWKRGRORJLFDO DSSDUDWXV- DQLPEULFDWLRQRIPXOWL-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\DQGKLVWRULFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQDVZHOODV the methods engendering the data – REVHUYDWLRQILOPPDNLQJDQGLQWHUYLHZVDQGWhose for DQDO\]LQJWKHGDWDQDPHO\DKLVWRULFDODQGJHRJUDSKLFDOFRPSDULVRQDQGWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRI the two ideal-W\SHV 12 7KHWKHRUHWLFDOFKDSWHUVWDUWVZLWKDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHRULJLQRIWUDQVQDWLRQDO JRYHUQDQFHDVDQDSSURDFKWRWKHGLIIXVLRQRIDXWKRULW\LQLQWHUQDWLRQDOSROLF\-PDNLQJDQG multi-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHDVWKH(8¶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assignment - PRVWRIWKHLQIRUPDWLRQFDQEHIRXQGRQWKHLQWHUQHWDQGDIWHUFRXSOLQJZLWKthe LQIRUPDWLRQIURPWKH%UXVVHOVEDVHGDFWRUVZKRP,LQWHUYLHZHGLWFDQRIIHUDQLFHWDEOHDXRI ZKDWQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLVDOODERXWLQWKH(8%XW1DWXUDGLGQRWDSSHDUH[-QLKLOR DQGDVWKHGDWDVKRZVQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLVDSUREOHPDWLFWRSLF QRWRQO\IURPDSROLF\- PDNLQJYLHZSRLQWLHDILQH-WXQLQJRIGLIIHUHQWLQWHUHVWVVXUURXQGLQJµQDWXUH¶EXWHYHQPRUH VRIURPDSKLORVRSKLFDOSRLQWRIYLHZ+HUH,SRLQWRXWWKDWEHIRUHGHVFULELQJ1DWXUD WKHUHDGHUQHHGVWREHDOHUWHGWRWKHFRQFHSWXDOLPSRUWDQFHRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ :KDWLVWKH KLVWRULFDOOLQNEHWZHHQWKHµQDWXUH¶DQGSURSHUW\":K\LVWKLVLPSRUWDQWLQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ" :KDWDUHµHFRV\VWHPVHUYLFHV¶DQGZKDWGRWKH\KDYHWRGRZLWKSURWHFWLQJQDWXUH"0\ argument here is that wiWKWKH1DWXUDFRQVHUYDWLRQSURJUDPZHZLWQHVVDnew PHWDPRUSKRVLVRIWKHFRQFHSWRIQDWXUHZLWKLQOLEHUDOWKRXJKWDSURFHVVZKLFKFRPHVDWWKH SUHFLVHPRPHQWZKHQQHROLEHUDOLVPKDVJDLQHGPRPHQWXPLQ(XURSH7KHUHIRUHWKLV HPSLULFDOSDUWLVGHGLFDWHd to an in-GHSWKSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHEHFRPLQJRIWKHLGHDRIQDWXUHLQ RUGHUWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZ1DWXUDLVGLIIHUHQWDQGVLPLODUWRSUHYLRXVDWWHPSWVLQ SURWHFWLQJQDWXUH 7KHOLEHUDODSSURDFKWRQDWXUHDQGWRQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQUHSUHVHQWVDZD\RIFRQsidering how to legitimize access to natural resources and how to deal with environmental degradation FDXVHGE\KXPDQDFWLRQJHQHUDOO\VHHQDVHFRQRPLFDFWLRQ,SURFHHGZLWKWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRI 13 WKUHHNH\WHUPV QDWXUHZLOGHUQHVVDQGZDVWH7UDFLQJEDFNthe avatars of these words as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µ:LOG¶:HVWDQGLQ FKDSWHUZH VHHKRZWKHILUVWXVHRIQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQEDFNWKHQZDVQDWLRQ-identity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related to accessing these valuDEOHV7KHVWRU\RIWKHDFFHVVWRQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDQG HQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVLQ*DOLFLD VWDUWVIURPWKHLQWULJXLQJFDVHRIKRZWKHSHRSOHIURP /DEUDGDYLOODJHDUHQRWQRZDGD\VDOORZHGWRSORZLQWKH0RQWHLQRUGHUWRPDNHSDVWXUHVIRU WKHLUFDWWOH(YHU\WLPHWKH\DVNHGWKH*DOLFLDQ(QYLURQPHQWDO'HSDUWPHQWIRUDSSURYDOQR PDWWHURQZKLFKVSRWIURPWKHKDRIWKHYLOODJH¶VFRPPRQSURSHUW\WKH\ZHUHUHIXVHG $OZD\VWKHVDPHUHDVRQ LWLVDKLJKO\SURWHFWHGDUHDSDUWRIWKH0LxR%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYH SDUWRIWKH1DWXUDHQYLURQPHQWDOQHWZRUN%XWDWWKHVDPHWLPHWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPSDQLHV IRUHQHUJ\SURGXFWLRQDQGGLVWULEXWLRQSODQWZLQGPLOOVLQQLQHPHWHUVNHWWOHIXOORIFRQFUHWHLQ WKHFRUHRIWKHKLJKO\SURWHFWHGDUHD:KDWLVSX]]OLQJLVWKHOHJLWLPL]DWLRQSURFHVVIRU DFFHVVLQJQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVLQDWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHIRUQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQ :K\DUHWKHDQVZHUVIRUWKHFRPSDQLHV³ 14 7KHORFDOFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQRIQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVLQ*DOLFLDLVOLQNHGWRDYHUQDFXODU FRPPRQSURSHUW\UHJLPHDQ agro-sylvo-SDVWRUDOV\VWHP of land-use called PRQWH I first start E\ORRNLQJDW PRQWHIURPDKLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFWLYHDQGVHHKRZSHRSOHXVHGWKLVORFDOSURSHUW\ UHJLPHWRGHIHQGWKHLUFODLPVRIDFFHVVLQWKHSDVW1H[W,SUHVHQWWKHURRWVRIWKHILUVWFROonial state regulations of PRQWH and how these regulations caused environmental degradation and VRFLDOFRQIOLFWVLQ1RUWKHUQ*DOLFLDWKHUHJLRQZKHUH/DEUDGDYLOODJHLVORFDWHG7KHQ, follow the state regulations in accessing the PRQWH LQSDUDOOHOZLWKinitiatives for nature SURWHFWLRQDQGVRFLDOFRQIOLFWVGXULQJWKH)UDQFRUHJLPHDQGWKH(8DFFHVVLRQ:LWKQR ZDUQLQJGXULQJWKH)UDQFRUHJLPHWKHPRQWH ZDVSODQWHGZLWKHXFDO\SWVOHDYLQJWKHSHRSOH LQ/DEUDGDDQGRWKHUUHJLRQVLQ*DOLFLDZLWKQRSDVWXUHVIRUWKHLUFDWWOH:LWKQRZDUQLQJ WKHORFDO*RYHUQPHQWLPSOHPHQWHGD1DWXUDVLWHSURKLELWLQJSHRSOHIURPPDNLQJWKHLU SDVWXUHV&KDSWHUVDQGSUHVHQWWKHSUHVHQWFKDQJHVLQODQG-XVHDQGWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVDW the local level in terms of environPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQDQGSROLWLFDODFWLRQ 7KHILQDOFKDSWHUFRPSDUHVWKHEXQGOHRIULJKWVLQWKHWKUHHGLVWLQFWKLVWRULFDOSHULRGV WKDWZHUHXQGHUVFUXWLQ\+HUH,UHVXPHKRZWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHGUHSRVLWLRQHGWKHPVHOYHVLQ WKHLUDWWHPSWVWROHJLWLPL]HWKHLUDFFHVVWRWKHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV%\SODFLQJWKHFXUUHQW HQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVLQWKHLUKLVWRULFDODQGJHRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WZHXQGHUVWDQGWKDWWKH ORFDOFDSDFLW\RIUHVLVWDQFHLVVWURQJO\LQIOXHQFHGE\DQDFFXUDWHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHFDXVHV of the confOLFWVµ/RFDOL]LQJWKHHYLO¶KHOSVLQILJKWLQJLW:HVHHWKDWSHRSOHPDGHXVHRIWKHLU ORFDOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHWKHPRQWHDQGXVHGLWLQWKHOHJDOVSDFHVGXULQJWKHIHXGDODQG DXWKRULWDULDQJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHVZLWKPXFKPRUHDELOLW\WKDQLQWKH(8URSHDQPulti-level RQH7KLVZDVSULPDULO\EHFDXVHRQWKHRQHKDQGWKH\KDGDEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIKRZWKHVH VSDFHVIXQFWLRQHGDQGRIWKHDXWKRULW\WKDWGRPLQDWHGWKHPDQGRQWKHRWKHUOHDUQLQJKRZWR XVHWKHVHOHJDOVSDFHVUHTXLUHGQRWVRPDQ\PDWHULDODQGNQRZOHGJHUHVRXUFHVDVWKH\UHTXLUH QRZDGD\V AFFHVVWRWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVLQ9UDQFHD WKHIRXUWKHPSLULFDO SDUWLVLQVRPHUHVSHFWVLPLODUWRWKHVWRU\IURP*DOLFLD3ӽXOHú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ting these VLWHVDQGVKRZPXFKPRUHUHOLDQFHRQWKHLUORFDONQRZOHGJHDQGRQWKHLUFDSDFLW\WRGHIHQG WKHLUDFFHVV /LNHLQWKH*DOLFLDQFDVH,SURFHHGE\GHVFULELQJREúWHDDNH\LQVWLWXWLRQDOHOHPHQW LQXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHSDVWDQGWKHRQJRLQJHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVLQ9UDQFHD2EúWHD is the YHUQDFXODUFRPPRQSURSHUW\JRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHWKDWUHJXODWHGDQGUHJXODWHVSHRSOHV¶DFFHVV WRWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHGHILQHVWKHVHYDOXDEOHV7KHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVLQ 9UDQFHDZHUHXQGHUFRQWLQXRXV challenge of meaning-FKDQJHVDPHDVLQWKH*DOLFLDQFDVH VLQFHODWHIHXGDOWLPHV7KHPHDQLQJ-FKDQJHHQGRZHGSROLWLFDOSRZHU%DFNLQWKHIHXGDO WLPHVSHRSOHLQ9UDQFHDGHIHQGHGWKHLUDFFHVVE\FROOHFWLYHO\LPSRVLQJWKHLUPHDQLQJRIWKH QDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV$WWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKH;;FHQWXU\WUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPSDQLHVIRUZRRG H[WUDFWLRQFODLPHGULJKWVWRDFFHVVQHZO\GHILQHGQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV7KHFRPSDQLHVVXFFHHGHG LQWKHLUDWWHPSWZLWKWKHKHOSRIORFDOSHRSOHZKRHPEUDFHGWKHQHZPHDQLQJVRIYDOXDEOH resRXUFHV/DWHURQWKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPHIRUFHIXOO\GLVSRVVHVVHGWKHSHRSOHIURPWKHLU SURSHUWLHV7KHVHPHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQDUHYLYLGLQSHRSOH¶VPLQGVDVZHOODVWKH SURFHVVRIQHZPHDQLQJFUHDWLRQ7KLVH[SODLQVWKHLUUHOXFWDQFHWRVFLHQWLILFNQRZOedge as ZHOODVWKHLUVWHUQQHVVLQGHIHQGLQJWKHLUULJKWV 16 1.3. How this study came about - a personal note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of research material IURP9UDQFHDWKDW,XVHKHUHZDVFROOHFWLYHO\JDWKHUHGLQFOXGLQJLQWHUYLHZVDQGILHOGZRUN QRWHV:HJUHZXSWRJHWKHUDFDGHPLFDOO\VSHDNLQJDQGVKDUHGSDVVLRQIRUVRFLDOVFLHQFHDQG ILHOGZRUNVWXGLHV6RPHIROORZHGWKHDFDGHPLFSDWKRWKHUVVZLWFKHGWUDFNV,WLVWKHUHIRUH XQHTXHVWLRQGHSROLWHVVH WRH[SUHVVP\JUDWLWXGHWRP\IRUPHUILHOG-ZRUNFROOHDJXHVDQGD PDWWHURIJRRGDFDGHPLFEHKDYLRUWRPDNHWKHUHDGHUDZDUHWKDWWKHGLVFXVVLRQVLQVLGHWKLV JURXSDQGWKHPRGHVWSXEOLFDWLRQSURMHFWVWKDWZHZRUNHGRQWRJHWKHUSDYHGP\ZD\LQ ZULWLQJWKHVHOLQHV &RQFRPLWDQWZLWKWKLVµERWWRP-XS¶TXHU\IRUVFLHQWLILFNQRZOHGJHLQWKHHYHRI(8 DFFHVVLRQ5RPDQLDQXQLYHUVLWLHVUHFHLYHGIXQGVVRWKDWWKHLU5RPDQLDQVWXGHQWVFRXOGVWXG\ DERDUG0\JHQHUDWLRQZDVDPRQJWKHILUVWZKREHQHILWHGIURPWKHFKDULW\RIWKH(8DQG WKURXJKWKH(UDVPXVSURJUDP,ZDVDEOHWRJRWRVWXG\LQ*HUPDQ\,OHIWE\WUDLQWRJRILUVW WR%XGDSHVWLQD0DUFKHYHQLQJLQ,QWKHWUDLQ,VWDUWHGDGLDU\LQZKLFh I wrote with PXFKH[FLWHPHQWDERXWP\GHSDUWXUHIRUVWXG\LQJDEURDG LWZDVQRW3DULVZDVQRW%HUOLQ HLWKHUEXWZDVFORVHWRLWDWOHDVWLQP\PLQGEDFNWKHQ)URP%XGDSHVW,WRRNWKHSODQHWR %HUOLQWRUHDFKILQDOO\WKH8QLYHUVLW\RI9LDGULQDLQ)UDQNIXUWDQGHU2GHU+HUH,ZDQWHGWR VWXG\$QWKURSRORJ\+RZHYHU,DOVRKDGWRWDNHRQHFRXUVHLQ(XURSHDQ,QWHJUDWLRQEHFDXVH WKLVLVZKDWWKHFXUULFXODLQ%XFKDUHVWDVNHGIRU,UHPHPEHUWKDWZHZHQWZLWKWKHFODVVRI (XURSHDQ,QWHJUDWLRQ RQWKHEULGJH EHWZHHQ)UDQNIXUW2GHUDQG6áXELFHWRFHOHEUDWH(8¶V GD\RQWKH th RI0D\(YHU\ERG\ZDVVLQJLQJ-RKQ/HQQRQ¶V,PDJLQHDVRQJWKDW,KDYH QHYHUEHHQDEOHWRVWDQGHYHUVLQFH'XULQJP\VWD\LQ9LDGULQD,UHDOL]HGKRZLPSRUWDQWWKLV XQLYHUVLW\ZDVIRU%UXVVHOV¶JHRSROLWLFDODLPVDWWKH(8¶VHDVWHUQERUGHUDQGZK\LDQG %UDQGHQEXUJ SXPSVVRPXFKPRQH\LQWRWKLVQHZXQLYHUVLW\7KH(XURSHDQL]DWLRQGLVFRXUVH ZDVHYHU\ZKHUH RQHYHU\ERDUG DWHYHU\SLFQLFVWRSLQWKH2GHUQLHGHUXQJ 1DWXUHVLWHV ILUVWWLPH,KDGKHDUGDERXW1DWXUDLQP\OLIH ZKHUH,ZDVZHOO«LOOHJDOO\ELNLQJ LQ DOPRVWHYHU\FRXUVHDQGLQDOPRVWHYHU\UHVHDUFKWKHPH%HLQJVRIHGXSZLWKWKH(XURSHDQ 8QLRQWKH(XURSHDQ,QWHJUDWLRQ FODVVHVZHQWEDGIRUPHRIFRXUVH%XWZKHQ,FDPHEDFN WR%XFKDUHVWWRFRPSOHWHP\%$WKHVLV,ZDVPRUHDZDUHRIWKH(XURSHDQL]DWLRQGLVFRXUVH WKDQEHIRUH,QRWLFHGZLWKPRUHDFFXUDF\WKDWWKHGLVFRXUVHRI(8LQWHJUDWLRQZDVRQHWKLQJ DQGVRFLDOUHDOLW\DQRWKHU %\UHFRXQWLQJWKLVVWRU\,ZDQWWRPDNHWKHUHDGHUDZDUHWKDWZULWLQJDERXWSRVW- VRFLDOLVPDQG(XURSHDQL]DWLRQLVDOVRYHU\PXFKUHODWHGWRSHUVRQDOH[SHULHQFH ,DPDµSRVW- VRFLDOLVWNLG¶ ,ZDVVXEMHFWWRWKH(XURSHDQL]DWLRQGLVFRXUVHP\VHOI$QGQRWRQO\WKDW I was VXEMHFWWRLWEXWDQDFWRUDVZHOO,DPSDUWRIWKHµFDWFKLQJ-XSZLWKWKHZHVW¶PRYHPHQWIURP 5RPDQLDHYHQQRZZKLOH,ZULWHWKHVHOLQHV9UDQFHDLVP\ELUWKSODFHDVILHOGLQYHVWLJDWRU Everything that followed was a search for growing-XSVWURQJDQGKHDOWK\WKDWLV DFTXLUing FRPSHWHQWDFDGHPLFVNLOOVDQGFXOWLYDWLQJDIUHHDQGLQTXLVLWLYHPLQG*DOLFLDZDVILUVW FRQFHLYHGDVDPLUURUFDVHIRU9UDQFHDEXWLWTXLFNO\JDLQHGLWVRZQSODFHLQWKHUHVHDUFK 7KLVLVKRZ,UHDFKHGDFRPSDUDWLYHVWXG\FRQFRPLWDQWZLWKDQLQWHUHVWLQ(XURSHDQPXOWL- OHYHOJRYHUQDQFH $ODVWQRWHRQWRWKHUKHWRULFXVHGLQWKHSDJHVWKDWIROORZ%HLQJHGXFDWHGSULPDULO\ LQD)UDQFRSKRQHHQYLURQPHQWWKLVGLVVHUWDWLRQZDVZULWWHQZLWKRXWDQ\SUHOLPLQDU\ DSSUHQWLFHVKLS in the Anglo-6D[RQZULWLQJWUDGLWLRQ$OWKRXJKLWPLJKWORRNVLQXRXVKHUHDQG WKHUHWRDUHDGHUXVHGZLWKWKHODWHUDSSURDFK,EHOLHYHWKDWLQWKHHQGWKHDUJXPHQWDWLRQDV VXFKVWD\VRQWKHWRSLF,WLVVLPLODUWRORRNLQJDWDVWLFNLQDSRXQG WRWKHH\HWKHVWLFNPLJKW ORRNEURNHQEXWWRWKHWRXFKLWLVVWUDLJKWDQGUHOLDEOH6RDUHWKHVWUXFWXUHDQGWKH DUJXPHQWDWLRQLQWKLVGLVVHUWDWLRQ LWPLJKWORRNDELWFRQIXVLQJWRWKHFULWLFDOH\HXVHGZLWK straight-to-the-SRLQWUKHWRULFEXW,DPFRQILGHQWWKDWDVVRRQDVWKHUHDGHUJHWVLQWRWKHVWRU\ WKHUHDGHUZLOOGLVFRYHUUHOLDEOHGDWDDQGDFRQVWDQWHDV\WRIROORZORJLF 18 Part I: The Warehouse “AOOWRROVKDYHLQWULQVLFSROLWLFV” *RGIUH\5HJJLR $VZHNQRZWKHDSSURDFKHVKDXQWLQJDURXQGLQVRFLDOVFLHQFH UHDOLVPSRVLWLYLVPIHPLQLVP HWF DUHEDVHGRQGLIIHUHQWRQWRORJLHVHSLVWHPRORJLHVPHWKRGRORJLHVDQGILQDOO\PHWKRGVRI LQTXLU\:KHQLWFRPHVWRWKHVWXG\RIKXPDQV¶LQWHUDFWLRQZLWKQDWXUHRUµZRUVH¶WRWKH DUJXPHQWVRISURWHFWLQJQDWXUHIURPKXPDQDFWLYLW\WKHERUGHUV EHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKHV EHFRPHUHGKRW7KLVLVDVLJQRIGLVWLQFWLRQEXWDOVRDVLJQRISHUPHDELOLW\7KHGLVWLQFWLRQ OLQHVEHFRPHKHDWHGEHFDXVHRI³WKHUHFRJQLWLRQWKDWVFLHQFHLVQRWREMHFWLYHRUQHXWUDODQG that it is instead value-ODGHQ´DV3Davola and Lowe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lows is actually one such H[DPSOH Chapter 2 – Methodology and Methods 7KHRQWRORJLFDOSRVLWLRQDGRSWHGKHUHE\LVWKDWRIFULWLFDOUHDOLVPQDPHO\UHMHFWLQJWKH UHDOLVPPDQWUDWKDWWKHH[WHUQDOZRUOGLVDVLWLVSHUFHLYHGEXWDGPLWWLQJDWWKHVDPHWLme that LWLVSRVVLEOHWRDFTXLUHNQRZOHGJHDERXWWKHZRUOGDVLWLV LQGHSHQGHQWRIDFWRUV¶ VXEMHFWLYLW\0RUHRYHUWKHFULWLFDOYLHZFRPHVIURPWKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWWKLVSURFHVVRI DFTXLULQJNQRZOHGJHLVPDUNHGE\DSHUPDQHQWFULWLFDOUHIOHFWLRQXSRQUHDlity that social DFWRUVXQGHUWDNH1 7KHUHIRUHWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQZKDWLVH[SOLFLWFRQVFLRXVDQGRUPDQLIHVW 1 Forsyth HVWDEOLVKHGDFOHDUUHVHDUFKDJHQGDIRUFULWLFDOUHDOLVWUHVHDUFKZLWKUHJDUGWRHQYLURQPHQWDO GHJUDGDWLRQ ³7KHDLPRIFULWLFDOUHDOLVWUHVHDUFKRQHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQLVWRKLJKOLJKWKRZVFLHQWLILF H[SODQDWLRQVRIHQYLURQPHQWDOFKDQJHSURYLGHRQO\SDUWLDOLQVLJKWVLQWRFRPSOH[ELRSK\VLFDOSURFHVVHVDQGWKDW H[LVWLQJPRGHOVRIH[SODQDWLRQUHIOHFWWKHDJHQGDVRIVRFLHWLHVWKDWFUHDWHGWKHP” VHHDOVRForsyth RQWKHRQHKDQGDQGZKDWLVLPSOLFLWXQFRQVFLRXVDQGRUODWHQWRQWKHRWKHUSOD\VDQ LPSRUWDQWUROHLQP\VWXG\$VWKHHPSLULFDOSDUWVVKRZQRWRQO\GLG,SD\DWWHQWLRQWRZKDW ZHUHWKHFRQVFLRXVH[SOLFLWPDQLIHVWDWLRQVRISHDVDQWUHVLVWDQFHIRULQVWDQFHEXWDOVRWRQRQ- PDQLIHVWRQHV QRQ-PDQLIHVWIRURXUFRPPRQXQGHUVWDQGLQJ DQGDWWHPSWHGWRVHQVHIRU FHQVRUHGRQHV+RZGR,WKLQNWKH\WKLQN WRSDUDSKUDVH0DXULFH%ORFK %ORFK ZDVDQG VWLOOLVDQHQGXULQJFRQFHUQIRUPHZKLOHJDWKHULQJDQGDQDO\]LQJWKHGDWD The way I ‘read’ in the field and analyzed LQVLWX and H[SRVW the environmental degradation and the struggles of different social actors to gain access to natural resources IROORZVWKHDERYHVWDWHPHQWV7KHUHIRUHWKLVVWXG\GRHVQRWWDNHHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQ IRUJUDQWHGEXWVKRZVKRZHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQZDVDQGLVDSROLWLFDOFRQVWUXFW following economic aims DWGLIIHUHQWOHYHOVRIVRFLDODJJUHJDWLRQDQGLQGLIIHUHQWWLPH SHULRGV1RUGRHVLWWDNHWKHVRFLDOVWUXJJOHVIRUJUDQWHGEXWVKRZVWKDWVWUXJJOHVRYHUQDWXUDO UHVRXUFHVDUHGHVSLWHSRZHUVWUXJJOHVRYHUPHDQLQJV7KHFRQYHUJHQFHRIHQYLURQPHQWDO degraGDWLRQDQGVRFLDOVWUXJJOHVIRUQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVKDVEHHQODEHOHGLQWKHOLWHUDWXUHDV HQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWV VHHQH[WFKDSWHU 7KHDFDGHPLFZRUNXQGHUWDNHQDWWKHPHHWLQJ SRLQWRIHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQDQGSROLWLFVLVODEHOHGSROLWLFDOHFRORJ\ 7KHVHFRQGSDLURIOHQVHVXVHGLQWKLVVWXG\LVWKDWRIWUDQVQDWLRQDODQGPXOWL-level JRYHUQDQFH7KLVDSSURDFKIRFXVHVRQWKHVWXG\RIUHJXODWRU\PHDVXUHVDQGWKHDFWRUVWKDW FDUU\WKHPDFURVVJHRJUDSKLFDODQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOERUGHUV,WORRNVDWKRZ³WKHSroliferation of transnational governance initiatives in recent decades – ZKLFKLVLQPDQ\ZD\V LQWHUFRQQHFWHGZLWKEURDGHUWUHQGVRIOLEHUDOL]DWLRQDQGUH-UHJXODWLRQ « – has resulted in SRO\DUFKLFDQGRYHUODSSLQJJRYHUQDQFHVWUXFWXUHVLQZKLFKPXOWLSOH DFWRUVDQGERGLHVRIWHQ FODLPDOHJLWLPDWHULJKWWRHQJDJHLQSROLF\-PDNLQJ´ 4XDFN %RWKDSSURDFKHVGHDOZLWKWKHUHJXODWRU\UHDOLW\RIWKHVRFLDOZRUOG7KHILUVWLVURRWHG LQILQHJUDLQHGLQYHVWLJDWLRQVRIWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIUHJXODWRU\PHDsures on the ground for ERWKQDWXUHDQGKXPDQV WKHODWHULVORRNLQJDWWKHEURDGHUFRQVHTXHQFHVIROORZLQJWKHVKLIWV in governance from state driven to market-EDVHGUHJXODWRU\LQFHQWLYHV7KHWZRDSSURDFKHV DUHURRWHGLQGLIIHUHQWSDUDGLJPVDQGGLIIHUHQWWUDGLWLRQVRILQTXLU\ WKHILUVWLVURRWHGLQ FULWLFDOWKHRU\DQGSRVW-VWUXFWXUDOLVPWKHODWHULVHPEHGGHGLQOLEHUDOLVPDQGQRUPDWLYH UHODWLYLVP WKHILUVWLVURRWHGLQ*HRJUDSK\DQG$QWKURSRORJ\WKHVHFRQGFRPHVIURP 3ROLWLFDO6FLHQFH1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHVHWZRDSSURDFKHVPDNHGLIIHUHQWFULWLTXHVWRQHROLEHUDO PRGHOVRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ ZKLOHSROLWLFDOHFRORJ\PDNHVDKDUVKFULWLTXHWRWKHQHROLEHUDO HFRQRPLFPRGHODSSOLHGWRQDWXUHEDVHGRQVRXQGHPSLULFDOHYLGHQFHRIµIDOVHSURPLVHVDQG unnatural consHTXHQFHV¶ +D\QHQHWDO WKHJRYHUQDQFHOLWHUDWXUHDGYRFDWHVIRUµWKH 20 EHVWWXQLQJ¶DQGLVLQSHUPDQHQWVHDUFKIRUDZLQ-win-win-ZLQ«IRUPXODWKDWZRXOGILQG HIIHFWLYHQHVVLQSROLF\7KHFRPELQDWLRQRIWKHVHWZRDSSURDFKHVRQHQYLURQPHQWDQGSROLWLFs guided the methodological design and the methods used in gathering and analyzing the data IURPWKHWZRFDVHVXQGHUVFUXWLQ\ 2.1. The cases, multi-sited ethnography and historical investigation 7KHPHWKRGRORJLFDOGHVLJQFRPELQHVHWKQRJUDSKLFDQGKLVWRULcal investigation in two case VWXGLHV,ZLOOWUHDWWKHPVHSDUDWHO\IRULWEULQJVPRUHFODULW\WRXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKH PHWKRGRORJLFDODSSDUDWXV The selection of cases 7KHWZRFDVHVSUHVHQWHGKHUHE\DUHWZRYLOODJHFRPPRQVVHHQLQWKHLUKLVWRULFDOEHFRPLQJ $VWKHVXEVHTXHQWHPSLULFDOFKDSWHUVVKRZWKHHFRQRPLFDQGSROLWLFDOLQWHUOLQNEHWZHHQWKH YLOODJHOHYHOWKHUHJLRQDOOHYHOWKHIHXGDODQGQDWLRQDOVWDWHOHYHODQGWKH(8LVDPRQJWKH factors that stimulated and still stimulates the dynamic of these vLOODJHJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHV +HUH,ZLOOH[SODLQZKDWLVVSHFLDODERXW WKHYLOODJHRI/DEUDGDDQG3ӽXOHúWLDERXW*DOLFLD DQG9UDQFHDDQGILQDOO\DERXW6SDLQDQG5RPDQLDDQGKRZWKHVHYLOODJHVFRQVWLWXWHGLQP\ FDVHV $VQRWHGLQWKHLQWURGXFWLRQWKHVWRU\RIWKLVUHVHDUFKVWDUWHGLQ9UDQFHDVRPHVHYHQ \HDUVDJR:KHQ,GHFLGHGWRXQGHUWDNHDGLVVHUWDWLRQSURMHFW,KDGDOUHDG\DJRRGHPSLULFDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHYLOODJHFRPPRQVLQ9UDQFHDmain focus of research was the re- HVWDEOLVKPHQWRIFROOHFWLYHSURSHUW\ULJKWVLQ9UDQFHD¶VSRVW-VRFLDOLVWFRQWH[W,QWKH PHDQZKLOH WKH(8LQWHJUDWLRQRI5RPDQLDLQWRWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQLQPDGH9UDQFHD WKHHQGRIWKHUDLOIRUWKH1DWXUDQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQSURJUDPDQGWKHYLOODJHVLQWKHUHJLRQ VXEMHFWVRIWKH(8¶VWUDQVQDWLRQDOSROLFLHV,QDPDWWHURIPRQWKVWUDQVQDWLRQDOQature SURWHFWLRQEHFDPHDELJLVVXHLQ9UDQFHDDQGLQ5RPDQLD/RFDOSHRSOHLQ9UDQFHDVDZWKHLU DFFHVVWRWKHLUFRPPRQSURSHUWLHVVHYHUHO\UHVWULFWHGRQO\VL[\HDUVDIWHUUHJDLQLQJWKHLU SURSHUW\ULJKWV7KHUHVHDUFKJURXS³%XLOGLQJLQVWLWXWLRQVDFURVVERUGHUV´DW03,I*JUDQWHG PHWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRIXUWKHUXQGHUWDNHP\UHVHDUFKE\VWXG\LQJWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRI WUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHRQWKHJURXQG,WZDVZLWKLQWKLVUHVHDUFKJURXSZKHQ,XQGHUVWRRG WKDW9UDQFHD¶VYLOODJHFRPPRQVFDQEHDFDVHRIDORFDOmode of governance meeting a WUDQVQDWLRQDORQH/DWHURQLWDOVREHFDPHFOHDUWKDWZHDUHGHDOLQJZLWKDSDUWLFXODUW\SHRI transnational-ORFDOLQWHUDFWLRQ DQLQWHUDFWLRQZKHUHDPXOWL-OHYHO(8URSHDQJRYHUQDQFH regime meets a local regime of governing naWXUDOYDOXDEOHVZKLFKWKURXJKRXWLWVKLVWRU\ 21 HQGRZHGWKHORFDOSHRSOHZLWKDSDUWLFXODUVHQVHRIFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\,WZDVRQO\DIWHUJRLQJ WKURXJKPDQ\SDJHVRIWUDQVQDWLRQDODQGPXOWL-level governance literature that I understood WKDWWKLVVWXG\LVLPSRUWDQWEHFDXVHLWSUHVHQWVDQRGGHQFRXQWHUPD\EHRQHRIWKHPRVW H[WUHPHHQFRXQWHUVWKDWRQHFDQREVHUYHLQJRYHUQDQFHVWXGLHV RQHEHWZHHQPXOWL-level JRYHUQDQFHDQGYLOODJHJRYHUQDQFHRIWKHVDPHSK\VLFDOVSDFHEXWGLIIHUHQWO\GHILQHGQDWXUDO YDOXDEOHV $FFRUGLQJWRP\NQRZOHGJHWKHYLOODJHVLQ9UDQFHDKDYHDIRUPRIFRPPRQSURSHUW\UHJLPH XQLTXHLQ5RPDQLDDQGWKLVPDLQO\GXHWRKLVWRULFDODQGJHRSROLWLFDOUHDVRQV7KH5RPDQLDQ 3ULQFLSDOLWLHV:DOODFKLD0ROGDYLDDQG7UDQV\OYDQLDZHUHXQGHUWKHVXzerainty of two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m RISURSHUW\IURPWKH;,;FHQWXU\RQZDUGV,Q9UDQFHDDVZHOODVLQRWKHUSDUWVRI5RPDQLD PRVWRIWKHVHDWWHPSWVWXUQHGLQWRIRUPVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQDQGPDVVLYHHFRORJLFDOGHJUDGDWLRQ WKHPRVWH[WUHPHFDVHEHLQJWKHDEROLWLRQRIFRPPRQSURSHUW\ULJKWVand massive de- and re- 2 ;,;FHQWXU\HFRQRPLFVZDVDQLPDWHGE\VWURQJGHEDWHVRQWKHRULJLQVDQGHYROXWLRQRIWKHFRPPXQDOV\VWHP RISURSHUW\0DLQUHIHUHQFHSRLQWVLQ WKHGHEDWH FDQEHFRQVLGHUHG from +D[WKDXVVHQ¶VhEHUGLH $JUDUYHUIDVVXQJ LQGHQ)UVWHQWKXP3DGHERUQXQG&RUYH\ DQGKowalewsky’s seven volume 'LH |NRQRPLVFKH(QWZLFNOXQJ(XURSDVELV]XP%HJLQQGHUNDSLWDOLVWLVFKHQ:LUWVFKDIWVIRUP - A good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a region characterL]HGE\DSDUWLFXODUVHQVHRIORFDOLGHQWLW\GXHWRLWVSHFXOLDUIRUPRI SURSHUW\UHJLPHDQGWRDWUDGLWLRQRIUHVLVWDQFHGDWLQJEDFNWRWKHKDUVKIHXGDODQGGLFWDWRULDO SROLWLFDOUHJLPHVLQWKHSUHVHQWWLPHVRIIUHHGRP RIVSHHFK DQGIUHHSROLWLFDODFWLRQWKLV FROOHFWLYHUHVLVWDQFHLVQRWKDSSHQLQJ7KH9UDQFHDUHJLRQKDGDQRXWVWDQGLQJJHRSROLWLFDO SRVLWLRQEHIRUHXQWLO LWKDGDQGVWLOOKDVDQRXWVWDQGLQJOHJDOFKDUDFWHULQ5RPDQLDGXH WRLWVHJDOLWDULDQFROOHFWLYHSURSHUW\UHJLPH$VWKHGDWDVKRZVWKLVSURSHUW\UHJLPHZDVWKH SRLQWDURXQGZKLFKUHVLVWDQFHFRDJXODWHGGXULQJSDVWDWWHPSWVRIUHVWULFWLQJDFFHVVEXWWRGD\ WKLVLVQRWWKHFDVHDQ\PRUH7KLVLVZKDWPDNHVWKH9UDQFHDUHJLRQH[FHSWLRQDODQGWKLVLV what makes it interesting studying usLQJDQDSSURDFKURRWHGLQSROLWLFDOHFRORJ\DQG JRYHUQDQFHVWXGLHVPRUHWKDQLQWKHQDUURZFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQSDUDGLJP VHHWKHIROORZLQJ VHFWLRQV &KRRVLQJDYLOODJHWKDWZRXOGKHOSPHXQGHUVWDQGWKHODFNRISUHVHQWUHVLVWDQFHLQ 9UDQFHDLVDKLVWRU\LQ LWVHOI1RWDOOYLOODJHVLQWKH9UDQFHDUHJLRQDUHWRXFKHGE\WKHPDJLF ZDQGRIWKH1DWXUDSURJUDPUDWKHURQO\WKRVHIURPWKH3XWQD9DOOH\$PRQJWKH YLOODJHVLQWKLVYDOOH\VRPHDUHVSHFLDOIURPWKHHFRQRPLFSHUVSHFWLYHVXFKDV7XOQLFLZKLFK is tKHYLOODJHZLWKWKHVHFRQGODUJHVWFRPPRQSURSHUW\LQ5RPDQLDDWRWDORI KHFWDUHV DQGZKLFKIRUPVPRUHWKDQRIWKH3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUNDQGWKH1DWXUD SURWHFWHGVLWHV VHHFKDSWHU %XWZKHUHELJULFKHVDUHELJHFRQRPLFLQWHrests are not far EHKLQGDQGWKRVHIURP7XOQLFLDUHTXLWHSHFXOLDUDQGQRWUHSUHVHQWDWLYHHLWKHUIRUWKH3XWQD 9DOOH\QRU9UDQFHD2WKHUYLOODJHVRQWKH3XWQD 9DOOH\SUHVHUYHGWKHLUWUDGLWLRQDOXVHRIODQG PRUHWKDQRWKHUVVXFKDV%kUVHúWLZKLFKFDQEHVWLOOFRQVLGHUHGDYLOODJHZLWKLWVHFRQRP\ EDVHGPDLQO\RQSDVWRUDODFWLYLWLHV )URPWKHHFRQRPLFSHUVSHFWLYH3ӽXOHúWLFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGDQDYHUDJHYLOODJH FRPPXQLW\IRU9UDQFHDZLWKDQDYHUDJHFRPPRQSURSHUW\RIKHFWDUHVZLWKD WUDGLWLRQDOSDVWRUDODFWLYLW\LQGHFOLQHDVLVWKHFDVHQRWRQO\LQ9UDQFHDEXWLQDOO5RPDQLD ZLWKLQKDELWDQWVRXWRIZKLFKZHUHRYHUWKHDJHRIHLJKWHHQLQ ZKLFKLVDQ DYHUDJHSRSXODWLRQLQFRPSDULVRQZLWKRWKHUYLOODJHVIURP9UDQFHDDQG5RPDQLD%XWWKHUH LVRQHDVSHFWLQZKLFK3ӽXOHúWLLVXQLTXHLQ9UDQFHD LWLVWKHILUVWYLOODJHLQWKH9UDQFHD 23 UHJLRQDWWHVWHGLQKLVWRULFDOGRFXPHQWVQDPHO\LQ$VWKHOHJHQGLQ9UDQFHDJRHVRQH ZRPDQQDPHG9UkQFLRDLDKDGVHYHQVRQVZKRIRXJKWEUDYHO\LQWKHDUP\RI6WHSKHQWKH *UHDW UHLJQLQJ\HDUV- DJDLQVWWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUH)RUWKHLUEUDYHQHVVHDFKRI WKHVRQVUHFHLYHGDPRXQWDLQDVSURSHUW\³WREHIRUWKHLUGHVFHQGHQWVXVHIUHHRIWD[HVXQWLO WKHHQGRIWLPH´$QGDVWKHOHJHQGJRHVWKHLUGHVFHQGHQWVIRUPHGYLOODJHV7KHUHLVD FXVWRPDU\TXDUUHOLQ9UDQFHDUHJDUGLQJZKRWKHVHYHQKLVWRULFDOYLOODJHVDUHVRPHWKLQJ similar to who is a true local LQKDELWDQWRI9UDQFHD$QGWKLVQRWZLWKRXWUHDVRQIRUWKHULJKW RILQGLJHQRXVQHVVFRQYHUWVLQWRULJKWRIDFFHVVWRFRPPRQSURSHUW\ VHHFKDSWHU ,Q 3ӽXOHúWLSHRSOHDUHFHUWDLQWKDWWKH\DUHWKHGHVFHQGHQWVRI3DXODQGWKH\DUHSURXGWKDWWKHLU vLOODJHLVWKHROGHVWDWWHVWHGRQHLQWKHSUHFLVH\HDURIWKHGHDWKRIWKHJUHDW9RLYRGHRI 0ROGDYLD7KHUHIRUHSHRSOHKHUHHQGRZDFHUWDLQSULGHDQGWKLVVHQWLPHQWLVSHUPDQHQWO\ IXHOHGHYHQPDQLSXODWHGE\ORFDOFXOWXUDOHOLWHVDQGFXOWXUDOEURNHUV FKDSWHU VRPHWLPHVLQFORVHFRQQHFWLRQZLWKORFDOSROLWLFV %HIRUHJRLQJWR9UDQFHDIRUWKHILUVWWLPH,NQHZWKDW3ӽXOHúWLZDVµWKHROGHVW¶YLOODJH LQ9UDQFHD$IWHUJRLQJWKHUH,GLGQRWFRXQWWRRPXFKRQWKLVVSHFLILFDFFRXQWLQP\UHVHDUFK DVVXFKEXW,GLGFRXQWRQSHRSOHV¶PDQLIHVWSULGHIRUEHLQJIURP3ӽXOHúWLDVHQWLPHQWZKLFK FDQEHDWPRPHQWVHDVLO\REVHUYHG VHHWKHILOP6WURQJKROGWKHVFHQHRIYLOODJH DVVHPEO\ DQGQRWQHFHVVDULO\FRPLQJIURPWKHIDFWWKDWWKHLUYLOODJHZDVWKHRQHILUVW DWWHVWHGLQ9UDQFHD(YHQZKHQ,VWDUWHGZRUNLQJIRUWKLVGLVVHUWDWLRQ,H[SHFWHGµWKLVSULGHWR ILJKWWKHV\VWHP¶WRSOD\VRPHVSHFWDFXODUUROHLQWKHSUHVHQWUHVLVWDQFHDJDLQVWWKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI1DWXUDDVLWGLGZKHQWKH\JDWKHUHGWRUHJDLQWKHLUSURSHUW\ULJKWV EDFNLQ%XWWKLVVHQVHRIORFDOLGHQWLW\RISULGHIRUEHORQJLQJWRDQLPSRUWDQWYLOODJHLQ 9UDQFHDLVQRWHQRXJKQRZDGD\VWRVWLPXODWHWKHDFWRIGHIHQGLQJDQGUH-claiming access to WKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV 1HYHUWKHOHVV,FKRVHWKHYLOODJHRI3ӽXOHúWLIRULWZDVWKHILUVWSODFHZKHUH,KDYHHYHU PDGHHWKQRJUDSKLFILHOGZRUNDQGLVWKHYLOODJH,NQRZEHVWLQWKH9UDQFHDUHJLRQ:KHQ, GHFLGHGWRFRQWLQXHP\ILHOGZRUNLQ3ӽXOHúWLIRUWKLVGLVVHUWDWLRQP\LQWHJUDWLRQLQthe village was high and therefore was another good reason to continue the research in this YLOODJH%HLQJKRVWHGE\&XOLĠӽDQGKLVZLIH5LFDZDVFXVWRPDU\VRWRVD\IRUWKH\ZHUHWKH ILUVWKRVWV,KDGLQ9UDQFHD5LFD¶VUHPDUNXSRQP\DUULYDOLVYHU\WHOOLQJLQWKLVUHJDUG ³\RX QHHGWRVWD\KHUHIRUKHUHHYHQWKHGRJVNQRZ\RX´ :KLOHSODQQLQJWKLVVWXG\,EHFDPHWURXEOHGZLWKWKHTXHVWLRQRIKRZPXFK9UDQFHD¶VFDVHLV RXWVWDQGLQJLQ(XURSHZLWKUHJDUGWRLWVFRPPRQSURSHUW\UHJLPHDQGZLWKUHJDUGWRthe role 24 RISDVWPHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQLQWKHSUHVHQWHQFRXQWHUZLWK(XURSHDQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ, NQHZIURPWKHOLWHUDWXUHVXUURXQGLQJWKHGHEDWHRQWKHWUDJHG\RIWKHFRPPRQVRIDIHZ RWKHUH[DPSOHVLQWKH6ZLVV$OSV$OEDQLDRUWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\ EXWWKHODQJXDJHEDUULHULQ LQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHVHIRUPVRIVLPLODUSURSHUW\UHJLPHVZDVDQLPSRUWDQWLVVXH1HYHUWKHOHVV, ZDQWHGWRFRPHZLWKP\RZQILQGLQJVIRUWKHSXUSRVHRIVWUHQJWKHQLQJWKHYDOXHRIWKLVVWXG\ 7KHUHIRUH,QHHGHGWRSURGXFHDGLUHFW UHSOLFDWLRQRIWKH9UDQFHDFDVH It was matter of chance to meet Josemiguel Lana-%HUDVDLQSURIHVVRURIHFRQRPLFVDW WKH3XEOLF8QLYHUVLW\RI1DYDUUHLQ,UXxHD-3DPSORQD6SDLQDWWKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO$VVRFLDWLRQ IRUWKH6WXG\RIWKH&RPPRQV conference in &KHOWHQKDPLQ-XO\$IWHUDWWHQGLQJKLV SUHVHQWDWLRQZHNHSWLQFRQWDFWDQG-RVHPLJXHOPDGHPHDZDUHWKDWDVLPLODUIRUPWR9UDQFHD ZDVWREHIRXQGLQ6SDQLVK*DOLFLD7KDWDXWXPQ,PDGHDVKRUWUHVHDUFKYLVLWWR3DPSORQD where I started the documenWDWLRQDERXW*DOLFLD,KDGWRXQGHUWDNHDFDUHIXOFKRLFHIRU VHYHUDOUHDVRQV)LUVW,ZDVLQWHUHVWHGLQDYLOODJHZKRVHFRPPRQSURSHUW\ZRXOGEH FRPSDUDEOHLQVL]HDQGJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHWRWKDWRI3ӽXOHúWL6HFRQGWKLVFRPPRQSURSHUW\ ZDVVXSSRVHGWREH LQWKH1DWXUDQHWZRUN$QGWKLUGWKHKLJKGHSRSXODWLRQUDWHVRI UXUDODUHDVLQ*DOLFLDKDGWREHWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQW WKHYLOODJHKDGWRKDYHDVLJQLILFDQW QXPEHURILQKDELWDQWV7KXVLQWKLVWKHUHZDVDODERULRXVXQGHUWDNLQJ :KLOHVWLOOLQ&RORJQHEHIRUHJRLQJWR*DOLFLD,FKHFNHGRQWKHLQWHUQHWIRUDPDS ZLWK1DWXUDVLWHVLQ*DOLFLDDQG,VDZWKDWWKHQRUWKHDVWHUQSDUWRIWKHUHJLRQKDVVXFK SURWHFWHGDUHDV%XWWKLVDUHDKDGPRUHLQWHQVHQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDFWLYLW\WKDQ,LQLWLDOO\ envisaged for here the %LRVSKHUH5HVHUYH7HUUDVGR0LxR LVORFDWHGDELRVSKHUHUHVHUYH LQVWLWXWHGIRUWKHSURWHFWLRQRIWKHROGHVWDFWLYHSHDWUHVHUYHLQ(XURSH:KHQ,ILUVWDUULYHGLQ /XJR,IRXQGDPDSZLWKZLQGIDUPVLQ*DOLFLD VHHDQQH[ ZKLFKFOHDUO\shows that the PRVWGHQVHZLQGIDUPDFWLYLW\LVORFDWHGLQWKHVDPHUHJLRQ:KHQ,DVNHG3URI0DQXHO 0DUH\3UH]P\KRVWDW(VFROD3ROLWp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cDVH)URPZKDW0DQXHONQHZZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHQXPEHURIKHFWDUHVWKHUHVKRXOGKDYHEHHQ QRSUREOHPEHFDXVHDOOYLOODJHVKDYHLPSRUWDQWDPRXQWVRIFRPPRQODQG%XWZLWKUHJDUGWR 25 SRSXODWLRQWKLVZDVWUXO\DSUREOHP+HDGYLVHGPHWRFRQWDFW'9IURPWKH 1*2 $VRFLDFLyQSDUDD'HIHQVH(FROy[LFDGH*DOL]D'9PDGHPHDZDUHDERXWWKHORFDOFRQIOLFW FRQFHUQLQJWKHSODQWLQJRIZLQGIDUPVLQWKHELRVSKHUHUHVHUYHDQGWKHUHVWULFWLRQVLPSRVHGWR WKHORFDOIDUPHUVE\ORFDOHQYLURQPHQWDOJXDUGVLQDPLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI1DWXUD'9 JDYHPHWKHSKRQHQXPEHURI+HQDUDQGWKLVLVKRZ,DUULYHGLQ/DEUDGDRQ 2FWREHU /DEUDGDLVDYLOODJHSDUWRIWKHFRPPXQH D\XQWDPHQWR RI$EDGLQ$EDGLQKDVDWRWDO SRSXODWLRQRISHRSOH LQ WKDWOLYHLQYLOODJHV SDUURTXLDV (DFKYLOODJHKDVLWV RZQFRPPRQSURSHUW\LWVRZQ PRQWH7KHYLOODJHRI/DEUDGDLVWKHPRVWSRSXODWHGRQH,W KDV YHFLxRV - WKDWLV IDPLOLHV- DQGDWRWDORISHRSOHRXWRIZKLFKDUHPDOHV DQGWKHDYHUDJHDJHLV6LQFHP\PDLQVXEMHFWPDWWHUIRUUHSOLFDWLRQZDVWKHFRPPRQV UHJLPH,ZDVIRUFHGWRVWD\DWWKHYLOODJHOHYHODQGWRORRNDWGHPRJUDSKLFVDVDYDULDEOHZLWK KLJKH[SODQDWRU\SRWHQWLDO /DEUDGDLVWKHVHFRQGROGHVWYLOODJHDPRQJWKHYLOODJHVWKDWIRUP$EDGLQILUVW PHQWLRQHGLQKLVWRULFDOGRFXPHQWVLQDQGKDVKHFWDUHVRIFRPPRQODQGPDQDJHG VLPLODUO\WRKRZSHRSOHGRVRLQ3ӽXOHúWL6LPLODUWR9UDQFHDWKHFRPPRQODQGLQ*DOLFLDLV DOVRRXWVLGHWKHPDUNHWUHDOPEXWIRUGLIIHUHQWUHDVRQV:KDWGLIIHUHQWLDWHV/DEUDGDIURP 3ӽXOHúWLWKHPRVWDQGWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHIURP9UDQFHDLVWKHLPSRUWDQFHWKHFRPPRQ SURSHUW\UHJLPHKDGLQIHXGDOWLPHV 7KHODQGLQ*DOLFLDGHIDFWR GLGQRWEHORQJWRWKHYLOODJHVDWDOOXQWLO VHH The agricultural ODQGEHORQJHGWRWKHFKXUFKRUWRWKHFURZQDQGWKH\ZHUHDGPLQLVWUDWHGLQD system of IRUR FRPPRQLQIHXGDO6SDLQ 7KHPRQWHV were considered WHUUDVLQFXOWDV ZDVWHDQGZHUHQRWVXEMHFWWRWD[DWLRQWKHUHIRUHRXWVLGHWKHPDUNHWUHDOP0RUHRYHU*DOLFLD ZDVQRWDERUGHUOLQHUHJLRQOLNH9UDQFHDVLWXDWHGEHWZHHQWZRHPSLUHVDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\WKH *DOLFLDQSHRSOHZHUHQRWHQGRZHGZLWKPLOLWDU\GXWLHVXQOLNHWKHSHRSOHLQ9UDQFHD*DOLFLD ZDVSDUWRIWKHILUVWZRUOGZLGHFRORQLDOSRZHULQZRUOGKLVWRU\$OWKRXJKVLWXDWHGRQµWKH FRQWLQHQW¶*DOLFLDVHUYHGLWVGXWLHVDVDQ\RWKHUWUDQV-PDULWLPHFRORQ\QDPHO\SURYLGLQJ URXJKPDWHULDOVDQGODERUIRUFHDIRUPRIFRORQLDOLVPWKURXJKFXOWXUDOGLYLVLRQRIODERUWKDW 0LFKDHO+HFKWHUUHIHUHGWRDV³LQWHUQDOFRORQLDOLVP´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¶VFDVHDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\WKHIUHHGRPWKDW9UDQFHD HQMR\HGGXULQJIHXGDOWLPHVLVRIVHFRQGDU\LPSRUWDQFHLQWKLVUHJDUG:KDWPDWWHUV QRZDGD\VDUHWKHPHPRULHVRISDVWIRUPVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQDQGUHVLVWDQFHDQGQRWWKHRYHUDOO LQVWLWXWLRQDOFRQWH[WLQZKLFKWKH\KDSSHQHG%XWDV7KRPDV(ULNVHQVKRZVLQKLVERRNSmall SODFHVODUJHLVVXHV (ULNVHQ VWXG\LQJVPDOO-scale societies is relevant for XQGHUVWDQGLQJFRPSOH[SKHQRPHQD%\VSHQGLQJDWRWDORIQLQHPRQWKVLQ the village of /DEUDGDDQG3ӽXOHúWL,VDZKRZLWLVDFWXDOO\LPSRVVLEOHWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHVPDOO-scale village VRFLHW\E\RQO\IRFXVLQJRQWKHYLOODJH¶VGD\WRGD\OLIH7KHVHWZRYLOODJHVZHUHSDUWRIODUJH LVVXHV ORQJEHIRUHP\DUULYDOHYHQFHQWXULHVDJR7KHLUORFDWLRQQRZDGD\V DWWKHSHULSKHU\RI WKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQRQHLQWKHIDUZHVWWKHRWKHULQWKHIDUHDVWLQFUHDVHGWKHLULPSRUWDQFHLQ WKHFRQWH[WRI(8URSHDQLQWHJUDWLRQWKURXJKWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI1DWXUD$VVPDOODV WKH\DUHDQGDVSHULSKHUDODVWKH\ORRNRQWKHPDSWKHVHWZRYLOODJHVEHFRPHLPSRUWDQWIRU ODUJHLVVXHV QRWE\WKHLULQQHUFRQIOLFWVEXWE\WKHZD\WKH\DUHFRQWDFWHGWRFRPSOH[OHJDO RUGHUVLQDWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHVHWWLQJ Multi-sited ethnography (WKQRJUDSK\DVDQ³LQWKHILHOG´UHVHDUFK 3 0DUFXVQRWHV ³(WKQRJUDSK\LVSUHGLFDWHGXSRQDWWHQWLRQWRWKHHYHU\GD\DQLQWLPDWHNQRZOHGJHRIIDFH-to- IDFHFRPPXQLWLHVDQGJURXSV7KHLGHDWKDWHWKQRJUDSK\PLJKWH[SDQGIURPLWVFRPPLWWHGORFDOLVPWRUHSUHVHQW DV\VWHPPXFKEHWWHUDSSUHKHQGHGE\DEVWUDFWPRGHOVDQGDJJUHJDWHVWDWLVWLFVVHHPVDQWLWKHWLFDOWRLWVYHU\ QDWXUHDQGEH\RQGLWVOLPLWV´ PHWKRGRORJ\ZKLFKDOORZVIRUPDSSLQJSURFHVVHVZKLFKDUH³WUDQVORFDOO\URRWHGDQGQRW HVVHQWLDOO\URRWHG´ 0RRUH 6DOO\0HUU\DOVRHPSKDVLVWKDWWKLVLVHYHQPRUHWKH FDVHLQWKHFRQWH[WRIJOREDOL]DWLRQDQGSOXUDOOHJDORUGHUVZKHQ³>D@SODFHFDQQRORQJHUEH IXOO\XQGHUVWRRGE\MXVWVWD\LQJWKHUH´7KHUHIRUH³WKHFODVVLFIRFXVRQDORFDOSODFHLVQR ORQJHUDGHTXDWHIRUWKHHWKQRJUDSKLFVWXG\RIVRFLDOOLIHLQWKHWZHQW\-ILUVWFHQWXU\´ 0HUU\ The multi-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\WKDW,XQGHUWRRNLQWKLVVWXG\WUDFHVLGHDVDQGSUDFWLFHVEH\RQG WKHERXQGDULHVRIWKHXQLWRIDQDO\VLVZKLFKIRUWKHDQDO\WLFDOVDNHLVWKHYLOODJH,QERWK FDVHV,WUDQVFHQGHGWKHERXQGDULHVRIWKHYLOODJHVWRZDUGVWKHQHLJKERULQJvillages and WRZDUGVWKHUHJLRQ7KLVEHFDXVH,IROORZHGWKHDFWRUVLQWKHLUQHWZRUNLQJ– and this is the first understanding of multi-VLWXDWHGHWKQRJUDSK\WKDW,UHIHUWR7KHVHFRQGOHYHORIWKLV GHVLJQLVJLYHQE\WKHWKUHHVLWHVZKHUH,XQGHUWRRNILHOG-UHVHDUFK 9UDQFHD*DOLFLDDQG %UXVVHOV7KLVZDVQHFHVVDU\IRULQFRUSRUDWLQJLQWKHHWKQRJUDSKLFFDUWRJUDSK\WKHPDNLQJRI QHZWUDQVQDWLRQDOUHJXODWLRQVIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ,ZLOOEHPRUHVSHFLILFDQGVKRZZKDW consisted multi-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\LQP\VWXG\ 9UDQFHD %DVHGRQP\SUHYLRXVNQRZOHGJHLQWKHILHOGI assumed that actors from the YLOODJHRI3ӽXOHúWLDUHUHODWHGZLWKDFWRUVIURPQHLJKERULQJYLOODJHVWKURXJKNLQHFRQRPLF DQGSROLWLFDOUHODWLRQV,DOVRNQHZIURPWKHKLVWRULFDOGRFXPHQWVDQGOLWHUDWXUHWKDW9UDQFHD DVDUHJLRQKDVDSHFXOLDUKLVWRU\LQWKHWUDQVLWLRQIURPIHXGDOLVPWRFDSLWDOLVPLQWKHPLG QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\DQGWKDWWKLVSHFXOLDULW\LVEDVHGRQLWVSDUWLFXODUV\VWHPRISURSHUW\%XW SURSHUW\UHODWLRQVLQ9UDQFHDDUHHVVHQWLDOO\WUDQV-ORFDO0RUHRYHU,NQRZWKDWGXULQJWKH communist regimeWKHYLOODJHRI3ӽXOHúWLZDVLQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRWKH7XOQLFLFRPPXQHDQG WKDWWKHFRPPXQLVWDJULFXOWXUDOUHIRUPHQYLVDJHGWKHXSSHUVWUHDPRI3XWQDYDOOH\ 7KHUHIRUHLWZDVFOHDUIRUPHIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJWKDWLQRUGHUWRIROORZWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRI land uVHFKDQJHFDXVHGE\WKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWE\1DWXUDDQGWKHUHVLVWDQFHSUDFWLFHVDW ORFDOOHYHO,ZRXOGKDYHWRFURVVWKHERUGHUVRIWKHYLOODJHRI3ӽXOHúWL7KLVLVZK\, VRPHWLPHVVSHDNRI3ӽXOHúWL-7XOQLFLDVRQHXQLWRU,FRQVLGHUWKHEHFRPLQJRIWLPEer-PDUNHW or of the estate-PDUNHWLQ/HSúDDVYHU\LPSRUWDQWIRU3ӽXOHúWLYLOODJH/DWHURQ,XQGHUVWRRG WKDWWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWUDQVQDWLRQDOQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQODZVHPSRZHUVWKHWUDQV-local UHVLVWDQFH7KHH[DPSOHRIZZZWDUD-YUDQFHLUR LVYHU\WHOOLQJLQWKLVUHJDUG+HQFHLWZDV EHFDXVHLQWKHILHOGLWZDVLPSRVVLEOHWRLVRODWHµWKHYLOODJH¶DVDQXQLWRILQYHVWLJDWLRQWKDW, moved towards a multi-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSKLFVWUDWHJ\ 28 DQDO\WLFDOXQLWLVRQO\IRUDQDO\WLFDOSXUSRVHVDOWKRXJKWKHHWKQRJUDSKLFVWXG\DVVXFK FRQVLVWHGLQPRUHWKDQVRFLDOL]LQJZLWKWKHSHRSOHIURPRQHYLOODJH *DOLFLD ,Q*DOLFLD,FRQVWDQWO\KDGLQPLQGWKHVLWXDWLRQIURP9UDQFHD,NQHZWKDW aFWRUVQHWZRUNFURVVLQJWKHERXQGDULHVRIWKHYLOODJHDQGWKDW,ZRXOGKDYHWRIROORZWKHP DURXQGWKHYLOODJHDVZHOODVLQLW 7KHQ,IRXQGRXWWKDWWKHYLOODJHRI/DEUDGDLVLQFORVH connection with the surrounding villages due to the common use of PRQWHV and due to the HVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHZLQGIDUPV+HUHOLNHLQWKH9UDQFHDFDVHWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI1DWXUD WKHEXLOGLQJRIZLQGPLOOVGHVSLWHWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQFRXSOHGZLWKVHYHUH UHVWULFWLRQVDSSOLHGWRWKHORFDOVJHQHUDWHGWUDQV-locDOUHVLVWDQFH)RUQRZWKHDFWXDWLRQRI FXOWXUDOEURNHUVLVWKHPRVWHYLGHQWSUDFWLFH ZHQHHGWRVHHLIWKLVZLOOFRQYHUWLQWRDERWWRP- XSUHVLVWDQFHZKLFKZLOOFRDJXODWHWKHYLOODJHVDURXQG;LVWUDO+RZHYHUWKHSUDFWLFHRIPXOWL- VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\LQFOXGHGWKHQHLJKERULQJYLOODJHVRI)UH[XOIH0RQWRXWR5RPDUL]DQG $EDGLQ,DOVRIROORZHGWKHPHPEHUVRIP\KRVWIDPLO\LQWKHLUGDLO\HFRQRPLFDFWLYLWLHV which weekly trans-SDVVHGWKHYLOODJH IRUJRLQJWRWKHPDUNHWWRWKHDEDWWRLURUIRUWKH meetings in the FRRSHUDWLYD &RRSHUDWLYD6DQ&LGUH– DQRUJDQL]DWLRQRIORFDOIDUPHUV 7KH SDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHIRXUWK&RQJUHVR*DOHJRGH&RPXQLGDGHVGH0RQWHV DQG0D\ RUWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVHPLQDUVDWWKH)RUHVWU\,QVWLWXWHIURP/XJRIRUWZRZHHNVLQ 6HSWHPEHU ZHUHDOVRSDUWRIWKHPXOWL-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\WKDW,XQGHUWRRNLQ*DOLFLD %UXVVHOV ,Q%UXVVHOV,GLGP\EHVWWRWDNHSDUWLQWKHPHHWLQJVUHODWHGWROREE\LQJ VWUDWHJLHVRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWHQYLURQPHQWDO1*2VEXWLWZDVPRUHGLIILFXOW that initially HQYLVDJHG7KHUHIRUH,SURFHHGHGWRKHDG-KXQWLQJVWUDWHJLHVIRUHQJDJLQJZLWK1*2DFWLYLVWV DVPXFKDVSRVVLEOH7KLVZDVQRWHQRXJKLQRUGHUWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZOREE\LQJVWUDWHJLHV EHWZHHQ1*2VDQG(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQZRUN7KHUHIRUH,PRYed to staying close to a :DOORQLDQHQYLURQPHQWDO1*2DQGWRVHHLWDWZRUNLQHVWDEOLVKLQJVRPHSURWHFWHGDUHDVLQ WKH)UHQFKSDUWRI%HOJLXP7KLV1*2LVSDUWRIDIHGHUDWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDO1*2VDQG ZKLOHSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHLUPHHWLQJVDQGJRLQJLQWRWhe meadows with them I was SHUPDQHQWO\FRQFHUQHGWRVHHKRZWKHLQIRUPDWLRQWKH\JDWKHUUHDFKHVWKHFHQWHURIWKH1*2 FRQIHGHUDWLRQ 1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHPXOWL-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\WUDQVIHUUHGWR&RORJQHDIWHUWKHRIILFLDOHQG RIP\ILHOGZRUNSHULRGIRU,NHSW LQFORVHFRQQHFWLRQZLWK$$RQHRIWKHHQYLURQPHQWDO DFWLYLVWVIRUP::)LQ%UXVVHOVDQGZLWKP\LQIRUPDQWVIURP*DOLFLDDQG9UDQFHD%HFDXVH the conflicts on the ground are ongoing and the data gathering was a real-WLPHSURFHVVORQJ 6N\SHFRQYHUVDWLRQVRUVKRUWSKRQHFDOOVDIWHULPSRUWDQWHYHQWVSHUPDQHQWO\UH-confirmed my FRQQHFWLRQDOEHLWQRQ-SK\VLFDOZLWKWKHILHOG The historical investigation 7KHKLVWRULFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQFRQFHUQVWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVLQWKHQRUWKHUQ*DOLFLDDQG 9UDQFHDUHJLRQVIURPWKHHQGRIHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\RQZDUGV,WFRQVLVWVRIUHVHDUFKLQ KLVWRULFDOMRXUQDOVDQGRWKHUW\SHVRISXEOLFDWLRQVEXWDOVRUHVHDUFKLQWRSHUVRQDODUFKLYHVRI VRPHNH\DFWRUV,PHWLQWKHWZRUHJLRQV$OWKRXJKP\UHVHDUFKGLGQRWIROORZ the rigor of a KLVWRULDQ,WULHGWREHRIPD[LPXPWKRURXJKQHVVZLWKWKHPDWHULDOIRXQG+RZHYHUYLHZLQJ WKHORQJSHULRGRIWLPHZKLFKWKHVWXG\DGGUHVVHVDQGWKHGHQVLW\RIIDFWV,KDGWRVHOHFWDQG IRFXVRQVSHFLILFHYHQWV7KHFKRLFHZDVPDGHVWHS-E\-VWHSZKLOHGLJJLQJLQWRWKHPDWHULDO 'XHWRWKHORFDWLRQRIWKH)HUURODUVHQDOLQP\ILHOGZRUNUHJLRQDQGWRWKHQHDUE\ QDYDOLQGXVWU\ORFDWHGRQWKH&DQWDEULDQFRDVW,KDGDQLQWXLWLRQWKDWHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWV PXVWKDYHEHHQWDNLQJSODFHLQQRUWKHUQ*DOLFLDEHIRUHWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\EXW,GLGQ¶W NQRZDERXW6DUJDGHORV¶UHYROWIRULQVWDQFHXQWLOVWDUWLQJWKHILHOGZRUN7KLVLQWXLWLRQZDV DOVREDVHGRQWKHNQRZOHGJH,KDGIURP9UDQFHD,NQHZWKDWWKHIRUHLJQFRPSDQLHVIRUZRRG H[WUDFWLRQFDXVHGserious environmental degradation at the end of nineteenth and the EHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\DQG,NQHZWKDWWKLVZDVUHODWHGWRWKHSHQHWUDWLRQRI %ULWLVKFDSLWDOLQWKH5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHVIROORZLQJWKH7UHDW\RI$GULDQRSOHIURP TherefRUH,ZDQWHGWRVHHLILQQRUWKHUQ*DOLFLDWKHWUDQVLWLRQIURPWKH$QFLHQW5HJLPHWR OLEHUDOGHPRFUDF\KDGHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQVHTXHQFHV$QGP\LQWXLWLRQZDVULJKWLWKDG 0RUHRYHUWKHKLVWRULFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQGHDOWZLWKWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHFRPPRQSURSHUty UHJLPH)RU9UDQFHD,NQHZPRUHRUOHVVZKDWLWZDVDERXWEXW,KDGWRGLJGHHSHUIRUPRUH PDWHULDOLQRUGHUWREHDVDFFXUDWHDVSRVVLEOH7KHDGYDQWDJHKHUHZDVWKDW,NQHZZKHUHWR ORRNIRU%XWIRUWKH*DOLFLDQFDVH,KDGQRLGHDRIZKDW,ZDVJHWWLQJLQWR,QLWLDOO\,WKRXJKW WKDWWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\UHJLPHLVVLPLODUWRWKHRQHIURP9UDQFHDEXW,GLGQRWH[SHFWLWWR EHVRGLIIHUHQWZLWKUHJDUGWRLWVKLVWRULFLW\7KHWLPHVSHQWLQ/XJRDWWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI Forestry and the great discussions I KDGIURP3URI0DQXHO0DUH\PDGHPHDZDUHWKDWIRU XQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\UHJLPHLQ*DOLFLD,QHHGHGWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHKLVWRU\RI feudal IRUDO UHODWLRQVLQWKLVUHJLRQ7KLVFRQFUHWL]HGLQPDQ\PRUHQLJKWVRIUHDGLQJWKDQ, initially thought woXOGEHWKHFDVH The historical investigation also concerned the local history of the memories of GLVSRVVHVVLRQDQGWKHKLVWRU\RIUHVLVWDQFH7KLVDFWXDOO\PHDQWUHFRUGLQJSHUVRQDOKLVWRULHV IURPROGSHRSOHLQWKHWZRYLOODJHVEXWDOVRIROORZLQJWKH multi-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\IURP YLOODJHVDURXQG,ZDVDOVRLQWHUHVWHGLQKRZWKHVHVWRULHVSDVVIURPRQHJHQHUDWLRQWRDQRWKHU 30 $OWKRXJKWKH\RXQJHUJHQHUDWLRQ EHWZHHQDQG\HDUVROG VHHPHGWRWDOO\ODFNLQJ interest in the issues concerning the strugJOHVRIWKHµHOGHU¶LWZDVHQRXJKWRWDONDERXWWKH GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKH*DOLFLDQODQJXDJHDQG6SDQLVKODQJXDJHLQRQHFDVHRUDERXWWKH FRPPXQLVWDERPLQDWLRQVLQWKH5RPDQLDQFDVHIRUJHWWLQJWKHDWWHQWLRQRIWKH\RXQJVWHUV,Q *DOLFLD,ZDVZDUQHG from the outset that DTXtVHIDOD*DOHJR KHUHZHVSHDN*DOLFLDQ DQGLW ZDVHQRXJKWRGLVPLVVWKLVµJROGHQUXOH¶IRUVWDUWLQJDGLVFXVVLRQDERXW*DOLFLDQLGHQWLW\, ZDVQRWVXUSULVHGWRKHDUWKDW6SDLQRFFXSLHG*DOLFLDWKDW*DOL]D PXVWEHLQGHSHQGHQW I was XVHGWRWKLVGLVFRXUVHIURPP\SHULRGRIVWXG\LQJLQ%ULWWDQ\ EXW,ZDVVXUSULVHGWRKHDU VWRULHVLQZKLFKWKHJUDQGSDUHQWVZHUHPDOWUHDWHGGXULQJ)UDQFRIRUGHIHQGLQJWKHPRQWHV 2.2. Methods for gathering the data The use of multi-sited ethnogrDSK\DQGRIKLVWRULFDOUHVHDUFKOHGPHWRWKHXVHRIFHUWDLQ PHWKRGVIRUJDWKHULQJGDWD Observation ,SDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHGDLO\DFWLYLWLHVRIWKHIDPLOLHVZKHUH,ZDVKRVWHGPHHWLQJVDQGILHVWDV 31 The Film 1RWHWDNLQJLQP\QRWHERRNZDVKHDYLO\LQIOXHQFHGE\WKHIDFWWKDWIRUWKHZKROHSHULRG,KDG WKHILOPLQJFDPHUDZLWKPH%DVLFDOO\,ZURWHLQVLWX RQO\ZKHQ,ZDVRXWRIEDWWHU\RXWRI vide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was asking me to go in a certain ZD\WRILOPFHUWDLQHYHQWVIRULWµPDNHVDVHQVHLQWKHILOP¶ ZKLOHDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKHNH\LQIRUPDQWVZHUHJRLQJVRPHZKHUHHOVHDQG,ZDVVXSSRVHGWR IROORZWKHPIRUµLWPDNHVVHQVHLQWKHUHVHDUFK¶,QWKHHQG,SDFLILHGWKHWZRLPSXOVHVE\ LPSRVLQJ P\ZLOORYHUWKHFDPHUD¶VDQGVD\LQJWKDWWKHEDVLFSULQFLSOHLVWKDWWKHILOPDQG UHVHDUFKLVRQH,DOVRPDGHVRPHQRWHVLQWKHHYHQLQJVZLWKUHJDUGWRZKDW,KDGILOPHGRU KRZWKLVDQGWKDWLQIRUPDWLRQZDVWREHIRXQGRQWKHFDVVHWWHZLWKWKHQXPEHUx :LWKUHJDUGWRWKHGLVWXUEDQFHWKDWWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHFDPHUDSURGXFHGGXULQJ LQWHUYLHZV,GRQRWWKLQNWKDWWKLVZDVKLJKHUWKDQWKDWSURGXFHGE\DGLFWDSKRQH7KHUHZHUH VLWXDWLRQVZKHQWKHUHVSRQGHQWIRUJRWWKDWWKHUHZDVDFDPHUDLQWKHURRPEXW I also had VXUSULVHVZKHQUHVSRQGHQWVWROGPHDIWHUSDFNLQJWKHFDPHUDDQGWKHGLFWDSKRQH RNQRZOHW¶V WDON7KLVKDSSHQHGRQO\LQ5RPDQLDRQWZRRFFDVLRQVDQG,WKLQNLVUHODWHGWRWKHJHQHUDO PLVWUXVWZKLFKFKDUDFWHUL]HVWKLVSRVWVRFLDOLVWVRFLHW\ 7KHJUHDWDGYDQWDJHRIKDYLQJWKHILOPLVLQWKHHQGKDYLQJWKLVDUFKLYHRIGDWD7KH HGLWLQJSURFHVVIRUµ6WURQJKROG¶ZDVQRWKLQJEXWDVWHSLQDQDO\]LQJWKHGDWD:KLOH HGLWLQJ,UHYLHZHGWKHZKROHPDWHULDOVHYHUDOWLPHV7KLVLVKRZ,FRXOGFKHFk the UHVSRQGHQWV¶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¶SLSHGUHDPV 32 in elucidating the sense of the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icture 1: Filming how women wash pork intestines in the river located in the Natura 2000 site close to the village. Photo by Yumara Carracedo Roman 33 Interviews 7KHLQWHUYLHZV,PDGHLQ/DEUDGDDQG3ӽXOHúWLZHUHVHPL-structured or unstructured and I did QRWKDYHDSURSHULQWHUYLHZJXLGHEHIRUHKDQG7KLQJVZHUHGLIIHUHQWZKHQ,LQWHUYLHZHGVWDWH RUUHJLRQDORIILFLDOVSURIHVVRUVDWWKHXQLYHUVLW\RI6DQWLDJRGH&RPSRVWHODRUODZ\HUV:LWK these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ethods for analyzing the data )RUDQDO\]LQJWKHGDWD,XVHGWZRPHWKRGV WKHPHWKRGRIFRPSDULVRQDQGWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRI WZRLGHDOW\SHVRIJRYHUQDQFHPRGHOV Comparison In a multi-VLWHGHWKQRJUDSK\FRPSDULVRQLVLQKHUHQW0DUFXVQRWHV ³>L@QSURMHFWVRIPXOWL- sitHGHWKQRJUDSKLFUHVHDUFKGHIDFWRFRPSDUDWLYHGLPHQVLRQVGHYHORSLQVWHDGDVDIXQFWLRQRI WKHIUDFWXUHGGLVFRQWLQXRXVSODQHRIPRYHPHQWDQGGLVFRYHU\DPRQJVLWHVDVRQHPDSVDQ REMHFWRIVWXG\DQGQHHGVWRSRVLWORJLFVRIUHODWLRQVKLSWUDQVODWLRQDQGDVsociation among WKHVHVLWHV´$QGIXUWKHURQ³>W@KLVPRYHWRZDUGFRPSDULVRQHPEHGGHGLQWKHPXOWL-sited HWKQRJUDSK\VWLPXODWHVDFFRXQWVRIFXOWXUHVFRPSRVHGLQDODQGVFDSHIRUZKLFKWKHUHLVDV\HW QRGHYHORSHGWKHRUHWLFDOFRQFHSWLRQRUGHVFULSWLYHPRGHO LELG 2QWKHRWKHUKDQG 'XUNKHLPSXWLWVKDUSO\RQWKHILUVWSDJHRI6XLFLGH RQO\FRPSDULVRQDIIRUGVH[SODQDWLRQ The ideal types $FFRUGLQJWR:HEHUDQLGHDO-W\SHLVDQ³DQDO\WLFDODFFHQWXDWLRQ 6WHLJHUXQJ RIFHUWDLQ HOHPHQWVRIUHDOLW\´ > @ ,WLVDQ³DQDO\WLFDOFRQVWUXFW´ *HGDQNHQGELOG LELG WKDW³VHUYHVDVDKDUERUXQWLORQHKDVOHDUQHGWRQDYLJDWHVDIHO\LQWKHYDVWVHDRIHPSLULFDO IDFWV´ LELG &RQVHTXHQWO\IRU:HEHUHVWDEOLVKLQJLGHDO-W\SHVZRXOGEHWKHILUVWVWHSLQ DQDO\VLVZKLOHWKHVHFRQGLVH[SODLQLQJKRZDQGZK\WKHVRFLDOUHDOLW\GLIIHUVIURPWKHVH ³SXUHW\SHV LGHDOW\SHV ´ :HEHU (VVHQWLDOO\,ZRXOGGDUHWRVD\WKDWWKHUHLVQRWKLQJVSHFWDFXODULQ:HEHU¶VDSSHDOWR ideal-W\SHVIRUDQDO\WLFDOSXUSRVHV:KDWORRNVLPSUHVVLYHWRXVLVLQGHHGWKHZD\KHPDVWHUV WKHP:HEHUXQGHUVWRRGYHU\ZHOOSUREDEO\IURPKLVVRXQG EDFNJURXQGLQFODVVLFDO SKLORVRSK\ZKDWWKHUROHRILGHDV LQWKLQNLQJDERXWDSDUWLFXODUSUREOHPZDV,QWKHODWHU TXRWHZHILQGDVXEWOHUHIHUHQFHWR3ODWR¶VSXUHLGHDV from the DOOHJRU\RIWKHFDYH)URPWKLV SHUVSHFWLYHWKHLGHDOW\SHV are not ideal LQWKHVHQVHWKDWWKH\GRQRWH[LVWEXWWKH\LIZHSXW LWPRVWVLPSO\GHQRWHFRQFHSWV+RZHYHU:HEHUPHQWLRQVFOHDUO\DQRWKHUVRXUFHRI LQVSLUDWLRQ+LVPRWLYDWLRQZDVDFWXDOO\DFULWLTXHWRµWKHODZV¶IURPHFRQRPLFWKHRU\³7KH FRQFHSWVDQGODZVRISXUHHFRQRPLFWKHRU\DUHH[DPSOHVRIWKLVNLQGRILGHDOW\SH7KH\VWDWH ZKDWFRXUVHDJLYHQW\SHRIKXPDQDFWLRQZRXOGWDNHLILWZHUHVWULFWO\UDWLRQDOXQDIIHFWHGE\ HUURUVRUHPRWLRQDOIDFWRUVDQGLIIXUWKHUPRUHLWZHUHFRPSOHWHO\DQGXQHTXLYRFDOO\GLrected WRDVLQJOHHQGWKHPD[LPL]DWLRQRIHFRQRPLFDGYDQWDJH,QUHDOLW\DFWLRQWDNHVH[DFWO\WKLV FRXUVHRQO\LQXQXVXDOFDVHVDVVRPHWLPHVRQWKHVWRFNH[FKDQJHDQGHYHQWKHQWKHUHLV XVXDOO\RQO\DQDSSUR[LPDWLRQWRWKHLGHDOW\SH´ LGHPVHHDOVR :HEHU - 7KHUH- IRUHWKHLGHDO-W\SHVDUHYDOXDEOHWRROVIRUWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIVRFLDOOLIHDVVXFKEXWWKH\ VKRXOGQRWEHFRQVLGHUHGDVDILQDODLPLQWKHDQDO\VLVQRUVKRXOGRQHUHO\RQWKHPDV LPPXWDEOHODZV With regard to how these ‘DQDO\WLFDOH[DJJHUDWLRQV¶DUHXVHGLQEULQJLQJFODULW\LQ VLWXDWLRQVZKHUHJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHVRYHUODS%DYLQFNDQG:RRGPDQ REVHUYH WKDWWKH³WHUPLGHDO-W\SHGRHVQRWDSSHDUPXFKLQZULWLQJVRQOHJDOSOXUDOLVP´%XWWKH SUREOHPRIJHQHUDOL]DWLRQDURXQGDFRPPRQGHQRPLQDWRULVDFHQWUDOLVVXHLQOHJDOVWXGLHV )UDQ]YRQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQQRWHGWKDW³>L@PSRUWDQWDQGLQWHUHVWLQJDVVXFKDEVWUDFW 35 JHQHUDOL]DWLRQDUHWKH\EHFRPHSUREOHPDWLFLIWKH>\@ VLF SUHWHQGWREHVXPPDULHVRIWKH H[LVWHQFHRIODZDWWKHJHRJUDSKLFDOVFDOHWRZKLFKWKH\UHIHU « 7RVWXG\RQHYLOODJHRQH PLFURVHWWLQJWKHQDSSHDUVWREHYHU\OLPLWHGZLWKWKHPDFUR-VWDWHPHQW´ 9RQ %HQGD-%HFNPDQQFRQFOXGHVWKDW³VXFKJHQHUDOL]DWLRQVEDVHGRQDJJUHJDWLRQZLOO\LHOGTXite a GLIIHUHQWSLFWXUHRIWKHODZRUOHJDOSOXUDOLVPLQZKDWHYHUUHJLRQRQHLVLQWHUHVWHGLQWKDQ WKRVHDFFRXQWVWKDWFRQVWUXFWJHQHUDOL]DWLRQVRQWKHEDVLVRIFRPPRQGHQRPLQDWRUV « %XW ZKDWHYHUZHOLNHLWRUQRWWKLVLVWKHVWXIIZHQHHGWRNQRZLIZe are interested in the H[LVWHQFHRIUHSURGXFWLRQRIODZLQVRFLHW\DQGLIZHZDQWWRH[SODLQLW´ LELG 7KHUHIRUHWKHQHHGRIFRQFHSWXDOFRKHUHQFHLQWKHK\SHU-FRPSOH[OHJDOUHDOLW\WKDWZH HQFRXQWHUHPSLULFDOO\QRZDGD\VXUJHVIRUXVLQJWKHLGHal-W\SHV)UDQ]YRQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQ SURSRVHGVHYHQ³PRUSKRORJLFDOGLPHQVLRQV´IRUFDSWXULQJKRZWKH³HPSLULFDOPDQLIHVWDWLRQV RIODZYDU\LQVWUXFWXUHIRUPFRQWHQWDQGVLJQLILFDQFHLQVRFLDOOLIHEHWZHHQDQGZLWKLQOHJDO V\VWHPV´ 7KHVHDUHWKHIROORZLQJ ³7KHH[WHQWWRZKLFKJHQHUDOOHJDOFRJQLWLYHDQGQRUPDWLYHFRQFHSWLRQVKDYHEHHQ LQVWLWXWLRQDOLVHGDQGV\VWHPDWL]HG ´ ³7KHH[WHQWWRZKLFKNQRZOHGJHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQDQGDSSOLFDWLRQRIODZKDYHEHHQ differentiated from every day knowledJH ´ 7KHOHJLWLPDWLRQRIOHJDOV\VWHPVLQFOXGLQJFXVWRPDU\SUDFWLFHV ³7KHH[WHQWWRZKLFKOHJDOUXOHVDUHGHILQHGDVPDQGDWRU\DQGKRZWKHQRUPDWLYHUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQUXOHVDQGGHFLVLRQPDNHUV¶UHODWLYHDXWRQRP\WRZDUGVJHQHUDOUXOHVLVH[SUHVVHG´ ³7KHWHFKQRORJ\RIWUDQVPLVVLRQ´– ZULWWHQRUDODVZHOODVWKHFRQWH[WRIWUDQVPLVVLRQ ³7KHVRFLDODQGRUJHRJUDSKLFDOVFRSHIRUZKLFKYDOLGLW\LVDVVHUWHG´ ³>'@LIIHUHQFHVLQVXEVWDQWLYHFRQWHQW´WKDWLVKRZIRUPVRISURFHGXUHGLIIHUDVwell as the ³GLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHFRJQLWLYHFRQFHSWLRQVRIOHJDOUXOHVDQGSULQFLSOHV´ LELG - 9RQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQPHQWLRQVWKDW³>W@KHVHYDULDEOHSURSHUWLHVFDQEHXVHGWRFUHDWH W\SRORJLHVRIGLIIHUHQWLGHDO-W\SLFDOOHJDOIRUPV´ LELG ,XVHGWKLVWD[RQRP\IRUVHWWLQJ XSWKHWZRLGHDOW\SHVRIJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHV- ³WKHDTXDULXP´DQG³WKHJOREH´ FKDSWHU - WKDWWU\WRFDSWXUHLQDQH[DJJHUDWHGIRUPWKHPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHYLOODJHFRPPRQV and the EU nature conservation multi-level gRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHV 36 diveUJHVIURPDVZHVHHDOUHDG\ROGPDLQVWUHDPRSLQLRQWKDW³LWLVWKHHQGDQGWKHJRDORI HYHU\VFLHQFHWRRUGHULWVGDWDLQWRDV\VWHPRIFRQFHSWVWKHFRQWHQWRIZKLFKLVWREHDFTXLUHG DQGVORZO\SHUIHFWHGWKURXJKWKHREVHUYDWLRQRIHPSLULFDOUHJXODULWLHVWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRI K\SRWKHVLVDQGWKHLUYHULILFDWLRQXQWLOILQDOO\D³FRPSOHWHG´DQGKHQFHGHGXFWLYHVFLHQFH HPHUJHV´ LELG Chapter 3 – The theoretical tool-box ,QWKHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHHPSLULFDOGDWD,LQWURGXFHGDILUVWOD\HURIDQDO\VLV7KHUHIRUH,XVHG DQGH[SODLQHGDVHULHVRIVPDOODQGPHGLXPUDQJHFRQFHSWVDG-KRF7KHDLPRIWKLVFKDSWHULV WRVNHWFKWKHNH\FRQFHSWVDURXQGZKLFKWKHVHFRQGOD\HURIDQDO\VLVSUHVHQWHGLQSDUWILYH ZLOOEHXQGHUWDNHQ 3.1. Governance related concepts $JRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHLVDVHWRIUXOHVDQGUHJXODWLRQVVSHFLILFWRDGLVWLQFWKLVWRULFDOSHULRG DQGWRDVSHFLILFJHRJUDSKLFDOORFDWLRQZKLFKLVPHDQWWRVHWWOHFRQIOLFWVLQKHUHQWWRVRFLDO OLIH%RWKWUDQVQDWLRQDODQGPXOWL-level governance regimes DUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DFRPSOH[ VHWRIUXOHVDQGUHJXODWLRQVUHVXOWDQWIURPPXOWLSOHFRQQHFWLRQVEHWZHHQVWDWHDQGQRQ-state DFWRUVORFDWHGDWWUDQVQDWLRQDOQDWLRQDODQGORRVHO\GHILQHGORFDOOHYHOVDFWRUVWKDWDUHQRW HDV\WRPDSVRPHWLPHVHYHQREVFXUH3RZHUUHODWLRQVLQIOXHQFHWKHWLGLQHVVRIWKHVH³FKDLQV RILQWHUDFWLRQ´ YRQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQHWDO ZKLFKHYHQWXDOO\PD\UHSURGXFHRU FKDQJHWKHH[LVWLQJVRFLDOSDWWHUQV1HJRWLDWLRQVPD\RUPD\QRWWDNHSODFHEHWZHHQWKH DFWRUVLQYROYHGRUSUHVXPSWLYHO\LQYROYHGLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKRUFRQWUDU\WRFRPPRQ VKDUHGH[SHFWDWLRQV,IWKHFRPPRQVKDUHGH[SHFWDWLRQVDUHQRWVDWLVILHGLQWKHSURFHVVRI QHJRWLDWLRQRUWKHQHJRWLDWLRQSURFHVVGRHVQRWWDNHSODFHWKHUXOHVORVHWKHLUOHJLWLPDF\4 These aUHIHZEDVLFDVVXPSWLRQVWKDWJXLGHWKHIROORZLQJWKHRUHWLFDOH[SRVpRQJRYHUQDQFH UHODWHGFRQFHSWV Non-state actors and transnational governance *RYHUQDQFHVWXGLHVLQFUHDVHGLQQXPEHUDQGLPSRUWDQFHLQWKHSDVWWKUHHGHFDGHVGXHWRWKH SUROLIHUDWLon of non-VWDWHDFWRUVWKDWHQWHUHGWKHVFHQHRISROLW\VRPHWLPHVDORQJZLWK VRPHWLPHVDWWKHH[SHQVHRIQDWLRQDOVWDWHV¶DXWKRULW\ 4 7KLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIJRYHUQDQFHLVFORVHWRStreeck’s and Thelen’s GHILQLWLRQRIVRFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQVDVUHJLPHV ³FROOHFWLYHO\HQIRUFHGH[SHFWDWLRQVZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHEHKDYLRURIVSHFLILFFDWHJRULHVRIDFWRUVRUWRWKH SHUIRUPDQFHRIFHUWDLQDFWLYLWLHV´ 6WUHHFNDQG7KHOHQ5 ZKHUHWKHHPSKDVLVLVSODFHGRQD ³WKLUGSDUW\ HQIRUFHPHQWWKDWLQGLFDWHVZKHWKHUDUXOHKDVOHJLWLPDF\´ LGHP - FHQWXU\GHEXWHGZLWKDVHYHUFULWLTXHRQWKHPRQROLWKLFDSSURDFKRIQDWLRQDOVWDWHDXWKRULW\ ERWKLQLQWHUQDWLRQDODQGGRPHVWLFSROLF\(DUO\VWXGLHVLQLQWHUQDWLRQDOUHODWLRQV VHHIRUD JRRGRYHUYLHZ*HQHVW DGYRFDWHGIRUDQHQODUJHGSHUVSHFWLYHWRZDUGVLQWHUQDWLRQDO SROLF\EDVHGRQDOLEHUDOSOXUDOLVWSKLORVRSK\5 The fact that not only national state’s law PDWWHUVLQWKHGRPHVWLFVSKHUHZDVORQJDJRDGYRFDWHGE\WKHDQWKURSRORJLVWVVWDUWLQJZLWK WKHIRUHIDWKHUVRIWKHGLVFLSOLQH 0DLQe’s $QFLHQW/DZ RU0RUJDQ¶V$QFLHQW6RFLHW\ (YHQVRZK\KDYHQRQ-VWDWHDFWRUVVWDUWHGWRERWKHUDVWDWH¶VSROLWLFDOFRQWUROLQV PRUHWKDQLQSUHYLRXVGHFDGHV"$FRPELQDWLRQRIUHSHUWRLUHVIDFLOLWDWHGWKHDVFHQWRIQRQ- VWDWHDFWRUVLQSROicy-PDNLQJFRPSOLFDWLQJWKHPDSRIJRYHUQDQFHZLWKRXWKRZHYHUVHWWLQJ FOHDUV\PEROVIRUJXLGDQFH $FFRUGLQJWR(QJHOHQHWDO - DQHPSLULFDOHYLGHQFHRIWKHOLPLWVRI UDWLRQDOLW\DQGSODQQLQJZLWKLQDFRPPDQG-FRQWUROUXOLQJV\VWHPOHGWRTXHstioning the JRYHUQPHQWV¶DXWKRULW\DVDYLDEOHLQVWLWXWLRQIRUDOORFDWLQJUHVRXUFHV2WKHUDXWKRUVLQGLFDWHG WKDWWKHHFRQRPLFGHSUHVVLRQDQGLQIODWLRQIURPWKHODWHVFDOOHGLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHVWRS-and- go Keynesian model; this was used as a window of oSSRUWXQLW\IRUPDUNHW-oriented reforms in WKH8.DQGWKH867KHUHIRUPVFDXVHGDQLQFUHDVHGPDUNHWL]DWLRQRIDOOVSKHUHVRIVRFLDO OLIHDQGKDGDVFRQVHTXHQFHDPRQJRWKHUVDGHOHJDWLRQRIUXOH-making and monitoring duties from the state towards non-staWHLQGHSHQGHQWUHJXODWRU\DJHQFLHV 'MHOLF 5 +RZHYHUDV*HQHVWSXWLWIROORZLQJ%ULDQ6FKPLGW¶VDFFRXQWVRQWKHKLVWRU\RILQWHUQDWLRQDOUHODWLRQV 6FKPLGW WKHQHZWUDGLWLRQLQLQWHUQDWLRQDOUHODWLRQVLJQRUHVWKLVKHULWDJH 6 7KHUHLVDVWULNLQJUHVHPEODQFHEHWZHHQ+DOHDQG+HOG DQG*HQHVW -7KHODFNRITXRWDWLRQ PDNHVWKHODWWHUVWXG\PRUHWUXVWZRUWK\ 38 WKHSDUDGR[WKDWWKLVH[SDQVLRQRIWUDQVQDWLRQDOUHODWLRQVDWSROLWLFDODQGHconomical levels IURPWKHPLGVGLGQRWILWWKHGRPLQDQWUHDOLVWSDUDGLJPIURPLQWHUQDWLRQDOUHODWLRQVVWXGLHV QDPHO\GRXEWLQJIRU³WKHSRVVLELOLW\RIDQHQGXULQJFRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQFRXQWULHVJLYHQWKH ODFNRIDQRYHUDUFKLQJJOREDODXWKRULW\DQGWKHLPSHUDWLYHRIHDFKFRXQWU\WRSXUVXHVXUYLYDO LQDZRUOGFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\XQFHUWDLQW\´7KHVHPLQDOZRUNRI.HRKDQHDQG1\H3RZHUDQG ,QWHUGHSHQGHQFH PDUNHGDWXUQLQJSRLQWLQJRYHUQDQFHVWXGLHVE\DVNLQJQRWLI µSDUDOOHO¶IRUPVRIJRYHUQDQFHFRXQWEut KRZ WKH\FRXQW7KHLUWKHRU\RIµFRPSOH[ LQWHUGHSHQGHQFH¶SXWLQWRGLIILFXOW\WKHVXSSRUWHUVRIWKHUHDOLVWSDUDGLJPLQLQWHUQDWLRQDO UHODWLRQVE\FKDOOHQJLQJVWDWH-FHQWULVPWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQKLJKSROLWLFV HJVHFXULW\ DQGORZSROLWLFV HFRQRPLFHQYLURQPHQWDO DQGSRLQWLQJWRWKHLQFUHDVHGLQWHUGHSHQGHQF\ among the states via non-VWDWHDFWRUV7KLVQHZDSSURDFKZLWKLQLQWHUQDWLRQDOUHODWLRQV HTXLYDOHQWZLWKDSDUDGLJPDWLFVKLIWZDVODEHOHGµWUDQVQDWLRQDOLVP¶ 0DUWLQTXRWHGLQ *HQHVW DQGVHWWKHFRQFHSWXDOIUDPHZRUNIRUZKDWFXUUHQWO\LVODEHOHGLQWKH literature as WUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH Kenneth Waltz in 7KHRU\RI,QWHUQDWLRQDO3ROLWLFV FRLQHGDQHRUHDOLVWDSSURDFK IRUH[SODLQLQJWKDWWKHQRQ-state actors constraiQWKHVWDWH¶VEHKDYLRUVLPLODUWRZD\VLQZKLFK ILUPVVHWSULFHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHPDUNHW:DOW]¶VPLFURHFRQRPLFVDSSOLHGWRWKHUHDOLVWWKHRU\ RILQWHUQDWLRQDOUHODWLRQVGHYHORSHGLQWRZKDWZHNQRZWRGD\DVQHROLEHUDOLQVWLWXWLRQDOLVP RULQVKRUWQHR-inVWLWXWLRQDOLVP,QWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHFRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQVWDWHVDQGEHWZHHQ states and non-VWDWHDFWRUVLVJXLGHGE\DUHODWLYHJDLQDQGWKHDFWRUVDUHGHILQHGDFFRUGLQJWR the micro-HFRQRPLFVPDQWUDDVXQLILHGUDWLRQDODFWRUV7KLV\HWVWDWH-FHQWULFDSSroach LJQRUHGWKHSUHYLRXVSOXUDOLVWµWUDQVQDWLRQDOLVW¶SHUVSHFWLYHDIDFWZKLFKJDYHULJKWVWR VFKRODUVVXFK5LVVH-.DSSHQWRWDONDERXW%ULQJLQJ7UDQVQDWLRQDO5HODWLRQV%DFN,Q already in +DOHDQG+HOG A triangular deficit The general IHDULQVRFLDOWKHRU\EDFNLQWKHVZDVWKDWVWDWHVOLNHDQ\RWKHUKXPDQ LQVWLWXWLRQRUJDQL]DWLRQKDYHDµQDWXUDO¶LQFHQWLYHWRFKHDWWREHWUD\LWVUHODWLRQSDUWQHULQ RUGHUWRDFKLHYHWKHLUDLPVDSROLWLFDOEHKDYLRU7KHSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIQRQ-state actors in SROLF\-PDNLQJSURPLVHGLQWKHQDPHRIIUHHGRPPRUHGLIIXVHGUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGZLWKLWD EHWWHUDOORFDWLRQRIUHVRXUFHVIROORZLQJWKHLQYLVLEOHKDQGRIPDUNHWV7KHVHZHUHWKH SURPLVHVWKDWEURXJKWEDFNLQWRGLVFXVVLRQ+D\HN¶VXQOLPLWHGIUHHGRPIRUPDUNHWV FDVHVWUDQVQDWLRQDOILUPVZHUHDQGVWLOODUHWKHPRVWYLVLEOHH[DPSOHVRIQRQ-state actors who LQIOXHQFHQDWLRQDOVWDWHV¶SROLFLHVEXWZKRVHDFWLRQVFDQQRWEHSURSHUO\WUDFHG$WULDQJXODU SUREOHPEHFDPHPRUHSUHVVLQJ GXULQJWKHSDVVDJHIURPFHQWUDOJRYHUQPHQWWRPXOWL-level/ WUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH WKDWRIJRYHUQDQFHGHILFLWRILPSOHPHQWDWLRQGHILFLWDQGWKH OHJLWLPDF\GHILFLW +DDV%lFNVWUDQGHWDO ,QWKHFDVHRIHQYLURQPHQWDOJRYHUQDQFHDJRYHUQance deficit usually occurs when the PDUJLQDOL]DWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDOSUREOHPVKDSSHQVIRUH[DPSOHZKHQHQYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHV GRQRWILQGDSODFHRQWKHSROLWLFDODJHQGD$PRQJWKHFDXVHV%lFNVWUDQGHWDOPHQWLRQWKH high fragmentation of institutions thDWWDNHSDUWLQWKHSROLF\-PDNLQJSURFHVVDQGWKHFURVV- VHFWRUDOSUREOHPDWL]DWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHV LELG 7KHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQGHILFLWLV UHIHUUHGWRWKHGLVFUHSDQF\EHWZHHQWKHKLJKH[SHFWDWLRQVRIPXOWL-level/ transnational governance DLPV and the ORFDORUJDQL]DWLRQDOUHJXODWRU\PRQLWRULQJDQGFRPSOLDQFH SUDFWLFHVDQGFDSDFLWLHV1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHOHJLWLPDF\GHILFLWUHIHUVWRLVVXHVRIWUXVW FRQILGHQFHDQGSXEOLFVXSSRUWIRUWKHQHZPRGHVRIJRYHUQDQFHLQFRPSDULVRQZLWKWKHµROG¶ hierarchical onHV $VDUHVXOWWKHLGHRORJ\RIQHROLEHUDOLVPDQGWKHJUDGXDOH[SDQVLRQRIWUDQVQDWLRQDO JRYHUQDQFHDWWKHH[SHQVHRIRULQSDUDOOHOZLWKKLHUDUFKLFDOIRUPVRIJRYHUQPHQWDUH LQWLPDWHO\OLQNHGEXWWKH\DUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\FRQJUXHQW VHHEHORZ Empirical, normative and critical governance 40 µUHIRUPLQJ¶µWXQLQJ¶WKHGHPRFUDWLFLQVWLWXWLRQVLQFOXGLQJQRQ-state or non-HOLWHDFWRUV IRU H[DPSOHHeld and 0F*UHZ:HLVVIRUSRVWVRFLDOLVWFRQWH[W+RHQ HG µ*RRGHQYLURQPHQWDOJRYHUQDQFH¶LVQHFHVVDU\WRDWWDLQVXVWDLQDEOHXVHRIQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV :KLOHµJRRGJRYHUQDQFH¶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multi-JRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHVKDYHGLIIHUHQWLQWHUHVWVGLIIHUHQWDFFHVVWRWHFKQRORJLHVXVH GLIIHUHQWNQRZOHGJHDQGUHDVRQLQJPRGHOVDQGWKHUHIRUHDUHSRVLWLRQHGRQGLIIHUHQWOHYHOVRI SRZHU6RFLDOMXVWLFHEHFDPHWKHUHIRUHDSUREOHPDWLFPDWWHUIRUJRRGJRYHUQDQFHPRGHOV %DUU\ %lFNVWUDQGHWDO - QRWHWKDWSURFHGXUDOLGHDOVVXFKDVRSHQQHVV SDUWLFLSDWLRQDFFRXQWDELOLW\FRKHUHQFHDUHLQWLPDWHO\OLQNHGWRµJRRGHQYLURQPHQWDl JRYHUQDQFH¶7KH\FRQFOXGHWKDW³WKHUKHWRULFDOSURPLVHRIQHZPRGHVRIJRYHUQDQFH « KDVHPHUJHGLQFORVHLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQDFDGHPLFVFKRODUVDQGSROLF\PDNHUVLQWKH QRUPDWLYHGHEDWHRQJRRGJRYHUQDQFH´ LGHP 7KHPRVWDUGXRXVTXHVWLRQULVHVLQHYLWDEO\ JRRGIRUZKRP" 41 theLUDLPV7KHVHVWXGLHVIRFXVRQYDULRXVIRUPVRIGLVFRXUVHQHZFRGHVRIFRQGXFW VWDQGDUGVDXGLWVEHQFKPDUNVGLIIHUHQWIRUPVRIVRIWUHJXODWLRQWKDWWXUQLQWRRUEULQJWKHLU FRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHIRUPDWLRQRIQHZPRGHVRIJRYHUQDQFH:KDWWKHJRYHUQPHQtality DSSURDFKKDVLQFRPPRQZLWKWKHPRUH*UDPVFLDQDSSURDFKLVWKDWWKH\XVXDOO\IROORZ VRFLHWDOWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVLQZLGHKLVWRULFDOSHULRGV(DUO\VWXGLHVLQWKHJRYHUQPHQWDOLW\ DSSURDFKWRJRYHUQDQFHVWDUWHGIURPWKHFRPSDULVRQRIWKHPRGHVRIJRYHUQDQFHLQOLEHUDO ZHOIDUHDQGQHROLEHUDOSROLWLFDOVHWWLQJVDQGFDPHWRWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDWVRFLDODFWRUVWKDWDUH JLYHQDXWRQRP\ZLWKLQDWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHDUHDFWXDOO\QROHVVJRYHUQDEOH than in the old command-FRQWUROVHWWLQJEXWRQWKHFRQWUDU\³WKHVHQHZPRGHVRIDFWLRQDWD GLVWDQFHLQFUHDVHWKHSRVVLELOLWLHVRIJRYHUQLQJ´EHFDXVH³>W@KURXJKWKLVORRVHDVVHPEODJHRI DJHQWVFDOFXODWLRQVWHFKQLTXHVLPDJHVDQGFRPPRGLWLHVLQGLYLGXDOVFDQEHJRYHUQHG WKURXJKWKHLUIUHHGRPWRFKRRVH´ 5RVHDQG0LOOHU 34- 7KHSDWK-EUHDNLQJVWXG\RI 5RVHDQG0LOOHUZDVGHIHQGHGE\5RVHLQ3RZHUVRI)UHHGRP DQGIROORZHGLQ environmental governance studies such as Agrawal’s (QYLURQPQHWDOLW\ 7HFKQRORJLHVRI JRYHUQPHQWDQGWKHPDNLQJRIVXEMHFWV /L¶V7KHZLOOWRLPSURYH RUPRUH UHFHQWO\3HHWHWDO*OREDOQDWXUH 7KHFRQYHUJHQFHSRLQWRIWKHVHVWXGLHVLVWKDWWKH transnational and the multi-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHVZKLFKFKDUDFWHUL]HQHROLEHUDOLVPDUH actually limiting the cDSDFLW\RIUHVLVWDQFHDWWKHORFDOOHYHOEHFDXVHWKHPDLQWDUJHWIRUUHIRUP LVWKHVRFLDOFRQGXFWRIWKHVRFLDODJHQWV +RZHYHUWKHVHVWXGLHVOHIWEHKLQGWKHVLWXDWLRQVLQZKLFKVRFLDODFWRUVDUHQRWJLYHQ UHVSRQVLELOLW\EXWHQGRZUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVE\ WKHPVHOYHVXVLQJQHZUHJXODWLRQRSSRUWXQLWLHVLQ multi-OHYHOWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHDVH[SHULPHQWDOVSDFHVIRUDOWHUQDWLYHIRUPVRI UHJXODWLRQ VHHIRUH[DPSOHVWXGLHVRQJOREDODFWLYLVPVXFKDV'HOOD3RUWDDQG7DUURZ RUPRUHVSHFLILFDOO\RQFRS\ULJKWE\'REXVFKDQG4XDFN2012 6WLOOZKDWWKHVHODWHUVWXGLHV HOXGHWRVKRZLVKRZDFFHVVWRWHFKQRORJ\WRVSHFLILFNLQGVRINQRZOHGJHSDWWHUQVRI FRQVXPSWLRQJHRSROLWLFDOFRQILJXUDWLRQVLQRWKHUZRUGVWKHDELOLW\RIVRFLDODFWRUVWRPRYH within the multi-OHYHOVSDFHRIJRYHUQDQFHHPSRZHUVWKHPWRHQGRZUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGWR WDNHDGYDQWDJHRIUHJXODWRU\RSSRUWXQLWLHV Transnational governance and neoliberalism 1RHO&DVWUHHSRLQWVRXWWKDWQHROLEHUDOLVPLV³YHU\PXFKDFULWLF¶VWHUP´ DOWKRXJKLWLVWKHLGHRORJ\ZLWKOHVVVLJQLILFDQWRSSRVLWLRQ³WKHPRVWVXFFHVVIXOLGHRORJ\LQ ZRUOGKLVWRU\´DV3HUU\$QGHUVRQSXWLW %XWKRZLVRQHWRXQGHUVWDQG QHROLEHUDOLVP"7KHZRUNRI1RHO&DVWUHHDQG6WHSKDQLH/HH0XGJHRIIHUVJRRG JXLGDQFH 42 &DWVUHH LGHP VWDWHVWKDWWKHUHDUHWKUHHDVSHFWVZKLFKGHOLPLWDWHQHROLEHUDOLVPIURP OLEHUDOLVP)LUVWDKLVWRULFDODVSHFW- FRPLQJDIWHUDERXW\HDUVRILQWHUUHJQXPZLWKVRFLDO GHPRFUDF\ VHFRQGDJHRJUDSKLFDORQH– XQOLNHOLEHUDOLVPZKLch was focused in western (XURSHDQFRXQWULHVWKH86DQGWKH$QWLSRGHVQHROLEHUDOLVPLVDJOREDOSURMHFW WKLUGDQG PRVWLPSRUWDQWLWLVVHHQE\LWVFULWLTXHVDVQDUURZHU WKDQFODVVLFDOOLEHUDOLVPEHFDXVHLW IRFXVHVLQSUDFWLFHSULPDULO\RQHFRQRPLFIUHHGRPGHVSLWHWKHHPSKDVLVRI+D\HNDQG )ULHGPDQRQSROLWLFDODQGFLYLFµIUHHGRPV¶)XUWKHURQ&DVWUHHWDNHVLQWRDFFRXQWIRUWKH IROORZLQJFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIQHROLEHUDOLVPLQUHODWLRQWRUHJXODWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDODFWLRQV LELG D 3ULYDWLVDWLRQWKDWLV³DVVLJQLQJFOHDUOHJDOO\HQIRUFHDEOHSULYDWHSURSHUW\ULJKWVWRKLWKHUWR XQRZQHGJRYHUQPHQWRZQHGRUFRPPXQDOO\RZQHGDVSHFWVRIWKHVRFLDODQGQDWXUDOZRUOGV´ ,QRWKHUZRUGVWKRURXJKQHROLEHUDOLVPZHZLWQHVVZKDW 43 ³IRUQHROLEHUDOVWKLVHWKLFLVDOPRVWDµQDWXUDO¶JRRG,WHQFDSVXODWHVWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶VULJKWWR PD[LPXPIUHHGRPDQGWKHLUUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRU WKHLURZQDIIDLUV´ LGHP 7KHODWHUWZRSRLQWV I J EULQJVXEVWDQWLDOFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI QHROLEHUDOLVPDQGLWVUHODWLRQWRWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH7KH\VWUHVVWKHUROHRIQRQ-state actors in the transnational governance regime thaWLVXQGHUVFUXWLQ\LQWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\ FRPSOHPHQWLQJWKHUHIRUHWKHSROLWLFDOHFRQRPLFSHUVSHFWLYH7KHWZRGLPHQVLRQVPHQWLRQHG E\&DVWUHHSRLQWWRWKHUHDOLW\RIGLIIHUHQWJRYHUQDQFHDFWLRQVDVSDUWRIDZLGHUSURFHVVRI JRYHUQDPHQWDOLW\)RXFDXOW¶VZLGHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHDFWRIJRYHUQLQJGHILQHGDV³WKH FRQGXFWRIFRQGXFW´ )RXFDXOW $VWKHHPSLULFDOPDWHULDOVRIWKLVVWXG\VKRZWKH GUDPDWLFH[SDQVLRQRIDUHDV]RQHGIRUQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLVDFFRPSDQLHGE\GLVFRXUVHV FDUULHGE\QRQ-sWDWHDFWRUVLQKHOSLQJOHJLWLPL]LQJQHZJRYHUQDQFHSUDFWLFHV7KLVLVGRQHDW WKHH[SHQVHRIWUDGLWLRQDOODQGXVHSUDFWLFHVDIDFWZKLFKEULQJVEDFNLQWRORFDOGLVFRXUVH IRUPHUDWWHPSWVRIODQGGHSULYDWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ &DVWUHH¶VWD[RQRP\RQQHROLEHUDOLVPVHHQIURPDQHQYLURQPHQWDOSHUVSHFWLYHVHHPV FRQJUXHQWZLWKZKDW6WHSKDQLH/HH0XGJHFDOOVWKHEXUHDXFUDWLFIDFHRIQHROLEHUDOLVP 0XGJHORRNVDWQHROLEHUDOLVPDVDQ³LGHRORJLFDOV\VWHPERUQRIKLVWRULFDOSURFHVVRIVWUXJJOH DQGFROODERUDWLRQLQ WKUHHZRUOGV LQWHOOHFWXDOEXUHDXFUDWLFDQGSROLWLFDO´ LELG )ROORZLQJDQRWDEOHDPRXQWRIOLWHUDWXUH0XGJHSRLQWVRXW³WUDQVQDWLRQDOQHWZRUNVRI activists and free-PDUNHWWKLQNWKDQNVULJKW-ZLQJSROLWLFDOHOLWHVDQGWKH&KLFDJR-EDVHGIUHH- markeWEUDQFKRI$QJOR-$PHULFDQHFRQRPLFVDVNH\IRUFHVEHKLQGQHR-OLEHUDOLVP¶V DVFHQGDQFH´ LELG 1HROLEHUDOLQVWLWXWLRQDOLVPSDUWRIQHROLEHUDOLVPDVDQLQWHOOHFWXDO- SURIHVVLRQDOSURMHFWEHFDPHWKHGRPLQDQWDSSURDFKLQ WRH[SODLQKRZWKLVµQHZ¶ SK\OXPRIPXOWLSOHOD\HUVRIUXOHVIXQFWLRQV0XGJHLQGLFDWHVWKDWWKHEXUHDXFUDWLFIDFHRI QHROLEHUDOLVPFRQVLVWVLQ ³OLEHUDOL]DWLRQGHUHJXODWLRQSULYDWL]DWLRQGHSRODUL]DWLRQDQG PRQHWDULVP´ DQGDVDFRQVHTXHQFHWKHSROLWLFDOIDFHLVQRWKLQJEXWPDUNet-FHQWULFSROLWLFV LELG - 7KLVSHQWDJUDPRIQHROLEHUDOEXUHDXFUDWLFFKDUDFWHULVWLFVFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGDVRQH IDFHWRURQHPRUHVSHFLILFDVSHFWRIZKDW+DOHDQG+HOGVHHDVWKHILYHVRFLHWDOWUHQGVLQ WUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH ³WKHPHUJLQJRIµGRPHVWLF¶DQGµLQWHUQDWLRQDO¶SROLWLFV WKH increased role of non-VWDWHDFWRUVLQJOREDOSROLWLFV WKHHPHUJHQFHRISULYDWHJRYHUQDQFH WKH VKLIWWRQHZPRGHVRIHOLFLWFRPSOLDQFHZLWKWUDQVERUGHUVWDQGDUGV DQGWKHJURZLQJ FRPSOH[LW\RILQVWLWXWLRQDOODQGVFDSH´ LELG +RZHYHURQHVKDOOUHPHPEHUWKDWWKLVLVD 44 EURDGSLFWXUHRIWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHLQZKLFKRQHFDQILQGGLIIHUHQWFRQWUDVWLQJQXDQFHV GHSHQGLQJRQWKHDJJUHJDWLRQDQGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKH QRQ-VWDWH DFWRUVXQGHUVFUXWLQ\ Multi-level governance as EU’s transnational political arena According to the :KLWH3DSHURQ*RYHUQDQFHDGRFXPHQWLVVXHGE\WKH(XURSHDQ &RPPLVVLRQLQ-XO\WKH(8LV³EDVHGRQPXOWL-level governance in which each actor FRQWULEXWHVLQOLQHZLWKKLVRUKHU FDSDELOLWLHVRUNQRZOHGJHWRWKHVXFFHVVRIWKHRYHUDOO H[HUFLVH,QDPXOWL-OHYHOV\VWHPWKHUHDOFKDOOHQJHLVHVWDEOLVKLQJFOHDUUXOHVIRUKRZ FRPSHWHQFHLVVKDUHG—QRWVHSDUDWHG RQO\WKDWQRQ-H[FOXVLYHYLVLRQFDQVHFXUHWKHEHVW interests of all the MePEHU6WDWHVDQGDOOWKH8QLRQ¶VFLWL]HQV´ (XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ 34- 7KHFRQFHSWRIPXOWL-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHLVDQ(8URSHDQERUQFRQFHSW8VHGVLQFHWKH HDUO\ VLQ(XURSHDQVFKRODUO\ZRUNIRU³DV\VWHPRIFRQWLQXRXVQHJRWLDWLRQDPRQJQHVWHG governments at several territorial tiers – VXSUDQDWLRQDOQDWLRQDOUHJLRQDODQGORFDO´ 0DUNV LWVORZO\PRYHGWRGHVFULEH³WKHPRVWRPQLSUHVHQWDQGDFFHSWDEOHODEHOWKDWRQH FDQVWLFNRQWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\(8´ 6FKPLWWHU HYHQWKRXJKDOWHrnatives were DOZD\VDWKDQG DJRRGGHVFULSWLRQLVWREHIRXQGLQ+RRJKHDQG0DUNV - 0XOWL- OHYHO ILUVWUHIHUUHGWR³WKHSUROLIHUDWLRQRIWHUULWRULDOOD\HUV´ &DOODJKDQ ERXQGHG with authority in decision-PDNLQJ/DWHULWPRYHGWRZDUGVµFRPSHWLQJLQWHUHVWV¶LQGHFLVLRQ PDNLQJRUµDVHWWLQJRIRSSRVLWHV¶ZKLFKXOWLPDWHO\GHILQHZKDWDOHYHORIJRYHUQDQFHLV LQGHSHQGHQWRIDZHOOGHILQHGVHDWRIDXWKRULW\ =UQHWDO 7KHLGHQWLILFDWLRQRI VLPLODUWUHQGVLQRWKHUSDUWVRIWKHJOREHHVSHFLDOO\WKURXJKWKHZRUNRIHWKQRJUDSKLFEDVHG VWXGLHVOHGWRFRQFHSWXDOL]LQJPXOWL-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHLQDEURDGHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRQHZKLFK LQFOXGHV³WKHXSZDUGGLIIXVLRQRISRZHUWRUHJLRQDODQGLQWHUQDWLRQDO>QRQ-VWDWH@ organizations as well as WKHGRZQZDUGGLIIXVLRQRISRZHUWRYDULRXVVXE-national JRYHUQPHQWV´ +DUPHV - As multi-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHVWDUWHGWREHLQFUHDVLQJO\UHODWHGWRHPSLULFDOHYLGHQFHRI deregulation and market-HQDEOLQJSROLF\FRPSHWHQFLHVWKHXQIDVWHQLQJIURPthe territorial ERXQGHGOD\HULQJDQGWKHGLVORFDWLRQIURPLWVLQLWLDO(8URSHDQSROLWLFDOVWUHDPEURXJKWWKH FRQFHSWFORVHWRORVLQJLWV³GHQRWDWLYHSUHFLVLRQDQGEHFRPH³RYHU-VWUHWFKHG´´ 3LDWWRQL )URPWKLVSHUVSHFWLYH+DUPHVPDNHVDVWURQJDUJXment that multi-level governance is no ORQJHU³DQXQLQWHQWLRQDOVLGH-HIIHFWRIQHROLEHUDOSROLFLHVDQGSROLWLFDODFWLRQ´LIHYHUEXWD SROLWLFDOSURJUDPLQLWVHOIWR³WKHH[WHQWWRZKLFKQHROLEHUDOLVPUHTXLUHVPXOWLOHYHO governance in order to fully realL]HLWVREMHFWLYHV´ LELG 45 :KHQVHWLQWKHQHROLEHUDOFRQWH[WPXOWL-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHVWDUWVWRGLVSXWHWKHVDPH FRQFHSWXDOILHOGZLWKWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH$VDFRQVHTXHQFHLQWKLVVWXG\,UHIHUWR multi-level governance as the EU’s traQVQDWLRQDOSROLWLFDODUHQDDQG,GLVWLQJXLVKLWIURPWKH WUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHDVEULHIO\GHVFULEHGDERYHPDLQO\WKURXJKLWVORFDWHGVHDWRI DXWKRULW\QDPHO\%UXVVHOV+RZHYHUZKHQORRNLQJDWWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHPXOWL-level JRYHUQDQFHDQGQHROLEHUDOLVPZHILQGWKHIROORZLQJLQFRQVLVWHQF\ ZKLOHQHROLEHUDOLVP SUHDFKHVGHUHJXODWLRQLWGHPDQGVWKHPXOWLSOLFDWLRQRIUHJXODWRU\DFWRUVZKLFKE\WKHLU inter-FRQQHFWHGQHVVDQGVXSHUSRVLWLRQFUHDWHDZHERIUXOHVDQGUHJXODWLRQVDWJOREDOOHYHO with no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level governance regimes is that it targets mainly rural areas where it conflicts with traditional forms of land- XVHDQGSDUWLFXODUZD\VRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJQDWXUH%\VHWWLQJQHZPDUNVRQWKHODQG1DWXUD DVVLJQVWKHODQGVFDSHWRDGLIIHUHQWPDSSLQJDGLIIHUHQWJRYHUQDQFH logic from the YHUQDFXODURQH Territoriality 1RPDWWHUKRZDEVWUDFWZHZRXOGEHWHPSWHGWRWKLQNDERXWJRYHUQDQFHWKHDFWRIJRYHUning FDQQRWKDSSHQRXWVLGHDVSDFH- ZHOOGHILQHGRUPHUHO\SHUFHLYHGDEVWUDFWUHODWLYHRUWLPH FRQWLQJHQW VHH+DUYH\IRUDVXFFLQFWWKHRUHWLFDOFODVVLILFDWLRQRIµVSDFHV¶ :KDWLVYHU\ SUREOHPDWLFZKHQORRNLQJDWWKHFDWHJRU\RIVSDFHLQUHODWLRQ with governance is that the VLWXDWLRQZKHQXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGPDSSLQJµVSDFH¶DFWXDOO\PHDQVWRJRYHUQLW /HIHEYUH ([DPSOHVDERXQG IURPPLOLWDU\DQGFRPPHUFLDOPDSVWRPRUHVXEWOHIRUPVRIVRFLDO FRJQLWLRQRIWKHODQGVFDSH)RUH[DPSOH'DYLG$QGHUVRQVKRZVWKDWIRUWKH6LEHULDQ(YHQNL ³ORFDOLGHDVRIDSSURSULDWLRQKDYHEHHQJRYHUQHGE\FRPSOH[ZD\VRIUHODWLQJWRWKHWXQGUD ZLWKLQZKDWPLJKWEHGHVFULEHGDVDµVHQWLHQWHFRORJ\¶´ $QGHUVRQ ,WLVLPSRUWDQW therefore when looking at transnDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHWRSRLQWWRWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQµVSDFHV¶D SDUWLFXODUJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHXQGHUVWRRGDVDVHWRIUXOHVDQGRUODZVDQGDSSURSULDWLRQ)RU WKLVWKHFRQFHSWRIWHUULWRU\DQGLWVSURFHVVXDOFRUUHVSRQGHQWWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQDUHRIJRRG hHOS 46 6LNRUDQG/XQGPDNHVWURQJOLQNVEHWZHHQVWUDWHJLHVRIWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQDQGFHUWDLQ IRUPVRIODQGXVHDQGDFFHVV0RUHRYHUWKH\HPSKDVL]HWKHSOXUDOLW\RIWKHVRFLR-SROLWLFDO LQVWLWXWLRQVLQYROYHG ³>W@HUULWRULDOL]LQJVWUDWHJLHVDOORZDQGGLVDOORw certain forms of land use DQGDFFHVV >«@%\PDNLQJDQGHQIRUFLQJERXQGDULHVE\FUHDWLQJDWXUIDTXDUWHUDSDULVKD VRNHDKRPHODQGHWFGLIIHUHQWVRFLR-SROLWLFDOLQVWLWXWLRQVLQYRNHDWHUULWRULDOGLPHQVLRQWR WKHLUFODLPRIDXWKRULW\DQGMXULVGLFWLRQZKHUHE\HYHQLQVWLWXWLRQVWKDWDUHQRWWKHVWDWHRUGR QRWUHSUHVHQWIRUPDOJRYHUQPHQWFODLPWKLVSDUWLFXODUDWWULEXWHRIJRYHUQDQFH´ 6LNRU /XQG %XWZKHQZHKDYHXQGHUVFUXWLQ\DWUDQVQDWLRQDOVSDFHWKLQJVJHWPRUH FRPSOLFDWHG TransnaWLRQDODFWRUVSOD\DPDMRUUROHQRZDGD\VLQGHILQLQJµQDWXUDO¶RUYLUWXDOVSDFHV $VQRWHGDERYHWKHLQWHUFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQPXOWLSOHVWDWHDQGQRQ-state actors in the rule- PDNLQJPRQLWRULQJDQGWKHHQIRUFLQJSURFHVVJHQHUDWHVDWUDQVQDWLRQDOOHJDOVSDFH through a FRPSOH[MX[WDSRVLWLRQRIOHJDORUGHUV2QHRIWKHPDLQDVVXPSWLRQVRIWKLVVWXG\LVWKDWWKH WUDQVQDWLRQDOOHJDOVSDFHEHFRPHVDJRYHUQDQFHUHVRXUFHLQLWVHOI,QWKHIUDPHZRUNRIWKLV VWXG\QRWRQO\LVWKHSK\VLFDOVSDFHDUHVRXUFHEXWWKHOHJDOVSDFHDVZHOOHLWKHUORFDWHGDW WKHYLOODJHUHJLRQDOQDWLRQDORUWUDQVQDWLRQDOOHYHOV,QWKLVFRPSOH[OHJDOVSDFHWKHSROLWLFDO authority that scrutinizes this resource shifts constantly from one level to another and the VFDOHVRIOHJDOYDOLGLW\EXWWLQ YRQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQHWDO - $VWKLVVWXG\VKRZV WKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOOHJDOVSDFHLPSOLHVDORRVHVHQVHRIIL[HGWHUULWRULDOLW\DQGDQLQFUHDVHGVHQVH RIVSDWLDOXQERXQGHGQHVV $VDFRQVHTXHQFHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQLVDXVHIXOFRQFHSWWRORRNDWWKHOHJDOFRPSOH[LW\ RIWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHDVZHOO7KHIRFXVRIDQDO\VLVPRYHVILUPO\IURPUHVRXUFHVWRWKH OHJDOVSKHUH V 9DQGHUJHHVW 3HOXVRWDNHDFOHDUVWDQGRQWKHPDWWHUE\VWDWLQJWKDW ³>W@HUULWRULDOL]DWLRQLVDERXWH[FOXGLQJRULQFOXGLQJSHRSOHZLWKLQSDUWLFXODUJHRJUDSKLF ERXQGDULHVDQGDERXWFRQWUROOLQJZKDWSHRSOHGRDQGWKHLUDFFHVVWRQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVZLWKLQ WKRVHERXQGDULHV´ 9DQGHUJHHVW 3HOXVR $OVRGRYRQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQHWDO LELG ZKHQHPSKDVL]LQJWKDW³VSHFLDOFRQVWUXFWLRQVDVHPERGLHGLQOHJDOFDWHJRULHVDQG UHJXODWLRQDUHUHVRXUFHVWKDWFUHDWHIUDPHZRUNVIRUWKHH[HUFLVHRISRZHUDQGFRQWURORYHU SHRSOHDQGUHVRXUFHV´ &RQVHTXHQWO\WHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQLQDWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHLPSOLHVIRrms of FRQWUROPRUHRYHUSHRSOHDQGUHVRXUFHVQDWXUDORUOHJDOUHVRXUFHVWKDQRYHUDWHUULWRU\DV VXFK,QWKLVFRQWH[WZHFDQH[SHFWDSDUDGR[LFDOGHFOLQHRIWKHSULYDWHSURSHUW\ULJKWVLQWKHLU FODVVLFDOOLEHUDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJLQWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\FRQWH[WRIQHROLEHUDOLVP7KHVHDVSHFWV QHHGPRUHLQYHVWLJDWLRQLQFRQWHPSRUDU\UHVHDUFKRQWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH7KH SURGXFWLRQRIQDWXUDOSURWHFWHGDUHDVDWDWUDQVQDWLRQDOVFDOHLVRQHVXFKIRUPRIQHZ WHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQ$V,JRH %URFNLQJWRQSRLQWHG³>W@HUULWRULDOL]DWLRQKDVLQWHQVLILHGXQGHU QHROLEHUDOL]DWLRQDVVHHQLQWKHSUROLIHUDWLRQRISURWHFWHGDUHDV´ ,JRH %URFNLQJWRQ see also Ha\HQHWDO Cultural brokers 7KHFRQFHSWRIFXOWXUDOEURNHULVXVHGLQVRFLDODQWKURSRORJ\IRUGHQRWLQJDSHUVRQRUDJURXS RISHUVRQVWKDWVPRRWKHVWKHFRQWDFWEHWZHHQWZRFXOWXUHV -H]HZVNLDQG6RWQLN ,WLV XVXDOO\UHIHUUHGWRVLQJOHLQGLYLGXDOVEXWIDPLOLHVFDQDOVRSOD\WKHUROH8VXDOO\FXOWXUDO EURNHUVEHORQJWRRQHRIWKHFXOWXUHVXQGHUFRQFHUQ&XOWXUDOEURNHULVQRWDSURIHVVLRQRUD MRE UDWKHUSHRSOHFDQEHFRPHFXOWXUDOEURNHUVPRUHRUOHVVE\FKDQFHRUZLWKRXWHYHQ DFNQRZOHGJLQJLW6]DV] LQGLFDWHVWKDWFXOWXUDOKHULWDJHJHQGHUDQGIRUPVRIORFDO HOLWLVPDVSUH-determinantVIRUZKRFRXOGEHFRPHDFXOWXUDOEURNHU$YHU\QLFHXVHRIWKH FRQFHSWZHILQGIRULQVWDQFHLQ)ORULDQ6WDPPOHU¶VZRUNRI5XVVLDQSRVWVRFLDOLVWREVFKLQD ,QHVVHQFH6WDPPOHUXVHVWKHFRQFHSWUHIHUULQJWRVRFLDODFWRUVZKREULGJHWZRRUPRUHWKDQ two OHYHOVRQLQWHUDFWLRQ SROLWLFDOHFRQRPLFFXOWXUDOUHOLJLRXVHGXFDWLRQDOHWF EXWZLWKD FUXFLDOHPSKDVLVRQWKHIDFWWKDWFXOWXUDOEURNHUV³GHOLEHUDWLYHO\FKDQJHWKHHPSKDVLVRUWKH FRQWHQWRIDFRQFHSWDVWKH\PRYHEDFNDQGIRUWK´ 6WDPPOHU P\HPSKDVLV $VWKHHPSLULFDOSDUWVVKRZWKHFXOWXUDOEURNHUVKDYHDFUXFLDOUROHLQLQWURGXFLQJ QHZLGHDVLQDGHILQHGVSDFHDUWLFXODWLQJUHVLVWDQFHSUDFWLFHVRUORFDOQHJRWLDWLRQV,QWKLV VWXG\WKHFXOWXUDOEURNHUVQRWRQO\EULGJHEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWOHYHOVRIVRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQEXW WKH\SOD\WKHUROHRIµYHKLFOHV¶EHWZHHQJHRJUDSKLFDODQGWHPSRUDOVSKHUHVDVZHOO+RZHYHU ZKDWGLIIHUHQWLDWHVFXOWXUDOEURNHUVIURP1*2VLVWKDWWKHIRUPHUODFNDQRUJDQL]HGIRUPWR GLUHFWVRFLDOFKDQJHDZHOOGHILQHGDJHQGDDQGWKHVXSSRUWRIGRQRUV7KHUHIRUHFXOWXUDO EURNHUDJHPXVWQRWEHFRQIXVHGZLWKDGYRFDF\JURXSVEXVLQHVVLQWHUHVWJURXSVRUYDULRXV IRUPVRI1*2VZLWKLQVRFLDODFWLYLVP Creative compliance &UHDWLYHFRPSOLDQFHLVDWHUPXVHGLQODZIRUGHQRWLQJ³WKHFUHDWLYHXVHRIWKHµPDWHULDO¶RI WKHODZ>«@WRFRQVWUXFWGHYLFHVZKLFKFRPSO\ZLWKWKHOHWWHURIWKHODZ´ 0F%DUQHWDQG :KHODQ 7KHZD\,XVHLWLQP\VWXG\LVLQDPRUHGD\-to-GD\XQGHUVWDQGLQJ &UHDWLYHFRPSOLDQFHLVQRWRQO\³DYRLGLQJODZV¶UHTXLUHPHQWVZLWKRXWDFWXDOO\FRQWUDYHQLQJ WKHP´ LGHP EXWDQDG-KRFLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHODZDFFRUGLQJWRWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVE\ERWK rule-makers and rule-WDNHUV 6WUHHFNDQG7KHOHQ 7KHVLWXDWLRQVWKDW,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQ *DOLFLDDQG 9UDQFHDVKRZKRZODZ-HQIRUFHUVZHUHDQGDUHIRUFHGWRDGDSWWKHPDWHULDO of 48 WKHODZWRWKHFRQWH[WWKH\DUHDFWLQJLQIRUWKHVLPSOHUHDVRQWKDWWKH\DUHDQLQWHJUDOSDUWRI LWVRPHWLPHVHYHQWKURXJKNLQUHODWLRQV7KHUHIRUHWKLVUHIOHFWVWKHVLWXDWLRn when these VSHFLILFDFWRUVIRUHVWU\JXDUGVIRUH[DPSOHEHFRPHUXOH-makers and rule-takers VLPXOWDQHRXVO\7KHVDPHKDSSHQVZLWKYLOODJHUVWKDWDVDVWUDWHJ\RIORFDOUHVLVWDQFHWRZKDW WKH\SHUFHLYHDVLQMXVWLFHFRQYHUWWKHODZDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUXQGerstanding and act DFFRUGLQJO\$VDUHVXOWWKH\IROORZWKHODZEXWWKHLUV 3.2. Nature related concepts The intrinsic value of nature Together with the PHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQSUHVHQWHGLQWKHQH[WVHFWLRQWKHLQWULQVLFYDOXH RIQDWXUH is the seFRQGD[LVZKLFKVWUHDPVWKURXJKP\VWXG\IURPWKHEHJLQQLQJWRWKHHQG 7KHGHEDWHVFRQFHUQLQJWKLVFRQFHSWDUHYHU\GHQVHDQGDUHPRVWO\URRWHGLQSKLORVRSK\ =LPPHUPDQIRULQVWDQFHGUDZVRQ0RRUH¶V 3ULQFLSLD(WKLFD whose main argument is that ³WKHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRIDµZKROH¶PXVWQRWEHDVVXPHGWREHWKHVXPRIWKHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRILWV µSDUWV¶´– DSULQFLSOHWKDW0RRUHFDOOV 7KH3ULQFLSOHRI2UJDQLF8QLWLHV LQ=LPPHUPDQ =LPPHUPDQJRHVRQDQGDVNV ZKDWVRUWRIWKLQJFDQKDYHLQWULQVLFYDOXe and what it is WKDWVXFKYDOXHGHSHQGVRQ LGHP +LVDQVZHULVWKDWLQWULQVLFYDOXHILUVW- H[LVWVDQG VHFRQGLWGRHVVRDVDYDULHW\RIQRQGHULYDWLYHYDOXHDQ³HWKLFDOYDOXHZKLFKWKHVHGD\VJRHV E\WKHWLWOHµILQDOYDOXH¶´ LELG %XWKHDUJXHVDJDLQVW0RRUHDQGVWDWHVWKDW³RQFHWKH EHDUHUVRILQWULQVLFYDOXHKDYHEHHQLGHQWLILHGWKHUHLVQRQHHGWRVXEVFULEHWRWKH7KH 3ULQFLSOHRI2UJDQLF8QLWLHV2QWKHFRQWUDU\WKHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRIRXUZRUOGLVWKHVXPRI WKHEDVLFLQWULQVLFYDOXHV RIWKRVHVWDWHVWKDWKDYHVXFKYDOXH´ LELG %DVHGRQWKHVDPH ORJLF$JDUDUJXHVWKDWLQGLYLGXDOOLYLQJEHLQJVDUHLQWULQVLFDOO\YDOXDEOH $JDU DVGRHV 9LlNND DQGWKHZKROHDUUD\RIOLWHUDWXUHFRPLQJIURP(FRORJLF+LVWRU\5DGLFDO(FROogy DQGWKHOHIWSROLWLFDOVSHFWUXPRIDFDGHPLDFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHLVVXH 7KHUHIRUHIRUWKHULJKWHRXVTXHVWLRQ³KRZµWKH¶HQYLURQPHQWDOFULVLVVKRXOGEHDGDSWHGWR OLEHUDOGHPRFUDF\´ LELG :LVVHPEXUJPDNHVDVWXQQLQJGHPRQVWUDWLRQDJDLQVWWKHFRQFHSW RILQWULQVLFYDOXH+HVWDWHVWKHIROORZLQJ ³7KHUHFDQEHQRYDOXHZLWKRXWDYDOXHUDQGWKHUHLVQRUHDVRQWREHOLHYHWKDWWKH FDWHJRU\RILQGHSHQGHQWYDOXHFDQQRWEHUHGXFHGWRLQVWUXPHQWDORUDWOHDVWH[WHUQDO YDOXH(YHQLIDQREMHFWRUDFW[FRXOGKDYHLQWULQVLFYDOXHWKLVZRXOGEH LQFRQVHTXHQWLDOZLWKRXWLWVEHLQJYDOXHGE\WKRVHZKRHLWKHUFUHDWHRUGLVFRYHUYDOXH LQWKHZRUOG LQGLYLGXDOVJXLGHGE\SODQVRIOLIHRUWKHRULHVRIWKHJRRG7RKDYHPRUH WKDQSXUHO\WKHRUHWLFDOFRQVHTXHQFHVLQWULQVLFYDOXHPXVWEHUHFRJQL]HGDV DQWKURSRFHQWULFLHDYDOXHUPXVWµSXWYDOXHLQWR¶DQREMHFW7KXVLQWULQVLFYDOXHLV IRUDOOSUDFWLFDOSXUSRVHVUHGXQGDQWDQGUHGXFLEOHWRH[WHUQDOYDOXH´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µWKH¶XQNQRZQ7KH LQWULQVLFYDOXHRIVRPHWKLQJZDVJLYHQE\WKHYHLOVRILQFRPSUHKHQVLELOLW\ that surround an REMHFWRUDQDFWDQGWKLVVWDWHRILQFRPSUHKHQVLELOLW\ LVUHVSHFWZRUWK\WKHUHIRUHWKHUHZDV QRWHYHQDVHDUFKIRUPDNLQJLWFRPSUHKHQVLEOH,ZLOOEULQJLQVLJKWVWRWKLVVWDWHPHQWLQWKH HPSLULFDOSDUWV)RUQRZ,WKLQNWKDW8QDPXQR¶VREVHUYDWLRQLVDWHOOLQJFRQFOXVLRQ ³+HJHOPDGHIDPRXVKLVDSKRULVPWKDWDOOWKDWLVUDWLRQDOLVUHDODQGDOOWKDWLVUHDO LVUDWLRQDO%XWWKHUHDUHPDQ\RIXVZKRQRWFRQYLQFHGE\+HJHOFDUU\RQEHOLHYLQJ WKDWUHDOWKHUHDOO\UHDOLVLUUDWLRQDODQGWKDWUHDVRQLVEXLOWXSRQLUUDWLRQDOLWLHV´ 0LJXHOGH8QDPXQR> @ Environmental conflicts $QHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWLVWKHFRPELQDWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQDQGVRFLDO FRQIOLFW V :KLOHWKHDUUD\RIVWXGLHVFRQFHUQLQJWKLVWRSLFLVHQRUPRXV,ZLOOEULHIO\VKRZ KHUHKRZHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVFRQFHUQLQJ1DWXUDDUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKHOLWHUDWXUH7KH OLWHUDWXUHFDQEHGLYLGHGLQWRWZR VWXGLHVWKDWDUHFRQFHUQHGZLWKHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFW UHVROXWLRQDQGVWXGLHVWKDWDUHFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHPHFKDQLVPVRIVXFKFRQIOLFWV7KHILUVW category of studies looks at the PRGXVRSHUDQGL RIWKHWZRPDMRUVWUDWHJLHVRIUHVROXWLRQ FRXUWOLWLJDWLRQDQGWKHILQGLQJRIPXWXDOO\DJUHHGVROXWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHG DOWHUQDWLYHGLVSXWHUHVROXWLRQFRPPXQLW\FRQVXOWDWLRQSXEOLFSDUWLFLSDWLRQ &KULVWLH - +HUHWKH(81DWXUDFRQVWLWXWHVDSHFXOLDUFDVHIRULWRIIHUVWKHSRVVLELOLW\IRU ILQDQFLDOFRPSHQVDWRU\PHDVXUHVDOWKRXJKDVWKHODVWUHVRUW $UWLFOHIURPWKH+DELWDWV 50 'LUHFWLYH 7KHVHFRQGSDUWRIWKHOLWHUDWXUHORRNVDWWKHUROHRIOHJLWLPDF\ .HXODUW] and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there is another DVSHFWWKDWWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHGVWXGLHVLJQRUHQDPHO\WKDWRIMXVWLFH:H NQRZIURPWKHOLWHUDWXUHRQFRQIOLFWUHVROXWLRQWKDWWKHUHDUHQHJOLJLEOHRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRU DFFRPSOLVKLQJUHVROXWLRQZLWKRXWMXVWLFHIRUUHWDOLDWLRQRFFXUV0HUU\IRULQVWDQFHSXts it VKDUSO\ ³UHVROYLQJFRQIOLFWVZLWKRXWSURGXFLQJMXVWLFHLVGRRPHGWR IDLO´ 0HUU\ 7KHUHIRUHHQYLURQPHQWDOMXVWLFHPXVWEHWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQW Environmental justice (QYLURQPHQWDOMXVWLFHKDVEHHQGHILQHGE\VRPHVFKRODUVLQVXFKZD\VWKDt avoid considering WKHFRQFHSWRIMXVWLFH)RUH[DPSOH%U\DQWGHILQHVLWDV³WKRVHLQVWLWXWLRQDOSROLFLHVGHFLVLRQV DQGFXOWXUDOEHKDYLRUVWKDWVXSSRUWVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQWWKDWVXSSRUWOLYLQJFRQGLWLRQVLQ ZKLFKSHRSOHKDYHFRQILGHQFHDQGWKHLUHQYLURQPHQWLVVDIHQXUWXULQJDQGSURGXFWLYHDQG WKDWVXSSRUWFRPPXQLWLHVZKHUHGLVWULEXWLYHMXVWLFHSUHYDLOV´ 3HWHU:HQ] FRQVLGHUVWKDWLVVXHVRIMXVWLFHDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOMXVWLFHDSSHDU³ZKHQSHRSOHZDQWPRUH WKDQWKH\FDQKDYH´ 2WKHUDXWKRUVWDNHVWXUG\QRWLFHRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKH FRQFHSW6KUDGHU-)UHFKHWWHWDNHVDSKLORVRSKLFDOVWDQGEDVHGRQHWKLFVDQGFRPSDUHV HQYLURQPHQWDOMXVWLFHZLWKµKRPRORJRXV¶FRQFHSWVVXFKDVSURSHUW\ULJKWVDQGHTXDOLW\+HU SRLQWLVWKDW³>D@OWKRXJK FRUSRUDWLRQVDQGJRYHUQPHQWVDUHSUR[LPDWHO\UHVSRQVLEOHIRU(- >HQYLURQPHQWDOMXVWLFH@HVSHFLDOO\LQDGHPRFUDF\WKHSHRSOHWKHPVHOYHVDUHXOWLPDWHO\ UHVSRQVLEOH´ +RZHYHUDIDLUXVHRIWKHHQYLURQPHQWGHSHQGVRQWKH understanding of the enYLURQPHQWDQGWKLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJLVIDUIURPEHLQJDKRPRJHQRXV RQHQHLWKHUVKDOOLWHYHUEHLQP\RSLQLRQ 51 UHFRJQLWLRQFDSDELOLWLHVDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQWRQDWXUHLVDKDUGFKDOOHQJHIRUOLEHUDOWKHRU\7KLV LVEHFDXVHWKHFRQWUDFWGRFWULQHFDQQRWEHH[WHQGHGWRLQFOXGHQDWXUHDVDQDFWRU)RUWKLV PDWWHU%ULDQ%DUU\¶VSRLQWLVWHOOLQJ ³MXVWLFHDQGLQMXVWLFHFDQEHSUHGLFWHGRQO\RIUHODWLRQV DPRQJFUHDWXUHVZKRDUHUHJDUGHGDVPRUDOHTXDOVLQWKHVHQVHWKDWWKH\ZHLJKHTXDOO\Ln the PRUDOVFDOHV´ %DUU\ %DUU\UHVXPHVYHU\ZHOOWKHDUJXPHQWVDJDLQVWWKHHWKLFDO stand for the LQWULQVLFYDOXHRIQDWXUH in relation to MXVWLFH ³WKHFRPPRQPRYHRIDSSHDOLQJWR WKHµLQGHSHQGHQWYDOXHRIQDWXUH¶LVDPLVWDNHQRQH>$QGWKLVLVEHFDXVH@LILWLVLQVRPH FLUFXPVWDQFHVZURQJWREHKDYHLQDFHUWDLQZD\LQUHODWLRQWRQDWXUHWKHUHLVQRHQtity that FDQSURSHUO\EHGHVFULEHGDVDYLFWLPRILQMXVWLFH´ LGHP Socionatures and the agency of nature ,QWKHSDVWVL[GHFDGHVLQFUHDVHGDWWHQWLRQKDVEHHQJLYHQLQHQYLURQPHQWDOVWXGLHVDQGVRFLDO science research to the variety of agenF\WKDWSOD\VDUROHLQVRFLDOFKDQJH&XOWXUDOHFRORJ\ IRUH[DPSOHIRFXVHGDURXQGWKHFRQFHSWRIDGDSWDWLRQ&lassic works such as Marshall Sahlins¶ &XOWXUHDQGHQYLURQPHQW WKHVWXG\RIFXOWXUDOHFRORJ\ RU5R\5DSSDSRUW¶V 52 3LJVIRUDQFHVWRUV VKRZKRZFXOWXUDOSDWWHUQVZLWKLQDJURXSRISHRSOHFKDQJHLQRUGHU WRPHHWWKHLUEDVLFQHHGVDVWKHLUKDELWDWFKDQJHV)URPWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHQDWXUHKDVDJHQF\ SRZHUE\LWVHOIIRULWSOD\VDUROHLQVRFLDOFKDQJH +HUHZHQRWLFHDVWULNLQJUHVHPEODQFHZLWK1LNODV/XKPDQQ’s DXWRSRLHVLVWKHRU\WhLOHERWKWDNHLQWRDFFRXQW the non-KXPDQHOHPHQWWKHUHLVDQHSLVWHPRORJLFDOGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHP$V0HODQLH5HGGLJ - DQG7RU+HUQHV - QRWLFHGIRUWKH$17WKHIRFXVLVSULPDULO\GHVFULELQJDQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKH network functionLQJ)RU/XKPDQQIROORZLQJ3DUVRQV¶V\VWHPLFWKHRU\WKHSULPDU\IRFXVLVWKHHYHQW ³>K@RZ does one get froPRQHHOHPHQWDOHYHQWWRWKHQH[W"+HUHWKHEDVLFSUREOHPOLHVQRWLQUHSHWLWLRQEXWLQ FRQQHFWLYLW\´ /XKPDQQ 53 LQH[SODLQLQJKRZVRFLDOFKDQJHFRPHVLQWREHLQJ$OVRSUREOHPDWLFLVWKHUROHRIWKHQRQ- KXPDQLQWKHSURFHVVRIEUHDNLQJXSZLWKUHSHWLWLRQDQGWKHµKDSSHQLQJ¶RILQQRYDWLRQ 7KHVRFLRQDWXUHVDUHHVVHQWLDOO\KLVWRULFDOErik SwyngedouwDQRWKHUJHRJUDSKHU FROOHDJXHZLWK&DVWUHHDW0DQFKHVWHUWDNHVWKH$17DVWHSIXUWKHULQKLVKLVWRULFDOVWXG\RI WKHSURGXFWLRQRIWKH6SDQLVKZDWHUVFDSH+HVWDWHVWKDW³QDWXUDORUHFRORJLFDOFRQGLWLRQVDQG SURFHVVHVGRQRWRSHUDWHVHSDUDWHO\IURPVRFLDOSURFHVVHVDQGWKDWWKHDFWXDOH[LVWLQJRI socionatuUDOFRQGLWLRQVDUHDFWXDOO\WKHUHVXOWRILQWULFDWHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRISUHH[LVWLQJ configurations that are themselves natural DQG VRFLDO´ 6Z\QJHGRXZ As the HPSLULFDOGDWDIURP*DOLFLDVKRZVWKHUROHRIRWR[R 8OH[HXURSDHXV and D[HVWD SDURWDPQXVVFRSDULXV WZRKLJKO\LQYDVLYHSODQWVLQWKHORFDODJUR-sylvo-SDVWRUDOV\VWHP SURGXFWLRQRIWKHPRQWH LVFUXFLDOIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHSDVWDQGRQJRLQJHQYLURQPHQWDO FRQIOLFWV7KHVDPHLQ9UDQFHDZKHUHWKHURDGWKDWOLQNV0ROGDYLDDQG7UDQV\Ovania over the 9UDQFHD0RXQWDLQVSOD\VDFUXFLDOUROHLQVKDSLQJORFDOEXVLQHVVVWUDWHJLHVWKDWFRQIOLFWZLWK QDWXUHSURWHFWLRQSROLFLHV +DFNLQJ FLWHGLQ*HOOHUW PDNHVWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQµLQWHUDFWLYH¶ and ‘indifferent’ actors that DFWLQVRFLRQDWXUHV$QHOHPHQWRILQIUDVWUXFWXUHVXFKDVWKHURDG DERYHPHQWLRQHGRUDGDPHOHFWULFQHWZRUNVRUUDLOZD\VDUHLQGLIIHUHQWDFWRUVLQWKHVDPH ZD\DWUHHRWR[RRUDZROIDUH7KH\DUHLQGLIIHUHQWLQWKHVHQVHWKDWWKH\DUHFRQFHSWXDOL]HG GHILQHGFUHDWHGRUEHFRPHSDUWRIDVRFLDOFRQWUDFWGLVUHJDUGLQJWKHLUZLOO8 The indifferent DFWRUVDUHLPSRUWDQWIRUWKHVRFLRQDWXUHQHWZRUNEHFDXVHWKH\DUHSDUWRIXQSUHGLFWDEOHDQG SDUWLDOO\NQRZQRUWRWDOO\XQNQRZQLQWHUDFWLRQV7KHUHIRUHDQ\LQWHUYHQWLRQXSRQRQHDFWRU RIWKHVRFLRQDWXUHQHWZRUNFDQSURGXFHXQH[SHFWHGRXWFRPHV$VRFLRQDWXUHQHWZRUNLV WKHUHIRUHDSHUPDQHQWKXPDQ-QDWXUHGLDOHFWLFHVVHQWLDOO\KLVWRULFDOHVVHQWLDOO\XQSUHGLFWDEOH $V*HOOHUWSXWLW ³7KHSRLQWLVQRWWKDWZHKXPDQVVKRXOGPDVWHUQDWXUHE\RYHUFRPLQJWKH LQDGHTXDFLHVRIRXUFXUUHQWNQRZOHGJHEXWWKDWVXFKPDVWHU\LVLPSRVVLEOH´ LELG 3.3. Property related concepts Property and property relations ,QP\VWXG\WKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRISURSHUW\LVGLVWLQFWIURPWKDWRIRZQHUVKLSPHDQLQJWKDW SURSHUW\UHIHUVWRPXOWLSOHVRFLDOUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWDFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRDYDOXDEOH 8 This is not to say that living indifferent DFWRUVKDYHQRZLOOIRUH[DPSOH the will to surviveRULQWKHFDVHRI EXLOGLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUHRQHGRHVQRWQHHGWRDVNWKHJHQLXVORFL$VRQHH[DPSOHLQ9UDQFHDLOOXVWUDWHVD ZHDOWK\ORFDOHQWUHSUHQHXUKDVDEDQGRQHGKLVSODQVWREXLOGDGDQFHFOXERQWKHKLOOWKDWVHSDUDWHVWKHYLOODJHVRI 3ӽXOHúWLDQG7XOQLFLEHFDXVHKHIHDUVIRUKLVKHDOWKDQGEXVLQHVVFRQVLGHULQJWKDWWKHKLOOLVSHUFHLYHGDVD GDPQHGSODFHVSXUFDWLQWKHORFDOFROOHFWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIODQGVFDSH &KDSWHU 54 DQGLVQRWDVWULFWOHJDOWHUPZKLFKVKRZVWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQDSHUVRQDQGDYDOXDEOH 7KHUHIRUHSURSHUW\LVQRWFRQVLGHUHGDVDWKLQJVXFKDVDSORWRIODQGRUDSHQFLOEXWDVD EXQGOHRIULJKWVWKDWGLIIHUHQWDFWRUVKDYHZLWKUHJDUGWRDYDOXDEOH YRQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQV DQG:LEHU -QRWH 6RPHDXWKRUVJREH\RQGWKHFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQRISURSHUW\DV EXQGOHRIULJKWV9HUGHU\DVVXPHVWKDWSURSHUW\LVDµQDWLYHZHVWHUQ¶FDWHJRU\DQGWKXV DQDO\]LQJSURSHUW\UHODWLRQVLPSOLHVWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKHHQWLUHVRFLDOV\VWHP– ³DV\PERODVHW RIUHODWLRQVDQGDSURFHVV´ 9HUGHU\ ,GRQ¶WFRQVLGHUWKDWVXFKDQDSSURDFKEULQJV QRWDEOHFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHVWXG\RISURSHUW\EHFDXVHDQ\VRFLDODFWLRQLVHPEHGGHGLQODUJHU QHWVRIDFWLRQDQGLQPRUHFRPSOH[HYHU-H[SDQGLQJQHWZRUNVRIPHDQLQJ:KDW,VHHDV FHQWUDOLVVXHLQWKHFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQRISURSHUW\DVEXQGOHRIULJKWVLVWKHQRWLRQRISRZHU DQGWKDWRIOHJLWLPDF\0DF3KHUVRQPDNHVWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQSRVVHVVLRQDQGSURSHUW\LQ WKDWWKHODWHUFDOOVIRUDSHUPDQHQWHQIRUFHPHQWE\ODZ EHLQJFXVWRPDU\RUIRUPDO E\WKLUG SDUWLHVVXFKDVWKHVWDWHRUVLPSO\WKHVRFLHW\ SURSHUW\LVDOVRDERXWULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQV 0DF3KHUVRQ - 7KHUHIRUHSURSHUW\GHILQHGDVDEXQGOHRIVRFLDOUHODWLRQV UHJXODWHGE\DWKLUGVRFLDOHQWLW\VWD\VDVDJRRGH[DPSOHIRULQVWLWXWLRQVDVUHJLPHV 6WUHHFN DQG7KHOHQ - ,QP\DQDO\VLV,ZLOOXVH)UDQ]DQG.HHEHWYRQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQDQG0HODQLH:LEHU DQDO\WLFDOIUDPHZRUNIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRISURSHUW\ LELG - 7KLVLVDYHU\XVHIXOWRROIRU PDNLQJDGLVWLQFWLRQDVFOHDUDVSRVVLEOHRIZKRLVKDYLQJZKDWYDOXDEOHVDccording to the ODZZKDWDUHWKHUHDOSUDFWLFHVDQGE\ZKLFKLGHRORJ\DUHWKHULJKWVHVWDEOLVKHGDVOHJLWLPDWH ,VXPPDUL]HGLQWKHWDEOHEHORZWKHPDLQSRLQWVRIWKLVDQDO\WLFDOIUDPHZRUN (OHPHQWVRISURSHUW\UHODWLRQV /D\HUVRIVRFLDO RUJDQL]DWLRQ D6RFLDODFWRUV E9DOXDEOHV F5LJKWVDQG REOLJDWLRQV /HJDOO\ ,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKH institutionalized YDOXDEOHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHODZ SURSHUW\UHODWLRQV &RQFUHWHVRFLDO ,,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKH relations YDOXDEOHVLQUHDOSUDFWLFH ,GHRORJ\ ,,,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKH YDOXDEOHVHPEHGGHGLQLGHRORJ\ Figure 1 $QDQDO\WLFDOIUDPHZRUNIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRISURSHUW\UHODWLRQV 55 Access %XWGHVFULELQJSURSHUW\DVDVHWRIULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVZLWKUHJDUGWRYDOXDEOHVQHJRWLDWHG E\PXOWLSOHDFWRUVGLIIHUHQWLQVSDFHDQGWLPHDQGHQIRUFHGE\ODZE\DWKLUGSDrty is not VDWLVIDFWRU\$QGWKLVEHFDXVHDV,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQWKH6SDQLVKDQG5RPDQLDQHPSLULFDOSDUWV RQHPD\FODLPRUDFTXLUHSURSHUW\ULJKWVE\IRUFHGLVUHJDUGLQJWKHODZ+HUHDFFHVV EHFRPHVWKHNH\FRQFHSW,XVHDFFHVVLQWKHGHILQLWLRQJLYHE\5LERWDQG3HOXVR µWKHDELOLW\ WREHQHILWIURPWKLQJV– LQFOXGLQJPDWHULDOREMHFWVSHUVRQVLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGV\PEROV¶ DFFHVV LVDERXWµall SRVVLEOHPHDQVE\ZKLFKDSHUVRQLVDEOHWREHQHILWIURPWKLQJV¶ 5LERWDQG 3HOXVR 7KHUHIRUHLIZHFRPSDUHDFFHVVZLWKSURSHUW\WKHODWHULVRQO\µRQHVHWRI IDFWRUVLQDODUJHUDUUD\RILQVWLWXWLRQVVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDO-HFRQRPLFIDFWRUVDQGGLVFXUVLYH VWUDWHJLHVWKDWVKDSHEHQHILWIORZV¶ LELG Sikor and Lund made a good analysis of the distinFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHWZR ZKLOHSURSHUW\LVPRUHQDUURZDQGPRUHVSHFLILF³>D@FFHVVE\ FRQWUDVWLVEURDGHUDQGLQFOXGHVSURSHUW\´ 6LNRUDQG/XQG 3URSHUW\³UHIHUVWR OHJLWLPDWHVRFLDOUHODWLRQRQO\´ LGHP ZKLOHDFFHVVSRLQWVWR³ZK\ VRPHSHRSOH or LQVWLWXWLRQVEHQHILWIURPUHVRXUFHVZKHWKHURUQRW they have institutionally recognized rights WRWKHP´ 5LERWDQG3HOXVR Primitive accumulation 3ULPLWLYHDFFXPXODWLRQPHDQVIRU0DU[³WKHKLVWRULFDOSURFHVVRIGLYRUFLQJWKHSURGXFHUIURP WKHPHDQVRISURGXFWLRQ´E\WUDQVIRUPLQJ³WKHVRFLDOPHDQVRIVXEVLVWHQFHDQGRISURGXFWLRQ LQWRFDSLWDO´DQGWKHLPPHGLDWHSURGXFHUVLQWRZDJHODERUHUV 0DU[ 7KLVIRUPRI FDSLWDODFFXPXODWLRQ³DSSHDUVDVµSULPLWLYH¶EHFDXVHLWIRUPVWKHSUHKLVWRU\RIFDSLWDODQGRI WKHPRGHRISURGXFWLRQFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHFDSLWDO´ LGHP %XWZHNQRZIURPWKHILUVW lines of &DSLWDO WKDWDWWKHFRUHRIWKHFDSLWDOLVWPRGHRISURGXFWLRQLV³WKHLQGLYLGXDO FRPPRGLW\DVLWVHOHPHQWDU\IRUP´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¶VWKHRU\RQSULPLWLYHDFFXPXODWLRQIROORZLQJLQWKHDQDO\WLFDOSDUWWR SURYLGHIUXLWIXOH[DPSOHVIURPWKHQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQVSKHUH Accumulation by dispossession, accumulation by extra-economic means $FFXPXODWLRQE\GLVSRVLWLRQLVWKHFRQFHSWWKURXJKZKLFK'DYLG+DUYH\ OLQNV0DU[¶V SULPLWLYHDFFXPXODWLRQZLWK5RVD/X[HPEXUJ¶V/DQGQDKPHWKHH[SDQVLRQRIFDSLWDOLVPLQWR WKHSHULSKHU\+DUYH\VWDWHVWKDWLQQHROLEHUDOLVPWKHSURFHVVRISULPLWLYHDFFXPXODWLRQLV WDNLQJSODFHZLWKLQWKHSHULSKHU\EXWFRPSOHPHQWDU\WR/X[HPEXUJKHVWDWHVWKDWWKLV SHULSKHU\LVQRWJHRJUDSKLFDOEXWLVUHODWHGWRVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFSUDFWLFHVVXFKDV DSSURSULDWLRQRIDVVHWV LQFOXGLQJQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV WKHVXSSUHVVLRQRIDOWHUQDWLYHPRGHVRI SURGXFWLRQDQGFRQVXPSWLRQ +DUYH\ +RZHYHU,DJUHHZLWK*ODVVPDQZKHQKH states that ³WKHUHLVOLWWOHUHDVRQWRVXSSRVHWKDWFDSLWDOLVWVZRXOGZLVKWRGLVSRVHRIDOO IRUPDOO\QRQ-FDSLWDOLVWSURFHVVHVRISURGXFWLRQDQGVRFLDOUHSURGXFWLRQ LHGLUHFWO\ FRPPRGLW\HYHU\WKLQJ VLQFHWRGRVRZRXOGUHTXLUHFDSLWDOLVWVWRSD\DOOWKHFRVWVRI UHSURGXFLQJFDSLWDOLVWVRFLDOUHODWLRQV´ *ODVVPDQ :KDWLVRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFH KHUHLVWREHDZDUHRIWKHH[LVWHQFHRIH[WUD-HFRQRPLFPHDQVWKDWFRQWULEXWHWRWKHSURFHVVRI FDSLWDOIRUPDWLRQRU LQRWKHUZRUGVPHDQVRWKHUWKDQH[SDQGHGHFRQRPLFSURGXFWLRQDQG UHSURGXFWLRQRIFRPPRGLWLHV$V,DUJXHLQWKHODVWSDUWQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLVRQHRIWKHP 3.4. Time related concepts The Past in the Present ³:KDWH[SODLQVWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIWKHSDVWDVDVXEMHFWPDWWHULQWKHSUHVHQW"´LVWKHTXHVWLRQ E\ZKLFK0DXULFH%ORFK WULHVWRJUDVSWKHWKHRUHWLFDOKHDGOLQHVRIVRFLDOFKDQJH +LVSRLQWLVWKDW³WKHSUHVHQWFDQQRWEHXQGHUVWRRGDSDUWIURPWKHSDVWLQWKDWLWDQVZHUVLW´ LGHP DQGWKHUHIRUHWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHSDVWLQWKHSUHVHQWHLWKHUDVGLVFRXUVHULWXDORU HYHU\GD\SUDFWLFHLVDJRRGHYLGHQFHWKDWWKHVRFLDOGHWHUPLQDWLRQWKHRUHWLFDOIUDPHZRUNLV LQFRPSOHWH ³LIDOOFRQFHSWVDQGFDWHJRULHVDUHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHVRFLDOV\VWHPDIUHVKORRNLV LPSRVVLEOHVLQFHDOOFRJQLWLRQLVDOUHDG\PRGHOHGWRILWZKDWLVWREHFULWLFL]HG´ +HH[SODLQV IXUWKHUWKDW³LIZHEHOLHYHLQWKHVRFLDOGHWHUPLQDWLRQRIFRQFHSWV>«@WKLVOHDYHVWKHDFWRUV with no language to talk DERXW their society and so cKDQJHLWVLQFHWKH\FDQRQO\WDONZLWKLQ LW´ LELG %ORFKVWUHVVHVRQWKHIDFWWKDWLWLVFUXFLDOWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHUROHRIWKHSDVWLQ WKHSUHVHQWIRULWRIIHUVWKHPRVWDWKDQGUHIHUHQFHSRLQWLQXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGHYHQWXDOO\ criticizing and changLQJWKHRQJRLQJUHDOLW\ 7KHIDFWWKDWSURSHUW\DVFRQFHSWXDOL]HGDERYHLVKLVWRULFDOO\FRQWLQJHQWLVQRWDPDWWHU RIGHEDWH 6LNRUDQG/XQG :KDWLVGHEDWDEOHLVKRZWKHSDVWOHJLWLPL]HVRUGH- OHJLWLPL]HVWKHSUHVHQW,QDEURDGHUSHUVSHFWLYH WKHLVVXHDGGUHVVHVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIFRQWH[W IRUWKHOHJLWLPL]DWLRQRISUHVHQWSUDFWLFHVDQGFRJQLWLRQ+HUH,GUDZH[WHQVLYHO\RQWKHZRUN RI-RVp2UWHJD\*DVVHWZKRVHHVVD\VKDGDQLPSRUWDQWLQIOXHQFHRQWKHFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQRI WKHSUHVHQWVWXG\2UWHJD\*DVVHWDWWHPSWHGWREULGJHWKH*HUPDQSKHQRPHQRORJ\ZLWK $PHULFDQSUDJPDWLVPLQDWKHRU\RIVRFLDOFKDQJHEDVHGRQHGXFDWLRQ 'REVRQ 7KHSULPDU\XQLWRIUHIHUHQFHLV³,´DQGWKLVFDWHJRU\LVWKHXOWLPDWHUHIHUHQFHWRUHDOLW\ OLNH in 'HZH\IRULQVWDQFH %XWWKH³,´KDVQRPHDQLQJZLWKRXWLWVVXUURXQGLQJVDQGYLFHYHUVD 7KHVXUURXQGLQJVWKHFRQWH[WEHFRPHSDUWRIWKH³,´DQGDUHQRWORFDWHGRXWVLGH+HVWDWHV ³ Collective memory 7KHYDVWDFDGHPLFXQGHUWDNLQJRIGHDOLQJZLWKFROOHFWLYHVRFLDOPHPRU\DWRSLFWKDWLV WUDQVGLVFLSOLQDU\SHUVHKDVEHHQPDVWHUIXOO\SUHVHQWHGE\2OLFNDQG5REELQV DQG 2OLFN9LQLWzky-6HURXVVLDQG/HY\ :KDW,DPLQWHUHVWHGLQLVWRGHSLFWDURXQGZKDW 7UDQVODWLQJ2UWHJD\*DVVHWLQWR(QJOLVKLVDGLIILFXOWWDVN7KHUHIRUH,ZDQWWRPDNHWKHUHDGHUDZDUHRIWKH DSSUR[LPDWHWUDQVODWLRQWKDW,XQGHUWRRNKHUH 10 ,QRULJLQDO 6yORXQPRGRKD\GHGRPLQDUDOSDVDGRUHLQRGHODVFRVDVIHQHFLGDV DEULUQXHVWUDVYHQDVH LQ\HFWDUGHVXVDQJUHHQODVYHQDVYHFLQDVGHORVPXHUWRV(VWHHVOHTXHQRSXHGHHOUHDFFLRQDULR WUDWDUHO SDVDGRFRPRXQPRGRGHODYLGD/RDUUDQFDGHODHVIHUDGHODYLWDOLGDG\ELHQPXHUWRORVLHQWDHQVXWURQR SDUDTXHULMDODVDOPDV 58 elements of reality the collective memory11 EHFRPHVDUWLFXODWHG+HUH0DXULFH+DOEZDFKV JLYHVDFOHDUDQVZHU DVKDUHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHSDVWDQGWKHPDWHULDOREMHFWV+DOEZDFhs JLYHVH[DPSOHVRIREMHFWVWKDWIRUFHUWDLQJURXSVUHSUHVHQWWUXHSLOODUVRIVKDUHGPHPRU\ :KLOHUHIHUULQJWRSHDVDQWVRFLHWLHVKHWDNHVWKHH[DPSOHRIODQGSORWVDQGWKHYHUQDFXODU PRGHVRIGHOLPLWDWLQJDFFHVVWRUHVRXUFHVDVPDLQH[DPSOHVRIKRZFROOective memory gets DUWLFXODWHGDWORFDOOHYHO +DOEZDFKV - 5XWK%HKDULQKHUERRN 7KHSUHVHQFHRIWKH SDVWLQD6SDQLVKYLOODJH analysis historical land-RZQHUVKLSGRFXPHQWVWRJHWKHUZLWKODQGXVH SUDFWLFHVIRUDWWHVWLQJWKDWSURSHUW\UHODWLRQVVWD\IRUSLWIDOOVRIFROOHFWLYHPHPRU\LQWKH /HRQHVHYLOODJHZKHUHVKHXQGHUWRRNKHUUHVHDUFK %HKDU 7KHEDODGRLQWKH*DOLFLDQ FDVHDQGKRWDU LQWKH5RPDQLDQRQHDUHIXUWKHUH[DPSOHVWKDW,EULQJLQWKHVDPHGLUHFWLRQ 0RUHRYHU,GHVFULEHLQWKe 3URWHFWLQJQDWXUHSDUWKRZWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHILUVWQDWLRQDO SDUNVLQWKH866SDLQDQG5RPDQLDDUHWUXHODQG-marks of collective identity at national VFDOH Memories of dispossession %HIRUHDQ\WKLQJHOVH µPHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQ¶ is a real GLVFRXUVHDWORFDOOHYHOLQ9UDQFHD DQG*DOLFLD0\ILUVWDLPLQWKHHPSLULFDOSDUWVZDVWRGHVFULEHWKLVUHDOLW\ KRZWKLVGLVFRXUVH JHWVDUWLFXODWHGKRZPXFKLVIDFWLRXVDQGKRZPXFKUHODWHVIURPKLVWRULFDOGDWDDQG QHYHUWKHOHVVLQZKDWVFRSHLVLWXVHGQRZDGD\V,QWKLVUHJDUGPHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQ DFTXLUHH[SOLFDWLYHVHQVHDQGFDQEHXVHGDVDVWHSSLQJSRLQWIRUIXUWKHUH[SODQDWLRQVRI RQJRLQJFRQIOLFWV.RVHNSURFHHGVLQWKHVDPHZD\LQKLVVWXG\8QGHUVWRULHV WKHSROLWLFDOOLIH RIIRUHVWVLQQRUWKHUQ0H[LFR +HVWDUWHGIURPWKHHPSLULFDOHYLGHQFHWKDW³PHPRULHVRI GLVSRVVHVVLRQDQGVHQWLPHQWVRIORQJLQJIRUODQGKHOSFRQVWLWXWH+LVSDQRLGHQWLW\DQGPDNH WKH+LVSDQRFRPPXQLW\FRKHUH´ .RVHN %XWVRRQKHPRYHVRQE\DGPLWWLQJWKDW ³WKHVHVWRULHVDUHDOVRFROOHFWLYHPHPRULHVWKDWDUHPDGHDQGUHPDGHLQWKHSUHVHQW´ LELG DQGWKXVWKHSROLWLFVRIWKHVHPHPRULHVDUHRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFH6WXG\LQJODQG GLVSRVVHVVLRQLQSRVW-DSDUWKHLG6RXWK-$IULFD*LOOLDQ+DUWDOVRFRQFOXGHVWKDW³KLVWRULHVDQG PHPRULHVDQGGLVSRVVHVVLRQDUHGLUHFWO\DQGLQGLUHFWO\LPSOLFDWHGLQNH\DUHQDVRIVWUXJJOH WKDWDUHOLNHO\WRLQWHQVLI\ZLWKWKHQHZV\VWHPRIORFDOJRYHUQPHQWGHPDUFDWLRQV´ +DUW *DUFLDEULQJVDQH[WUHPHH[DPSOHRIKRZKHURLQDddiction is related to changes LQODQGXVHDQGODQGGLVSRVVHVVLRQLQ1HZ0H[LFR³7KLVIHHOLQJ>DIHHOLQJRIORVV@DQGWKH ODQJXDJHXVHGWRGHVFULEHLWUHVRQDWHGSRZHUIXOO\ZLWKPDQ\DGGLFWV,LQWHUYLHZHGHVSHFLDOO\ 11 2OLFNDQG5REELQVSUHVHQWKRZVRPHDSSURDFKHVDQGGLVFLSOLQHVDGYRFDWHIRUµVRFLDO¶RWKHUVIRUµFROOHFWLYH¶LQ UHODWLRQWRPHPRU\ - 60 Part II: Protecting Nature “,IQDWXUHGLHVEHFDXVHZHHQWHULWWKHQWKHRQO\ZD\WRVDYHQDWXUHLVWRNLOORXUVHOYHV´ :LOOLDP&URQRQ7KH7URXEOHZLWK:LOGHUQHVV 83 ³2050 vision %\WKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQELRGLYHUVLW\DQGHFRV\VWHPVHUYLFHV LWSURYLGHV– its QDWXUDO FDSLWDO – ZLOOEHSURWHFWHGYDOXHGDQG DSSURSULDWHO\UHVWRUHGIRUELRGLYHUVLW\¶VLQWULQVLFYDOXH DQGIRUWKHLUHVVHQWLDOFRQWULEXWLRQWRKXPDQZHOOEHLQJDQGHFRQRPLFSURVSHULW\DQGVRWKDW FDWDVWURSKLFFKDQJHVFDXVHGE\WKHORVVRIELRGLYHUVLW\DUHDYRLGHG´ &RPPXQLFDWLRQIURP WKH&RPPLVVLRQ WRWKH(XURSHDQ3DUOLDPHQW7KH&RXQFLODQGWKH6RFLDO&RPPLWWHHDQGWKH &RPPLWWHHRI7KH5HJLRQVSHPSKDVLVDGGHG ³ ³:HDUHSODQQLQJWRGHYHORSJXLGDQFHIRUDJULFXOWXUHLQ1DWXUDZHDUHDERXWWR finalize JXLGDQFHLQZLQGHQHUJ\DQG1DWXUDZKLFKKDVEHHQGHYHORSHGWRJHWKHUZLWK '*7UDQVSRUWDQG (QHUJ\DQGWKHZLQGHQHUJ\VHFWRU6RWKHUHLV,WKLQNDORWRILQYHVWPHQW ZHDUHGRLQJLQWRJHWWLQJWKHSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHDFWRUVWKDWLPSDFWQHJDWLYHO\RQ1DWXUD WRFKDQJHLWLQDZD\WKDWWKH\ZLOOUHFRJQL]HWKDWLWLVLQWKHLURZQEHQHILWWRSURPRWH1DWXUD ´ '*(QYLURQPHQWRIILFLDOUHVSRQVLEOHIRU1DWXUD3URJUDPLQWHUYLHZ ³1DWXUDKDVFRQWLQXHGDQGUHLQIRUFHGDWUHQG thaWKDGDOUHDG\VWDUWHGZLWK&$3 >&RPPRQ$JULFXOWXUH3ROLF\@ (XURSHDQUXOHVDQGUHJXODWLRQV rathHUWKDQSULYDWHRZQHUVKLS of individual lands increasingly determine KRZWKH(XURSHDQFRXQWU\VLGHGHYHORSVDQG ORRNV´ YDQGHU+HLMGHQ 61 Chapter 4 - Conceptual mapping ³:KDWSHRSOHGRDERXWWKHLUHFRORJ\GHSHQGVRQZKDWWKH\WKLQNDERXWWKHPVHOYHVLQUHODWLRQWRWKLQJVDURXQG WKHP” /\QQ:KLWH-U7KH+LVWRULFDO5RRWVRIRXUHFRORJLFFULVLVS 4.1. Nature, wilderness, waste – ĠLKHUPRQWHYDVW ³1DWXUHLVSHUKDSVWKHPRVWFRPSOH[ZRUGLQWKHODQJXDJH´5D\PRQG:LOOLDPVVWDUWVKLV articlHRQ1DWXUHIURP .H\ZRUGV $9RFDEXODU\RI&XOWXUHDQG6RFLHW\ :LOOLDPV > @ $QGWKLVEHFDXVHLW³LVDZRUGZKLFKFDUULHVRYHUDYHU\ORQJSHULRGPDQ\RI WKHPDMRUYDULDWLRQVRIKXPDQWKRXJKW´ LELG 127KHZRUGµQDWXUH¶LQ/DWLQQDWXUD FRPHVIURPWKHSDVWSDUWLFLSOHIRUPQDWXP RIWKH/DWLQYHUEQDVFHUH - WREHERUQEHDULQJWKH same etymological root as the word QDWLRQ:LOOLDPVGLVWLQJXLVKHVWKUHHDUHDVRIPHDQLQJIRU WKHZRUGµQDWXUH¶ WKHLQWULQVLFTXDOLW\RIVRPHWKLQJ the force that drives something ERWKKXPDQDQGQRQ-KXPDQ WKHPDWHULDOZRUOGLWVHOIDJDLQLQFOXGLQJERWKKXPDQDQG non-KXPDQHOHPHQWV7KHVHWKUHHDUHDVRIPHDQLQJDUHVLPXOWDQHRXVO\XVHGLQFXUUHQW ODQJXDJHDQGPRVWRIWKHWLPHRYHUODS&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHULVNRIFRQIXVLRQLVKLJK)RUP\ DQDO\VLVKHUH DQG DUHRIJUHDWLPSRUWDQFH 7KHLGHDRIZLOGHUQHVVLVVWULFWO\UHODWHGWRWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQPDQDQGQDWXUH %ULHIO\VDLGZKDWDSSHDUVWREHQRWXQGHUKXPDQFRQWURORUNQRZOHGJHLVUHIOHFted in ODQJXDJHDQGSUDFWLFHDVEHLQJZLOGGHVHUW7KHVHWHUPVDUHUHODWLYHO\UHFHQWDFTXLVLWLRQVIRU WKHPRGHUQYRFDEXODU\)UDQ]LHU1DVK13 QRWHV ³,QWKHHDUO\7HXWRQLFDQG1RUVHODQJXDJHV IURPZKLFKWKH(QJOLVKZRUGLVIRUDODUJHSDUWGHYHORSHGWKHURRWVHHPVWRKDYHEHHQ³ZLOO´ ZLWKDGHVFULSWLYHPHDQLQJRIVHOI-ZLOOHGZLOOIXORUXQFRQWUROODEOH>«@the Old English ³GƝRU´ DQLPDO ZDVSUHIL[HGZLWKZLOGWRGHQRWHFUHDWXUHVQRWXQGHUWKHFRQWURORIPDQ´ 1DVK> @ - 7KXVHW\PRORJLFDOO\ZLOGHUQHVVLVURRWHGLQWKHROG*HUPDQLF ODQJXDJHDQGPHDQVWKHSODFHRIZLOGEHDVWV1DVKPDNHVDQLQWHUHVWLQJREVHUYDWLRQODWHURQ ³5RPDQFHODQJXDJHVRQWKHRWKHUKDQGKDYHQRVLQJOHZRUGWRH[SUHVVWKHLGHDEXWUHO\RQ RQHRILWVDWWULEXWHV7KXV LQ6SDQLVKZLOGHUQHVVLVLPPHQVLGDG or IDOWDGHODFXOWXUD ODFNRI 12 5D\PRQG:LOOLDPV - ZDVDSUHHPLQHQW%ULWLVKOLQJXLVWZLWKDVWURQJLQWHUHVWLQVRFLRORJ\+LV ERRN&XOWXUHDQG6RFLHW\ GHDOVZLWKKRZNH\ZRUGVIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHPRGHUQ$QJOR-American VRFLHW\WDNHRQQHZPHDQLQJVDQGKRZWKHVHFKDQJHVUHIOHFWWKHSROLWLFDOWXUQLQJSRLQWVRIDVSHFLILFSHULRG .H\ZRUGV«ZDVLQLWLDOO\FRQFHLYHG DVDQDSSHQGL[IRU&XOWXUHDQG6RFLHW\ XOWLRPDWHO\GXHWRLWVOHQJWKWXUQHG LQWRDERRNLWVHOI 13 1DVK¶VERRN:LOGHUQHVVDQGWKH$PHULFDQ0LQGZDVILUVWSXEOLVKHGLQ DQGGHYHORSHGRXWRIKLV GRFWRUDOWKHVLVDW ,Q5RPDQLDQDQG*DOLFLDQERWK5RPDQFHODQJXDJHVWKHLGHDRIZLOGHUQHVVLVH[SUHVVHG WKURXJKZRUGVWKDWGHQRWHXQNQRZQQDWXUDOVXUURXQGLQJVRUWKHDEVHQFHRIKXPDQEHLQJVLQ JHQHUDO EXWDOVRVROLWXGHYRLGRUDEDQGRQ3XVWLX LQ5RPDQLDQWKHPRVWFRPPRQZRUG GHQRWHVXQLQKDELWHGSODFH- DQXQLQKDELWHGKRXVHLVSXVWLH DQGXQODERUHGILHOGLVSXVWLX EXW DOVRWKHKHDUWFDQEHSXVWLH ZKHQODPHQWLQJWKHDEVHQFHRIVRPHRQH7KHUHDUHQRWDEOH UHJLRQDOYDULDWLRQVWRH[SUHVVWKHLGHDRIµZLOG¶EXWknown QDWXUDOVXUURXQGLQJDVRUWRI HFRORJLFDOWUDQVLWLRQIURPZKDWXVHGWREHDODERUHGPRGLILHGQDWXUDOVXUURXQGLQJWRD ODQGVFDSHSRWHQWLDOO\UHWXUQLQJWRWKHXQFRQWUROOHGFRQGLWLRQ6XFKZRUGLVĠLKHU UHDGLQJ W]LKHU HQFRXQWHUHGLQ9UDQFHDEXWQRWPHQWLRQHGLQ5RPDQLDQDFDGHPLFGLFWLRQDULHV14 ZKLFKGHQRWHVDUHFHQWO\QDWXUDOO\IRUHVWHGDUHDD\RXQJDQGGHQVHIRUHVWDNQRZQEXW XQFRQWUROOHGQDWXUDOVXUURXQGLQJ IQWKHFXUUHQW*DOLFLDQODQJXDJHWKHLGHDRIZLOGHUQHVVLVH[SUHVVHGWKURXJKZRUGV such as HUPR or VDOED[H,QVRXWKHUQ*DOLFLDWKHknown EXWXQFRQWUROOHGRUXQSURGXFWLYH natural surrounding is named EDOGLRZKLFKOLWHUDOO\PHDQVZDVWH,Qthe north-easteUQSDUW ZKHUH,XQGHUWRRNWKHILHOGZRUNIRUWKLVVWXG\SHRSOHUHIHUWRWKHNQRZQEXWXQFRQWUROOHG natural surrounding as PRQWH0RQWH GRHVQRWPHDQPRXQWDLQZKLFKLQ*DOLFLDQLVFDOOHG PRQWDxD$FFRUGLQJWRWKH'LFFLRQDULRGH5HDO$FDGHPLD*DOHJDPRQWH is land covered with VSRQWDQHRXVYHJHWDWLRQZKLFKFDQDOVREHSRSXODWHGZLWKWUHHV%XWDV,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQWKH 14 7KHZRUGPLJKWEHDYDULDWLRQRI VLKOXVHGLQDQXPEHURIRWKHUVXE-&DUSDWKLDQ5RPDQLDQUHJLRQVWKDWKDYH VLPLODUFRQQRWDWLRQV 63 6SDQLVKHPSLULFDOSDUWPRQWH LVDFRPSOH[DJUR-sylvo-SDVWRUDOV\VWHPZKLFKZDVDQGVWLOOLV DWWKHFRUHRIUXUDOHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\LQ*DOLFLD %RWK5RPDQLDQDQG*DOLFLDQKDYHWKHZRUGYDVW LQWKHLUYRFDEXODU\DQGLVXVHGDVLQ WKHFRPPRQ(QJOLVKODQJXDJHGHVLJQDWLQJVRPHWKLQJKXJHPHDVXUHOHVVEXWDOVRULFK7KH µZLOG¶FRQQRWDWLRQRIWKHZRUGZDVWUDQVIHUUHGWRWKHZRUGVGHYDVWDWH (QJ GHYDVWD 5RP GHYDVWDU *DO 7KLVGHQRWHVDVPRRWKOHYHOLQJRIWKHLQLWLDO/DWLQPHDQLQJLQFRQWUDVWZLWK WKH*HUPDQLFµZLOGHUQHVV¶&RQVHTXHQWO\LQWKHOLJKWRIWKHEULHIHW\PRORJLFDODQDO\VLV SUHVHQWHGDERYH,FODLPWKDWWKHZRUGVQDWXUHZLOGHUQHVV and ZDVWH FRUUHVSRQGWRWKHVDPH SDWWHUQRIOLQJXLVWLFFKDQJH7KLVLVWRVD\WKDWLIZRUGVH[SUHVVPHDQLQJVDQGPHDQLQJV FKDQJHWKURXJKWLPHZKHQDJHQHUDOSDWWHUQRIPHDQLQJ-FKDQJHLVLGHQWLILHGWKLVFDQEHXVHG DV:LOOLDPVSXWLWDV³DVSHFLDONLQGRIPDSE\ZKLFKLWLVSRVVLEOHWRORRNDJDLQDWWKRVH ZLGHUFKDQJHVLQOLIH´ :LOOLDPV [LLL ,QWKHIROORZLQJZHZLOOORRNEDFNLQWLPHZLWK WKHKHOSRIHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRULDQVDQGVHHKRZQDWXUHWXUQHGLQWRZLOGHUQHVVDQGZDVWH 4.2. From animism to anthropocentrism (QYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\DQGHQYLURQPHQWDOSKLORVRSK\OLWHUDWXUH 1DVK 0HUFKDQW 2HOVFKODHJHU :RUVWHU SRLQWWRZDUGWKUHHPDLQ IDFWRUVWKDWIRVWHUHGWKHFRQFHSWXDOVHSDUDWLRQEHWZHHQPDQDQGQDWXUHGXULQJWKHSDVWWZR DQGDKDOIPLOOHQQLD VFLHQFH$EUDKDPLFPRQRWKHLVWUHOLJLRQVDQGSULYDWHSURSHUW\7KHWKUHH DUHQRWXQUHODWHGRUFOHDUO\GLVWLQFWLYHHOHPHQWVRIPDQLIHVWDWLRQVRIKXPDQDFWLYLW\EXWNH\ elements of what we nowadays PLVWDNHQO\FODLPWREHµWKHFLYLOL]HGKXPDQVRFLHW\¶ 6FLHQFH GHDOVZLWKWKHGLVFRYHU\RIODZVRIQDWXUHDQGWKHEUHDNLQJ-out of the cyclical IORZRIWLPHRIWKHµSULPLWLYHPDQ¶7KHPDLQDVVXPSWLRQLVDV3DXO6KHSDUGSXWLWWKDWone FDQQRWJREDFN³9RQ+HUGHU+HJHO&RPSWHDQG$GHOXQJDOOVWURYHWRGLVVRFLDWHPDQNLQG IURPWKHODZVRIQDWXUH to identify culture froP+LVWRU\WRVHHFRQVFLRXVLQWHOOHFWLGHQWLILHG ZLWKXUEDQOLIHSURSHUW\ODZJRYHUQPHQW and the ‘great art’DVWKHILQDOIORZHUVLQ the KXPDQRG\VVH\´ 6KHSDUG 7KXVIURPDQHYROXWLRQLVWSHUVSHFWLYHQDWXUDOPDQ SUHFHGHGVRFLHW\+RUNKHLPHUDQG$GRUQRVDZLQWKH(QOLJKWHQPHQWSHULRGDFUXFLDOVWDJHLQ WKHHYROXWLRQRIKXPDQWKLQNLQJWRZDUGVWKHUDWLRQDOL]DWLRQRIQDWXUH ³On the road to modern VFLHQFHPHQUHQRXQFHDQ\FODLPWRPHDQLQJ7KH\VXEVWLWXWHIRUPXODIRUFRQFHSWUule and SUREDELOLW\IRUFDXVHD PRWLYH´ ZKLOH³>W@KHSUH-6RFUDWLFFRVPRORJLHVSUHVHUYHWKHPRPHQW RIWUDQVLWLRQ7KHPRLVWWKHLQGLYLVLEOHDLUDQGILUHZKLFKWKH\KROGWREHWKHSULPDOPDWWHU 64 IRUQDWXUHDUHDOUHDG\UDWLRQDOL]DWLRQVRIWKHP\WKLFPRGHRIDSSUHKHQVLRQ´ +RUNKHLPHUDQG $GRUQR 15 $QWKURSRORJ\GLVFDUGHGWKLVPDQWUDIURPWKHYHU\EHJLQQLQJ&ODXGH/pYL-6WUDXVVSXW it very sharSO\LQKLV7ULVWHV7URSLTXHV ³>Q@DWXUDOPDQGLGQRWSUHFHGHVRFLHW\QRULVKH RXWVLGHLW´ 1RXVOHVEDUEDUHVLVQRWPHDQWWRVD\WKDWFLYLOL]HGSHRSOHFDQKDYH XQFLYLOL]HGLPSXOVHVEXWLVWKHDODUPVLJQDOWKDW/HYL-6WUDXVVSXOOVIRUWKDW³WKHEDUEDULDQLV WKHRQHZKREHOLHYHVLQEDUEDULW\´ /HYL-Strauss > @ 7KHVDYDJHPLQG16 is FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DQRYHUZKHOPLQJDWWHPSWWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHµQDWXUDO¶VXUURXQGLQJVDQ ³LQWUDQVLJHQWUHIXVDO « WRDOORZDQ\WKLQJKXPDQ RUHYHQOLYLQJ WRUHPDLQDOLHQWRLWWKDW WKHUHDOSULQFLSOHRIGLDOHFWLFDOUHDVRQLVWREHIRXQG´ /HYL-Strauss 1 :LWKUHJDUGWRUHOLJLRQVWKHEUHDNZLWKWKHF\FOLFDOQRWLRQRIWLPHLVSUHVHQWRQO\LQ $EUDKDPLFPRQRWKHLVP:KLWHQRWHV ³WKHLGHDRIEHJLQQLQJZDVLPSRVVLEOHLQWKH IUDPHZRUNRIWKHLU>SDJDQUHOLJLRQV@F\FOLFDOQRWLRQRIWLPH,QVKDUSFRQWUDVW&KULVWLDQLW\ LQKHULWHGIURP-XGDLVPQRWRQO\DFRQFHSWRIWLPHDVQRQ-UHSUHVHQWDWLYHDQGOLQHDUEXWDOVRD VWULNLQJVWRU\RIFUHDWLRQ´ :KLWH $VDFRQVHTXHQFH³WKH-XGHR-&KULVWLDQWUDGLWLRQ FRQVWLWXWHGDQRWKHUSRZHUIXOIRUPDWLYHLQIOXHQFHRQWKHDWWLWXGHWRZDUGVZLOGHUQHVVRIWKH (XURSHDQV«´ 1DVK 7KLVZDVPDLQO\SRVVLEOHWKURXJKWKHVDFUHGFDOOWKDWDOO WKHVH -XGDLVP&KULVWLDQLW\DQG,VODPPDGHWRKXPDQNLQG WR ³ILOOWKH(DUWKDQGVXEGXHLW´ WR³KDYHGRPLQLRQRYHUWKHILVKRIWKHVHDDQGRYHUWKHIRZORIWKHDLUDQGRYHUHYHU\OLYLQJ WKLQJWKDWPRYHWKXSRQWKHHDUWK´ *HQHVLV 2UDVLVVWDWHGLQWKH4XU¶DQ ³,W is He 15 2QHRIWKHSUH-6RFUDWLFV+HUDFOLWXV -%& Qicknamed 7KH2EVFXUH ERWKIRUKLVGHSUHVVLYH DSSHDUDQFHDQGIRUKLVUKHWRULFDUJXHGIRUWKHOLQHDUDQGLUUHYHUVLEOHFRXUVHRIWLPH+RZHYHUKLVIDPRXV VWDWHPHQWWKDWRQHFDQQRWVWHSWZLFHLQWKHZDWHUVRIWKHVDPHULYHUWKXVWKDWHYHU\WKLQJLVIORZLQJwas mocked LQKLVWLPH3DUPHQLGHV¶1DWXUH LVQRWRULRXVIRUWKHKDUVKFULWLTXHWR+HUDFOLWXVQDPHO\3DUPHQLGHVSURYHVKRZ +HUDFOLWXVGRHVQRWPDNHDGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQH[LVWHQFH and QRQ-H[LVWHQFH+HUDFOLWXVZDVUH-GLVFRYHUHGE\WKH 6WRLFVODWHURQDERXWWZRFHQWXULHVDIWHU6RFUDWHV¶GHDWK 16 The French title of this monumental work of Levi-Strauss is /D3HQVpH6DXYDJH)HZKDYHQRWLFHGWKHZRUG JDPHLQWKLVWLWOHDQGWKHVXEWOHW\WKDW/HYL-6WUDXVVLQWURGXFHGZLWKLW7KHWLWOHLVQRW/D3HQVpHGHV6auYDJHV ZKLFKZRXOGEHJUDPPDWLFDOO\FRUUHFWLQ)UHQFK7KLVLVEHFDXVHWKURXJKRXWWKHERRN/HYL-Strauss addressed a IHZFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHVDYDJHPLQGWKDWDUHYHU\GLIILFXOWWRFDSWXUHLQDFDGHPLFODQJXDJH LWVIUDJLOLW\ PRGHVW\DQGEHDXW\7KHZRUd 3HQVpH LQ)UHQFKPHDQVPLQGWKLQNLQJUHDVRQEXWDOVRGHQRWHVDIORZHU9LROD 7ULFRORU +RUWHQVLV SDQV\ LQ(QJOLVKRU6WLHIPWWHUFKHQ LQ*HUPDQ DYHU\VPDOODQGEHDXWLIXOIORZHUZLWK VWURQJSHUIXPHWKDWODVWVDVKRUWWLPHLQVSULQJ,DPYHU\WKDQNIXOWRP\SURIHVVRU*KHRUJKLĠӽ*HDQӽIRUWKLV SUHFLRXVUHPDUN6HHDOVR*HDQӽ - 7KHIXOOYHUVLRQ*HQHVLV -IROORZVOLNHWKLV ³26. $QG*RGVDLG/HWXVPDNHPDQLQRXULPDJHDIWHU RXUOLNHQHVV DQGOHWWKHPKDYHGRPLQLRQRYHUWKHILVKRIWKHVHDDQGRYHUWKHIRZORIWKHDLUDQGRYHUWKHFDWWOH DQGRYHUDOOWKHHDUWKDQGRYHUHYHU\FUHHSLQJWKLQJWKDWFUHHSHWKXSRQWKHHDUWK27. 6R*RGFUHDWHGPDQLQKLV RZQ LPDJHLQWKHLPDJHRI*RGFUHDWHGKHKLP PDOHDQGIHPDOHFUHDWHGKHWKHP 28. $QG*RGEOHVVHGWKHP DQG*RGVDLGXQWRWKHP%HIUXLWIXODQGPXOWLSO\DQGUHSOHQLVKWKHHDUWKDQGVXEGXHLW DQGKDYHGRPLQLRQ RYHUWKHILVKRIWKHVHDDQGRYHUWKHIRZORIWKHDLUDQGRYHUHYHU\OLYLQJWKLQJWKDWPRYHWKXSRQWKHHDUWK29. And *RGVDLG%HKROG,KDYHJLYHQ\RXHYHU\KHUEEHDULQJVHHGZKLFKLV XSRQWKHIDFHRIDOOWKHHDUWKDQG HYHU\WUHHLQZKLFKLV WKHIUXLWRIDWUHH\LHOGLQJVHHG WR\RXLWVKDOOEHIRUPHDW30. $QGWRHYHU\EHDVWRIWKH HDUWKDQGWRHYHU\IRZORIWKHDLUDQGWRHYHU\WKLQJWKDWFUHHSHWKXSRQWKHHDUWKZKHUHLQWKHUHLV OLIH,KDYH 65 :KRPDGHWKHVHDVXEVHUYLHQWWR\RX«DQG\RXVHHWKHVKLSVFOHDYLQJWKURXJKLWVRWKDW\RX PD\VHHN+LV%RXQW\DQGVRWKDWKRSHIXOO\\RXZLOOVKRZWKDQNV´ 4XU¶DQ 6XUDWDO-1DKO $\DK 18 7KHVHFRQGPDLQLQIOXHQFHWKDWWKHWKUHH$EUDKDPLFreligions have in common with regard to the man-QDWXUHUHODWLRQLVWKHOLPLWDWLRQRIWKHLPDJLQDWLYHSURFHVVHVRIWKHLU VXEMHFWVWRWKHFUHDWLRQLVWGRFWULQHDQGWKHLQKLELWLRQRIP\WKLFLPDJLQDWLRQ6KHSDUGQRWHV ³>W@KHWKLQQHVVRIPXVLFDQGGDQFHLQWHPSOHVFKXUFKHVDQGPRVTXHVLQGLFDWHVWKH PLQLPDOL]LQJRIZKDWZDVDQGLVEDVLFWRKXQGUHGVRIGLIIHUHQWLQGLJHQRXVUHOLJLRQVPDUNHG E\©P\WKLFªLPDJLQDWLRQ´ 6KHSDUG 8OWLPDWHO\LQWKHLUDWWHPSWWROHJLWLPL]HWKH XQLTXHQHVVRI*RGWKH$EUDKDPLFGRJPDVLQYHQWWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHVDFUHGDQGWKH SURIDQH7KLVGLYLVLRQUHLQIRUFHVWKHVFKLVPEHWZHHQWKHµVDYDJH¶DQGWKHFLYLOL]HGLQWKLV FDVHWKRVHµHQOLJKWHQHG¶E\WKHRQH *RG0LUFHD(OLDGH states that ³WKHSRODULW\VDFUHG SURIDQHLVRIWHQH[SUHVVHGDVDQRSSRVLWLRQEHWZHHQUHDODQGXQUHDORUSVHXGRUHDO´ (OLDGH > @ - 7KHVDFUHGPDQLIHVWVLWVHOILQWKHZRUOGWKURXJKZKDW(OLDGHFDOOV KLHURSKDQLHV³7KHVDFUHGWUHHWKHVDFUHGVWRQHDUHQRWDGRUHGDVVWRQHRUWUHH WKH\ are ZRUVKLSHGSUHFLVHO\EHFDXVHWKH\DUHKLHURSKDQLHVEHFDXVHWKH\VKRZVRPHWKLQJWKDWLVQR ORQJHUVWRQHRUWUHHEXWWKHVDFUHGWKHJDQ]DQGHUH´ LGHP 7KXVZKLOHIRUWKHDUFKDLFPDQ the KLHURSDKQLHV DUHSHUPDQHQWHQFRXQWHUVRIWKHVDFUHGLQGDLO\ OLIHXQVWUXFWXUHGDQG XQUHJXODWHGLQWKHPRGHUQPRQRWKHLVWUHOLJLRQVWKHVHHQFRXQWHUVDUHUHJXODWHGDQGYHULILHG E\WKHFKXUFK¶V¶GRJPDDQGE\WKHLQWHUIDFHRIFOHULFVLQWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHUHOLJLRXV SHUVRQDQGWKHXQLTXH*RG20 The agenda was VHWIRUFLYLOL]DWLRQ WKHGDQJHURXVZLOOIXOQDWXUDOVXUURXQGLQJVKDGWR VHUYHKXPDQNLQGWREHWXUQHGWRWKHDGYDQWDJHRIWKHQHZVRFLHW\6FLHQFHDQGUHOLJLRQ ZKHQQRWVHHQDQWDJRQLVWMRLQHGKDQGV VFLHQFHZDQWHGWRH[SORUHUHOLJLRQZDQWHGWR eradicatHHYLO:KLOHOHDYLQJWKHDQLPLVWPHDQLQJRIWKHZRUOGEHKLQGERWKWKHQHZ PRQRWKHLVWUHOLJLRQVDQGVFLHQFHGDPQHGXQFRQWUROOHGQDWXUHDVXQSUHGLFWDEOHGDQJHURXVWKH JLYHQ HYHU\JUHHQKHUEIRUPHDW DQGLWZDVVR31. $QG*RGVDZHYHU\WKLQJWKDWKHKDGPDGHDQGEHKROGLW ZDV YHU\JRRG´ 7KH+RO\%LEOH.LQJ-DPHV9HUVLRQ&DPEULGJH(GLWLRQ 18 Similar in 6XUDWDO-/XTPDQ $\DK ³'R\RXQRWVHHWKDW$OODKKDVPDGHVXEMHFWWR\RXZKDWHYHULVLQ WKHKHDYHQVDQGZKDWHYHULVLQWKHHDUWKDQGDPSO\EHVWRZHGXSRQ\RX+LVIDYRUV>ERWK@DSSDUHQWDQG XQDSSDUHQW"%XWRIWKHSHRSOHLVKHZKRGLVSXWHVDERXW$OODKZLWKRXWNQRZOHGJHRUJXLGDQFHRUDQHQOLJKWHQLQJ %RRN>IURP+LP@´6HHDOVR 6XUDWDO-%DTDUDK $\DK 6XUDW)DWLU $\DK 6XUDWDO-µ$UDI $\DK ,DPLQGHEWHGWRP\IULHQG6DPLU+.6DIDU-Aly IRUKLVSUHFLRXVJXLdancHWKURXJKWKH4XU¶DQ 0LUFHD(OLDGH - ZDVD5RPDQLDQKLVWRULDQSKLORVRSKHUDQGILFWLRQZULWHU,Q KHZDV DSSRLQWHG6HZHOO$YHU\'LVWLQJXLVKHG6HUYLFH3URIHVVRURIWKH+LVWRU\RI5HOLJLRQV DWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR DSRVLWLRQWKDWKHZLOOUHWDLQXQWLOKLVGHDWK 20 7KLVLVQRWWRVD\WKDW-HZV&KULVWLDQVRU0XVOLPVGRQRWOLYHWKHGDLO\IHHOLQJRIWKHVDFUHGEXWWKHLU KLHURSKDQLHV KDYHWREHYDOLGDWHGE\WKHUHVSHFWLYHFKXUFK2WKHUZLVHWKH\ FDQEHHLWKHULQWLPDWHO\RU collectiYHO\NHSWVHFUHWRUGLYXOJHGRSHQO\ZKLOHEHLQJFRQVLGHUHGKHUHVLHV 66 VKHOWHURI6DWDQ2IFRXUVHWKHUHDUHYDULDWLRQVZLWKLQ&KULVWLDQEHOLHIVDQGEHWZHHQ &KULVWLDQ-XGDLFDQG0XVOLPWKHRORJLHVRIQDWXUH7KHDERYHVZHHSLQJSUHVHQWDWLRQGRHVQRW HOXGHWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIDQ\RIWKH$EUDKDPLFWUDGLWLRQV0\FRQFHUQKHUHLVWRGUDZDWWHQWLRQ WRKRZUHOLJLRQDQGLQSDUWLFXODU&KULVWLDQ&DWKROLFLVPLQWHUIHUHGZLWKWKHFRQFHSWRIQDWXUH IRULWLVFUXFLDOLQXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHQH[WSDUWRIWKLVFKDSWHUFRQFHUQLQJSURSHUW\RYHUQDWXUDO UHVRXUFHV)RUQRZ,IROORZ:KLWH¶VFRQFOXVLRQRQWKHPDWWHU ³>H@VSHFLDOO\LQLWV:HVWHUQ IRUP&KULVWLDQLW\LVWKHPRVWDQWKURSRFHQWULFUHOLJLRQWKDWZRUOGKDVVHHQ « 0DQVKDUHV LQJUHDWPHDVXUH*RG¶VWUDQVFHQGHQFHRIQDWXUH&KULVWLDQLW\LQDEVROXWHFRQWUDVWWRDQFLHQW SDJDQLVPDQG$VLD¶VUHOLJLRQV H[FHSWSHUKDSV=RURDVWULDQLVP QRWRQO\HVWDEOLVKHGD dualism of man and QDWXUHEXWDOVRLQVLVWHGWKDWLWLV*RG¶VZLOOWKDWPDQH[SORLWQDWXUHIRUKLV SURSHUHQGV´ :KLWH 4.3. The natural right to property 7KHEUHDNDZD\IURPDQLPLVPFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGDVRQHRIWKHPRVWUHYROXWLRQDU\HQGHDYRUV LQKXPDQKLVWRU\³7KHGLVHQFKDQWPHQWRIWKHZRUOGLVWKHH[WLUSDWLRQRIDQLPLVP´VWDWH +RUNKHLPHUDQG$GRUQR LELG %XWWKH³H[WLUSDWLRQRIDQLPLVP´DORQHDQGWKH HPSRZHULQJRIRQHDOPLJKW\*RGZLWKDOOWKHDWWULEXWHVRIWKHVXUURXQGLQJQDWXUDOODQGVFDSH is not enougKIRUKDYLQJDQDQWKURSRFHQWULFYLHZRQWKHZRUOGMonotheism in general shoulGQRWEHFRQVLGHUHGDVV\QRQ\PRXVIoUDQWKURSRFHQWULVPRUDEUHDking away from DQLPLVP=RURDVWULDQLVPRUWKHHDUO\PRQRWKHLVWWKHRORJ\RI;HQRSKDQHVRI&RORSKRQVWD\ for good cRXQWHUH[DPSOHVLQWKLVUHJDUG:KDWLVFUXFLDOLQ$EUDKDPLFPRQRWKHLVPIRUWKH VXEMHFWDWKDQGLVWKHIROORZLQJ WKHUHLVDEHJLQQLQJRIWKHZRUOGZKHQ*RGPDGHLWDQG+H FUHDWHGPDQDFFRUGLQJWR+LVDSSHDUDQFHDQGJDYHWKHZRUOGWRKXPDQNLQGWRVXEGXH LW$VD UHVXOWQDWXUHKDVDQRWKHUYDOXHRWKHUWKDQLQLWVHOILWKDVVXEMHFWLYHYDOXHDFFRUGLQJWRLWV YDOXHUV$QWKURSRFHQWULVPEULQJVHPSKDVLVWRWKHLQVWUXPHQWDOYDOXHRIQDWXUH ,QDQDQWKURSRFHQWULFYLHZRQHGRHVQRWQHHGWRSUD\WRWKHVSLULWRIthe mountain EHIRUHPLQLQJGRHVQRWKDYHWRJHWWKHDSSURYDORIWKHIRUHVWEHIRUHFXWWLQJLW7KH*HQLXV Loci GLHG:KLWHQRWHV ³>E@\GHVWUR\LQJSDJDQDQLPLVP&KULVWLDQLW\PDGHLWSRVVLEOHWR H[SORLWQDWXUHLQDPRRGRILQGLIIHUHQFHWRWKHIHHOLQJVRIQDWXUDOREMHFWV´ :KLWH 7KHLQVWUXPHQWDOYDOXHRIQDWXUHLVQHJRWLDWHGRULPSRVHGZLWKLQWKHVRFLDOUHDOP%XWVLQFH *RGJDYHWKHZRUOGWRKXPDQNLQGHTXDOO\LQFRPPRQZDVWKLVQRWLQFRQWUDGLFWLRQZLWKWKH LGHDVRIH[SORLWDWLRQDQGGRPLQDWLRQ" ,VWKLVQRWFRQWUDGLFWLQJWKHYHU\LGHDRISURSHUW\",Q RWKHUZRUGVKRZH[FOXVLYHDFFHVVWRQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVEHFDPHOHJLWLPDWHLQWKLVFRQWH[W" 7KH)DWKHUVRIWKH&KULVWLDQ&KXUFKFRQVLGHUHGSURSHUW\QRWDVDQDWXUDOJLIWEXWDVD social convention iQUHVSRQVHWRWKH%LEOLFDO)DOORI0DQLQWRVLQ6W$PEURVH¶VSDWULVWLF ZULWLQJVDUHIXQGDPHQWDOIRUOHJLWLPL]LQJGRPLQDWLRQDQGSURSHUW\ZLWKLQWKH&DWKROLF&KXUFK GRJPD$-&DUO\OHFRPPHQWVRQWKH6DLQW¶VWH[WVDVIROORZV ³>L@WZDVWKHZLOORI*RGhe >6W$PEURVH@VD\VWKDWWKH(DUWKVKRXOGEHWKHFRPPRQSRVLWLRQRIDOOPHQDQGVKRXOG IXUQLVKLWVIUXLWVWRDOOLWZDVDYDULFHZKLFKFUHDWHGWKHULJKWVRISURSHUW\´ &DUO\OH 7KXVLWLVWKHRULJLQDOVLQWKHIDOORIPDQIURPWKH*DUGHQRI (GHQWKDWLVUHVSRQVLEOH IRUWKHFUHDWLRQRILQHTXDOLW\DQGSURSHUW\&DUO\OHFRQFOXGHV ³>W@KHLQVWLWXWLRQRISURSHUW\ UHSUHVHQWVERWKWKHIDOORIPDQIURPKLVSULPLWLYHLQQRFHQFHWKHJUHHGDQGDYDULFHZKLFK UHIXVHGWRUHFRJQL]HWKHFRPPRQRZQHUVKLSRIWKLQJVDQGDOVRWKHPHWKRGE\ZKLFKWKHEOLQG JUHHGRIKXPDQQDWXUHPD\EHFRQWUROOHGDQGUHJXODWHG´ &DUO\OH 5LFKDUG6FKODWWHUDOVRHPSKDVL]HVLQKLVZRUNRQWKHLGHDRISURSHUW\LQWKHODWWHU Middle Ages that ³>W@KH)DOORI0DQSURYLGHGWKH VRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOWKHRULVWVRI&KULVWHQGRP ZLWKDFRQVHUYDWLYHDUJXPHQWPRUHSHUVXDVLYHDQGPRUHVXEWOHWKDQ$ULVWRWOH¶VWKHRU\RI QDWXUDOLQHTXDOLW\DQGQDWXUDOVODYHU\,WDFFHSWVWKHRSLQLRQWKDWPHQZHUHFUHDWHGHTXDODQG insists that even now theiUVRXOVDUHRIHTXDOZRUWKLQWKHH\HVRI*RG%XWDWWKHVDPHWLPHLW LQVLVWVWKDWVLQFHWKH)DOOWKHQDWXUHRIPHQDOORIWKHPGHSUDYHGPDNHQHFHVVDU\LQVWUXPHQWV RIVRFLDOGRPLQDWLRQ7KHGLYLVLRQRISURSHUW\ZKLFKJLYHVVRPHPHQDSRZHURYHUWKHOLYHs RIRWKHUVLVRQHVXFKLQVWUXPHQW´ 6FKODWWHU ,ZDQWWRVWUHVVDJDLQDWWKLVSRLQWWKDWDOOWKHVHLGHDVZHUHDQGVWLOODUHFRQVLGHUHGE\ WKH&KULVWLDQ&DWKROLF&KXUFKVRFLDOFRQYHQWLRQV,WZDV-RKQ/RFNHZKRZDVWKHILUVWZKR DUJXHGGHSDUWLQJIURP&DWKROLFWKHRORJLFDOH[HJHVLVWKDWSURSHUW\LVQRWDKXPDQ FRQYHQWLRQEXWDQDWXUDOULJKW 21 7KLVZRXOGQRWKDYHEHHQSRVVLEOHRXWVLGHDSDUWLFXODU WKHRORJLFDODQGSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WWKDWLVZRUWKPHQWLRQLQJKHUH)LUVWLWLVWKHVFKLVPEHWZHen 9DWLFDQDQGWKH&KXUFKRI(QJODQGWKDWWRRNSODFHLQRQHDQGDKDOIFHQWXULHVEHIRre Locke’s 7UHDWLVHV/RFNe¶VSRLQWRIYLHZLVWKDWRID3XULWDQDQGQRWRIDWUDGLWLRQDO&DWKROLF one can achieve VRFLDOWUXVWE\HDUQLQJKLVOLving through diligHQWZRUN thus referring to H[DFWO\WKHVDPHFRQVFLRXVQHVVWKDW0D[:HEHUUHLWHUDWHV,ZRXOGVD\LQWKH3URWHVWDQW (WKLF7KHVHFRQGHOHPHQWRIWKHFRQWH[WLVWKH(QJOLVK&LYLO:DU - WKDWEURXJKW LQWRTXHVWLRQWKHDXWKRULW\of Dutch monarchs over the throne RI(QJODQG the divine right of monarchs DQGLGHDVRIVRFLDOLQHTXDOLW\ 21 ,DPYHU\WKDQNIXOWR/RXLVH)RUWPDQQIRUKHUKHOSIXOLQVLJKWVFRQFHUQLQJ/RFNH¶VZRUNWKDWZHYLYLGO\ GLVFXVVHGGXULQJKHUVHPLQDURQSURSHUW\UHODWLRQVLQWKHIDOOVHPHVWHURIDW8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD %HUNHOH\ 68 7KXV/RFNH¶VDUJXPHQWDWLRQIRUWKHQDWXUDOULJKWVRQSURSHUW\DUHEDVHGRQWKH &KULVWLDQGRFWULQHRIDQWKURSRFHQWULVP7KHIROORZLQJSDVVDJHVIURP2I3URSHUW\ are eloTXHQWIRUWKLVPDWWHU: ³*RGZKHQKHJDYHWKH:RUOGLQFRPPRQWRDOO0DQNLQGFRPPDQGHG0DQDOVRWR ODERUDQGWKHSHQXU\RIKLV&RQGLWLRQUHTXLUHGLWRIKLP*RGDQGKLV5HDVRQ FRPPDQGHGKLPWRVXEGXHWKH(DUWKLHLPSURYHLWIURPWKHEHQHILWRI/LIHDnd WKHUHLQOD\RXWVRPHWKLQJXSRQLWWKDWZDVKLVRZQKLVODERU+HWKDW2EHGLHQFHWR WKLVFRPPDQGRI*RGVXEGXHGWLOOHGDQGVRZHGDQ\SDUWRILWWKHUHE\DQQH[HGWRLW VRPHWKLQJWKDWZDVKLVSURSHUW\ZKLFKDQRWKHUKDGQRWLWOHWRQRUFRXOGZLWKRXW iQMXU\WDNHIURPKLP´>«@ ³$QGKHQFHVXEGXLQJRUFXOWLYDWLQJWKH(DUWKDQGKHDYLQJ'RPLQLRQZHVHHDUH MRLQHGWRJHWKHU7KHRQHJDYHWLWOHWRWKHRWKHU6RWKDW*RGE\FRPPDQGLQJWR VXEGXHJDYH$XWKRULW\VRIDUWRDSSURSULDWH$QGWKHFRQGLWLRQVRI+XPDQH/LIH ZKLFKUHTXLUHV/DERUDQG0DWHULDOVWRZRUNRQQHFHVVDULO\LQWURGXFHVSULYDWH 3RVVHVVLRQV´ /RFNH > @ - %XW/RFNH¶VDUJXPHQWDWLRQIRUWKHLGHDRIQDWXUDOULJKWRISULYDWHSURSHUW\LVFRQVWUXFWHGLQ contrast with the idea of wastH,Q2I3URSHUW\Locke uses the words 1DWXUH:LOGHUQHVV YDVW ZDVW:DVWH DOPRVWLQWHUFKDQJHDEO\:HVKDOOWDNHDORRNDWWKHIROORZLQJVKRUWH[WUDFWVIRUD EHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJ x ³LQWKHvast :LOGHUQHVVRIWKH(DUWK´ SDJH x ³O\LQJwast LQFRPPRQ>«@LQWKHZLOGZRRGVDQGXQFXOWLYDWHGwast of America left WR1DWXUH´ SDJH x ³«WKLVSDUWRIWKH(DUWKQRWZLWKVWDQGLQJKLV,QFORVXUHZDVVWLOOWREHORRNHGRQDV Waste DQGPLJKWEHLQWKH3RVVHVVLRQRIDQ\RWKHU´ SDJH x ³HYHQDPRQJXV/DQGWKDWLVOHIWZKROO\WR1DWXUHWKDWKHDWKQRLPSURYHPHQWRI 3DVWXUDJH7LOODJHRU3ODQWLQJ is FDOOHGDQGLQGHHGLWLVwast ´ SDJH HPSKDVL]HG added While for YDVWZDVW ,FDQFUHGLWDORRVHFDUHDSSOLHGWRWKH(QJOLVKVSHOOLQJDQGHGLWLQJLQWKDW HSRFKWKHDVVRFLDWLRQRIYDVW:DVWHwith 1DWXUH and :LOGHUQHVV LVVWULNLQJ7KHZKROH rhetoric of Locke’s 2I3URSHUW\ WXUQVDURXQGWKHVHZRUGV WKHQDWXUDOVXUURXQGLQJWKDWLV LQYHVWHGZLWKKXPDQZRUNEHFRPHVSULYDWHSURSHUW\ ZKDWLVQRWLQYHVWHGZLWKZRUN - work DFFRUGLQJWRZHVWHUQ(XURSHDQVWDQGDUGVWKDWLVXVLQJLQGXVWU\ IRUXVLQJ$GDP6PLWK¶V WHUPLQRORJ\ - LVZDVWHDQGEHORQJVWRZLOGHUQHVV WRQDWXUHZKLFKLV«YDVW Locke wrote his argument from a stadial KLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFWLYHW\SLFDOIRUWKH (QOLJKWHQPHQWDFFRUGLQJWRZKLFKKXPDQVRFLHWLHVHYROYHRQWKHKXQWLQJVKHSKHUGIDUPLQJ VFDOHDQGFXOPLQDWHZLWKWKHFRPPHUFLDOHFRQRPLHV:LWKWKHZDVW VLF WHUULWRULHVRI $PHULFDQODQGLQPLQG/RFNHDVVRFLDWHVWKHVWDWHRIQDWXUHZLWKDODFNRIODERUDQGFRPPRQ ODQGZLWKWKHODFNRISURSHUW\ULJKWVµ1DWXUH¶EHFRPHVWKHEDVLVRQZKLFKFLYLOL]HGVRFLHW\LV GHYHORSHGDQGVKRXOGFRQWLQXHWRGHYHORS2QWKHRWKHUKDQGµ1DWXUH¶LQ/RFNH¶V DUJXPHQWDWLRQDQGWKHZKROHWUDGLWLRQRIHFRQRPLFVWKDWIROORZVKLVLGHDVXSWRWKHSUHVHQW GD\LVWKDWXQTXHVWLRQDEOHWKLQJWKDWSURYLGHVWKHD[LRPDWLFGHSDUWXUHSRLQWLQWKHDQDO\VLV22 1DWXUDOLQ-RKQ/RFNHV¶DUJXPHQWPHDQVLQWULQVLFYDOXH7KHIROORZLQJTXRWHLVHORTXHQW ³$Q$FUHRI/DQGWKDWEHDUVKHUH7ZHQW\%XVKHOVRI:KHDWDQGDQRWKHULQ$PHULFDZKLFK ZLWKWKHVDPH+XVEDQGU\ZRXOGGRWKHOLNHDUHZLWKRXWGRXEWRIWKHVDPHQDWXUDO intrinsick Value´ LELG P\HPSKDVLV )RUPDVWHULQJWKHZRUOGWKDW*RGJDYHWRWKHP IRULPSURYLQJWKHLUFRQGLWLRQKXPDQVRXJKWWRGLVHPERG\WKHQDWXUDOPHDQLQJRIQDWXUHWKLV LQWULQVLFYDOXHRIWKLQJVDQGJLYHWRLWWKURXJKZRUNDQLQVWUXPHQWDOYDOXHDQHFRQRPLF YDOXHZKLFKZLOOJUDQWWKHPLQWXUQZLWKSURSHUW\VWDWXV%XWZK\SURWHFWQDWXUHWKHQ" Chapter 5 - From Waste to Parks - A FRIIHHSOHDVH - :KDWVL]H" - $VPDOORQH - :HKDYHRQO\PHGLXPDQGODUJH SLU 'LDORJEHWZHHQWKHDXWKRUDQGa waiter in 6HSWHPEHUGRZQWRZQ%HUNHOH\86 7KHGLVFRYHU\RIWKH$PHULFDQFRQWLQHQWKDGDVWUDQJHLPSDFWRQ(XURSHDQWKLQNLQJ 3DUDGR[LFDOO\LQVWHDGRILQGXFLQJWKHUHIOHFWLRQRQWKHPDUJLQVRIWKHZRUOGLWVKDUSHQHGWKH RSSRVLWHWKHXQOLPLWHGLPDJHRILW-RKQ/RFNHZURWHKLVHVVD\2I3URSHUW\ with this image RIWKHZRUOGLQPLQG7KH,QGLDQVZKRZHUHDWWKHERWWRPRIWKHKXPDQHYROXWLRQDU\VFDOH KDGWRPDNHZD\DQGWREHVXEPLVVLYHWRWKHHPDQFLSDWHGGHYHORSPHQWSROLFLHVRIWKH%ULWLVK *RYHUQPHQW7KH\ZHUHOLYLQJLQWKHVWDWHRIµQDWXUH¶DQGQDWXUHPHDQWZDVWHRUWRSXWLWLQ SROLWLFDOHFRQRP\¶VWHUPVXQH[SORLWHGRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUFDSLWDODFFXPXODWLRQ7KHQHZ VHWWOHUVXQGHUVWRRGWKHRSSRUWXQLWLHVRIWKHZDVW VLF $PHULFDQODQGDQGEDVHGRQ/RFNH¶V 7ZR7UHDWLVHVRI*RYHUQPHQW ZRXOGJRRQWRHODERUDWHWKH$PHULFDQ%LOORI5LJKWV that is at the core of WRGD\¶V$PHULFDQFRQVWLWXWLRQ7KH$PHULFDQ%LOORI5LJKWVLVWKHWUDQVODWLRQRI /RFNH¶VSKLORVRSKLFDUJXPHQWVIRUSULYDWHSURSHUW\LQOHJDOWHUPV%XWZKDWLVRIFUXFLDO LPSRUWDQFHLVWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]DWLRQRIWKH³ILUVWFDPHILUVWVHUYHG´SUDFWLFHRI DFTXLULQJODQG XVHULJKWV/HW¶VVHHZK\LWLVLPSRUWDQWLQWKH$PHULFDQFXOWXUHWREHWKHILUVW 22 6FKODWWHUFRQFOXGHV ³%HIRUH QRRQHXQGHUVWRRGWKDWDPDQKDGDQDWXUDOULJKWWRSURSHUW\FUHDWHGE\KLV ODERU DIWHU WKHLGHDFDPHWREHDQD[LRPRIVRFLDOVFLHQFH7KDWPLJKWEHWDNHQWRPDUNWKH\HDUwhen the PLGGOHFODVVHVURVHWRSRZHU WKH\HDULQZKLFKWKHLUH[SHULHQFHGUHVVHGXSLQSKLORVRSKLFDOODQJXDJHE\-RKQ /RFNHZDVSUHVHQWHGWRWKHZRUOGDVWKHHWHUQDOWUXWKRIWKLQJV´ 6FKODWWHU 5.1. Vanishing the frontier ³6SDFH 7KHILQDOIURQWLHU 7KHVHDUHWKHYR\DJHVRIWKH6WDUVKLS(QWHUSULVH ,WVILYH \HDUPLVVLRQ WRH[SORUHVWUDQJHQHZZRUOGVWRVHHNRXWQHZOLIH DQGQHZFLYLOL]DWLRQVWREROGO\JRZKHUHQRPDQKDVJRQHEHIRUH´ Intro to the film series Star Trek - %HUQDUG6FKZDUW]FDOOV/RFNH³WKHWKHRUHWLFDOJRGIDWKHURIWKH$PHULFDQ5HYROXWLRQ´ 6FKZDUW] -RKQ Locke was directly involved in the transatlantic governance of the $PHULFDQWHUULWRULHV+HGUDIWHG7KH)XQGDPHQWDO&RQVWLWXWLRQVRI&DUROLQD LQ WZHQW\ \HDUVEHIRUHDQRQ\PRXVO\SXEOLVKLQJKLV7UHDWLVHV+LVLGHDVZHUHZHOONQRZQRQWKHRWKHU side of WKH$WODQWLFLQWKHRXWEUHDNRIWKH$PHULFDQ5HYROXWLRQDVWKH\ZHUHEHIRUHWKH )UHQFKRQH³/LIHOLEHUW\DQGSURSHUW\´ZDVEDFNWKHQXVHGDVDVORJDQLQWKHVDPHZD\, LPDJLQHDV(8URSHDQL]DWLRQRUPXOWLFXOWXUDOLVPLVXVHGQRZDGD\V7KLVVORJDQZDVFarried WKURXJKQHZVSDSHUVEXWDOVRLQDPRUHRUJDQL]HGZD\WKURXJKLQVWLWXWLRQVVXFKDV³7KH (FRQRPLF6RFLHWLHV´7KHVHYHU\IDVKLRQDEOHLQWHOOHFWXDOFLUFOHVRIWKHPLGHLJKWHHQWKDQG QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\IXQFWLRQHGDVSURWR-transnational communities of knowOHGJHGLIIXVLRQDV, ZLOOGHVFULEHE\WDNLQJWKHHPSLULFDOH[DPSOHRIWKH6SDQLVK³/RV$PLJRVGHO3DtV´ in the QH[WFKDSWHU)RUQRZ,ZLOOJLYHFUHGLWWR5LFKDUG6FKODWWHUZKHQKHSRLQWVRXWWKDW ³>Z@KHUHYHUPLGGOH-FODVVUHYROXWLRQDULHVUHEHOOHGDJDLQVW IHXGDOSULYLOHJHDQGUR\DO DEVROXWLVPWKH\LQVFULEHGRQWKHLUEDQQHUVWKHVORJDQµOLIHOLEHUW\DQGSURSHUW\¶7KDW µSURSHUW\¶VKRXOGEHLQFOXGHGLQWKHVDFUHGWULQLW\RIQDWXUDOULJKWVZDVQRZWKDW/RFNHKDG WKRXJKWWKHPDWWHUWKURXJKRQHRIWKHWKRXJKWVWKDWH[SUHVVVRH[DFWO\ZKDWPHQZDQWWKDW they seem self-HYLGHQW´ 6FKODWWHU %XWWKH$PHULFDQFDVHLVSHFXOLDUEHFDXVHKHUHWKHUHYROXWLRQDU\WKLQNLQJRI-RKQ /RFNHZDVWUDQVSRVHGLQD7HUUD1RYD ZLWKQRIHXGDOSDVW7KHHTXDOLW\RIFLvil rights that Locke was militating for - OLIHOLEHUW\DQGSURSHUW\DOWKRXJKKHKDGVKDUHVLQDVODYHWUDGH FRPSDQ\ *ODXVVHU KDGDGLIIHUHQWPHDQLQJRQWKH$PHULFDQFRQWLQHQW7KHVHQVHRI SURSHUW\IRUWKHFRORQL]HUVZDVDQFKRUHGLQ/RFNH¶VSKLORVRSK\ QDWXUDOVXUURXQGLQJLQYHVWHG ZLWKODERU7KH1DWLYH$PHULFDQVSODFHGRQDQLQIHULRUSRVLWLRQRQWKHHYROXWLRQVFDOH DFFRUGLQJWR/RFNHKDGDGLIIHUHQWVHQVHRISURSHUW\RULQWKHFRORQL]HUVXQGHUVWDQGLQJ ODFNHGRQH7KXVWKHODQGRQWKH$PHULFDQFRQWLQHQWZDVDYDLODEOH7KH$PHULFDQ%LOORI 1DWXUDO5LJKWVOHJLWLPL]HGWKHDFTXLVLWLRQDQGWKHGHIHQVHRISULYDWHSURSHUW\ULJKWV23 In the $PHQGPHQW9RIWKH%LOOLWLVVWDWHG ³1RSHUVRQVKDOO>«@EHGHSULYHGRIOLIHOLEHUW\RU 23 7KH&RQVWLWXWLRQRI8QLWHG6WDWHVLVFRPSRVed of seven articles and twenty-VHYHQDPHQGPHQWV7KHILUVW DPHQGPHQWVDUHFRPPRQO\NQRZDVWKH%LOORI5LJKWVDQGZDVGUDIWHGRQWKHth RI$SULO DQGUDWLILHGE\ &RQJUHVVRQWKHth RI'HFHPEHU SURSHUW\ZLWKRXWGXHSURFHVVRIODZ QRUVKDOOSULYDWHSURSHUW\EHWDNHQIRUSXEOLFXVH ZLWKRXWMXVWFRPSHQVDWLRQ´ 7KH%LOORI5LJKWVZZZDUFKLYHVJRY 7KHP\WKRIIUHHODQGLQ$PHULFDZDVFDUULHGRQWRZDUGVWKH:HVWE\WKH$PHUican *RYHUQPHQWDJDLQVWWKHRUJDQL]HGUHVLVWDQFHRI,QGLDQQDWLRQV DYHU\JRRGJXLGHLQ,QGLDQ UHVLVWDQFHLV/H%HDX :HDOONQRZZHVWHUQPRYLHV LQWKHLUFRQTXHVWRIWKHµ:LOG¶ :HVWWKH$PHULFDQFRZER\VILJKWDJDLQVt the Indians and they always winHLWKHUE\WKH SRZHURIWKHVXSHULRUILUHSRZHURUE\WKHKHOSRIEHDXWLIXO,QGLDQJLUOVOLNH3RFDKRQWDV7KH KRVWLOHXQNQRZQQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWWRJHWKHUZLWK,QGLDQUHVLVWDQFHZHUHSDUWRIDIDEXORXV IURQWLHU(YHU\QHZZDUZLWKDQ,QGLDQWULEHRUFRQIHGHUDWLRQRIWULEHVZDVDFRQILUPDWLRQRI WKH QHZIURQWLHU$QGWKHIURQWLHUKDGWREHPDGHWRYDQLVKVRWKDWWKHILUVWFRZER\ZKR ZRXOGZRUNWKHODQGFRXOGDFTXLUHSURSHUW\ULJKWV7KHUHVXUJHQFHRI1DWLYH$PHULFDQ PRYHPHQWVLQWKHSDVWGHFDGHVFRXSOHGZLth historical and archeological investigations lead WRWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDWWKHWHUPJHQRFLGHLVFRUUHFWZKHQORRNLQJDWWKHSDVVLYLW\RIWKH American government with regard to the atrocities during and in the aftermath of the Indian ZDUV 6WDQQDUG &HVDUDQL 247KHDFTXLVLWLRQRIODQGE\WKHQHZERUQ$PHULFDQ 1DWLRQSURYLGHGDSHUIHFWHPSLULFDOSURRIIRU3URXGKRQ¶V VHYHUHIRUPXOD ³/DSURSULpWpF HVW OHYRO´3URSHUW\LVWKHIW25 While the study of western movies as a mean for legitimizing national LGHQWLW\LQWKH86LVDQDSSHDOLQJWRSLFIRUWKHPRPHQW,QHHGWRUHVWUDLQRXU GLVFRXUVHWRWKHFUXFLDOUROHRIWKHIURQWLHUIRUWKHLQYHQWLRQRIDQDWXUDOSURWHFWHGDUHDLQWKLV FRXQWU\ 3URILWLQJIURP1DSROHRQ¶VGHIHDWLQ(XURSHZKLFKOHGWRWKH)UHQFh retreat from the 0LGGOH(DVWHUQSDUWRIWKHFRQWLQHQWWKH$PHULFDQDGPLQLVWUDWLRQUHDFKHGWKHVKRUHVRIWKH 3DFLILFE\ 7KLVZDVDPRPHQWRIGLVLOOXVLRQ+LVWRULDQ)UHGHULFN-DFNVRQ7XUQHUZURWH LQDQDUWLFOHSXEOLVKHGLQ ³>W@KLVEULHIRIILFLDOVWDWHPHQW>DQRIILFLDOFHQVXVIURP @PDUNVWKHFORVLQJRID JUHDWKLVWRULFPRYHPHQW8SWRRXURZQGD\$PHULFDQKLVWRU\KDVEHHQLQODUJH GHJUHHWKHKLVWRU\RIFRORQL]DWLRQRIWKH*UHDW:HVW7KHH[LVWHQFHRIDQDUHDRIIUHH ODQGLWVFRQWLQXRXVUHFHVVLRQDQGWKHDGYDQFHPHQWRIWKH$PHULFDQVHWWOHPHQW ZHVWZDUGVH[SODLQ$PHULFDQGHYHORSPHQW´$QGKHH[SODLQVIXUWKHURQ ³$PHULFDQ VRFLDOGHYHORSPHQWKDVEHHQFRQWLQXDOO\EHJLQQLQJRYHUWKHIURQWLHU7KLVSHUHQQLDO UHELUWKWKLVIOXLGLW\RI$PHULFDQOLIHWKLVH[SDQVLRQZHVWZDUGVZLWKLWVQHZ RSSRUWXQLWLHVLWVFRQWLQXRXVWRXFKZLWKWKHVLPSOLFLW\RISULPLWLYHVRFLHW\IXUQLVKWKH IRUFHVGRPLQDWLQJ$PHULFDQFKDUDFWHU´ 7XUQHU > @ - 24 &HVDUDQLQRWHVWKHIROORZLQJ LQWHUPVRIWKHVKHHUQXPEHUVNLOOHGWKH1DWLYH$PHULFDQ*HQRFLGHH[FHHGV WKDWRIWKH+RORFDXVW &HVDUDQL 25 In the essay ‘4X HVW-FHTXHODSURSULpWp "RX5HFKHUFKHVXUOHSULQFLSHGX'URLWHWGX*RXYHUQHPHQW’ first SXEOLVKHGLQILUVWFKDSWHU 7XUQHUGLIIHUHQWLDWHVEHWZHHQWKHIURQWLHULQ(XURSHDQGWKHIURQWLHULQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV7KH ILUVWLVDERUGHUOLQHUXQQLQJWKURXJKGHQVHSRSXODWLRQVWKHVHFRQGLV ³WKHPHHWLQJSRLQW EHWZHHQVDYDJHU\DQGFLYLOL]DWLRQ´ZKRVHPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFLV³WKHKLWKHUHGJHRIIUHHODQG´ LGHP 7XUQHU¶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to show WKDWLWFRXQWHGLQWKHZRUOGHFRQRP\%XWFXOWXUDOO\LWGLGQRWKDYHWRRPXFKWRRIIHU what was VRSDUWLFXODUWRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV":KDWZDV$PHULFDQ",QWKH86WKHIURQWLHUQRORQJHU H[LVWHGEXWLWVPHPRU\ZDVVWLOOYLYLG- ZLOGHUQHVVILWWHGYHU\ZHOOLQWKHFRQWH[W)UHGHULFN 1DVKQRWHV ³>W@KHQDWLRQ¶VVKRUWKLVWRU\ZHDNWUDGLWLRQVDQGPLQRUOLWHUDU\DQGDUWLVWLF achievements VHHPHGQHJOLJLEOHFRPSDUHGWRWKRVHRI(XURSH%XWLQDWOHDVWRQHUHVSHFW $PHULFDQVVHQVHGWKDWWKHLUFRXQWU\ZDVGLIIHUHQW ZLOGHUQHVVKDGQRFRXQWHUSDUWLQWKH2OG :RUOG´ 1DVK $PHULFDQDUWLVWVZHUHDFFRPSDQ\LQJWKHH[SORUDWLYHH[SHGLWLRQV WRZDUGVWKH:HVW 3RHWVDQGSDLQWHUVZHUHSUDLVLQJQDWXUH LWVEHDXW\ZDVWKHPHDQVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQEHWZHHQ *RGDQGPDQ&KDUOHV)HQQR+RIIPDQDMRXUQDOLVWDQGQRYHOLVWIURP1HZ 2QHUDWKHUORQHO\H[SORUHURIWKHµ:LOG¶:HVWZDV-RKQ0XLU+HQRWHGZLWKHQWKXVLasm after DVLQJOHWULSWR$ODVND (YHU\SDUWLFOHRIURFNRUZDWHURUDLUKDV*RGE\LWVVLGHOHDGLQJLWWKH ZD\LWVKRXOGJR 7KHFOHDUHVWZD\LQWRWKH8QLYHUVHLVWKURXJKDIRUHVWZLOGHUQHVV ,Q*RG V ZLOGQHVVLVWKHKRSHRIWKHZRUOG 0XLU 7KRPDV0RUJDQPDGHDIRUWXQHLQ ZKHQKHVROGKLVSDLQWLQJ*UDQG &DQ\RQ IRUWRWKH6HQDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQLQ :DVKLQJWRQ'&IRUWKHLQWHQGHGGHVWLQ\RIEHLQJH[SRVHGLQWKH6HQDWH¶VOREE\7KLVZDVWZR years after the declaration of the first QDWLRQDOSDUN QDWLRQDOSDUNVDQGZLOGHUQHVVDUHDVEHJDQWRJDLQPRPHQWXPDWSUHFLVHO\WKHWLPHWKDW ODPHQWVDERXWWKHSDVVLQJIURQWLHUUHDFKHGWKHLUSHDN7RSURWHFWZLOGHUQHVVZDVLQDYHU\UHDO VHQVHWRSURWHFWWKHQDWLRQ¶VPRVWVDFUHGP\WKRIRULJLQ´ &URQRQ 5.2. The Public Garden of Yellowstone %\WKHPLG-QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WKH86ZDVDOUHDG\IDFLQJJUHDWFoncerns with regard to the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s in the US was a long SURFHVVZKLFKVSDQQHGIURPDSSUR[LPDWHO\WKHHDUO\VZKHQWKHILUVWSDLQWHUVDUULYHGLQ FRPSOLPHQWVRIWKH86KDVVWDONHGWKHZRUOGZLGHQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQPRYHPHQWHYHUVLQFH UHIOHFWLQJDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKHLQQHUWHQVLRQVLQWKH1DWXUDSURJUDP ,WDOVRVKRZV KRZIURPDSROLWLFDOGecision-PDNLQJSRLQWRIYLHZVZLWFKLQJEHWZHHQWKHWZRLVUHODWHGWR SROLWLFDOLQWHUHVW7KHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRIQDWXUHZDVHPSKDVL]HGDWWKHPRPHQWZKHQWKH86 ZDVEXLOGLQJXSLWVQDWLRQDOLGHQWLW\7RGD\ZKHQQDWLRQDOLGHQWLW\QRORQJHUFRXQWVVRPXFK DWOHDVWRQWKHSXEOLFDJHQGDWKHRSSRVLWHLVUHLQIRUFHG ,Q+HQU\'DYLG7KRUHDXSXEOLVKHG:DOGHQ RUOLIHLQWKH:RRGVDERRNEDVHGRQKLV H[SHULPHQWRIOLYLQJDORQHLQWKHIRUHVWVXUURXQGLQJWKH:DOGHQ3RXQGLQ0DVVDFKXVHWWVIRU over two years +HGLGWKLVERWKDVDVSLULWXDOH[SHULPHQWDQGDVSURWHVWWRXWLOLWDULDQWKRXJKW 7KRUHDX¶VGHILQLWLRQRIZLOGHUQHVVDV³DUHVHUYRLURILQWHOOHFWXDOQRXULVKPHQWIRUWKHFLYLOL]HG PHQ´ 7KRUHDX0DLQH:RRGV:ULWLQJVLQ1DVK EHFDPHDPDQWUDIRU the SUHVHUYDWLRQLVWPRYHPHQW+HKDGDILUPFRQYLFWLRQWKDWQDWXUHFDQKHOSWKHDGYDQFHGKXPDQ FLYLOL]DWLRQE\SURYLGLQJDSHUPDQHQWSRLQWRIUHIHUHQFHDSODFHRISHUSHWXDOUHWXUQ%XWLQ RUGHUWRNHHSWKLVUHIHUHQFHDOLYHWKHFLYLOL]HGPDQZRXOGKDYHWRSURWHFWLW7KLVLVKRZ 7KRUHDXDUULYHVDWWKHIXQGDPHQWDOTXHVWLRQ ³ZK\VKRXOGQRWZH « KDYHRXUQDWLRQDO SUHVHUYHV « LQZKLFKWKHEHDUDQGWKHSDQWKHUDQGVRPHeven of the hunter race, may still H[LVWDQGQRWEHFLYLOL]HGRIIWKHIDFHRIWKHHDrth – RXUIRUHVWV « QRWIRUWKHLGOHVXSSRUWRI IRRGEXWIRULQVSLUDWLRQDQGRXUWUXHUHFUHDWLRQ"´ LELGP\HPSKDVLV 7KRUHDX¶VSRLQWLVVWLOO DQFKRUHGLQWKHVWDGLDOKLVWRULFDOWKLQNLQJRIKXPDQUDFHZKLOHKLVLGHDVDERXWSURWHFWLQJ QDWXUHFRPELQHWKHFRQFHSWRISDUNZLWKWKDWRIWKH]RR%XWKLVLGHDVKDGDGLIIHUHQWLPSDFW RQWKHSXEOLF :DOGHQ EHFDPHDEHVWVHOOHUDQGPDGH7KRUHDXIDPRXV:ULWHUVOLNH+RIIPDQRU SDLQWHUVOLNH0RUJDQDOOPDUFKHGZHVWZDUGVWRFDSWXUHWKHODVWUHPDLQLQJZLOGDQLPDOV and ,QGLDQWULEHVZLWK7KRUHDX¶VLGHDVRIUHYROWDJDLQVWFLYLOL]DWLRQLQPLQG:DOGHQ had a crucial LQIOXHQFHRQ-RKQ0XLU - WKHIDWKHURIWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWPRYHPHQWLQWKH8QLWHG 6WDWHV0XLUFDPHLQWRFRQWDFWZLWKWUDQVFHQGHQWDOLVWSKLORVRSK\GXULQJKLVVWXGLHVDWWKH Wisconsin-0DGLVRQ8QLYHUVLW\ZKHUHKHZDVVWXG\LQJFKHPLVWU\DQGELRORJ\+HKDGEHHQ IOLUWLQJZLWKWKHLGHDRIPDNLQJORQJMRXUQH\VDFURVVWKH$PHULFDQFRQWLQHQWEXWQHYHU IXOILOOHGWKHXUJH,WZDVDQHDUO\EOLQGLQJDFFLGHQWLQDQ,QGLDQDVKRSWKDWPDGHKLPGHFLGH WKDW*RG¶VFDOOLVGLIIHUHQW³*RGKDVWRQHDUO\NLOOXVVRPHWLPHVWRWHDFKXVOHVVRQV´)URP WKDWGD\RQ0XLUVWDUWHGDWULSLQWKHZLOGHUQHVVRIWKH$PHULFDQFRQWLQHQWWKDWQHYHUHQGHG +HDGKHUHGFRPSOHWHO\WRWUDQVFHQGHQWDOLVWSKLORVRSK\EXWZLWKRXWSURWHFWLQJQDWXUHIRUWKH YLUWXHVWKDWLWFDQHQKDQFHWRKXPDQVEXWUDWKHUIRULWVRZQVDNH$OWKRXJKDGHHSO\UHOLJLRXV SHUVRQZLWKDVWURQJ3URWHVWDQWEDFNJURXQG0XLUUHGLVFRYHUHGDQLPLVPLQDZD\WKDWSDFLIies QDWXUHZLWKWKH&KULVWLDQGRFWULQHRIDQWKURSRFHQWULVP "7KHYHU\VWRQHVVHHPWDONDWLYH V\PSDWKHWLFEURWKHUO\1RZRQGHUZKHQZHFRQVLGHUWKDWZHDOOKDYHWKHVDPH)DWKHUDQG 0RWKHU 0XLU ZULWHV0XLULQKLVGLDU\RIWKHILUVWVXPPHULQ 7KHFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWPRYHPHQWLVVWURQJO\UHODWHGWRWKHQDPHRI*LIIRUG3LQFKRW8QOLNH 0XLUZKRZDVERUQLQWRDSHDVDQWIDPLO\3LQFKRWFDPHIURPRQHRf the wealthiest families LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV7KHIDPLO\EXVLQHVVZDVPRVWO\EDVHGRQWLPEHUORJJLQJDQGODQG VSHFXODWLRQ 0LOOHU%DORJK 8QOLNH0XLUZKRGLGPRVWO\FKHUU\SLFNLQJVWXGLHV IRUIRXU\HDUVZLWKRXWJUDGXDWLQJ3LQFKRWJUDGXDWHGIURP 26 7KHDFDGHPLFDXWKRULW\RI%UDQGLVZDVEDFNHG-XSE\DKXJHH[SHULHQFHLQPDQDJLQJWKHH[SORLWDWLRQRI forests in India as IQVSHFWRU*HQHUDORI)RUHVWVDSRVLWLRQKHheld for 20 years -DPHV%5H\QROGVWR*LIIRUG3LQFKRW$XJXVW LQ0LOOHU 3LQFKRWZURWHDQ article in the same year whiFKOHJLWLPL]HGKLPIURPWKHYHU\EHJLQQLQJDVWKHQXPEHURQH DXWKRULW\LQIRUHVWU\LQWKH86+HUHKHWUDQVSRVHGLQDPRUHFRPPRQODQJXDJHZKDWKHKDG OHDUQHGIURP%UDQGLV ³ « LVWKHFXWWLQJHDFK\HDURIWKHDPRXQWRIWLPEHUHTXDOWRWKHWRWDOLQFUHDVH RYHU WKHZKROHDUHDDQGQRPRUH,WLVIXUWKHUGHVLUDEOHLQDQ\ORQJVHWWOHGFRPPXQLW\WKDW WKHIRUHVWVEHVRPDQDJHGDVWR\LHOGDPHDVXUDEO\FRQVWDQWUHWXUQLQPDWHULDO 2WKHUZLVHGLIILFXOWLHVLQWKHVXSSO\RIODERUDQGWKHGLVSRVDORIWKHSURGXFHPDNH WKHPVHOYHVIHOWDQGWKHYDOXHRIWKHIRUHVWWRLWVRZQHUWHQGVWRGHFUHDVH´ TXRWHGLQ %DORJK 6RRQDIWHU3LQFKRWZDVDSSRLQWHGWKHKHDGRIWKHIRUHVWU\VFKRRODW 7KHUHIRUHDWWKHEHJLQQLQJQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQZDVOLQNHGPRUHZLWKWKHLGHDRIUHFUHDWLRQD IXQFWLRQWKDWLQGHHGWKHSDUNVKDYH,QRWKHUZRUGVLWZDVQRWSUHVHUYLQJQDWXUHIRUQDWXUH¶V VDNHEXWSURWHFWLQJQDWXUHVRWKDWSHRSOHFRXOGKDYHDSODFHWRJRLQWKHLUVSDUHWLPH7KLV UHODWHVWRKRZWKHFRQFHSWRIVSDUHWLPHDQGYLFDULRXVSOHDVXUHFDPHLQWREHLQJLQWKH86D thePHWKDW,ZLOOQRWDGGUHVVKHUH IRUWKLVVHH'XOOHV &XOYHU )RUWKHPRPHQWLW LVLPSRUWDQWWREHDZDUHWKDWWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHILUVWQDWLRQDOSDUNLQ86 7KHKLVWRU\RI1LDJDUD)DOOVLQWKHODVWWZRKXQGUHG\HDUVUHSUHVHQWVDFOHDUH[DPSOHRIWHQVLRQVEHWZHHQWKH HQWUHSUHQHXULDOFDSLWDOLVWVSLULWDQGFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWDLPV6WDUWLQJZLWKWKHHDUO\VDJUHDWGHDORIODQGQHDU WKHFDWDUDFWRIWKHIDOOZDVOHJDOO\JUDQWHGE\WKHVWDWHWRSULYDWHVSHFXODWRUV6RPHSULYDWHLnitiatives for hydro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³>L@QWKLVVHHVDZPDQQHU5RRVHYHOWKRSHGWRKROGWKHWZRZLQJVRIWKH FRQVHUYDWLRQPRYHPHQWWRJHWKHURQDQXQLWHGIURQW´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chot until a ZDWHUEDVLQKDGWREHFRQVWUXFWHGIRUWKHERRPLQJFLW\RI6DQ)UDQFLVFR7KHUHZDVRQO\RQH way to do this – EUHDNLQJLQWRWKHP\WKLFDO 7KHVWRU\RIWKHILUVWSURWHFWHGDUHDVLQWKHZRUOGLVDQH[DPSOHRIKRZXOWLPDWHO\WKH FRQIURQWDWLRQEHWZHHQELJLGHDVUHVXPHVWRGLVSXWHVEHWZHHQNH\DFWRUV%XWWKHRYHUDOO FRQWH[WRIWKHFRQIURQWDWLRQKDVWREHFRQVLGHUHGDVZHOO,IZLOGHUQHVVZDVSUHYLRXVO\ FRQVLGHUHGE\WKH&KXUFKDQGE\WKH6WDWHDGHVHUWZDVWHDGDPPHGVSDFHRIGDQJHURXV EHDVWVWKHVKHOWHURI6DWDQLWEHFDPHLQWKH$PHULFDQ3XULWDQWUDGLWLRQWKHKRXVHRI*RG 7KLVVSHFWDFXODUWZLVWRIYDOXHVZRXOGQRWKDYHEHHQSRVVLEOHRXWVLGHWKHSROLWLFDOFRQWH[W of WKHSRVW-IURQWLHUHUDWKHHUDRIFU\VWDOOL]DWLRQRIWKH$PHULFDQQDWLRQDOLGHQWLW\:LOGHUQHVV EHFDPHWKHGHSRVLWRU\RIWKHVRFLDOPHPRU\IRUWKHEUDYHDQFHVWRUVWKDWSXVKHGWKHIURQWLHU IXUWKHUZKHUHµQRRQH¶ZHQWEHIRUH ,QWKH$PHULFDQVRFLDOUHSUHsentation of the mid QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ZLOGHUQHVVWXUQHGLQWRDILFWLWLRXVFKDOOHQJHRISXUHYDOXHVZKHUHWKH UREXVWQHVVRIERWKPLQGDQGVSLULWFRXOGEHEXLOWDQGWRZKLFKHYHU\RQHWKDWIHOW$PHULFDQ VKRXOGDGKHUH7KHLPDJHRIWKH$PHULFDQZLOGHUQHVVZDVWXUQHGLQWRDQDWLRQDOEUDQGDQG WKH$PHULFDQFLWL]HQVZLWKDQLPDJLQDU\6HTXR\D7UHHLQWKHLUEDFN\DUGVZHUHWKHILUVWWKDW VXSSRUWHGWKHFRXQWU\¶VEUDQGILUVWWKURXJKWRXULVP:LOGHUQHVVEHFDPHWKHIRXQWDLQRI $PHULFDQYDOXHV $PHULFDLVZLOGDQGELJ$PHULFDLVVWURQJDQGGRZQWRHDUWK$PHULFDKDV *RGRQLWVVLGH:LOGHUQHVVLVQRWDQHQHP\EXWPRWKHU WKH$PHULFDQEDOGHDJOHVKLHOGVLWV SURJHQLHVVFUHDPLQJ (3OXULEXV8QXP ,URQLFDOO\ZLOGHUQHVVOHJLWLPL]HGLQGLYLGXDOLVP,QWKHZLOGLQ an unknown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¶VERXQGVDQGILQGVKLVOHJLWLPDF\RQO\LQ relation with a never-HQGLQJZLOGHUQHVVDSHUPDQHQWSURYRFDWLRQDQHYHUODVWLQJLQVHFXULW\,I wilderness no lRQJHUH[LVWVRZQLQJD+DUOH\'DYLGVRQLVSRLQWOHVV LILQVHFXULW\LVSLQQHG GRZQE\VRFLDOVDIHW\QHWVWKH$PHULFDQGUHDPLVWKURWWOHG +HQFHZHVHHKRZGXULQJWKHSRVWIURQWLHUSHULRGWKDWIROORZHGWKHODVW,QGLDQUHVLVWDQFH from the nineteenth centXU\ZLOGHUQHVVEHFDPHWKHOLQFKSLQEHWZHHQQDWLRQDOLGHQWLW\ OHJLWLPDF\DQGWKHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRIQDWXUH7KDWLQH[SOLFDEOHIRUFHRIQDWXUHVKRXOGQRORQJHU EHGLVHQFKDQWHGLQLQVWUXPHQWDOYDOXHEXWNHSWXQWRXFKHG7KHDQWKURSRFHQWULFYLHZRI nature getVDUWLFXODWHGZLWKWKHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRIQDWXUHWKURXJKKHURLFLQGLYLGXDOLVP &RQVHUYLQJQDWXUH¶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hapter 6 - The translation of the American National Parks in Spain and Romania ,VKDOOQRWDGGUHVVKHUHLQGHWDLOKRZWKHLGHDRIQDWXUHZLOGHUQHVVDQGWKHULVHRIQDWLRQDOLVP ZHQWKDQGLQKDQG)RUWKLVDQRWKHUHQGHDYRULQWKHKLVWRU\RIQDWLRQDOLVPLVQHHGHGZLWK OLWWOHSD\RIIIRUWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\,ZDQWWRGHVFULEHLQWKHIROORZLQJSDJHVKRZWKHFRQFHSW RIWKHQDWLRQDOSDUNZDVWUDQVODWHGLQWKHWZRFRXQWULHVXQGHUFRQFHUQIRUP\VWXG\ 28 ,WLVVXUSULVLQJWKDW6FKXPSHWHUGRHVQRWUHIHUWRWKHUROHRIWKHIURQWLHULQKLVWKHRU\RIHQWUHSUHQHXULDODFWLRQ DOWKRXJK7XUQHU¶VZRUNZDVZLGHO\NQRZDQGJHQHUDWHGDPSOHGHEDWHLQWKHV)RUIROORZLQJWKHGHEDWHVHH 6ORWNLQ )DUDJKHU 80 6.1. Spain – Cavadonga ,Q 6SDLQORVW&XED3XHUWR5LFRDQGWKH3KLOLSSLQHVIROORZLQJWKHGHIHDWRIWKH6SDQLsh- $PHULFDQ:DU'XULQJWKLVZDU7KHRGRU5RRVHYHOWFRPPDQGHGDUHJLPHQWLQ&XEDJDLQLQJ WKH0HGDORI+RQRUDQHYHQWZKLFKSURSHOOHGKLPLQWRWKH:KLWH+RXVH 7KURXJKKLVOLWHUDU\EXWDOVRPDQDJHULDOWDOHQW*LQHUKDGDSURIRXQGLQIOXHQFHRQWKHQHZ JHQHUDWLRQRIZULWHUVDQGSRHWV+LVZULWLQJVFUHDWHGDQHZHVWKHWLFZLWKUHJDUGWRQDWXUHDQ HVWKHWLFZLWKDSURIRXQGUHOLJLRXVIHHOLQJ+HGHVFULEHVWKHEHDXW\RIWKH6SDQLVKODQGVFDSHLQ DQHFVWDWLFPRRG ³,GRQRWUHPHPEHUKDYLQJIHOWDIHHOLQJRIILQGLQJP\VHOIPRUHSURIRXQG ELJJHUPRUHVROHPQPRUHLQGHHGUHOLJLRXV>WKDQLQWKHODQGVFDSHRI6HJRYLD@´ *LQHU 3DLVDMHV >@TXRWHGLQ-RDTXtQ)HUQiQGH] 6DQWRV-XOLiVWDWHVWKDWWKH*HQHUDWLRQRIWKH VKDOOQRWEHFRQVLGHUHGDPRYHPHQWDVVXFKIRUXQOLNHWKH intellectuals GHOHWWUDV IURPDQGWKRVHIURPPLG;;FHQWXU\WKHVHLQWHOOHFWXDOVZHUHODFNLQJan action SURJUDPZLWKSROLWLFDOREMHFWLYHVEHLQJPRUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\³DSURIRXQGDYHUVLRQIRUWKHFRQFUHWH´DQG FRQVLGHULQJWKHPVHOYHVWKHYRLFHRIWKHSHRSOHWKDWZHUHSDUWRIUDWKHUWKDQLWVFRQVFLRXVQHVV -XOLi 30 6HHQH[WSDUWIRUWKH definition of the PRQWH LQ6SDQLVKODZ+HUHLWUHIHUVWRIRUHVWHGFRPPXQDOODQG 81 2QHLQIOXHQWLDOMRXUQDOLVWRIWKDWWLPH*LQpV$OEHURODSXEOLVKHGH[WHQVLYHDUWLFOHV in (O *ORER IDYRULQJQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ+HHPSOR\VDGLVFRXUVHYHU\VLPLODUWR*LQHU+RIIPDQQ 7KRUHDXRU0XLU ³>W@KHUHLVQRGRXEWWKDWWKHYLHZRIWKHPRXQWDLQVDOZD\VVWLUVDUHOLJLRXV HVWHHPWRWKHKXPDQEHLQJORRNLQJDWWKHWHPSOHVRI1DWXUHDOODround the continents is YHQHUDWLQJ*RG´ LQ-RDTXtQ)HUQiQGH] 7KLVLVWKHEXOEIURPZKHUHPHPEHUVRIZKDWZHZRXOGFDOOWRGD\WKHDOWHUQDWLYHPRYHPHQW JUHZIXUWKHUQHZHVWKHWLFVWRQDWXUHWKDWKDGZLWKRXWWKHLUYROLWLRQVWURQJSROLWLFDORutcome LQWKHGHFDGHVWRFRPH3DLQWHUVSRHWVDQGSKLORVRSKHUVZHUHYROXQWDU\WHDFKLQJDQG RUJDQL]LQJH[FXUVLRQVLQWRQDWXUHIRUSXSLOVDQGVWXGHQWVRIYDULRXVDJHVThese students created further similar institutions all across 6SDLQ /D6RFLHGDG&LHQWLILFDGH$PLJRVGHO *XDGDUUDPD &OXEGHORV'RFH &OXE$OSLQR(VSDxRO6RFLHGDG'HSRUWLYD ([FXUVLRQLVWD *RQ]iOH]7UXHEDDQG6HUUDQR&DxDGDVSLFWXUHWKHQHZHWKRV YHU\ZHOO ³7KHLGHDVRI>VRFLHWDO@UHJHQHUDWLRQWKHODQGVFDSHSKLORVRShy of the ,QVWLWXFLRQ/LEUH GH(QVHQDQ]D DQGKLNLQJ H[FXUVLRQLVPR DVDFXOWXUDOPRYHPHQWVRPHWLPHVLQGHQWHG ZLWKQDWLRQDOLVWLFFKDUDFWHUDQGat RWKHUWLPHVPRUHVSRUWLYHVFLHQWLILFRUSHGDJRJLF IRVWHUHGDQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLVPZLWKDVRFLDOKHJHPRQLFFKDUDFWHU´ *RQ]iOH]7UXHED DQG6HUUDQR&DxDGDV 7KHUHIRUHWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHILUVWQDWLRQDOSDUNVLQ6SDLQZDVDVLQWKH86SUHFHGHGE\ DUWLVWLFDQGOHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHVLQWKHµZLOGHUQHVV¶DVZHOODVE\DVLJQLILFDQWPHGLDVXSSRUW ,QFUHDVLQJO\PRUHXUEDQSHRSOHWKRVHZKRFRXOGDIIRUGWRLQWHUPVRIWLPHDQGPRQH\FDPH LQVHDUFKRIWKHHVVHQWLDOHQHUJ\DQGVSLULWXDOLW\RIIHUHGE\QDWXUH+RZHYHUWKH\ZHUH UHFUHDWLQJQDWXUHDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLULPDJLQDWLRQDQGLQWHUHVWV7KLVZDVLn very schematic OLQHVWKHVRFLDOHQYLURQPHQWRIWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHILUVWQDWLRQDOSDUNVLQ6SDLQ)URP QRZZHZLOOWXUQRXUDWWHQWLRQWRDNH\DFWRU- 3HGUR-RVp3LGDO \%HUQDOGRGH4XLUyV 3LGDO ZDVDGHSXW\LQWKHQDWLRQDOSDUOLDPHQWEHLQJHOected in the district of 0RQGRxHGRLQ*DOLFLD7KHEHVWSRUWUDLWRIKLPDOVRFRPHVIURP*RQ]iOH]7UXHEDDQG 6HUUDQR&DxDGDV ³DGLVVROXWHPDQHFFHQWULFH[FHOOHQWDOSLQLVWJUDQGWUDYHOHUPDJQLILFHQW VSRUWLYHDGYHQWXUHUUHVWOHVVKXQWHUSROLWLFLDQDQG IULHQGRIWKHNLQJ´ LGHP ,Q 3LGDO WUDYHOHGWRWKH86DQGYLVLWHG 82 ³7KHWULS,PDGHLQAmerica for studying in the fielGde visuWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQDQG IXQFWLRQRIWKHQDWLRQDOSDUNVLQWKH)DU-:HVW,GLGQ¶WXQGHUWDNHLWIROORZLQJD PLVVLRQJLYHQE\WKH6SDQLVKJRYHUQPHQWEXWREH\LQJWKHLQGLFDWLRQVDQGsuggestions RIVRPHERG\WKDWLV DERYHXVDOl LQ6SDLQ +0'RQ$OIRQVR;,,, « 3HGUR3LGDOLQ (O,PSHULDOTXRWHGLQ)HUQiQGH]DQG3UDGDV 1H[W\HDU3LGDO SUHVHQWHGDVHHWKLQJGLVFRXUVHLQWKH6SDQLVK6HQDWHDGYRFDWLQJIRUDODZRI QDWLRQDOSDUNVLQ6SDLQ,QKLVYLHZQDWLRQDOSDUNVKad a fundamental renascent ethos for the QDWLRQ7KLVGLVFRXUVHLVRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFHIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQQDWXUH SURWHFWLRQWKHHWKRVDVVRFLDWHGWRLWDQGWKHLQQHUFRQIOLFWZLWKWKHFRQFHSWRISURSHUW\LQWKH 6SDQLVKFRQWH[WRIWKDWWLPH7KHIROORZLQJH[WUDFWVDUHWHOOLQJLQWKLVUHJDUG ³WKHQDWLRQDOSDUNVXQDYRLGDEO\ have WKHFKDUDFWHURI5HFRQTXLVWD RI5HFRQTXLVWD \HVRIWKHQDWLRQDOWHUULWRU\ « LIEHIRUHit was WKH$UDEVWKDWFRQTXHUHGXVWRGD\ it is the aridity that cRQTXHUVXV´ ³:KHUHLVWKHDIIRUHVWDWLRQWKDWZHDUHDOOFUDYLQJIRU":KHUHLVWKHIRUHVWU\SROLF\ that KDVWRSUHYDLORYHUDOOWKHRWKHUV>SROLFLHV@" « 7KHUHLVDPRQRWRQHDQGVKRUW noise which irritates and drives us WRGHVSDLU$QG\RXNQRZJHQWOHPDQ what this QRLVHLV"It iVWKHD[It is the ax of the Spanish wilderness (VDOYDMHHVSDxRO), which we haven’t managed to civilize yet.” ³7KHSULYDWHRZQHUV"$UH\RXQRWKHDULQJDOOGD\ORQJWKH6SDQLVKVWLOORQHRIWKH PRVWFRQVSLFXRXVDUHFXWWLQJGRZQWKHLUIRUHVWV PRQWHV "And the villages? What is common is of no one, is a sayingDQGWKHUHZKHUHWKHIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHU LJHQLHURGH 0RQWHV LVQHJOLJHQWRUWKHIRUHVWU\JXDUGLVQRWGRLQJKLVMREDIRUHVW XQPRQWH LV FKRSSHGGRZQRUGHVWUR\HG´ ³7KH1RUWK$PHULFDQVKDYHXQGHUVWRRGYHU\ZHOOWKDW3URJUHVVQHHGVWwRWRUFKHV WKH WRUFKWKDWLOOXPLQDWHVWKHHQYLURQPHQWWKHSDWKRIOLIHDQGWKHWRUFKWKDWLOOXPLQDWHV WKHHQGWKHJRDOLQOLIH7KHHQYLURQPHQWWKHSDWKWKHPLOLHXRIOLIHLVThe Freedom7KHHQGWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKHDLPLVWKHFRQWHPSODWLRQRIthe Divine or the BeautyYellowstonedear 6HQDWRUVLVWKHILUVW1DWLRQDO3DUNRI$PHULFDDQGRIWKH ZRUOG « ´$nd he FRQWLQXHVGHVFULELQJ ³7KLVLVDQHIIRUWZKLFKUHTXLUHVDVDILUVWLQFHQWIRUDFFRPSOLVKLQJLW, a culture of the people; without this culture, it would be very difficult to get to the intelligence and rationale of the peasants, >H[SODLQLQJ@WKDWGHYDVWDWLQJWKHIRUHVWVLVVRPHWKLQJ WKDWFDQEHFRQWUDU\not only to the interest of the nation, but also to his own interest WKDWFRQWLQXLQJWRKXQWLQWKHIRUPWKDWLVGRQHLVDFULPHIRU QDWXUHLQ FRQWUDU\DOVRZLWKWKHLQWHUHVWVRIWKHYLOODJHV « ´ 3LGDO -P\HPSKDVLV 83 Due to 3LGDO¶VOREE\LQJDQGKLVYHU\JRRGUHODWLRQVZLWKWKHUR\DOIDPLO\HVSHFLDOO\WKHNLQJ $OIRQVR,,,WRZKRP3LGDO ZDVWKHKDELWXDOKXQWLQJSDUWQHU VHH-RDTXLQ)HUQDQGH] - WKH6SDQLVKODZRIQDWLRQDOSDUNVSDVVHGLQ 3LGDO ZDV$VWXULDQ0DUTXHVRI9LOODYLFLRVDVRZKDWEHWWHUSODFHIRUHVWDEOLVKLQJWKH ILUVW6SDQLVKQDWLRQDOSDUNWKDQWKH0RXQWDLQVRI&DYDGRQJDLQ$VWXULDV"7he sacred PRXQWDLQVRIWKH&DYDGRQJDWKHSODFHZKHUH3HODJLXVGHIHQGHGKHURLFDOO\WKHODVW&KULVWLDQ 6WURQJKROGRIWKH,EHULDQ3HQLQVXODSXWWLQJDQHQGWRWKH$UDELQYDVLRQDQGVWDUWLQJ 5HFRQTXLVWD$OFXWpQQRWHV ³WKHYHU\QDPHRI&DYDGRQJDDQGWKHLQYHQWLRQRIDSURWHFWHG ODQGVFDSHLQWKHFHOHEUDWLRQPRPHQWRIWZHOYHFHQWXULHVIURPWKHUHFRQTXHVWEDWWOHDUHQRW DFFLGHQWDO´ $OFXWpQ Picture 2: The inauguration of Parque Nacional de la Montaña de Covadonga on 8 September 1918. 7KHPLQLVWHURIGHYHORSPHQW )RPHQWR )UDQFLVFR&DPEyJLYHVDVSHHFKLQIURQW+50$OIRQVR;,,,DQG 4XHHQ9LFWRULD(XJHQLD,QWKHVHFRQGURZZHFDQ DOPRVW VHH3LGDO7KHSLFWXUHVDQGZHUHNLQGO\ SURYLGHGE\$62&,$&,Ï1&8/785$/$%$0,$ &DVDGRDOVRQRWHV ³>D@ZKROHFKDLQRIWUDGLWLRQDOQDWLRQDOLVWLFFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWERWKLQWKH SROLWLFVDVLQWKHUHOLJLRXVVSKHUHVJRWDWWDFKHGRQWKHLGHDRIQDWLRQDOSDUNV´ &DVDGR 84 Picture 3: idem 7KHUHIRUHWKHUKHWRULFXVHGLQSURPRWLQJWKHQHZLGHDRIQDWLRQDOSDUNVZDVDVLQWKH $PHULFDQFDVHDFRPELQDWLRQRIQDWLRQDOLVPWUDGLWLRQDOLVPUHQDVFHQWLVPYLJRUKHDOWKEXW DOVRHFRQRPLFGHYHORSPHQWVFLHQWLILFDGYDQFHPHQWDQGHPDQFLSDWLRQ Picture 4: Young intellectuals from Asturias in a taxi trip in the national park of Cavadonga, mid 1920’s. 3icture kindly SURYLGHGE\$62&,$&,Ï1&8/785$/$%$0,$ One of the environmental officers that I interviewed is IURPWKHDUHDRI&DYDGRQJDDQGZH WDONHGDERXWWKHPRPHQWRILQDXJXUDWLRQRIWKHQDWLRQDOSDUNZKLOHZDWFKLQJROGSLFWXUHVOLNH WKHRQHDERYH ³7KHYLOODJHRI&RUDRLVDWWKHEDVLVRI3LFRVGH(XURSDLQWKH*HxDYDOOH\DQGWKH SHDVDQWVIURPWKHYLOODJHZHUHDOZD\VZLWKWKHFDWWOHDURXQGWKH/DNHVRI&DYDGRQJD DQGRWKHUSDVWXUHODQGVHYHQPRUHIDUDZD\7KHUHIRUHDYLVLWLQWKHZLOGHUQHVVZDV DEVROXWHO\QDWXUDODQGWKH\ZHUHPRVWRIWKHWLPHZDONLQJWKHUH « ,QWKHDERYH SKRWRZHVHHDQH[FXUVLRQPDGH IRUWKHLQDXJXUDWLRQRIWKHUDLOZD\LQ&DYDGRQJDDQ HYHQWZKLFKPRELOL]HGWKHLQWHOOHFWXDO\RXWKIURPWKHUHJLRQ7KH\RXQJJLUOZKRLV VWDQGLQJLVWKHJLUORIDIDPRXVFORFNPDNHUIRUP&RUDRDQGRIFRXUVHWKH\FRXOG DIIRUGWKHWULSLQDWD[L´ )-3, 85 &DYDGRQJDZDVIROORZHGE\WKH1DWLRQDO3DUNRI2UGHVDLQWKHVDPH\HDU 86 ,QWKH6SDQLVKFDVHWKHPHVVDJHZDVFOHDU OLNH3KRHQL[WKH6SDQLVKQDWLRQZDVPHDQWWR UHERUQIURPLWVDVKHVLQWKHVHUHPRWHSODFHVZKLFKVWRRGDVLWVVKLHOGIRUVXFKDORQJWLPH)RU WKLVLQVWDQFHWKHVKLHOGZRXOGEHFDOOHGQDWLRQDOSDUN7KHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHILUVWQDWLRQDO SDUNVLQ6SDLQVKRZVFOHDUO\DQLPEULFDWLRQRIKLVWRU\JHRSROLWLFVUHOLJLRQDQGORFDOSROLWLFV translated from the US mRGHO$FFRUGLQJWR-RDTXtQ)HUQiQGH] - WKHODZIRU QDWLRQDOSDUNVUHPDLQHGXQFKDQJHGXQWLO DQGRQO\DIHZDPHQGPHQWVZHUHDGGHGXQWLO VHHWKH6SDQLVKVHFWLRQ &DYDGRQJDSUHVHUYHGLWVQDPHXQWLO EXWDVVRRQDVLWV area waVGRXEOHLWDFTXLUHGOLNHDQDULVWRFUDWQHZWLWOHV– 1DWXUDSURWHFWHGVLWH %LRVSKHUH5HVHUYHDQGDQDPHZRUWK\IRUVXFKWLWOHV– 3LFRVGH(XURSD7KH0HWWOHVRI (XURSH 6.2. Romania – The Mountain Without Crest 2QFHXSRQDWLPH WKH:KLWH-.LQJUXOHGLQWKLVODQG$QGKHKDGDYHU\EHDXWLIXO GDXJKWHUVREHDXWLIXOWKDWVKHZDVIDPRXVLQDOOWKHVKLUHVRYHUQLQHNLQJGRPVDQG QLQHVDOWHGVHDV$QGWKHSULQFHVZHUHZLOWLQJIRUGHVLUHDOWKRXJKWKH\NQHZKHURQO\ E\IDPH$OOWKHNLQJVIURP WKHVXUURXQGLQJNLQJGRPVZDQWHGKHUDQGVKHZDV UHMHFWLQJWKHPDOO HYHQWKRXJKWKH\ZHUHVWURQJOLNHEHDUVDQGEHDXWLIXOOLNH HYHUJUHHQV«$QGWKH\ZHUHG\LQJRXWRI ORQJLQJIRUKHU DQGZHUHWXUQLQJLQWR VKDGRZV%XWLQWKDWWLPHLQWKHVHPRXQWDLQVD=PHXFDPH ,WZDVD=PHX WKDWQR RQHDW FRXUWKDG HYHUVHHQ RUKHDUGRIIEHIRUHLQKLVOLIH QRU KDG WKHIRON KHDUG DQ\WKLQJDERXWLWVH[LVWHQFH7KLVEHDVWZDVGRLQJRQO\HYLOLQWKHNLQJGRPEXWWKH PRVWWHUULEOH WKLQJZDVWKDW IRUHYHU\PHDO LWZDVUDYHQRXVO\ GHPDQGHG DJLUO$QG GXULQJWKHQLJKWLWZDVHYHQPRUHWHUULI\LQJIRULWVHDUFKHG RXW \RXQJPDLGHQV:KHQ WKH:KLWH-.LQJZDVWROGE\KLVFDSWDLQVDERXWWKLVKHRUGHUHG DTXDGUXSOHJXDUGLQJ IRUKLVGDXJKWHU$QGLQRUGHUIRUWKH=PHX QRWWRKLGHRYHUWKHWRSRIWKHQHDUE\ PRXQWDLQ DQGIRUWKHJXDUGVWRKDYH a H[WHQVLYHYLHZRYHU WKHKRUL]RQKHWRRNWKH PDJLFEURDGVZRUGLQKHULWHGIURPKLVIDWKHUWKH5HG-.LQJVSXQ LWDURXQG KLVKHDG ZLWKERWKDUPVDQGZLWKDEROGDQGPLJKW\VWULNHKHVOLFHGRIIWKHWRSRIWKH PRXQWDLQ 6LQFHWKHQWKHPRXQWDLQLVFDOOHG5HWH]DW WKHPRXQWDLQZLWKRXWFUHVW ,GRQRWNQRZZKDWKDSSHQHGZLWKWKH:KLWH-.LQJ¶VGDXJKWHULIWKH=PHXJRWKHULQWKHHQG RUZKRPDUULHGKHU1RUZLOO,JRVRIDUDVWRLQWHUSUHWWKHVWRU\ RI5HWH]DWDVWRKRZSROLWLFDO UXOHUVPRGLILHGQDWXUHDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUQHHGVHYHQLQP\WKLFDOWLPHVZKHQXQSUHGLFWDEOH FULVHVFDPHDERXW RULIWKH\FRQVXOWHGWKHRWKHUVWDNHKROGHUVDQGWKHSHDVDQWVLQWKHYLOODJHV around for accessing ‘natural resourceV¶,WLVRQO\DQLFHIDLU\WDOHWKDW,HQFRXQWHUHGLQWKH YLOODJHRI1HDJGXULQJP\WRXURIQDWLRQDOSURWHFWHGDUHDVDVSDUWRIWKHILHOGZRUNSXUVXHGLQ 5RPDQLD,KHDUGLWIURP&ZKRP,PHWLQRQHRIWKHORFDOWDYHUQV+HZDVDQGXQWLO he worked LQWKHFRDOPLQHVLWXDWHGDWDERXWNPDZD\IURP1HDJ:KHQKHKHDUGWKDW, 31 =PHXLVD5RPDQLDQP\WKRORJLFDOILJXUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKFKDOOHQJHDQGFKDQJH,WVSK\VLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ YDULHVDFFRUGLQJWRUHJLRQVEXWFRPPRQO\LWFDQEHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDGUDJRQ ZDQWHGWRYLVLWWKHSDUNKHZDVNHHQWRWHOOPHWKHVWRU\RI5HWH]DWDVLILWZDVVRPHWKLQJ LPSRUWDQWWKDW,QHHGHGWRNQRZEHIRUHJHWWLQJLQWRXFKZLWKWKHSDUNSHUVRQQHO&LVSURXGWR OLYHE\5RPDQLD¶VILUVW1DWLRQDO3DUNLWLVVRPHWKLQJLPSRUWDQWWKDWKLVYLOODJHLVQH[WWRLW LW LVDVHQVHRIORFDODQGQDWLRQDOSULGH ³:HFDQVKRZWR(XURSHWKDWRXUFRXQWU\KDVVRPDQ\ EHDXWLHVQRWRQO\J\SVLHVDQGKDQGLFDSSHGSHRSOH´HRZHYHUDVWRWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKH SDUN&LVVXVSLFLRXV ³,GRQ¶WNQRZZK\WKH\PDGHWKHSDUN,ZDVQRWERUQEDFNWKHQEXW WKHSHRSOHKDYHSUREOHPVZLWKSDVWXULQJWKHFRZVDURXQG´ 7KHSDUNUDQJHUVWROGPHWKDW 5HWH]DWKDVDXQLTXH³ELRWRSH´ WKH\ZHUHVSHDNLQJLQ WKHROGODQJXDJHRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQWKHUHIRUHQRWELRGLYHUVLW\DOWKRXJKWKH\ZHUHQRWPXFK ROGHUWKDQ, LQDOO6RXWK-(DVWHUQ(XURSH7KLV³QDWXUDOWUHDVXUH´WKH\VDLGQHHGVWREH SURWHFWHG DJDLQVWWRXULVWVDQGWKHORFDOVZKRSDVWXUHWKHLUFRZVLQWKHDUHD,IRXQGRXWWKDW LQWHQVLYHOREE\LQJKDGEHHQFDUULHGRXWLQWKHVXUURXQGLQJYLOODJHVWRKHOSWKHSHRSOH XQGHUVWDQGWKHHQODUJHPHQWRIWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVDQGWKHODQGXVHFKDQJHVWKDWLWLPSOLHG One of the dimensions fostered was thHFXOWXUDOKHULWDJHDQGSDUWLFXODUKLVWRU\RIWKLVUHJLRQ LQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ,IRUJRWWRDVN&KRZKHNQHZWKHVWRU\RI5HWH]DW 7KHSDUNZDVIRXQGHGE\(PLO5DFRYLĠӽDQG$OH[DQGUX%RU]DLQ (PLO5DFRYLĠӽ - ZDVD5RPDQLDQELRORJLVWZKRXQGHUWRRNKLVVWXGLHVLQ3DULV32+HZDVD PHPEHURIWKH)UHQFK=RRORJ\6RFLHW\ZKLFKLQ UHFRPPHQGHGKLPWRWDNHSDUWLQD %HOJLDQVFLHQWLILFH[SHGLWLRQWR$QWDUFWLFD7KLVKLVWRULFDOH[SHGLWLRQDQGWKHRYHUDOO VFLHQWLILFHQYLURQPHQWLQ3DULVFRQQHFWHG5DFRYLĠӽZLWKQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQFRQFHUQV 32 ,QWKH5RPDQLDQSDUW,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQGHWDLOWKHUROHRIWKH5RPDQLDQLQWHOOLJHQWVLDZKRVWXGLHGDEURDG GXULQJWKDWSHULRGRIWLPH 88 a IDQF\FLWDGHOLQWKHKHDUWRI7UDQV\OYDQLDVRRQEHFDPHDWUDQVQDWLRQDOIRFDO SRLQWDOEHLW IUDQFRSKRQHRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLQLWLDWLYHV5DFRYLĠӽEURXJKWWRKLVLQVWLWXWHWZRUHQRZQHG )UHQFKELRORJLVWV- -XOHV*XLDUWDQG5HQp-HDQQHOZKRWRJHWKHUZLWKWhe Swiss Alfred &KDSSXLVSXUVXHGVWXGLHVRQWKH&DUSDWKLDQIORUD2Q$SULO KHRUJDQL]HGWKHILUVW FRQJUHVVRIWKH5RPDQLDQQDWXUDOLVWV &ULVWHD +RZHYHUXQOLNHLQ6SDLQSXEOLF DZDUHQHVVZLWKUHJDUGWRQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQDSSHDUHGWREHTXDVLLQH[LVWHQW1HYHUWKHOHVV WKHDFDGHPLFDWPRVSKHUHZDVIUXLWIXOHQRXJKIRUWKH\RXQJELRORJLVW$OH[DQGUX%RU]D - ZKRZLWKD3K'LQQDWXUDOVFLHQFHVIRUPWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI%XGDSHVWMRLQHGWKH FDXVHIRUQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLQ5RPDQLD %RU]DEHFDPHWKHPRVWSUHHPLQHQWILJXUHLQ5RPDQLDQQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLQWKH SHULRGEHWZHHQ DQG /LNH3LGDO%RU]DWUDYHOHGWRWKH86YLVLWHG 33 ,IROORZKHUH%RU]D¶VDUWLFOHIURP ³3ULQ©3DUFXULOH1DĠLRQDOHªGLQ6WDWHOH8QLWH´ 7KURXJK³1DWional 3DUNV´LQ8QLWHG6WDWHV SXEOLVKHGULJKWDIWHUKLVUHWXUQ:HQRWLFHGWKDWKHSXWVLQWKHWLWOHWKHV\QWDJPQDWLRQDO SDUNV ZLWKLQTXRWDWLRQDVIRUDQLQQRYDWLYHFRQFHSW,QWKLVDUWLFOH%RU]DGHVFULEHVVWHSE\VWHSLQDGLDU\PRGH RIZULWLQJKLVH[SHULHQFH7KHDUWLFOHLVYHU\ULFKLQVRFLDOGHWDLOVDERXWPHHWLQJWKH$PHULFDQFXOWXUHDQGWKH QDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLVWFXOWXUH)RUH[DPSOHKHVSHFLILHVWKDWLQVWHDGRIZDONLQJ WKURXJKWKHSDUN³OLNHWUXH WRXULVWV´WKH\JRWGULYHQLQEXVHV KHLVSX]]OHG for the denomination of the traveling sack – ³5XFNVDFNXO´WKH PHPRU\RIWKH*HUPDQWURRSVZKLFKMXVWOHIW5RPDQLDVRPHHLJKW\HDUVEHIRUHKHZURWHWKHVHOLQHVLVVWLOOYLYLG they eat in huge ³&DPSXV´ XVLQJDFRPSOLFDWHGV\VWHPRI ³WLFNHW´- ing; and the MD]]-EDQGLVSOD\LQJ“VXFKa EDUEDULDQPXVLF´ %RU]D - WKHRORJ\DQGKHZDVDQLPDWHGE\DUHVWOHVVVFLHQWLILFFXULRVLW\7KHIROORZLQJSDVVDJHLV VWULNLQJWRPH ³2XUJURXSJRWDQXPEHU ©)XOOHU3DUW\ª- this was our name from thaWSRLQW RQ:LWKLQWKHJURXSHYHU\ERG\JRWDSUHFLVHSODFHORRVLQJFRPSOHWHO\RXU LQGLYLGXDOLW\DQGSHUVRQDOLW\:HEHFDPHDQXPEHUDQREMHFWLQWKHKDQGVRI WKLVFRPSDQ\ZKLFKZDVIHHGLQJXVFDUU\LQJXVKRXVLQJXVDQGZDVWDNLQJ care of our regulaWHGDPXVHPHQWZLWKWKHSXQFWXDOLW\RIDPDFKLQHZLWKa YHU\ERULQJSURPSWLWXGHIRUD (XURSHDQDQGHVSHFLDOO\IRUD5RPDQLDQZLWK WKHWHQGHUQHVVDQGJHQWOHQHVVZKLFKVWDUWHGWRERUHPHIURPDSRLQWRQ´ LGHP Fordism reached the tourism industry sooner than we might think – WKLVKDSSHQHGLQ DQGWKHSUDFWLFHZDVDOUHDG\ZHOOLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG UHSUHVHQWZLWKGLJQLW\RXUFXOWXUDODLPVHPSKDVL]LQJDQRWKHUSDUWRIWKHJUHDWFXOWXUDO SURJUHVVZKLFK5RPDQLD H[SHULHQFHG DIWHULWVXQLILFDWLRQ´ LGHP :HQRWLFHLQWKLVVKRUWSDVVDJHWZRYHU\LPSRUWDQWSUHPLVHVRI%RU]D¶V WKLQNLQJ WKH LQWHUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHELRORJLFDOFRQVWLWXWLRQRIQDWXUDOODQGVFDSHDQGKXPDQDFWLYLW\DQG WKHEURDGHUSHUVSHFWLYHVWKDWQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDGGUHVVHV7KHVHWZRVWULSes of thinking are of PDMRULPSRUWDQFHLQWKHDFDGHPLFDQGSROLWLFDODFWLRQVWKDW%RU]DXQGHUWRRN Picture 5: Alexandru Borza (Center) in Retezat National Park. 3KRWRUHSURGXFHGIURP&ULVWHDDQG3HGURWWL HGV ZLWKWKHSHUPLVVLRQRIWKHHGLWRUV)LUVWSXEOLVKHGLQ %RU]D 2ULJLQDOSKRWRDFFRUGLQJWRWKHWH[WE\³%RU]D´ 7RXULVPLQ5RPDQLDKDGOLNHLQ6SDLQDQGWKH86WKDWHPDQFLSDWRUWRXFKEXWXQOLNH WKHWZRLWGLGQRWKDYHWKH FRQQRWDWLRQRIDVSLULWXDO UHYLYDORIWKHQDWLRQ5RPDQLDZDVDQ DJULFXOWXUDOFRXQWU\LQ ZLWKDOPRVWRILWVSRSXODWLRQOLYLQJLQWKHFRXQWU\VLGH34 and DQLQGXVWULDODFWLYLW\YHU\OLWWOHGHYHORSHG/HLVXUHZDVPRUHWKHDWWULEXWHRILQWHOOHFWXDOV35 +RZHYHULWZDVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ ULJKWIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJ0LKDL+DUHWD FORVHFROODERUDWRURI%RU]DDOVRDELRORJLVWLVWKHIRXQGHURIWKHILUVWQDWXUHSURWHFWHGDUHDLQ 5RPDQLD7KH&RFRUD5HVHUYHDERXWKHFWDUHVLQ7KH%XFHJL0RXQWDLQV36%XWKHLVDOVR the IRXQGHULQ RIWKHILUVWWRXULVWFOXE,QWKHSKRWREHORZZHFDQVHHWKHILVWORJRRI WKHILUVW5RPDQLDQWRXULVWDVVRFLDWLRQZKHUHZHFDQUHDG ³$VFRFLDĠLHGHWXULVPúLSHQWUX SURWHFĠLD1DWXUHL´$VVRFLDWLRQIRUWRXULVPDQG1DWXUH3URWHFWLRQ7KHVORJDQZDV 7KURXJK 7RXULVPWRWKHNQRZLQJRI5RPDQLD 34 7KHFHQVXVIURP VKRZVDWRWDOSRSXODWLRQRI LQKDELWDQWVRXWRIZKLFK ZHUHOLYLQJLQ UXUDODUHDV ,16 0RUHLQVLJKWVDUHSURYLGHGLQWKH5RPDQLDQSDUW 35 InsigKWVDERXWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWRXULVP DQGRUJDQL]HGOHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHVLQ5RPDQLDDUHSURYLGHGLQ'XPEUDYӽ +DUHW ,RQHVFX-DunӽUHDQX 9HU\LQWHUHVWLQJLVWKDWWKHOHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHVZHUHPRVWO\QDPHGLQ WKHVHZULWLQJVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHSODFHZKHUHWKH\ZHUHDWWHQGHG %XFHJL-LVP 6LQDL D -LVPHWF 36 %RU]DSXEOLVKHGLQKLVDUWLFOH3UREOHPDSURWHFĠXQHL1DWXULLvQ5RPDQLD DYHU\LPSRUWDQWOLVWZLWK5RPDQLDQ OLWHUDWXUHSUHYLRXVWR RQWKHLVVXHFRQFHUQLQJQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ %RU]D - Picture 6: The logo of the first tourism club in Romania. 3icture UHSURGXFHGIURP'XPEUDYӽ HenceWKHFRQFHQWUDWHGHIIRUWRI%RU]D5DFRYLĠӽDQG+DUHWOHGWRWKHDGRSWLRQRIWKHILUVW QDWLRQDOODZIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLQ %RWK%RU]DDQG5DFRYLĠӽZHUHSDUWRIWKH FRPPLVVLRQZKLFKKDGLWVDGPLQLVWUDWLYHKHDGTXDUWHUVLQ%XFKDUHVWDQGWKHVFLHQWLILFRQHVLQ &OXM7ZRRWKHUQDWLRQDOSDUNVZHUHVHWLQWKHDIWHUPDWKRI5HWH]DW /HWHD– LQWKH'DQXEH 'HOWDDQG3LDWUD&UDLXOXL– LQWKH%XFHJL0RXQWDLQV%XWWKHSUREOHPRILPSOHPHQWLQJ QDWLRQDOSDUNVLQ5RPDQLDIROORwing the fortress-conservation American system was the same DVLQ6SDLQ WKDWWKHODQGZDVLQKDELWHGDQGLQXVH,QKLVDUWLFOHIURP %RU]DGHSORUHV WKHFRQIOLFWVWKDWWKHODZIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQZRXOGFDXVHZLWKWKHQHZO\DGRSWHGDJUDULDQ ODZ ³7Ke new re-HVWDEOLVKPHQWRISURSHUW\ULJKWVRYHUWKHODQGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHDJUDULDQ ODZLVPDGHDQGGLVDVVHPEOHGDFFRUGLQJWRSROLWLFDOLQWHUHVWV2XUQDWLRQDOSDUNVDQG VFLHQWLILFUHVHUYHVPXVWEHVHWWOHGIRUHYHUVRWKDWWKH\FDQIXOILOOWKHLULPSRUWDQW scLHQWLILFFXOWXUDOQDWLRQDODQGHFRQRPLFDLPV7KH\PXVWEHSURWHFWHGDJDLQVWWKH HSKHPHUDOLQWHUHVWV´ %RU]D %RU]DVHHPVWREHLQVHQVLWLYHZLWKUHJDUGWRWUDGLWLRQDOODQGXVH– ³WKHDQFLHQWYHJHWDWLRQZDV DOPRVWFRPSOHWHO\GLVSODFHGE\KXPDQPDGHFXOWXUHVRUGHHSO\PRGLILHGE\KXPDQDFWLRQ GHIRUHVWDWLRQJUD]LQJPRZLQJLUULJDWLRQ VRWKDWLWLVKDUGWRILQGDQDWXUDOFRUQHUZLWK SULVWLQHYHJHWDWLRQZKHUHRQHFDQH[SOLFDWHWKHQDWXUDOODZVRIIORUD¶VOLIH´ LELG In the first EuroSHDQFRQJUHVVRQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQZKLFKWRRNSODFHLQ'HFHPEHU LQ .UDNRZ%RU]DVWDWHG ³7KHSURIHVVLRQDOSHUVRQQHOIRUP&]HFKRVORYDNLD3RODQGDQG5RPDQLDVKDOOSUHSDUH DVVRRQDVSRVVLEOHDFRPPRQDJUHHPHQWZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHSURWHFWLRQRIODQGwhere WKHQRPDGSDVWXULQJRISHDVDQWV¶OLYHVWRFNVKDOOQRWEHWROHUDWHGDQ\PRUH YLHZWKH VFLHQWLILFDQGWRXULVWLFYDOXHRIWKHODQGVFDSHV>LQWKH&DUSDWKLDQV@ %RU]D :HVHHWKDWWKHILUVWDWWHPSWVWRWUDQVQDWLRQDOUHJXODWLRQRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLon were aimed at FKDQJHVLQWUDGLWLRQDOODQGXVH Chapter 7 - From Parks to Biodiversity: The institutionalization of environmentalism A close look at the ascent of ecocentrism as a cultural and intellectual movement is needed EHFDXVHLWLVLQFORVHFRQQHFWLRQZLWKWKHSUHVHUYDWLRQLVWFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWGHEDWHSUHVHQWHG DERYHDQGLWKHOSVXVWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZLWFDPHDERXWWKDWWKH(XURSHDQ(FRQRPLF &RPPXQLW\SLRQHHUHGWUDQVQDWLRQDOQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ,QDGGLWLRQWRWKLVWKH LQVWLWXWLRQDOL]DWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDOLVPWKURXJKWKHHPHUJHQFHRI1*2V(02V HQYLURQPHQWDOPRYHPHQWRUJDQL]DWLRQV *UHHQ3DUWLHVDQGWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOGHSDUWPHQWV within state governments nevertheless eventually led to a decreaVHRIHQYLURQPHQWDODFWLYLVP 7.1. Ecocentrism vs. Ecological Modernization (FRFHQWULVPGHYHORSHGDVDSKLORVRSKLFDOFULWLTXHWRWKHSRVW-industrial western society and is DWWKHFRUHRIJUHHQSROLWLFDOWKRXJKW,WVLQVSLUDWLRQDOVSKHUHUDQJHVIRUPWKHVRcialist PRYHPHQWVDQGWUDQVFHQGHQWDOLVWSKLORVRSK\RIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WRWKHSDFLILVW PDQLIHVWVRI1HZ/HIWLQWKHPLG ¶V'REVRQSRLQWVYHU\ZHOOWRLWVFRUHIHDWXUHV ³7KLV HFRFHQWULFSROLWLFVH[SOLFLWO\VHHNVWRGHFHQWH WKHKXPDQEHLQJVWRTXHVWLRQWKHPHFKDQLVWLF VFLHQFHDQGLWVWHFKQRORJLFDOFRQVHTXHQFHV WRUHIXVHWKHEHOLHI WKDWWKHZRUOGZDVPDGHIRU KXPDQEHLQJV– DQGLWGRHVWKLVEHFDXVHLWKDVEHHQOHGWRZRQGHUZKHWKHUGRPLQDQWSRVW- LQGXVWULDOLVP¶VSURMHFWRIPDWHULDODIIOXHQFHLVHLWKHUGHVLUDEOHRUVXVWDLQDEOH´ 'REVRQ -TXRWHGLQYDQGHU+HLMGHQ 7RSXWLWLQ3RODQ\LDQWHUPVHFRFHQWULVPLV I want to call the attention oIWKHUHDGHUDWWKLVSRLQWWRWKHXVHRIWKHWHUPVSUHVHUYDWLRQFRQVHUYDWLRQDQG SURWHFWLRQDQGWKHGHULYDWHV+HQFHIRUWK,ZLOOXVHSUHVHUYDWLRQLVWWRLQGLFDWH0XLU¶VVWDQFHFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWIRU WKHKDUPRQL]DWLRQEHWZHHQHFRQRPLFDQGQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDQGSURWHFWLRQDVDQHXWUDOWHUP WKHUHVLVWDQWSDUWRIWKHGRXEOHPRYHPHQW$IWHUWKHLPSHWXRXVHFRQRPLFJURZWKIURPWKH first two decades that followed WKH6HFRQG:RUOG:DUZRUOGZLGHWKHSRVWZDUJHQHUDWLRQV VHL]HGWKHHFRORJLFDOWKUHDWVDQGFRXSOHGWKHPZLWKVRFLDOLQMXVWLFH7KHGLVFULPLQDWLRQEDVHG RQFRORUVH[UHOLJLRQRUHWKQLFLGHQWLW\ZHUHSDUWRIWKHVDPHFULWLTXH)RUWKHHFRORJLFDO WKUHDWVWKHPDLQFDXVHZDVK\SHU-SURGXFWLRQZKLOHIRUVRFLDOLQMXVWLFHLWZDVWKHGRPLQDQW LQGLYLGXDOLVPHWKRVRIWKHFDSLWDOLVWV\VWHP%RWKKDGWKHVDPHµHYLO-root’ – DQWKURSRFHQWULVP 7KHFULWLTXHWRDQWKURSRFHQWULVPZDVEXLOWDURXQGWKHFRQFHSWRILQWULQVLFvalue of QDWXUH9DQGHU+HLMGHQ QRWHV ³WKHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRIQDWXUH LQFRQWUDVWWRLWVDSSURSULDWLRQRU LWVH[SORLWDWLRQE\PDQWDNHVDQLPSRUWDQWSODFHLQWKHHFRFHQWULVWWKLQNLQJ´ YDQGHU+HLMGHQ P\HPSKDVLV 7KHHIIHFWVRIWKH)UHH6SHech Movement and other social PRYHPHQWVIRUPHGLQWKH ¶VWXUQHGLQWRUHFDOOLQJLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKH FDSLWDOLVPPRGHRISURGXFWLRQDQGWKHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW0XUUD\%RRNFKLQSXEOLVKHGD JURXQGEUHDNLQJDUWLFOHLQ FDOOHG(FRORJ\DQGWKH5HYROXWLRQDU\7KRXJKW ZKLFKEHFDPH a milestone in left-wing ecologist movements of the following decades38+HUHKHVWDWHV ³>P@RGHUQPDQ¶VGHVSROLDWLRQRIWKHHQYLURQPHQWLVJOREDOLQVFRSHOLNHKLVLPSHULDOLVP,WLV HYHQH[WUDWHUUHVWULDODVZLWQHVVWKHGLVWXUEDQFHVRIWKH9DQ$OOHQ%HOWDIHZ\HDUVDJR7RGD\ KXPDQSDUDVLWLVPGLVUXSWVPRUHWKDQWKHDWPRVSKHUHFOLPDWHZDWHUUHVRXUFHVVRLOIORUDDQG IDXQDRIDUHJLRQ LWXSVHWVYLUWXDOO\DOOWKHEDVLFF\FOHVRIQDWXUHDQGWKUHDWHQVWRXQGHUPLne WKHVWDELOLW\RIWKHHQYLURQPHQWRQDZRUOGZLGHVFDOH´ %RRNFKLQ (FRFHQWULVP WUDQVFHQGVWKHQDWLRQDOERXQGDULHV To sum-XSWKHPDLQIHDWXUHVRIHFRFHQWULVWWKLQNLQJDUH WKHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH LQWULQVLFYDOXHRIQDWXUHWHFKQRORJLFDOVNHSWLFLVPOLPLWVWRWKHHFRQRPLFJURZWKVRFLDO HTXLW\DQGWUDQV-IURQWLHULVP (FRORJLFDOPRGHUQL]DWLRQLVWKHUHVSRQVHWRWKHUDGLFDOHFRORJ\VWDQGVRIHFRFHQWULVP ,WZDVEXLOWRQSUHYLRXVDWWHPSWVWRGHDOZLWKWKHSUREOHPRIILQLWHUHVRXUFHV7KH/LPLWVRI *URZWK5HSRUWSXEOLVKHGLQ PDGHJORRP\SUHGLFWLRQVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHFRUUHODWLRQV EHWZHHQSRSXODWLRQJURZWKDQGQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV¶ILQLWHDVSHFW+RZHYHUWKHUHZHUHQR VLJQLILFDQWUHDFWLRQVLQWKHSROLWLFDOVSKHUH2QHH[FHSWLRQLVWKHDGRSWLRQRI WKH%LUGV 'LUHFWLYHE\WKH((&LQ EXWWRWKLV,ZLOOUHIHUVHSDUDWHO\7KHULVHRIWKHQHR-OLEHUDO SDUDGLJPFDOOHGXSRQDFRKHUHQWFRQFHSWXDODQGSROLWLFDOVWDQGZLWKUHJDUGWRWKH HQYLURQPHQWDOWKUHDWV7KHDQVZHUFDPHLQ ZLWKWKHVHWWLQJ-XSRf the 81World 38 2ULJLQDOO\SXEOLVKHGLQDQHZVOHWWHUSXEOLVKHGE\%RRNFKLQKLPVHOILQ DQGUHSXEOLVKHGDIWHUZDUGVLQWKH %ULWLVKPRQWKO\$QDUFK\ LQ 6RXUFH$QDUFK\$UFKLYHV KWWS GZDUGPDFSLW]HUHGXDQDUFKLVWBDUFKLYHVERRNFKLQHFRORJ\DQGUHYKWPO &RPPLVVLRQRQ(QYLURQPHQWDQG'HYHORSPHQWDOVRNQRZQDV the %UXQGWODQG&RPPLVVLRQ 7KHPDLQDFKLHYHPHQWZDVWKHFRLQLQJRIWKHVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQWFRQFHSW– ³GHYHORSPHQWWKDWPHHWVWKHQHHGVRIWKHSUHVHQWZLWKRXWFRPSURPLVLQJWKHDELOLty of future generations to meet their own needs" :&(' $VZDUPRIEX]]ZRUGVEHZLWFKHG WKHSROLWLFDOKRUL]RQHYHUVLQFH µHFR-efficiency’; ‘environmental conservation’; ‘EnvironmentaOLPSDFWDVVHVVPHQW¶ YDQGHU+HLMGHQ (FRORJLFDOPRGernization ZDVEURDGO\GHILQHGLQWKHOLWHUDWXUHDV³WKHGLVFRXUVHWKDWUHFRJQL]HVWKHVWUXFWXUDOFKDUDFWHU RIWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOSUREOHPVEXWQRQHWKHOHVVDVVXPHVWKDWH[LVWLQJSROLWLFDOHFRQRPLFDQG social institutions can internalize care for the enviroQPHQW´ LGHP ,QRWKHUZRUGVHFRORJLFDO PRGHUQL]DWLRQLVWKHGLVFRXUVHWKDWJUHHQVWKHQHROLEHUDOSROLWLFDODJHQGD :KDWPDNHVDVLJQLILFDQWGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQSUHVHUYDWLRQLVWFRQVHUYDWLRQLVW FDWHJRULHVRQRQHVLGHDQGWKHHFRFHQWULFHFRORJLFDOPRGHUnization on the other is that the ODWWHUFDWHJRU\LVHPEHGGHGLQEURDGHUVRFLDOFRQFHUQVDQGHQWDLOVDWUDQVQDWLRQDOGLVFRXUVH 7KHGLUHFWFRQVHTXHQFHRIHFRORJLFDOPRGHUQL]DWLRQDQGWKHKHJHPRQ\RIVXVWDLQDEOH GHYHORSPHQWFRQFHSWLVDSROLWLFDODSSURDFKWKURXJKZKLFKQDWXUHLVSURWHFWHGQRWE\ HQFORVLQJSDUWLFXODUVWULSVRIODQGEXWE\PRGLI\LQJWKHDFFHVVDQGXVHRIWKHODQG$OWKRXJK LWPLJKWVRXQGSDUDGR[LFDOWKLVDSSURDFKLVQRWDQRYHOW\EXWDYDULDWLRQRIWKH DQWKURSRFHQWULFYLHZRYHUQDWXUH1DWXUDLVDQRWKHUPDQLIHVWDWLRQRIWKLVDSSURDFK 7.2. The institutionalization of environmentalism I will not address here what the manifestations of this ‘naturalist’ PRYHPHQWLQ5RPDQLDDQG 6SDLQZHUHVLQFH,ZLOOJLYHIXOOLQVLJKWVLQWKHUHVSHFWLYHHPSLULFDOSDUWV+RZHYHULWLV ZRUWKPHQWLRQLQJWKDWLQERWKFDVHVVPDOOOLQNVFDQEHWUDFHGEHWZHHQWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLVP WKLQNLQJRI DQGWKHILUVWQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDWWHPSWVSUHVHQWHGDERYH)HUQiQGH]SUHVHQWV this situation as a FXOWXUDOILVVXUH in which the anarchic QDWXULVPR DQGWKHOLEHUWDULDQ FRPPXQLWDULVPLQ6SDLQGLGQ¶WSD\VLJQLILFDQWDWWHQWLRQHYHQLJQRUHGWKHHFRORJLFDOWUDGLWLRQ RIWKHHQGRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\DQGWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQWLHWKRQH -RDTXtQ )HUQiQGH] - 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKH5RPDQLDQIRUHVWU\¶VRULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVWKH 6RYLHW8QLRQLQKLELWHGDQ\SUROLIHUDWLRQRIERWKHFRFHQWULVPDQGHFRORJLFDOPRGHUQL]DWLRQ 7KHQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLVW¶VDLPVZHUHFDUULHGIRUZDUGDV,ZLOOGHVFULEHODWHURQWKURXJK local SDWULRWLVP 2QHFRQVHTXHQFHRIHQYLURQPHQWDOSURWHVWVIURPWKHHDUO\ VZDVWKH LQVWLWXWLRQDOL]DWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDOLVP7KLVFRQFUHWL]HGLQWKHPHUJHQFHRIRUJDQL]HG 1*2V(02V*UHHQ3DUWLHVDQGWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDOGHSDUWPHQWVZLWKLn the QDWLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWV 5RRWHV 7KHSUREOHPZDVWKHVDPHDVQRZDGD\V KRZWREULQJ WKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHVRQWRWKHSROLWLFDODJHQGD7KH(02VRIIHUHGFRQVXOWDQF\DQG EHFDPHFORVHFROODERUDWRUVZLWKQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH7KHOREE\LQJVWUDWHJLHVDnd high GHSHQGHQF\RQGRQRUVSROLWLFL]HGLPSRUWDQW(02VVXFKDV)ULHQGVRIWKH(DUWKDQG *UHHQSHDFHDQGGLPLQLVKHGWKHLUDFWLYLVWDFWLYLW\%XWWKLVZDVQRWWKHRQO\FDXVH$KLJK SXEOLFDZDUHQHVVLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HGWKHHQYLURQPHQWDODFWLYLVPLQHYHU\GD\SUactices of FLWL]HQVLQ1RUWK:HVWHUQ(XURSHDQGWKHUHIRUHWKHDFWLYLVPEHFDPHOHVVYLVLEOH5RRWHV¶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ognition of the environmental SUREOHPVFDXVHGE\WKHSRVW-PDWHULDOLVWVRFLHW\DVLIWKHVHLVVXHVZHUHDQRYHOW\7KHUHIRUH WKHFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHUXSWXUHZLWKWKHWUDGLWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDOLVPZDVWKDW12*VDQG (02VZHUHFUHGLWHGDVSURGXFLQJYDOXDEOHORFDONQRZOHGJHIRUWKHSROLF\-PDNHUV:XU]HOLQ KLVUHFHQWO\SXEOLVKHGDUWLFOHRQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQPHDVXUHVDWWKHOHYHORI(8QRWHV ³>O@RFDO NQRZOHGJHE\IRUH[DPSOHHQYLURQPHQWDOJURXSVKDVSOD\HGDQLPSRUWDQWUROHPDLQO\GXULQJ WKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQSKDVHRIWKH(8HQYLURQPHQWDOSROLF\-PDNLQJF\FOH´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tled µSURWHFWLRQRIWKHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW¶:KDWIROORZHG,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQWKHQH[WFKDSWHU 0\DUJXPHQWLQWKLVFKDSWHULVWKDWERWKHQYLURQPHQWDOSROLWLFDOLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]DWLRQDQGWKH loss of the HQYLURQPHQWDODFWLYLVPWUDGLWLRQSDYHGWKHZD\ WRSURFHGXUDOforms of legitimacy in decision-PDNLQJFRQFHUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHVLQ:HVWHUQ(XURSH1DWXUHSURWHFWLRQ suffered a lack of legitimacy in WKH((&EXWQRWEHFDXVHVRXUFHVRIOHJLWLPDF\ZHUHQRW DYDLODEOHEXWEHFDXVHWKRVHVRXUFHVRIOHJLWLPDF\VXVWDLQHGQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQIURPORQJ EHIRUHWKHPRGHUQHQYLURQPHQWDOSURWHVWVZHQWGRZQLQJHQHUDO7KHGLIILFXOWLHVLQVHWWLQJ QDWXUHSURWHFWLRQRQWKHSROLWLFDODJHQGDLQ(&&FRXQWULHVLVDOVRDFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKLVVWDWH RIDUW Chapter 8 – Natura 2000 on the paper ³:K\DUHWKH\GRLQJWKLV":K\DUHWKH\GRLQJWKLV"7KH\VDLGZKHQ\RXJRWKHUHWKHZKROH WKLQJVWDUWHG:KRDUH\RX":KDWDUH\RX":KHUHGLG\RXFRPHIURP",WKLQN\RXDUHWKH FDXVHRIDOOWKLV,WKLQN\RX UHHYLO(9,/´ A frantic mother to Melanie dialog from 7KH%LUGV E\$OIUHG+LWFKFRFN 1DWXUDLVDWHUULWRU\ZLWKLQWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ,WUHSUHVHQWVDERXWRIWKHRYHUDOO (8¶VH[SDQVH,WLVQRWDKRPRJHQRXVDGPLQLVWUDWLYHXQLWEXWDKLJKO\IUDJPHQWHGVSDFHLQLts JHRJUDSK\which disdains the ERUGHUVRIWKHQDWLRQDOVWDWHV– LWLVDWUDQVQDWLRQDOWHUULWRU\,WV cross-ERUGHUIUDJPHQWDWLRQJLYHVLWWKHFKDUDFWHURIDQHWZRUN-WHUULWRU\:KDWVHWVDSDUWWKLV WHUULWRU\IURPRWKHUWHUULWRULHVLVDSDUWLFXODUVHWRIUXOHVWKDWUHJXODWHSHRSOH¶VDFFHVVDQGXVH RILW7KLVVHWRIUHJXODWLRQVLVPHDQWWRSURWHFWQDWXUHIURPKXPDQDFWLYLW\ 8.1. The Birds and the missiles’ chant The Mid 60’s were the times when the &ROG:DUUHDFKHGLWVFOLPD[RIVWURQJSURWHVWV IRUFLYLOULJKWVDQGRIWKHDVFHQWRIHFRORJLVP$OIUHG+LWFKFRFN¶VILOP³7KH%LUGV´LVDfine illustration of the ecologiFDOFRQFHUQVRIWKLVSHULRG7KHILOPLVRQHRIWKHKDUVKHVWFULWLTXHV WRWKHERXUJHRQLQJDWWLWXGHRIZHVWHUQVRFLHW\IROORZLQJWKH6HFRQG:RUOG:DU+RZLWZLOO EHLIELUGVKXQWKXPDQVZLWKWKHVDPHFUXHOW\DVKXPDQVKXQWELUGV"7KURXJKRXWWKHILOPDQ LURQFDJHZLWKDFDSWLYHELUGLVREVWLQDWHO\VKRZQ,Q+LWFKFRFN¶VYLHZWKHELUGLVDPHWDSKRU IRUWKHJHQHUDOUHODWLRQEHWZHHQKXPDQVDQGQDWXUHZKLOHWKHILOPLWVHOILVDn ecocentric form RISURWHVW 7KHILUVWQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLQLWLDWLYHDWWKHOHYHORI((&ZDVWKH%LUGV'LUHFWLYHLQ 1*2VDQG(8RIILFLDOVUHJDUGWKLVGLUHFWLYHDVDSLRQHHULQJDFWLQWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHRI $WWKLVSRLQW,ZDQWWRFDOODWWHQWLRQIRUWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQHQYLURQPHQWDOUHODWHGLVVXHVOHJLVODWLRQDQG QDWXUDOSURWHFWLRQRQHVDV DSDUWRIWKHIRUPHU nature conservation – ³7KLVGLUHFWLYHLVDVLPSRUWDQWIRUFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWVDV&ROXPEXV RG\VVH\WRZDUGVWKH1HZ:RUOG´0$DELRORJLVWZRUNLQJIRUWKH(XURSHDQ(QYLURQPHQWDO %XUHDXWROGPHZKLOHWHVWLQJRQHRIWKH%UXVVHOV¶PDUYHORXVEHHUV³,WZDVVLPSO\DPD]LQJ WKDWWKH(8ZHOO((&EDFNWKHQZDVJHWWLQJLQWRWKHQDWXUDOSURWHFWLRQFRPSHWHQFLHV,WLV VXUSULVLQJIRUWKDWWLPH%XWWKLVVWDUWHGEHFDXVHRIWKHYHU\VWURQJELUGVOREE\´ +HH[SODLQV to PHWKDWWKHELUGVOREE\VWDUWHGLQWKH8.GXULQJWKHVEDFNHG-XSE\WKH 5R\DO6RFLHW\ IRUWKH3URWHFWLRQRI%LUGV 563% DQGWKDW%LUG/LIH,QWHUQDWLRQDO VWDUWHGWROREE\IRUWKH GLUHFWLYHE\WKHPLG¶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³:KHUHDVWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQRIWKH VSHFLHVRIZLOGELUGVQDWXUDOO\RFFXUULQJLQWKH(XURSHDQWHUULWRU\RIWKH0HPEHU6WDWHVLV QHFHVVDU\WRDWWDLQZLWKLQWKHRSHUDWLRQRIWKHFRPPRQPDUNHWRIWKH&RPPXQLW\ VREMHFWLYHV UHJDUGLQJWKHLPSURYHPHQWRIOLYLQJFRQGLWLRQVDKDUPRQLRXVGHYHORSPHQWRIHFRQRPLF DFWLYLWLHV WKURXJKRXWWKH&RPPXQLW\DQGDFRQWLQXRXVDQGEDODQFHGH[SDQVLRQ « ´ my HPSKDVLV %HFDXVHWKH%LUGV'LUHFWLYHLVWKHILUVWWUDQVQDWLRQDODWWHPSWIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ LWVXQLTXHQHVVVKRXOGQRWEHRYHUHVWLPDWHG,WLVUDWKHUDQHZDWWHPSWWRGHDOZLWK HQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVE\SDFLI\LQJHFRQRPLFLQWHUHVWVDQGWKRVHIRUSURWHFWLQJQDWXUH,W IROORZVWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWWUDGLWLRQSUHVHQWHGLQWKHSUHYLRXVSDUWRIWKLVFKDSWHUEXWQRWE\ XVLQJWKHOHJLWLPDF\RIDQHZERUQVFLHQFHQDPHO\IRUHVWU\EXWWKHGLVFRXUVHRIWKHGLIIXVLRQ RIUHVSRQVLELOLW\DWDWUDQVQDWLRQDOVFDOH7KHGLUHFWLYHVWUHVVHVRQWKHFURVV-ERUGHUQHHGIRU ELUGV¶SURWHFWLRQFDOOHGEDFNWKHQQRWWUDQVQDWLRQDOEXt trans-frontier – ³ZKHUHDVVXFK VSHFLHVFRQVWLWXWHDFRPPRQKHULWDJHDQGZKHUHDVHIIHFWLYHELUGSURWHFWLRQLVW\SLFDOO\D WUDQV-IURQWLHUHQYLURQPHQWSUREOHPHQWDLOLQJFRPPRQUHVSRQVLELOLWLHV ´ WKLUGUHFLWDO 7KHGLUHFWLYHFRQFHUQVWKHELUGVWKHLUHJJVQHVWVDQGKDELWDWV:KHQORRNLQJDWWKH directive’s motives it seems there was a common understanding for cross-ERUGHUSURWHFWLRQRI WKHELUGVZLWKLQWKH((&7KHIROORZLQJH[WUDFWVIURPWKHPRWLYHVRIWKH'LUHFWLYHDUHFOHDULQ WKLVUHVSHFW x ³:KHUHDVWKHVSHFLHVRIZLOGELUGVQDWXUDOO\RFFXUULQJLQWKH(XURSHDQWHUULWRU\RIWKH 0HPEHU6WDWHVDUHPDLQO\PLJUDWRU\VSHFLHV ZKHUHDVVXFKVSHFLHVFRQVWLWXWHD FRPPRQKHULWDJHDQGZKHUHDVHIIHFWLYHELUGSURWHFWLRQLVW\SLFDOO\DWUDQV-frontier HQYLURQPHQWSUREOHPHQWDLOLQJFRPPRQUHVSRQVLELOLWLHV ´ x ³:KHUHDVFRQVHUYDWLRQLVDLPHGDWWKHORQJ-WHUPSURWHFWLRQDQGPDQDJHPHQWRI QDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVDVDQLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKHKHULWDJHRIWKHSHRSOHVRI(XURSH ZKHUHDV LWPDNHVLWSRVVLEOHWRFRQWUROQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVDQGJRYHUQVWKHLUXVHRQWKHEDVLVRI WKHPHDVXUHVQHFHVVDU\IRUWKHPDLQWHQDQFHDQGDGMXVWPHQWRIWKHQDWXUDOEDODQFHV EHWZHHQVSHFLHVDVIDUDVLVUHDVRQDEO\SRVVLEOH ´ x ³:KHUHDVEHFDXVHRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHZKLFKPD\EHDWWDFKHGWRFHUWDLQVSHFLILF situatioQVSURYLVLRQVKRXOGEHPDGHIRUWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIGHURJDWLRQVRQFHUWDLQ FRQGLWLRQVDQGVXEMHFWWRPRQLWRULQJE\WKH&RPPLVVLRQ ´ %XWFURVV-ERUGHUGRHVQRWLPSO\WKDWDOOERUGHUVKDYHWKHVDPHGHJUHHRISHUPLVVLELOLW\8. 6ZHGHQ'HQPDUNDQG,UHODQGMRLQHGWKHIRXQGLQJPHPEHUVRIWKH((&LQ 7KH GLUHFWLYHFRQWDLQVDSX]]OLQJLQQHUDVSHFWQDPHO\WKHH[FOXVLRQRI*UHHQODQGD'DQLVK WHUULWRU\7KHGLUHFWLYHVSHFLILHVYHU\FOHDUO\WKDW*UHHQODQGLVQRWVXEMHFWWRWKLVGLUHFWLYH $UWLFOH 7KHUHDVRn is that ³WKHFRQGLWLRQVRIOLIHIRUELUGVLQ*UHHQODQGDUHIXQGDPHQWDOO\ GLIIHUHQWIURPWKRVHLQWKHRWKHUUHJLRQVRIWKH(XURSHDQWHUULWRU\RIWKH0HPEHU6WDWHVRQ DFFRXQWRIWKHJHQHUDOFLUFXPVWDQFHVDQGLQSDUWLFXODUWKHFOLPDWHWKHORZGHQVLW\RI SRSXODWLRQDQGWKHH[FHSWLRQDOVL]HDQGJHRJUDSKLFDOVLWXDWLRQRIWKHLVODQG ´ 7KHPRWLYHVRI WKHGLUHFWLYH +RZHYHURQHRIWKHPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIELUGVLVWKHLUPLJUDWRU\LQVWLQFWWKURXJK ZHOOGHILQHGURRWVDVDOVRVWDWHGLQWKHRSHQLQJPRWLYHV7KXV,VHHWKHWZRSHUVSHFWLYHVDV EHLQJLIQRWDQWDJRQLVWDWOHDVWQRWFRKHUHQWRQHZLWKHDFKRWKHUWKHUHIRUHFDOOLQJIRUDFORVHU ORRN 7KHPDLQSDWWHUQRIPLJUDWLRQIRUWKH(XURSHDQELUGVLV1RUWK-South – flying north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considHUHGVRIDVFLQDWLQJRWKHUZLVH,GLVFRYHUHGVRPHDGGLWLRQDOGDWDWKDWstrengthened my GRXEWVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHRIILFLDOVWDWHPHQWVRI*UHHQODQG¶VH[FHSWLRQIURPWKH%LUGV 'LUHFWLYH7KHSLFNRIWKHRUQLWKRORJLFDOVWXGLHVLQ*UHHQODQGZDVLQWKHPLG¶VAccording WR3HWHU/\QJVWKHPRQLWRULQJRIELUGVWKURXJKWKHULQJLQJPHWKRGLQ*UHHQODQGZDVWKHPRVW LQWHQVHEHWZHHQ DQG 7KHFKDUWEHORZFDQDOVREHFRQVLGHUHGDVDJRRGLQGLFDWRU IRUWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQDZDUHQHVVLQ*UHHQODQG,Q WKHILUVW DQGRQO\1DWLRQDO3DUNLV FUHDWHGDQGLVORFDWHGLQWKHQRUWKHDVWVRDWDQWLSRGHVZLWKWKHUHJLRQZLWKWKHELJJHVW FRORQLHVRIELUGV.DODDOOLW1XQDDQQLQXQDHTTLVVLVLPDWLWDTLVWKHELJJHVW1DWLRQDO3DUNLQ WKHZRUOG LWKDV NPð DERXWWKHVL]HRI)UDQFHDQG*HUPDQ\FRPELQHG Figure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official motives of the directive are rather c\QLFDO 101 0\KLQWLVWKHJHRVWUDWHJLFLPSRUWDQFHRI*UHHQODQG2QH\HDUDIWHUWKH*HUPDQV LQYDGHG'HQPDUNLQ$SULO WKH'DQLVK$PEDVVDGRUWRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVVLJQHGDWUHDW\ ZLWKWKH$PHULFDQ*RYHUQPHQWZKLFKJUDQWHGWKHVDLGJRYHUQPHQWPLOLWDU\FRQWUol over *UHHQODQG Taagholt and Hansen 2001 - The so-FDOOHGµ7UHDW\RI*UHHQODQG¶JUDQWHG WKH86$UP\WKHULJKWWRXVHWKHLVODQGIRUPLOLWDU\SXUSRVHVXQWLOWKHWKUHDWVWR86VHFXULW\ ZHUHRYHU*UHHQODQGEHJLQVWRSOD\LWVUROHLQZRUOGSROLWLFV7he control of the Arctic Ocean ZDVRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHVXUYLYDORIWKH8.DQGFRQWDFWEHWZHHQDOOLHV¶VXEPDULQHV DQGWKH8665GXULQJWKH:RUOG:DU,,%HJLQQLQJLQ WKH86DUP\EXLOWHLJKWPLOLWDU\ EDVHVRQWKHVRXWKZHVWHUQFRDVWRI*UHHQODQGDVSRLQWVIRUUHIXHOLQJSODQHVDQGVWDWLRQDU\ SRLQWVIRUZDUVKLSV%XWEHIRUHWRRORQJWKH86*RYHUQPHQWWRRNDGYDQWDJHRIWKHULFKQHVV RI*UHHQODQG¶VVRLODVZHOO7KHPLOLWDU\EDVHVZHUHDOVRXVHGWRGHIHQGWKHFU\ROLWHPLQHV a YHU\SUHFLRXVPLQHUDO IRUWKHDOXPLQXPLQGXVWU\ DQGWKXVIRUWKHDLUFUDIWLQGXVWU\ 7KH FU\ROLWHPLQHVLQ*UHHQODQGZHUHFUXFLDOWRWKHDOOLHGIRUFHV41 $IWHUWKH6HFRQG:RUOG:DU7KXOHLQ*UHHQODQGDQG+DYDQDLQ&XEDEHFDPHWKH KRWWHVWVSRWVRQWKHJHRSROLWLFVPDSTaagholt and Hansen note on their review of the KLVWRULFDOVHFXULW\SHUVSHFWLYHVRI*UHHQODQG ³$IWHU:RUOG:DU,,WKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDWILUVW GHSHQGHGXSRQDVWUDWHJ\ WKHSHULPHWHUVWUDWHJ\ WKDWDVVXPHVDUHWDOLDWRU\DWWDFNIURPEDVHV DORQJWKHERXQGDU\RIWKH6RYLHW8QLRQZLWKWKHEDVHVLQVRXWKHUQ*UHHQODQGSDUWLFXODUO\ 1DUVDUVXDTVHUYLQJDVVWHSSLQJVWRQHVEHWZHHQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQG*UHDW%ULWDLQ7KHVDPH VWHSSLQJ-VWRQHFRQFHSWZDVDOVRXVHGGXULQJ:RUOG:DU,,LQPDLQWDLQLQJOLQHVRI communication aFURVVWKH$WODQWLF´ Taagholt and Hansen 2001 7KHH[DFWQXPEHURI $PHULFDQWURRSVWKDWZHUHVWDWLRQHGLQ*UHHQODQGLVXQNQRZQEXWZKHQWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRI WKH7KXOHEDVHEHJDQLQ PHQZHUHORFDWHGLQQRUWKZHVWHUQ*UHHQODQG *UHHQODQG¶VJHRVWUDWHJLFLPSRUWDQFHDVRXWSRVWIRUWKH$PHULFDQ$UP\ZDVLPPHQVH7KXOH ZDVFRQVWUXFWHGDVDVHFUHWSURMHFWDQGZDVUHDG\WRKRVWPHQDQGKDGRYHU PLOOLRQJDOORQVIXHOVWRUDJHFDSDFLW\,Q WKH%DOOLVWLF0LVVLOH(DUO\:DUQLQJ6\VWHP was LQVWDOOHGE\WKH$PHULFDQ*RYHUQPHQWDIHZNLORPHWHUVDZD\IURP7KXOHJørgen and Jens &ODXV FRQFOXGH ³>Z@LWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWRILQWHUFRQWLQHQWDODLUFUDIWWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVODWHU VKLIWHGWRDSRODUVWUDWHJ\LQZKLFKWKHGHWHUUHQWIRUFHVDUHORFDWHGDWEDVHVLQWKH86RUDW 41 &RQQHWDOOQRWH ³LQ *HQHUDO$UQROG V>$PHULFDQJHQHUDO@RSLQLRQWKHUHZHUHRQO\WZRUHDVRQVIRUHVWDEOLVKLQJ EDVHVLQ*UHHQODQGQDPHO\SURWHFWLQJFRQYR\VDQGIHUU\LQJSODQHV « >7@here was in actual fact another HOHPHQWZKLFKZDVEHFRPLQJLQFUHDVLQJO\GHFLVLYH 7KLVZDVWKHGHIHQVHRI*UHHQODQGLWVHOI « ,WLQYROYHG ILUVWWKHIDFWWKDW*UHHQODQGZDVDPDMRUVRXUFHRIFU\ROLWHIRUWKHDOXPLQXPLQGXVWU\RIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQG &DQDGD « 2QHZHOO-GLUHFWHGVKRWIURPWKHGHFNJXQRID*HUPDQVXEPDULQHRUDFOHYHUDFWRIVDERWDJHE\ one of the workmen could have seriously damaged the cryROLWHPLQHDW,YLJWXWPLJKWKDYHSHUKDSVSXWLWRXWRI RSHUDWLRQDQGWKHUHE\GLVUXSWHGWKH&DQDGLDQDOXPLQXPLQGXVWU\RQZKLFK$OOLHGDLUFUDIWSURGXFWLRQZDV KHDYLO\GHSHQGHQW´ &RQQHWDOO 102 DGYDQFHG$UFWLFORFDWLRQVLQRUGHUWRKDYHWKHVKRUWHVWGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKH86DQGWKH Soviet Union - DFURVVWKH$UFWLF2FHDQ´ Taagholt and Hansen 7KHUHIRUHWKHSUREOHPZLWKWKHELUGVLQ*UHHQODQGZDVQRWWKDWWKHUHwere not an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in the World2QWKHRWKHUKDQG 1DUVDUVXDT and Thule FRQWLQXHWRSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQSUHVHQWJHRSROLWLFV,Q0D\'HQPDUNDQGWKH DXWRQRPRXVJRYHUQPHQWRI*UHHQODQGVLJQHGDQDFFRUGLQSULQFLSOHZLWKWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVWR H[WHQGWKH7KXOH%DVHDVSDUWRIDSURMHFWIRUDQRYHUDOOH[WHQGLQJ86DQWL-missile defense &%61HZV2QOLQH42 /HW¶VLPDJLQHWKHIROORZLQJVFHQDULR WKH3HQWDJRQDSSURYHVELOOLRQIRUHQODUJLQJ WKH7KXOHPLOLWDU\EDVHEXWWKH'HIHQVH'HSDUWPHQWFDQQRWSURFHHGZLWKWKHLPSODQWDWLRQRI VDWHOOLWHPRQLWRULQJV\VWHPVEHFDXVHVRPHHFRORJ\DFWLYLVWVDUHGHIHQGLQJWKHELUGV¶SURWHFWHG VLWHV7KH*UHHQODQG¶VH[FOXVLRQFDVHLVDQLOOXVWUDWLYHH[DPSOHIRUKRZWUDQVQDWLRQDO governance regimes can conflict not only for economic reasoQV,QWKLVFDVHWKH%LUGV 'LUHFWLYHFDQQRWVWD\DWRGGVZLWKJHRSROLWLFDOLVVXHV%LUGVWKHLUHJJVQHVWVDQGKDELWDWV PLJKWEHLPSRUWDQWEXWQRWZKHUHWKHPLVVLOHVFKDQW 8.2. The Habitats 'LVUHJDUGLQJWKHFDVHRI*UHHQODQGWKH%LUGV'LUHFWLYHZDs a milestone in transnational QDWXUHJRYHUQDQFHLQ(XURSHDQGLQWKHZRUOG 42 KWWS ZZZFEFFDQHZVEDFNJURXQGXVBPLVVLOHGHIHQFHWLPHOLQHKWPO 103 LQ DQHZGLUHFWLYHIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQZDVDGRSWHGE\WKH((&HVWDEOLVKLQJWKHDFWRI ELUWKIRU1DWXUD 7KH+DELWDWV'LUHFWLYHZDVSXEOLVKHGLQWKHRIILFLDOMRXUQDORI WKH((&RQ-XO\ )RUFRKHUHQFHRIGHVFULSWLRQ,KDYHGLYLGHGLWLQWRIRXUPDMRUSDUWV WKHILUVWWZR DUWLFOHVFRQFHUQGHILQLWLRQV DUWLFOHWRDUWLFOHLQFOXVLYHFRQFHUQVWKH³&RQVHUYDWLRQRI QDWXUDOKDELWDWVDQGKDELWDWVRIVSHFLHV´ WKHWKLUGSDUWGHDOVZLWK³WKH3URWHFWLRQRIVSHFLHV´ ZKLFKIRFXVHVPRVWO\RQLVVXHVRIPRQLWRULQJDQGUHSRUWLQJUDQJLQJIURPDUWLFOHWRDUWLFOH LQFOXVLYHZKLOHWKHILQDOSDUWGHDOVZLWKIXUWKHULQIRUPDWLRQRQPRQLWRULQJDQGUHVHDUFK DQGSURYLVLRQVDUWLFOHVWR7KHILUVWWZRSDUWVWRJHWKHURIFRXUVHZLWKWKHPRWLYHV UHFLWDOV RIWKHGLUHFWLYHDUHRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\ 7KHRIILFLDOQDPHRIWKHGLUHFWLYHLV³&281&,/',5(&7,9( ((& of 21 May on the conservation of QDWXUDOKDELWDWVDQGRIZLOGIDXQDDQGIORUD´:HQRWLFHWKDWLW concerns the FRQVHUYDWLRQDQGQRWSUHVHUYDWLRQ&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHIirst definition in $UWLFOH LVWKHGHILQLWLRQIRUFRQVHUYDWLRQZKLFKJRHVDVIROORZV ³FRQVHUYDWLRQmeans a series of meaVXUHVUHTXLUHGWRPDLQWDLQRU UHVWRUHWKHQDWXUDOKDELWDWVDQGWKHSRSXODWLRQVRIVSHFLHVRI wild IDXQDDQGIORUDDWDIDYRUDEOHVWDWXVDVGHILQHGLQ H DQG L ´&RQVHUYDWLRQGRHVQRW H[FOXGHKXPDQDFWLYLW\)URPWKHWKUHHSDJHVRIWKHPRWLYHVRIWKHODZZHXQGHUVWDQGWKDW ³WKHSUHVHUYDWLRQSURWHFWLRQDQGLPSURYHPHQWRIWKHTXDOLW\RI WKHHQYLURQPHQWLQFOXGLQJ WKHFRQVHUYDWLRQRIQDWXUDOKDELWDWVDQGRI ZLOGIDXQDDQGIORUDDUHDQHVVHQWLDOREMHFWLYHRI general interest SXUVXHGE\WKH&RPPXQLW\ « ´7KLVLVWKHRQO\SODFHLQWKHWH[WRIWKH directive where the word SUHVHUYDWLRQ LVXVHGDQGZHVHHWKDWLVSODFHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRID FKDLQRISUHVXPHGDFWLRQVZKLFKHQGVZLWKFRQVHUYDWLRQDIWHUVPRRWKLQJWKURXJK³SURWHFWLRQ DQGLPSURYHPHQW´ $UWLFOH VWDWHVWKDW³WKH DLPRIWKLV'LUHFWLYHVKDOOEHWRFRQWULEXWHWRZDUGVHQVXULQJ ELR-GLYHUVLW\WKURXJKWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQRIQDWXUDOKDELWDWVDQGRIZLOG fauna and flora in the (XURSHDQWHUULWRU\RIWKH0HPEHU6WDWHVWRZKLFK WKH7UHDW\DSSOLHV´:HKDYHQR GRXEWV QRZWKDWWKHGLUHFWLYHZDVGHVLJQHGDURXQGWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQFRQFHSW7KHVHFRQGDUWLFOHDOVR EULQJVDYHU\LPSRUWDQWDVSHFWLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQQDPHO\WKHORFDOVSHFLILFLWLHV,QWKHODVW SDUDJUDSKLWVWDWHVWKDW³>P@HDVXUHVWDNHQSXUVXDQWWRWKLV 'LUHFWLYHVKDOOWDNHDFFRXQWRI HFRQRPLFVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOUHTXLUHPHQWVDQGUHJLRQDODQGORFDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFV´ What WKLVµWDNLQJLQWRDFFRXQW¶PHDQVDQGKRZLWVKDOOEHWUDQVODWHGRQWKHJURXQGLVVWLOODPDWWHU RIGHEDWH 104 7KHVHFRQGSDUWRIWKHGLUHFWLYHLVWKHPRVWFKDOOHQJLQJIRUWZRUHDVRQV ILUVWEHFDXVHLW GHILQHV1DWXUD VHFRQGEHFDXVHWKHDUWLFOHVLQWKLVSDUWGHWHUPLQHWKHPRVWWKHUDSSRUW EHWZHHQFRQVHUYDWLRQDQGODQGXVH$UWLFOH LVWKHELUWKGRFXPHQWRI1DWXUD,WVWDWHV ³>D@FRKHUHQW(XURSHDQHFRORJLFDOQHWZRUNRIVSHFLDODUHDVRIFRQVHUYDWLRQVKDOOEHVHW XS XQGHUWKHWLWOH1DWXUD´7KHDUWLFOHVSHFLILHVWKDWWKHQHWZRUNVKRXOGEHIRUPHGIURPWKH VLWHVKRVWLQJWKHSURWHFWHGKDELWDWVEXWDOVRDOOWKHVLWHVXQGHUWKH%LUGV'LUHFWLYH ³>W@he 1DWXUDQHWZRUNVKDOOLQFOXGHWKHVSHFLDOSURWHFWLRQDUHDVFODVVLILHGE\WKH0HPEHU 6WDWHVSXUVXDQWWR'LUHFWLYH ((&´7KLVLVKRZLQDUWLFOHWKHWZRGLUHFWLYHVMRLQ WRJHWKHUXQGHUWKH1DWXUDFRQFHSWXDOXPEUHOOD %XWWKHDUWLFOHKDVDQRWKHUFUXFLDO VSHFLILFDWLRQ QDPHO\LWVWDWHVWKDWHDFKPHPEHUVWDWH³VKDOOFRQWULEXWHWRWKHFUHDWLRQRI 1DWXUDLQSURSRUWLRQWRWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQZLWKLQLWVWHUULWRU\RIWKHQDWXUDOKDELWDW W\SHVDQGWKHKDELWDWVRIVSHFLHV´ P\HPSKDVLV ,QRWKHUZRUGVLIDKDELWDWUHSUHVHQWVOHW¶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s of lists VXEPLWWHGWRWKH&RPPLVVLRQE\WKHPHPEHUVWDWHV$IWHUWKHOLVWVDUHDSSURYHGE\WKH (XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQWKHPHPEHUVWDWHVVKDOOGHVLJQDWHWKHUHVSHFWLYHWHUULWRU\³DVVRRQDV SRVVLEOHDQGZLWKLQVL[\HDUVDWPRVW´$QLPSRUWDQWGHWDLOZKLFKHPSKDVLVWKHEDUJDLQLQJ RSSRUWXQLWLHVVWDWHGDOUHDG\LQWKHSUHYLRXVDUWLFOHLVPHQWLRQHGLQWKHVHFRQGSDUDJUDSK QDPHO\ ³0HPEHU6WDWHVZKRVHVLWHVKRVWLQJRQHRUPRUHSULRULW\QDWXUDOKDELWDWW\SHVDQG SULRULW\VSHFLHVUHSUHVHQWPRUHWKDQRIWKHLUQDWLRQDOWHUULWRU\PD\LQDJUHHPHQW ZLWKWKH&RPPLVVLRQUHTXHVWWKDWWKHFULWHULDOLVWHGLQ$QQH[,,, 6WDJH EHDSSOLHG PRUHIOH[LEO\LQ VHOHFWLQJDOOWKHVLWHVRI&RPPXQLW\LPSRUWDQFHLQWKHLUWHUULWRU\´ P\HPSKDVLV 7KXVWKHEDUJDLQLQJRSSRUWXQLW\UHPDLQVRSHQHG+RZHYHUWKHGLVFUHSDQF\EHWZHHQWKH QDWLRQDOVWDWHVLVIODJUDQWDQGKDVQRWKLQJWRGRZLWKWKHDPRXQWRIELRGLYHUVLW\)RUH[DPSOH 6ORYHQLDKDVIURPWKHLUWHUULWRU\GHVLJQDWHGDV6LWHVRI&RPPXQLW\,PSRUWDQFH while WKH8.KDV$VWKHHPSLULFDOFDVHVRI5RPDQLDDQG6SDLQVKRZLPSOHPHQWLQJ1DWXUD 105 ZDVDSURFHVVZKHUHORFDODFWRUV¶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³DELODWHUDOFRQVXOWDWLRQSURFHGXUH VKDOOEHLQLWLDWHGEHWZHHQWKDW0HPEHU6WDWHDQGWKH&RPPLVVLRQIRU WKHSXUSRVHRI FRPSDULQJWKHVFLHQWLILFGDWDXVHGE\HDFK´+HUHZHVHHKRZWKHVFLHQWLILFRXJKWWRSUHYDLOLQ the negotiations EXWWKLVUHVHPEOHVPRUHRIDWHFKQRFUDWLFXWRSLDIRUZKHQLWFRPHVWR effective negotiations and OREE\LQJ $UWLFOH LVWKHPRVWSUREOHPDWLFDUWLFOHLQWKHZKROHGLUHFWLYHDQGLQWKHRYHUDOO FRQVHUYDWLRQIUDPHZRUNRI1DWXUD7KLVLVEHFDXVHLWPRGLILHVWKHUDSSRUWEHWZHHQ FRQVHUYDWLRQDLPVDQGODQGXVH7KHDUWLFOHQHHGHGDQH[SODQDWRU\ERRNOHWSXEOLVKHGE\WKH (XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQLQ- 0DQDJLQJ1DWXUDVLWHV7KHSURYLVLRQVRI$UWLFOHRI WKH +DELWDWV 'LUHFWLYH ((&43,WZDVPHDQW³WRIDFLOLWDWHWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI$UWLFOH E\FRPSHWHQWDXWKRULWLHVLQWKH0HPEHU6WDWHV´ 0DUJRW:DOOVWU|P&RPPLVVLRQHUIRUWKH (QYLURQPHQWLQWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIWKHGRFXPHQW The document states that ³$UWLFOHFDQ EHUHJDUGHGDVDNH\IUDPHZRUNIRUJLYLQJHIIHFWWRWKHSULQFLSOHRILQWHJUDWLRQVLQFHLW HQFRXUDJHV0HPEHU6WDWHVWRPDQDJHWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVLQDVXVWDLQDEOHZD\ « ZKLOH DOORZLQJVRPHGHURJDWLRQVLQVSHFLILFFLUFXPVWDQFHV´ 0DQDJLQJ1DWXUDVLWHV GRFXPHQW 7KXVQDWXUH conservation and land use are considered in this document as main IHDWXUHVIRUDFRKHUHQW(XURSHDQ,QWHJUDWLRQRIWKHPHPEHUVWDWHV$WDODWHUSRLQWLQWKLV FKDSWHU,ZLOOEULQJPRUHH[DPSOHVE\ZKLFK1DWXUDLVLGHQWLILHGDVDPDLQWRROIRU (XURSHDQ,QWHJUDWLRQ+RZHYHUIROORZLQJPRUHSUREOHPVLQLPSOHPHQWDWLRQWKH &RPPLVVLRQLVVXHGLQ-DQXDU\D³*XLGDQFHGRFXPHQW´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³QHFHVVDU\FRQVHUYDWLRQ PHDVXUHV´WKDWWKHPHPEHUVWDWHVVKDOOSXUVXH7KHVHPHDVXUHVRXJKWWREHUHIOHFWHGLQ PDQDJHPHQWSODQV³VSHFLILFDOO\GHVLJQHG´IRUHDFKSURWHFWHGVLWHWKDWWKHPHPEHUVWDWHV VKRXOGSURYLGH7KHVHPDQDJHPHQWSODQVVKDOOFRUUHVSRQGWo the ecological necessities of the VLWHV7KHVHFRQGSDUDJUDSKVWDWHVWKHQHFHVVLW\IRUWKHPHPEHUVWDWHVWRDYRLGDQ\ GHWHULRUDWLRQLQWKHSURWHFWHGVLWHVWKDWZLOOFRQWUDYHQHZLWKWKHREMHFWLYHVRIWKLVGLUHFWLYH $QGZKDWKDSSHQVLIVXFKGLVWXUEDQFHVFDQQRWEHDYRLGHGDVLVWKHFDVHLQWKHWZRHPSLULFDO FDVHVWKDW,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQWKHIROORZLQJFKDSWHUV"7KHWKLUGSDUDJUDSKHVWDEOLVKHVWKH SURFHGXUHWKURXJKZKLFKDSSURSULDWHDVVHVVPHQWVVKDOOEHHIIHFWHGE\WKHFRPSHWHQW DXWKRULWLHVRIWKHPHPEHUVWDWHVLQRUGHUWRPHDVXUHWKHLPSDFWRIWKHKXPDQDFWLYLWLHVRQWKH SURWHFWHGVLWHV7KHSDUDJUDSKVWDWHVWKDWWKH³QDWLRQDODXWKRULWLHVVKDOODJUHHWRWKHSODQRU SURMHFWRQO\DIWHUKDYLQJDVFHUWDLQHGWKDWLWZLOOQRWDGYHUVHO\DIIHFWWKHLQWHJULW\RIWKHVLWH FRQFHUQHGDQGLIDSSURSULDWHDIWHUKDYLQJREWDLQHGWKHRSLQLRQRIWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLF” 7KHIRXUWKSDUDJUDSK >KHQFHIRUWK @deals with the situation when there are no DOWHUQDWLYHVROXWLRQVWRWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI³DSODQRUSURMHFW´ WKHUHLVQR VSHFLILFDWLRQRI ZKDWNLQGRISODQDQGSURMHFW DQGWKLVZLOOSURGXFHKDUPWRDSURWHFWHGVLWH,WLVRQO\VWDWHG WKDW³LPSHUDWLYHUHDVRQRIRYHUULGLQJSXEOLFLQWHUHVW´LVWREHWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQWEXWWKLV FRQFHSWLWLVQRWGHILQHG7KHSDUDJUDSKPHQWLRQVKXPDQKHDOWKSXEOLFVDIHW\DQGEHQHILFLDO FRQVHTXHQFHVRISULPDU\LPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHHQYLURQPHQWDVH[DPSOHVEXWDOVRLQFOXGHVWKRVH RIVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFLPSRUWDQFH7KHµ*XLGDQFHGRFXPHQW¶PHQWLRQHGDERYHLQWHUSUHWV WKLVSDUDJUDSKDVIROORZV ³LWEHFRPHVFOHDUIURPWKHZRUGLQJRIWKHSDUDJUDSKWKDWRQO\ SXEOLFLQWHUHVWVLUUHVSHFWLYHRIZKHWKHUWKH\DUHSURPRWHGHLWKHUE\SXEOLFRUSULYDWHERGLHV FDQEHEDODQFHGDJDLQVWWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQDLPVRIWKH'LUHFWLYH7KXVSURMHFWVGHYHORSHGE\ SULYDWHERGLHVFDQRQO\EHFRQVLGHUHGZKHUHVXFKSXEOLFLQWHUHVWVDUHVHUYHGDQG GHPRQVWUDWHG´ *XLGDQFHGRFXPHQWRQ$UWLFOH RIWKHµ+DELWDWV'LUHFWLYH¶ ((& 7KHGRFXPHQWDOVRPHQWLRQVWKDWWKH(XURSHDQ&RXUWRI-XVWLFHKDVQRFOHDU indications conFHUQLQJWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI³LPSHUDWLYHUHDVRQVRIRYHUULGLQJSXEOLF LQWHUHVW´7KHµ*XLGDQFHGRFXPHQW¶IRU PHQWLRQVWKDWLQRWKHUILHOGVRIODZWKLV µLPSHUDWLYHUHTXLUHPHQW¶KDVEHHQDSSOLHGWRWKHIUHHPRYHPHQWRIJRRGVDQGWRWKH ³OHJLWLPDWHJRDOVRIHFRQRPLFDQGVRFLDOSROLF\´:KHWKHUFRPSDULQJGLIIHUHQWILHOGVRI LQWHUQDWLRQDOOHJLVODWLRQLVVXLWDEOHZLWKQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDLPVLVDPDWWHURIGHEDWHWKDW,ZLOO QRWDGGUHVVKHUH,WEHFRPHVFOHDUKRZHYHUWKDWDUWLFOH LVRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDnce for a JRRGLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI1DWXUDDQGDVWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHZLOOVKRZDVRXUFHRI HQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWDWWKHORFDOOHYHO $UWLFOH PDNHVLWFOHDUWKDWDUWLFOH RIWKH%LUGV'LUHFWLYHZKLFKVWDWHVWKDW ³0HPEHU6WDWHVVKDOOWDNHDSSURSULDWHVWHSVWRDYRLGSROOXWLRQRUGHWHULRUDWLRQRIKDELWDWVRU DQ\GLVWXUEDQFHVDIIHFWLQJWKHELUGVLQVRIDUDVWKHVHZRXOGEHVLJQLILFDQWKDYLQJUHJDUGWR WKHREMHFWLYHVRIWKLV$UWLFOH2XWVLGHWKHVHSURWHFWLRQDUHDV0HPEHU6WDWHVVKDOODOVRVWULYH to DYRLGSROOXWLRQRUGHWHULRUDWLRQRIKDELWDWV´LVUHSODFHGE\WKHDUWLFOH DQG RIWKH KDELWDWVGLUHFWLYH7KLVLVDQRWKHUFOHDUVLJQWKDWWKH+DELWDWV'LUHFWLYHLVSODFHGDERYHWKHROG %LUGV'LUHFWLYHDQGWKDWLWLVPHDQWWREHFRPHDQRWKHUPRGHOLQQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQ $UWLFOH LVDQRWKHUNH\LWHPLQWKHGLUHFWLYHEHFDXVHLWGHDOVZLWKIXQGLQJDQGFR- IXQGLQJRSSRUWXQLWLHVWKDWWKHPHPEHUVWDWHVVKDOOFRQVLGHUIRUWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH GLUHFWLYH ³WKH0HPEHU6WDWHVVKDOOVHQGDVDSSURSULDWHWRWKH&RPPLVVLRQWKHLUHVWLPDWHV UHODWLQJWRWKH&RPPXQLW\FR-ILQDQFLQJZKLFKWKH\FRQVLGHUQHFHVVDU\WRDOORZWKHPWRPHHW WKHLUREOLJDWLRQVSXUVXDQWWR$UWLFOH ´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³7KH&RPPLVVLRQLQDJUHHPHQWZLWKWKH0HPEHU6WDWHVFRQFHUQHGVKDOODVVHVVWKH ILQDQFLQJLQFOXGLQJFR-ILQDQFLQJUHTXLUHGIRUWKHRSHUDWLRQRIWKHPHDVXUHVUHIHUUHG WRLQSDUDJUDSKWDNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWDPRQJVWRWKHUWKLQJVWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQRQWKH 0HPEHU6WDWH VWHUULWRU\RISULRULW\QDWXUDOKDELWDWW\SHVDQGRUSULRULW\VSHFLHVDQG WKHUHODWLYHEXUGHQVZKLFKWKHUHTXLUHGPHDVXUHVHQWDLO´ ,QRWKHUZRUGVLWHQFRXUDJHVWKHGHVLJQDWLRQRIVLWHVE\WKHPHPEHUVWDWHVE\RIIHULQJPRQH\ IRUWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ7KLVZDVDWUDSWKDW6SDLQDQG5RPDQLDIHOOLQWRDQG,DVVXPe other FRXQWULHVDVZHOO$V,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQWKHIROORZLQJFKDSWHUVWKHUHZDVDP\WKRI(XURSHDQ PRQH\FLUFXODWLQJDURXQGLQERWKFDVHV )LQDOO\DUWLFOHV DQGHDFKRQHRIWKHPQRORQJHUWKDQDSDUDJUDSKUHIer to the SHULRGLFDOUHYLHZRIWKHVWDWHV¶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found DWWKHERWWRPRIWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLYHFKDLQ+RZHYHUIRUWKHVHDFWRUVWKHUHDUHQR SURYLVLRQVLQWKHGLUHFWLYHDQGDVERWKWKH9UDQFHDDQGWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHVVKRZWKHLULQWHUHVWV are the first that the national authorities are ready to sacrifice in order to meet the terms of the directiYHDQGRI(XURSHDQLQWHJUDWLRQ Chapter 9 – Natura 2000 at Brussels, and not only ,QWKLVFKDSWHU,SUHVHQWWKHGLVFRXUVHRIWKH%UXVVHOV¶EDVHGDFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRQDWXUH SURWHFWLRQDQG1DWXUD,WZLOOEHDPLVWDNHWRFRQFHLYHWKH1DWXUDSURJUDPDVDQ LVRODWHGSURJUDPIRUQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQDWWKHOHYHORIWKH(82WKHULQLWLDWLYHVIRUQDWXUH SURWHFWLRQRIWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQLQIOXHQFHWKHSHUPDQHQWUHVKDSLQJLQWHUPVRI governance of this transnational QHWZRUNRISURWHFWHGDUHDV7KHUHIRUH,ZLOODOVRSD\ attention to 7KH(FRQRPLFVRI(FRV\VWHPVDQG%LRGLYHUVLW\ 7((% DQLQWHUQDWLRQDOGULYHQ µVWXG\¶VXSSRUWHGE\WKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQIRUWKHDSSHDVLQJRIWKHHFRQRPLFDQGWKH conservationist aims ZLWKWKH(8DQGZRUOGZLGH ,ZLOOIROORZWKHQH[WWKHPHV ILUVW,ZLOO GHVFULEHKRZWKHVHDFWRUVOHJLWLPL]HWKHLPSUHVVLYHDPRXQWRIWKH(8¶VWHUULWRU\ZKLFKLVWR EHIRXQGLQWKH1DWXUDQHWZRUN6HFRQG,ZLOOVKRZKRZSXVKLQJQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQRQ WKHSROLWLFDODJHQGDFDQEHGRQHRQO\E\UHO\LQJRQKHDY\QXPHULFHYLGHQFHRIG\QDPLFVLQ ELRGLYHUVLW\7KHFRQFOXVLRQVSRLQWWRZDUGVWRFRQVHTXHQFHVRIWKHVHIDFWV 9.1. Some preliminary remarks 0\VWD\LQJLQ%UXVVHOVZDVIRFXVHGRQLQWHUYLHZLQJ(8RIILFLDOVZKRZRUNRQWKH1DWXUD SURJUDPDQGUHODWHGLVVXHV$SDUWIURP'*(QYLURQPHQW,DOVRLQWHUYLHZHGRIILFLDOV ZRUNLQJLQ'*,QGXVWULHVDQG'*$JULFXOWXUH 5XUDO'HYHORSPHQW2QWKHRWKHUKDQG, ZDVDFWLYHO\SDUWLFLSDWLQJLQ1*2VPHHWLQJVQDPHO\ :RUOG:LGH)XQGIRU1DWXUH(XURSHDQ (QYLURQPHQWDO%XUHDXDQG,QWHU-(QYLURQPHQW:DOORQLH $V,H[SHFWHGµWKHRIILFLDOV¶WHQGHGWREHPRUHULJLGGXULQJWKHLQWHUYLHZVDQGLWZDV RQO\ZLWKWKUHHRFFDVLRQVWKDW,HQFRXQWHUHGDPRUHRSHQDWWLWXGHDQGDOOWKUHHKDSSHQHGWREH ZLWKLQWKH'*(QYLURQPHQW0\IHHOLQJZDVWKDWWKHSHRSOHZRUNLQJWKHUHZHUHXQGHU HQRUPRXVSUHVVXUH)LUVWEHFDXVHRIWKHFULWLTXHVHQGXUHGE\WKH1DWXUDLQWKHSDVW\HDUV DQGVHFRQGEHFDXVHWKHRYHUDOOYROXPHRIZRUNORDG$QRWher enduring cause of stress in the '*(QYLURQPHQWLVWKHSHUPDQHQWVWDWHRIQHJRWLDWLRQWKDWWKHGHSDUWPHQWKDVWRSXUVXHIRU WKHRWKHUGHSDUWPHQWV(YHU\LQLWLDWLYHLVWREHSUHVHQWHGWRWKHGHSDUWPHQWVSRWHQWLDOO\ LQYROYHG$QGEHFDXVH³QDWXUHERWKHUVHYHU\RQH´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³WKHLQIRUPDWLRQLVDYDLODEOHRQWKHLQWHUQHW´$WWKH VDPHWLPHWKH1*2VDUHQRWVRPXFKDZDUHDERXWWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQODQGXVHFKDQJHVDQG QDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ7KH\DUHPRUHLQWHUHVWHGDVZDWFKGRJVLQWKHJRRGPDQDJHPHQWRIWKH SURWHFWHGVLWHV7KHFROODERUDWLRQZLWKORFDO1*2VLVTXDVLLQH[LVWHQWWKHreason for this EHLQJVLPSO\WKHODQJXDJHEDUULHUWKDWLQWHUSRVHVEHWZHHQ%UXVVHOVDQGWKHPHPEHUVWDWHV 7KH\VHHWKHXQLTXHQHVVDQGWKHSURYRFDWLRQRIPDQDJLQJRIWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ¶V WHUULWRU\LQDFRKHUHQWLQWHJUDWLYHZD\&RKHUHQFHPHDQVWKHSURWection and eventual increase RIELRGLYHUVLW\DFFRUGLQJWRVFLHQWLILFVWDQGDUGV7KHVFLHQWLILFMXVWLILFDWLRQVKRXOGEHHQRXJK for the local stakeholders and is only a matter of communication in order to avoid local FRQIOLFWV :KLOHEHLQJLQWKHILHOGZLWh one of the leaders of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legitimacy in changing the land use which is legitimized usiQJEURDGHUDWWHPSWV 110 9.2. 18% of EU’s territory :LWKQRH[FHSWLRQDOOWKHLQWHUYLHZV,PDGHLQ%UXVVHOVVSHDNDERXWWKHFRPSOH[LW\DQG XQLTXHQHVVRI1DWXUD%RWKRIILFLDOVDQG1*2VEULQJWKHVHDVSHFWVWRWKHIRUHIURQWDVDQ XQLILHGGLVFRXUVH7KH UHDVRQVGLIIHUKRZHYHU)RUWKHRIILFLDOVWKHPRVWFRPSOH[DVSHFWLV WKHSURWHFWLRQRIELRGLYHUVLW\WKURXJKODQGXVHUHJXODWLRQ,QWKH'*(QYLURQPHQWWKHUHLV VRXQGUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHIDFWWKDWOHJDOSOXUDOLVPZLWKUHJDUGWRODQGXVHZLWKLQ(XURSHDQ UnLRQDQG(8¶VDLPIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQUHSUHVHQWVRQHRIWKHPRVWDPELWLRXVSURJUDPVRI (XURSHDQ,QWHJUDWLRQ$VRQHRIWKHRIILFLDOVSXWLW ³7KHVLWXDWLRQLQ(XURSHLVVRGLIIHUHQWDVIDUDVWKHWUDGLWLRQDOREOLJDWLRQVWKDWDUH OLQNHGZLWKODQGRZQHUVKLS DUH IRUH[DPSOH7DNHWKHH[DPSOHRIIRUHVWLQ6ZHGHQ \RX DUHQRWDOORZHGWREXLOGDIHQFHDURXQG\RXUIRUHVWRUWRUHVWULFWKXQWLQJRQO\WR \RXUVHOI:KHUHDVLQ6RXWKHUQ(XURSHDQFRXQWULHV RZQLQJWKHODQGPHDQVWKDW\RX FDQGRPRUHRUOHVVZKDWHYHU\RXZDQW6RWKHUHLVDYHU\GLIIHUHQWFXOWXUDOORQJ VWDQGLQJGHYHORSPHQWLQWKHZD\WKDWWKHRZQHUVKLSLVOLQNHGWRZKDW\RXFDQGRZLWK WKHODQGDQGWKDWRIFRXUVHKDVUHSHUFXVVLRQVWRWKHZD\WKDW\RXKDYHWRUHJXODWHRU WRFRPSHQVDWHWKHUHVWULFWLRQRIWKLVLQ(XURSH´ 2IILFLDOPLQ 7KHSUREOHPLVWKDWWKLVQHZJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHDIIHFWVRIWKH(8WHUULWRU\7KHUHIRUH WKHILUVWTXHVWLRQ,ZDVLQWHUHVWHGLQZKLOHGRLQJWKHLQWHUYLHZVZDVZKHWKHULWKDGEHHQ LQWHQGHGE\WKHSROLF\PDNHUVLQ WRSURWHFWVXFKDODUJHDPRXQWRIWHUULWRU\7KHDQVZHU ZDVQR³1RERG\H[SHFWHGLQ ZKHQKDELWDWVGLUHFWLYHZDVSDVVHGWKDWWKLVZLOOFUHDWH VXFKDPRQVWHU7KLVZDVVRPHKRZWKHQDWXUDOHYROXWLRQRIWKHZKROHVLWXDWLRQ´D3$DQ 1*2UHSUHVHQWDWLYHIURP(XURSHDQ(QYLURQPHQWDO%XUHDXWHOOVPH³,WKDSSHQHG´ one RIILFLDOIURP'*(QYLURQPHQWDQVZHUHGGXHWRWKHDPRXQWRIELRGLYHUVLW\WKDWHDFKVWDWH FRQWULEXWHGZLWK%XWWKHQDWXUDOHYROXWLRQRIWKHVLWXDWLRQLVQRWVDWLVIDFWRU\DWDOO+RZGLG WKLQJVKDSSHQKRZFRPH1DWXUDEHFDPHDJLDQWUHDG\WRIDOODSDUWXQGHULWVRZQ ZHLJKW" :HQHHGWRJREDFNWRURXJKGDWD7KH1DWXUDEDURPHWHUSURYLGHVLQIRUPDWLRQ DERXWWKHSURJUHVVPDGHLQHVWDEOLVKLQJWKHSURWHFWHGVLWHVDWQDWLRQDOOHYHO,WLVFRPSLOHG WZLFHD\HDUIURPWKHGDWDSURYLGHGE\WKHQDWLRQDOVWDWHVWRWKH(XURSHDQ7RSLF&HQWHURQ %LRORJLFDO'LYHUVLW\ LQ3DULV7KHODVWGDWDDYDLODEOHRQWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQLQWHUQHW VLWHLVIURP0D\,UHSURGXFHWKHGDWDLQWKHWZRWDEOHVEHORZ%XWLQVWHDGRIDUUDQJLQJ WKHFRXQWULHVLQDOSKDEHWLFRUGHUKRZWKH\DUHSUHVHQWHGRIILFLDOO\,KDYHRUJDQL]HGWKHP DFFRUGLQJWRWKHSHUFHQWDJHRIWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDFRPSDUHGWRWKHPHPEHUVWDWHWHUUHVWULDO DUHD,DOVRDGGHGWKH\HDURIDGPLVVLRQRIWKHPHPEHUVWDWHLQWRWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ 111 Figure 3 6SHFLDO3URWHFWLRQ$UHDV 63$¶V – %LUGV'LUHFWLYH 0HPEHUVWDWHV IURPQDWLRQDOWHUULWRU\ 1URIVLWHV Figure 4 6LWHVRI&RPPXQLW\,PSRUWDQFH 6&,¶V –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³%XWWKLVLVDYHU\VLPSOHTXHVWLRQ7KLVLVDERXWZKHUHWKHQDWXUDOYDOXHVDUHLQ(XURSH WKH\ DUHLQ6ORYHQLDDQGQRWLQWKH8.,WPHDQVWKDW6ORYHQLDKDVPXFKEHWWHUQDWXUHWKDQWKH8. 1DWXUDLWLVDVFLHQWLILFDOO\GHVLJQDWHGQHWZRUNRISURWHFWHGDUHDV6RLWLVQRWDERXWWKH W\SLFDOSURWHFWHGDUHDQRWDERXWGLVFXVVLQJZLWKWKHPDMRU ZHOOOHW¶VOHDYHWKLVDUHDRXW EHFDXVHP\FRXVLQZDQWVWRPDNHDKRXVHWKHUH)LUVWWKHKDELWDWDQGWKHQOHW¶VWDONZLWKWKH FRXVLQ´ 6/ 7KHVDPHDQVZHUFDPHIURPWKH1*2¶VSDUW6DPHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHIURPWKH(XURSHDQ (QYLURQPHQWDO%XUHDXLQIRUPHGPHWKDWEHLQJVHWRQVFLHQWLILFSULQFLSOHVWKHIDFWWKDW 6ORYHQLDKDVDQG8.IURPWKHLUQDWLRQDOWHUULWRU\PHDQVWKDW6ORYHQLDKDVPRUH YDOXDEOHELRGLYHUVLW\DW(XURSHDQOHYHOWKDQWKH8.KDV 7KH(8IROORZVWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV¶GHILQLWLRQFRLQHGDWWKH(DUWK6XPPLWLQ QDPHO\ ³WKHYDULDELOLW\DPRQJOLYLQJRUJDQLVPVIURPDOOVRXUFHVLQFOXGLQJLQWHUDOLDWHUUHVWULDO PDULQHDQGRWKHUDTXDWLFHFRV\VWHPVDQGWKHHFRORJLFDOFRPSOH[HVRIZKLFKWKH\DUHSDUW WKLVLQFOXGHVGLYHUVLW\ZLWKLQVSHFLHVEHWZHHQVSHFLHVDQGRIHFRV\VWHPV” 81&RQYHUVLRQRQ %LRORJLFDO'LYHUVLW\DUWLFOH :LWKVXFKDEURDGGHILQLWLRQDWKDQGDQGZLWKWKHSDUDGLVLDFDO ODQGVFDSHVIURP*RZHURU6FRWODQGWKDWDQ\RQHFRXOGVHHLIDFFHVVLQJD%ULWLVKWRXULVP LQWHUQHWVLWHLWLVKDUGWREX\WKH%UXVVHOV¶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westeUQKDVRQO\JRRGFRQQRWDWLRQVLQIRUPHUVRFLDOLVWFRXQWULHV7KH5RPDQLDQFDVHZLOO VKRZKRZ1DWXUDGLGQRWHYHQQHHGWRRPXFKSURSDJDQGD ILUVWEHFDXVHWKHDXWKRULWLHV SURFHHGHGWRLWVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQLQWKHJRRGROGZD\RIWKHFHQWUDOL]HGGHFLVLRQ- mDNLQJDQG VHFRQGO\EHFDXVHQRERG\ZRXOGGDUHWRFULWLFL]HDSUR-(XURSHDQRULHQWDWLRQ 2QHRIWKH::)DFWLYLVWVWROGPHKRZWKH6SDQLVKZHUHIDVFLQDWHGE\WKHRSSRUWXQLW\ RI(8IXQGVIRULPSOHPHQWLQJQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQVLWHVVLQFHWKH6SDQLVKJRYHUQPHQWZas the RQHZKRSXVKHGIRUWKLVSURYLVLRQLQWKHKDELWDWVGLUHFWLYHV VHHWKH6SDQLVKSDUW “:KHQ6SDLQGHVLJQDWHGRILWVWHUULWRU\WKH\ZHUHRULJLQDOO\WKLQNLQJLQPRQH\ DIXWXUH ZKHQ6SDLQZRXOG EHDGRQRUFRXQWU\DQGWKH\ZLOOUHFHLYHOHVVPRQH\IURPWKH&$3 &RPPRQ$JULFXOWXUDO3ROLF\ 6RWKLVZDVDZD\IRUJHWWLQJPRUHPRQH\IRUWKHUXUDODUHDV EHFDXVHZKDWHYHUKDSSHQVELRGLYHUVLW\ZLOOFRQWLQXHWREHWKHUH%DFNWKHQ,ZDVVWLOODKDSS\ VWXGHQWEXWHYHU\ERG\VD\VWKDWWKLVDUWLFOHLVWKHUHEHFDXVHRI6SDLQEHFDXVH WKH6SDQLVK JRYHUQPHQWNHSWRQVD\LQJ ZHOOLI\RXZDQWWRKDYHWKHVHIDQWDVWLFSURWHFWHGVLWHVZHQHHG PRQH\IRULW6RVRPHWKLQJOLNHDVPXFK1DWXUDZH¶OOKDYHDVPXFKPRQH\ZHZLOOKDYH IRUWKHUXUDODUHDV$QGLILQWKHLPPHGLDWHIXWXUHWKHUHZLOOEHQRIXQGVDYDLODEOHIRUQDWXUH SURWHFWLRQLQ WKH (8ZHZLOOKDYHWRUH-WKLQNKRZWRZDWFK1DWXUD” $$ ,, %XWWKHPRQH\GLGQ¶WFRPHDQGWKH6SDQLVKVWDWHGLVFDUGHGWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\RIPDQDJLQJ these neZGHFODUHGSURWHFWHGVLWHVDWWKHOHYHORIDXWRQRPRXVUHJLRQV7KHFDVHRI*DOLFLDZLOO VKRZWKHGLVDVWURXVFRQVHTXHQFHVERWKHQYLURQPHQWDODQGVRFLDORIIROORZLQJWKLVFKLPHUD 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHVDPHLQIRUPDQWXQGHUOLQHGWKDWWKHROGPHPEHUVWDWHVfelt that they IXOILOOHGWKHLUGXW\ZLWKUHJDUGWRQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDQGWKH\NHHSDZD\IURPWKHGHEDWHV7KH KLJKGHJUHHRILQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQHVSHFLDOO\LQWKHDJULFXOWXUDOLQGXVWU\UHQGHUVLPSRVVLEOHDQ\ UHQHJRWLDWLRQZLWKWKHRULJLQDO((&VWDWHVIRUHQULFKLQJWKHSURWHFWLQJWHUULWRULHV3$ H[SODLQVYHU\DFFXUDWHO\IURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIHYHU\GD\OREE\LQJVWUXJJOHV “::)DQGRWKHU1*2VDUHSXVKLQJWKH&RPPLVVLRQWRFRPHXSZLWKWKH NLQGRIJXLGHOLQHVRU UHFRPPHQGDWLRQVRQKRZWRGRPDQDJHPHQW7KHPDLQUHDVRQEHKLQGWKLVLVWKDWFRXQWULHV OLNH5RPDQLDEXW6SDLQDOVRDUHGRLQJDORWRIZDLWLQJ ZHOOZKDWGRZHKDYHWRGRQRZZH GRQ¶WNQRZWHOOXV:HZLOOVHHLILWLVSRVVLEOHRUQRWEXWILUVWOHW¶VXQGHUVWDQGZKDWGR\RX ZDQW$WWKHVDPHWLPHFRXQWULHVOLNH*HUPDQ\)UDQFH8.DUHEORFNLQJWRWDOO\DQ\DWWHPSW RIWKH&RPPLVVLRQWRFRPHXSZLWKDQ\NLQGRIUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVRUJXLGHOLQHVEHFDXVHWKH\ VD\ KH\ZHKDYHDOUHDG\VWDUWHGDQGZHDUHGRLQJZHOO 7KHUHIRUHWKHLQFUHDVLQJRIWKH1DWXUDZDVPDGHDWWKHH[SHQVHRIWKHQHZPHPEHU VWDWHVQDPHO\WKRVHDGKHULQJDIWHU 7KHSRZHURIEDUJDLQLQJDWORFDOOHYHOEXWDOVRDW %UXVVHOVZDVELJJHULQWKHFRQVROLGDWHGGHPRFUDFLHVWKDQLQSRVWDXWKRULWDULDQVWDWHV6SDLQ LQFOXGHG+RZHYHUWKLVKDSSHQHGWKHLPSRUWDQWDVSHFWLVWKDWE\VXSUD-dimensioning the 1DWXUDQHWZRUNWKHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRIQDWXUHFRQFHSWEHFDPHVXEVWDQWLDOO\UHYLVHG- QDWXUHKDVWRSURYLGHVRPHWKLQJHOVHWKDQLQWULQVLFYDOXHZKHQVXFKDELJDPRXQWRIWHUULWRU\ LVSURWHFWHG$QGWKLVµVRPHWKLQJHOVH¶VKDOOEHDGHTXDWHO\PHDVXUHG2QO\DIWHUKDYLQJWKHVH PHDVXUHPHQWVDWKDQGFDQDSROLWLFDOGHFLVLRQEHPDGH:KDWDFWXDOO\KDSSHQVLQWKHSURFHVV RIPHDVXUHPHQWDQGKRZWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIµHFRV\VWHPVHUYLFHV¶LVPDGH,ZLOOGLVFXVVLQWKH IROORZLQJWZRHPSLULFDOSDUWVZKHUH,RIIHUFRQFUHWHHPSLULFDOH[DPSOHVIURP6SDLQDQG 5RPDQLD 9.3. The need for numbers 2IILFLDOO\WKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQSXUVXHVDSDFLI\LQJSROLF\RIWKHHFRQRPLFDQG HQYLURQPHQWDOREMHFWLYHVQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLQSDUWLFXODU,ZDVLQWHUested in how this SDFLILFDWRUGLVFRXUVHLVSUHVHQWHGDQGZKDWLWVSRLQWVRIDUWLFXODWLRQDUH,EHFDPHDZDUH GXULQJP\VWD\LQ%UXVVHOVWKDWWKLVLVDPDWWHURIFRQFHSWXDOEULGJLQJEHWZHHQHFRQRPLFDLPV DQGQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQRQHVDSURFHVVRIZKLFKERWKWKHRIILFLDOVIURPYDULRXV'*VFRQFHUQHG DVZHOODV1*2DFWLYLVWVDUHZHOODZDUH )LUVWQDWXUHLVFRQFHSWXDOL]HGDVDQHTXLOLEULXPV\VWHPZKRVHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQXQGHU WKHLPSDFWRIKXPDQDFWLYLW\LVPHDVXUDEOHDQGSUHGLFWDEOHWKHVDPHFRQFHSWXDOEDVLVZKich VWD\VIRUHFRQRPLFVDQGIRUWKHRWKHUQDWXUDOVFLHQFHV7KHRQO\REVWUXFWLRQIRU PDLQVWUHDPLQJWKHHFRQRPLFVRIQDWXUHLVZKDWVRPHHQYLURQPHQWDOLVWVFODLPWREHQDWXUH¶V LQWULQVLFYDOXH$V,SRVWHGLQWKHRSHQLQJSDJHRIWKLVVHFWLRQIRUKDYLQJµLQWULQVLFYDOXH¶ VSHOOHGRXWLQWKHRIILFLDOYLVLRQRIWKH&RPPLVVLRQDQLQWHQVHOREE\LQJZDVFDUULHGRXW E\WKH1*2VDW%UXVVHOV :KLOHPDNLQJLQWHUYLHZVZLWKUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVIURPWKH'*(QYLURQPHQW,XQGHUVWRRG WKDWDOWKRXJKLQWKHSXEOLFGLVFRXUVHWKHWZRDSSURDFKHVORRNYHU\FRKHUHQWDQGSHDFHIXO every day wiWKLQWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQWKHUHLVDQHZVWUXJJOHIRUDFKLHYLQJWKH SURWHFWLRQLVWDLPVIRUQDWXUH,QRUGHUWROHJLWLPL]HWKHLUFODLPVWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOGHSDUWPHQW LQFUHDVLQJO\UHOLHVRQWKHH[SHUWLVHRIIHUHGE\WKH1*2V$QGWKLVEHFDXVHLQWKHEDWWOHs with WKHRWKHUGHSDUWPHQWVWKH'*(QYLURQPHQWQHHGVQXPEHUV³7KHUHLVQRZD\WROREE\IRUDQ HQYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHLI\RXGRQ¶WKDYHWKHDFFXUDF\RIQXPEHUV DWKDQG”RQHRIWKHDFWLYLVWV in the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– ZKRLVIXQGLQJZKDW")RUH[DPSOHRIWKHIXQGVDOORFDWHGLQ IRUWKHUXUDO GHYHORSPHQWVHFWRUDUHUHODWHGWRWKHHQYLURQPHQW RIILFLDO'*$JULFXOWXUHDQG5XUDO Dev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³DVWXG\´XSKROGIURPDQLQWHUQDWLRQDO LQLWLDWLYH htWS ZZZWHHEZHERUJ+RPHWDELG 'HIDXOWDVS[ $PRQJWKHSDUWQHUVRIWKLV SURJUDPEHVLGHVWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQDVRQHRIWKHPDLQLQLWLDWRUVZHILQG United 1DWLRQV(QYLURQPHQW3URJUDPPH 'HSDUWPHQWIRU(QYLURQPHQW)RRGDQG5XUDO$IIDLUVRI the %ULWLVK*RYHUQPHQW 7KH*HUPDQ)HGHUDO0LQLVWU\IRUWKH(QYLURQPHQW1DWXUH &RQVHUYDWLRQDQG1XFOHDU6DIHW\+HOPKROW]&HQWHUIRU(QYLURQPHQWDO5HVHDUFK3DYDQ 6XNKGHYDVHQLRUEDQNHUIURP'HXWVFKH%DQNZDVDSSRLQWHGWKHVWXG\OHDGHUDQGLWVSRUW voice ,WLVRQO\E\ORRNLQJDW7((%DVDVKDGRZFDVHWKDWZHZLOOXQGHUVWDQGWKHQHHGIRU QXPEHUVLQWKHOREE\LQJSURFHVVIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDW%UXVVHOVDQGKRZFKDQJHVLQODQG XVHRQRIWKHWHUULWRU\RI(8JHWOHJLWLPL]HG 7KHUHDUHWZREDVLFDVVXPSWLRQVZKLFKIXQGDPHQWV7((%7KHILUVWLVWKHQHHGIRU QXPEHUV ³ZKDWFDQQRWEHPHDVXUHGFDQQRWEHPDQDJHG´ 6XNKGHYRQKLVZHEVLWH KWWS SDYDQVXNKGHYFRPWKHHQWU\IURP-XQH 7KHVHFRQGLVµPDNLQJQature more YLVLEOH¶LQHFRQRPLFWHUPV ³>W@KHHFRQRPLFLQYLVLELOLW\RIQDWXUHPXVWHQG´3ROLF\PDNHUV DGPLQLVWUDWRUVDQGEXVLQHVVHVPXVWUHFRJQL]HWKHHFRQRPLFYDOXHRIDFOHDQHQYLURQPHQWDQG take that into account in their decision-PDNLQJ2WKHUZLVHZHFDQIRUJHWDERXWLPSURYLQJRXU ³TXDOLW\RIOLIH´ LGHP 7KHWZRDVVXPSWLRQVDUHLQWLPDWHO\LQWHUOLQNHGEXWDOVRWDXWRORJLFDO ,Q$SULO6XNKGHYSUHVHQWHGWKH7((%DWWKH/RQGRQ6FKRRORI(FRQRPLFV46,WKLQN WKLVSUHVHQWDWLRQLVWKHTXLQWHVVHQFHRIWKHRQJRLQJQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLVWWUHQGLQWKHZRUOG 45 KWWS HFHXURSDHXHQYLURQPHQWQDWXUHELRGLYHUVLW\HFRQRPLFVLQGH[BHQKWP 46 The video recording of this SUHVHQWDWLRQLVDYDLODEOHDW KWWS SDYDQVXNKGHYFRP 'HVFULELQJWKHGLVFRXUVHFDQEHDVOLSSHU\VORSHIRULWLVDFDUHIXOFRQVWUXFWHGGLVFRXUVHZKLFK WDNHVLQWRDFFRXQWSUHYLRXVDWWHPSWVIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQWKHVDPHWKDW,GHVFULEHLQWKH SUHYLRXVFKDSWHUV7KHUHIRUH,ZLOOUHSURGXFHLQWKHIROORZLQJNH\IUDJPHQWVRILW ³%LRGLYHUVLW\ZKLFKLVEDVLFDOO\WKHOLYLQJIDEULFRIWKLVSODQHW « DWDOOOHYHOVDW WKHHFRV\VWHPOHYHODWWKHVSHFLHOHYHORUDWWKHJHQHWLFOHYHOGRHVSURYLGHYDOXDEOH VHUYLFHVWRKXPDQLW\ DQGPRVWRIWKHVHVHUYLFHVGRQRWWHQGWREHSULFHGE\DQ\ PDUNHWVDQGDUHLQIDFWQRWSULYDWHJRRGVRUVHUYLFHVDWDOOWKH\DUHSXEOLFJRRGVDQG VHUYLFHV7KH\DUHSURYLGHGODUJHO\IUHHWKH\DUHSURYLGHGODUJHO\LQDZD\WKDW GRHVQ¶WSUHYHQWRWKHUSHRSOHIURPXVLQJWKHP FOHDQDLUIUHVKZDWHU QXWULHQWVWKDW IORZIURPWKHIRUHVWWRWKHILHOGRIWKHSRRUIDUPHUVWKHVHDUHDOOWKLQJVWKDWFRPHIUHH IURPQDWXUH - :HILQGKHUHDFOHDUUHIHUHQFHWR³WKHWUDJHG\RIWKHFRPPRQV´7KHIROORZLQJTXRWHLVPRUH VWDQFKZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHOLEHUDOSDQDFHDRILQGLYLGXDOSULYDWHSURSHUW\ULJKWV ³ « PDQ\YDOXHVFRPHWRXVIURPQDWXUHDQGWKH\GRSURYLGHUHVRXUFHLQSXWVDV ZHOODVVHUYLFHLQSXWVDQGUHJXODWLRQRIWKHVXSSOLHVLQWRWKHJOREDOHFRQRP\EXWPRVW RIWKHPDUHMXVWQRWSULFHG$QGDVWKHWHQGHQF\RIQRWYDOXLQJZKDW\RXGRQ¶WSULFHLV DGHHSKXPDQWHQGHQF\DQGWKDWLQIDFWEHJLQVDZKROHVHW RISUREOHPV,WLVWKHVH SUREOHPVDQGWKHVROXWLRQVWRWKHPWKDW7((%LVDERXW´ - ³6RKHUHLVWKHFKDOOHQJH JLYHQWKDWQDWXUDOFDSLWDOLVDQDVVHWFODVVJLYHQWKDWLW GRHVSURYLGHSXEOLFEHQHILWVJLYHQWKDWVRPDQ\RIWKHVHSXEOLFEHQHILWVGRPDNHVXFK DKXJHGLIIHUHQFHWRWKHSRRUZK\FDQ¶WZHUHFRJQL]HWKDWWKHUHLVDQHFRQRPLF DFWLYLW\RXWKHUHDQGWKDWLWLVSRVVLEOHWRHPSOR\SHRSOHWRUHEXLOGQDWXUDOFDSLWDODQG SD\WKHPWRJHQHUDWHZHDOWKIRUWKHVRFLHW\",W¶VSDUWRIDQHFRQRPLFPRGHO´ - ³)LQDOO\,ORRNDWPHDVXULQJEHFDXVHZHNHHSWDONLQJDERXWHFRQRPLFLQYLVLELOLW\ >RI QDWXUH@ZKDWZHQHHGWRGRWRVWDUWWRPDNHLWYLVLEOHLVWRVWDUWPHDVXULQJLW$QGWKDW JDLQLVIXQGDPHQWDOO\ZKDW7((%¶VDSSURDFKLVDERXWWRSURYLGHWKHWRRONLWIRU PHDVXUHPHQW´ - The Economics of EcoV\VWHPVDQG%LRGLYHUVLW\ZDQWVWREULQJWKHLQYLVLELOLW\RIQDWXUHWRDQ HQGDQGWKLVFDQEHGRQHE\PHDVXULQJLW)URPWKLVUHJDUGZHXQGHUVWDQGWKDWWKHLQYLVLELOLW\ RIQDWXUHLVQRWKLQJEXWWKHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRIQDWXUH7KHUHIRUHJRLQJEDFNWKHURRWVof the OLEHUDOWKLQNLQJRI/RFNHDQG6PLWK7((%FRPHVEDFNLQDUJXLQJIRUWKHGLVHQFKDQWPHQWRI QDWXUHIRUWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRILQWULQVLFYDOXHLQWRLQVWUXPHQWDOYDOXH%\PHDVXULQJWKH QDWXUDOFDSLWDODQGLWVFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHHFRQRPLFIOX[HVQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDQGHFRQRPLF DFWLYLW\ZLOOPXWXDOO\DQGSHDFHIXOO\VXSSRUWHDFKRWKHU%XWWKHUHLVDQRWKHUGLPHQVLRQRI 7((%- SURSHUW\ULJKWV6LQFHQDWXUHFDSLWDOFDQEHPHDVXUHGWKHUHIRUHHPSOR\HGE\7((% WKHVHµQHZ¶QDWXUDOYHQXHVFDQEHXVHGDQGLWLVOHJLWLPDWHGWRGRVRLQSULYDWHDFFXPXODWLRQ 118 RIFDSLWDOZKLFKLQWXUQZLOOOHDGWRPRUHUHVSRQVLELOLW\PRUHFDUHIRUQDWXUHDQGPRUH ZHDOWKIRUWKHVRFLHW\ /HW¶VUHFDSLWXODWH 1DWXUDLVDWUDQVQDWLRQDOQHWZRUNIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQZKLFK UHSUHVHQWVRI(8¶VWHUULWRU\0RUHRYHULWLVDOHJDOWKLQJWKHVXSHUSRVLWLRQRIWZR(8 GLUHFWLYHV1DWXUDLVDWHUULWRU\DSK\VLFDOWKLQJDQGDPRGHRIJRYHUQLQJQDWXUH SURWHFWLRQ7KLVPRGHRIJRYHUQDQFHLVSULPDULO\FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\FKDQJHLQODQGXVH7KH PDLQFRQVHTXHQFHRILWVODUJHH[SDQVHZLWKLQ(8URSHDQWHUULWRU\LVWKDW1DWXUDKDVWR SURYLGHVRPHWKLQJHOVHWKDQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ+RZHYHUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQWKURXJKFKDQJHVLQ ODQGXVHTXHVWLRQVWKHSDUDGLJPWKDWVWRRGDWWKHEDVLVRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQXSWRQRZ– that of WKHLQWULQVLFYDOXHRIQDWXUH+RZHYHUWKHQHZDSSURDFKFKDOOHQJHVDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKH PHDQLQJRISURSHUW\1DWXUDLVQRWDVROLWDU\LQLWLDWLYHIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ7((%LV RQHRIWKHIODQNLQJSURJUDPVVXSSRUWHGE\WKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQIRULQWHJUDWLQJ HFRQRPLFREMHFWLYHVDQGWKHQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLVWRQHV ,FODLPHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKLVVXESDUWWKDWKDYLQJWKHWHUPµLQWULQVLFYDOXHRI QDWXUH¶LQWKHYLVLRQRIWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQZLWKUHJDUGWRQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLVD PDWWHURIV\PEROLFYDOXHIRUWKH1*2VWKDWDGYRFDWHGIRULW,WLVDPDWWHURIUHFRJQL]LQJWKH LPSRUWDQFHRIQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLQWKHSROLWLFDODJHQGDRIWKHPRPHQW$QGIRUDFKLHYLQJ WKLVJRDOWKH1*2VZHUHRSHQHGWRFRPSURPLVHV ³%XWZHGLGQ WPDQDJHWRJHWLWLQWKHKHDGOLQHWDUJHW >IRU@,WZDVFKDOOHQJLQJ EXWLQDZD\LWZRXOGKDYHPDGHWKLQJVPRUHGLIILFXOW%HFDXVHLWZRXOGKDYHPHDQW WKDWWKHPHVVDJHWKDWZHZLOOEHVHQGLQJLVZHOO« ZHDUHVWLOOWKLQNLQJLQWKHVDPH ZD\ZHKDYHWKHWUXWKWKLVLVLPSRUWDQWDQG,GRQ¶WFDUHLI\RXWHOOPHWKDWWKHUHLVD QHHGIRUHQHUJ\IRUDPRWRUZD\IRUZKDWHYHU\RXZDQWEXWQDWXUHLVWKHUHDODQGWKH RQO\LPSRUWDQWWKLQJ6RLWZLOOEHWKDWZHVWLOOFRQVLGHURXUVHOYHVOLNHWKHQRZDGD\V¶ SURSKHWV´ ::)UHVSRQVLEOHPLQ 7KH1*2VDUHIDYRUDEOHZLWKUHJDUGWR7((%7KHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVWKDW,LQWHUYLHZHGEHOLHYH WKDW7((%LVKRZWKHSDUDGLJPLQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQµQDWXUDOO\¶HYROYHVDQGDJRRG RSSRUWXQLW\WREULQJWKHLUREMHFWRIDFWLYLW\WRWKHIRUHIURQWRIWKHSROLF\DJHQGD%XWGRWKH\ HQYLVDJHWKHORQJWHUPFRQVHTXHQFHVRIGLVHQFKDQWPHQWRIQDWXUH" ³7KH7((%LVDNLQGRIDGKRFUHVSRQVHWRWKHSUREOHPRIQRWKHDYLQJELRGLYHUVLW\LQ WKHDJHQGDIROORZLQJWKHFOLPDWHFKDQJHGLVFXVVLRQV,WLVDOVRDQDWXUDOUHDFWLRQWR PDNHVXUHWKDW >QDWXUDO@ SURWHFWLRQLVQRWDQ\PRUHVLPSO\VRPHWKLQJWKDWEHORQJVWRD VHFWRUWKDWLVFDOOHG³&RQVHUYDWLRQ´DQGLVIXOOZLWKFUD]\JUHHQSHRSOHWKDWEHOLHYH WKDWWKH\KDYHWKHWUXWKDQGWKDWWKHUHVWDUHWRWDOO\ZURQJ,W¶VDZD\RIVD\LQJ WKDW KH\ZHDUHSDUWRIWKHVRFLHW\ « ,GRQ¶WNQRZLIWKLVLVWKHIXWXUH,GRQ¶WNQRZIRU PHWKLVLVVLPSO\ KRZWKHSDUDGLJPLVHYROYLQJ” 3$LQW,, :KLOHWKHUDWLRQDOHRIOREE\LQJDFWLYLW\LPSOLHVFRPSURPLVHSHUVH,GRQ¶WWKLQNWKDWWKH 1*2VXQGHUVWRRGZKDW7((% LVDERXWZKDWWKHWHQGHQFLHVLQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDUHDQGZKDW WKHFRQVHTXHQFHVIRUORVLQJGHIDFWRWKHQRWLRQRILQWULQVLFYDOXHDUHIRUWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDO QDWXUHSURWHFWLRQGHVLJQV³7KHHFRQRPLFDOZD\VZLQV´DVRQHRIWKHRIILFLDOVWROGPHLQD IUXJDOGHSDUWXUHIURPWKHVWDQGDUG35GLVFRXUVHLVDJHQHUDOIHDULQ'*(QYLURQPHQWDQGLQ WKHOREE\LQJFLUFOHVIDYRUDEOHWRQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ+RZHYHUKDYLQJQDWXUHSURtection on the QHROLEHUDODJHQGDE\DQ\PHDQVPLJKWWXUQLQWKHORQJWHUPLQWRDJUHDWHUGLVDGYDQWDJHWKDQ QRWKDYLQJLWDWDOO 9.4. An important remark :KLOHGRLQJLQWHUYLHZV,SURYRNHP\UHVSRQGHQWV6RPHWLPHVLWFDQWXUQQDVW\OLNHLQWKH case when ,ZDVDOPRVWEHDWHQXSE\VRPHFRUUXSWIRUHVWJXDUGVLQ9UDQFHDEXWPRVWRIWKH WLPHWKLVVWUDWHJ\KDVIUXLWIXORXWFRPHV7KLVLVKRZ,KDGRQHRIWKHPRVWSURYRNLQJDQVZHUV IURPP\VWD\LQ%UXVVHOVRQHZKLFKPDGHPHDZDUHRIKRZLPSRUWDQWWKHFRQWH[WLs when DQDO\]LQJHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWV,WZDVWKHVHFRQGPHHWLQJZLWK$$DQG,ZDVVRPHKRZ LQDEDGPRRGWKDWGD\:LWKWKHFRQIOLFWVIURP*DOLFLDDQG9UDQFHDLQPLQG,FRXOGQR ORQJHUVWDQGWKHVORZPRWLRQRI%UXVVHOVEXUHDXFUDWVDQGWKHLQILQLWHOREE\LQJVWUDWHJLHVRI WKH1*2V¶DFWLYLVWV7KHUHIRUHGXULQJP\HQWLUHGLVFXVVLRQZLWK$$,KDGDYHU\SHVVLPLVW WRQHZLWKUHJDUGWR1DWXUDDQGWKHRYHUDOOQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDWWHPSWVDWWKHOHYHORIWKH (8:KDWIROORZVLVDVSRQWDQHRXVUHDFWLRQWRP\DUJXPHQWVWKDW1DWXUDLVQRWZRUNLQJ ZKLOHWKHGLFWDSKRQHZDVVWLOOUXQQLQJ ³,GR QRWEHOLHYHLW,VLPSO\GRQRWEHOLHYHLW7KLVLVZKDWWKHLQGXVWU\ZDQWVWRKHDU 'R\RXUHDOO\WKLQNWKDW1DWXUDLVDVLFNEDE\"'R\RXUHDOO\WKLQNWKLV":RXOG \RXSUHIHUQRWKDYLQJDQ\1DWXUDLQ(XURSHQRWKLQJ"'R\RXUHDOO\EHOLHYH WKLV" /HW¶VORRNDURXQGDWWKHSROLF\VLWXDWLRQ HFRQRPLFFULVLVMREVDUHRQWKHWRS RIWKHDJHQGDHYHU\WKLQJWKDWKDVWRGRZLWKHFRQRP\LVLPSRUWDQWHYHU\WKLQJHOVH 120 WKDWKDVQRWWRGRZLWKHFRQRP\LVXQLPSRUWDQW$QGQRZ\RXFRPHDQGVD\– µIURPD VFLHQWLILFSHUVSHFWLYH¶ IURPDSHUVRQZKRORYHVQDWXUH– HYHQZRUVHWKDW1DWXUD LVQRWJRRG'R\RXNQRZZKRZLOOEHH[WUHPHO\KDSS\WRKHDUWKLV"7KHZKROH HFRQRPLFOREE\6D\LQJ ORRNHYHQWKH\VD\LWZHQHHGWRJHWULGRIWKLV2UQR WKH\ ZLOOEHYHU\FOHYHUWKH\ZRUNLQSROLF\OLNHZHGRWKH\ZLOOVD\ ZHZLOOQHHGWR LPSURYHLWDQGPRGLI\LWDQGXSGDWHLW7KLVZRXOGEHWKHSHUIHFWRUGHU WRVHQGQDWXUH SURWHFWLRQWRWKHJDUEDJHELQ7KLVLVZKDW\RXZDQW" - %XWWKHSHDWUHVHUYHLQ*DOLFLD" ,IWKDWSHDWLVLPSRUWDQWZK\LV*DOLFLDQRWSURWHFWLQJLWZK\LV6SDLQQRWSURWHFWLQJ LWZK\LVWKHORFDOPDMRUQRWSURWHFWLQJLW":K\GRWKH\H[SHFW HYHU\WKLQJ WRcRPH IURP(XURSH"$QGDW WKHVDPHWLPH WKH\VD\ZKDWFRPHVIURP(XURSHLVEDG,PHDQ LVDVWUDQJHGLVFRXUVHLQHYHU\WKLQJIURPWKHVWDUW%HFDXVHLWLVWKHVDPHLQ5RPDQLD ZHGRQ¶WOLNH1DWXUDLWLVQRWJRRG,GRQ¶WNQRZZKDWZKDWHYHUEXWDIWHUZKHQ VRPHWKLQJKDSSHQVHYHU\ERG\ORRNV WRWKH(8DQGVD\V KH\VROYHWKLVSUREOHP IRU PH,KDYHWKHIHHOLQJ\RXNQRZWKDWWKH(8LVOLNHWKH81 HYHU\ERG\KDVWKHYLHZ WKDWWKH\VKRXOGVROYHHYHU\WKLQJWKH\DUHWKHSHUIHFWSXQFKLQJVDFN7KH(8VKDOl OHDUQWRVD\12/LYLXDW WKLVPRPHQWZHKDYHWRGHIHQG1DWXUD7KHUHDUH HQRXJKDWWDFNVRQLWWRKDYHRQHHYHQIURPWKHJUHHQSHUVSHFWLYHDWWDFNLQJLW:LWKWKH ZHDNQHVVZLWKHYHU\WKLQJWKDWLVEDG,NQRZ,NQRZ,NQRZ%XWLIZHGRQ¶WGRWKLV ,¶PWHOOLQJ\RXZHZLOOORVHQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLQ(XURSHDQGWKLVLVWKHSHUIHFW PRPHQW” :K\GRHVQRWWKH*DOLFLDQJRYHUQPHQWSURWHFWWKHSHDWUHVHUYHLQ;LVWUDO"+RZLVWKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI1DWXUDJRLQJRQLQSRVWVRFLDOLVW5RPDQLD":KDWDUH the overall FRQIOLFWVLQWKHWZRFDVHV"– $OOWKLV,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQWKHVXFFHHGLQJSDUWV)RUWKHPRPHQW we need to look at how the directives get modified in the domestic realm 9.5. Natura 2000 on its way to Xistral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¶VGLUHFWSUHVVXUHZKHQLWFRPHVWRLPSOHPHQWLQJWKHGLUHFWLYHV$VWKH5RPDQLDQFDVH DOVRVKRZVLQ6SDLQWKHUHIXQFWLRQHGDQGVWLOOIXQFWLRQVDGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQKLJKSROLWLFV such aVVHFXULW\LQGXVWU\DQGORZSROLWLFVVXFKDVHQYLURQPHQWDOO\UHODWHGLVVXHV1DWXUH 121 SURWHFWLRQZDVWUDGLWLRQDOO\FRQVLGHUHGDVEHLQJSDUWRIWKHVHFRQGUDQNRISROLWLFVDQGDVD FRQVHTXHQFHLWLVUHOHJDWHGWRDSODFHDWWKHHQGRIWKHSROLF\-PDNLQJSULRULW\OLVW7KLV H[SODLQVWKHSHUPDQHQWXUJHQF\WKHSHUPDQHQWVKRUWDJHRIWLPHLQLPSOHPHQWLQJQDWXUH SURWHFWLRQPHDVXUHVXUJHQF\ZKLFKXOWLPDWHO\LVWUDQVODWHGLQZKDW$JXLODU)HUQiQGH] FDOOHGDQ³HFRORJLFDOGLFWDWRUVKLS´$JXLODU)HUQiQGH]SRLnts to the lack of local OHJLWLPDF\RI1DWXUDLQ6SDLQGXHWKHSRZHUIXOWRS-GRZQLPSOHPHQWDWLRQGULYHQE\D SHUPDQHQWODFNRIWLPHLQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQSROLF\-PDNLQJ ;%LVa forestry engineer in the &RQVHOOHUtDGH0HGLR$PELHQWH7HUULWRULRH ,QIUDVWXFWXUDV the ministry within the ;XQWDGH*DOLFLD which is in charge with the LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH5HGH1DWXUD 1DWXUD :KLOHKDYLQJRXUGLVFXVVLRQKLVPDLQ FRQFHUQZDVH[DFWO\WKHGLYLVLRQEHWZHHQWKHKLJKDQGORZSROLWLFVPHQWLRQHGDERYH+H H[SODLQHGWRPHWKDWVLQFHLQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDQGLQHQYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHVWKHUHLVOLWWOH DPRXQWRIPRQH\LQYROYHGDVFRPSDUHGZLWKLQGXVWU\RURWKHUPRUHSURILWDEOHVHFWRUVWKH OREE\LQJFDSDFLW\IRUSRVLWLRQLQJQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQRQDKLJKHUSRVLWLRQRQWKHSROLWLFDO DJHQGDLVYHU\ORZ:HHQFRXQWHUHGDTXLWHVLPLODUGLVFRXUVHLQ%UXVVHOVDQGWKHUHLVVWLOO URRPIRULQYHVWLJDWLRQWRVHHKRZPXFKWKHDJHQGDRIWKH'*(QYLURQPHQWLVJXLGHGE\ZKDW RQHZRXOGEHWHPSWHGWRFDOOWKHROGIDVKLRQGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQKLJKDQGORZSROLWLFV $Q\ZD\;%FDOOHGWRP\DWWHQWLRQWKHIDFWWKDWWKLVGLVWLQFWLRQLVVWLOOYDOLGLQ6SDLQ¶V SROLF\-PDNLQJ³1DWXUHSURWHFWLRQUHTXLUHVWLPHIRU\RXZRUNQRWZLWKQDWXUHDVVXFKEXW ZLWKGDWD « 7KHSHRSOHDUHDOZD\VRXWRIWKHHTXDWLRQ QDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLVGRQHDERYH WKHLUKHDGVLQYHU\ELJKXUU\IRULWLVFRQVLGHUHGQRWEHDULQJVXFKLPSRUWDQFHDVLQGXVWU\IRU H[DPSOH´ ;%,,QRWHV 7KLVµGLFWDWRUVKLSLQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ¶LVWUDQVODWHGLQWRFRQIOLFWVRQWKHJURXQG$V ZHZLOOVHHLQWKH5RPDQLDQFDVHDVZHOOQRFRQVXOWDWLRQWRRNSODFHEHIRUHWKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHSURWHFWHGVLWHVLQ*DOLFLD³1RERG\NQRZVZKDW1DWXUDPHDQV´ 35 WROGPHRSHQO\35LVDELRORJLVWDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI6DQWLDJRGH&RPSRVWHODDQGLV RQHRIWKHPDLQFRRUGLQDWRUVRIWKH0DQDJHPHQW3ODQ 3ODQ'LUHFWRU RIWKH1DWXUDIRU *DOLFLD,DVNHG35WRWHOOPHLIWKLVLVWKHFDVHIRUWKHSHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHVRUIRUSROLF\- PDNHUV+HDQVZHUHGIUDQNO\WKDWWKLVLVWKHFDVHIRUERWK2QWKHRQHKDQGSHRSOHZHUHQRW LQIRUPHGEHFDXVHWKHUHZDVQRWLPHIRUORFDOFDPSDLJQVEXWDOVREHFDXVHWKHUHZDVDJHQHUDO fear that eventual local conflicts would slow-GRZQWKHSURFHVVRIHVWDEOLVKLQJWKHVLWHVDQG thus getting Madrid iQWRDQLQIULQJHPHQWSURFHGXUH2QWKHRWKHUWKHSROLF\-makers SROLWLFRV GRQRWXQGHUVWDQGEHFDXVHWKHUHLVDELJURRPIRULQWHUSUHWDWLRQ 122 35H[SODLQHGPHWKDWWKH0DQDJHPHQW3ODQIRU1DWXUD VLWHVLQ*DOLFLDFKDQJHV tremendously with every new eOHFWHGJRYHUQPHQWLQ*DOLFLD$QGWKLVLVLQGHHGWKHFDVH :KLOHZULWLQJWKHVHOLQHV,HQFRXQWHUHGRQWKHLQWHUQHWDQHZYHUVLRQRIWKHPDQDJHPHQWSODQ FRPSDUHGWRWKHRQH,KDGZKHQ,ZDVLQWKHILHOGDQGZKLFKZDVPDGHLQ7KHQHZSODQ ZDVDSSURYHG LQ'HFHPEHU,ZDVTXLWHVXUSULVHGVR,FDOOHG;%WRDVNKLPZKDWWKH UHDVRQZDVEHKLQGWKLVFKDQJH7KHUHDVRQEHKLQGWKHFKDQJHWKLVWLPHZDVQRWDFKDQJHRI ORFDOJRYHUQPHQWEXWDQDGGLWLRQDOSODQWRUH-SRWHQWLDWHWKHZLQG-farms that are located in the SURWHFWHGVLWHV+HFRQFOXGHGE\VD\LQJWKDWWKHRQO\WKLQJWKH\GR KHDQGKLVFROOHDJXHV LQ the &RQVHOOHUtDGH0HGLR$PELHQWH LVWRSHULRGLFDOO\UH-LVVXHPDQDJHPHQWSODQVWKDWZLOOILW WKHSROLWLFDODJHQGD7KHUHIRUHKHFRQFOXGHG,VKRXOGQRW ZRUU\EHFDXVHWKLVSODQZLOO FKDQJHDJDLQ %RWK;%DQG35SRLQWHGWRWKHXQEDODQFHGOREE\LQJFDSDFLW\LQFKDQJLQJWKH 0DQDJHPHQW3ODQ RIWKHSURWHFWHGVLWHVWKDWGLIIHUHQWDFWRUVSXUVXLQJHFRQRPLFLQWHUHVWVKDYH LQWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDV³:KDWGR\RXWKLQNZKRPDNHVPRUHSUHVVXUHV DZLQG-PLOOFRPSDQ\ XQDHROLFD RUDKHUGVPDQ JDQDGHUR IURP;LVWUDO"´VDLG;%+HFRQWLQXHGE\VD\LQJ ³, work in the &RQVHOOHUtD ZKRDSSURYHVODQGXVHLQWKHSURWHFWHGVLWHVDQG,FDQWHOOWKDWXQD HROLFD KDVOHVVSDSer work than a JDQDGHUR´$FFRUGLQJWRWKH0DQDJHPHQW3ODQ1DWXUD VLWHVFDQEHGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHH]RQHVZKHUHWKH=RQDLVWKHPRUHUHVWULFWLYHRQH$V WKHPDSEHORZLQGLFDWHVWKHSDVWXUHVLQ/DEUDGDDUHORFDWHGLQ=RQD as are also the wind- farPV,QWKHHPSLULFDOSDUW,ZLOOVKRZKRZWKHOREE\LQJRIWKHZLQG-PLOOFRPSDQLHVLVPRUH HIIHFWLYHLQSODQWLQJZLQG-SRZHUJHQHUDWRUVLQWKHWRS-UHVWULFWLYH]RQHDQGKRZWKH JDQDGHURVWKHIDUPHUVDUHQRWDOORZHGWRPDNHWKHSDVWXUHVIRUWKHLUFDWWOH Picture 7: The internal zoning of the Natura 2000 sites in Serra do Xistral. 6RXUFH ;XQWDGH*DOLFLD&RQVHOOHtDGR0HGLR5XUDOHGR0DU http://www.medioruralemar.xunta.es/fileadmin/arquivos/conservacion_natureza/plan_director_rn2000/M apa_4_Zonificacion.pdf, last accessed on 14 March 2012. 123 7KHVFLHQWLILFVWXGLHVWKDWOD\DWWKHEDVLVRIWKH designation of the sites are undertaken in *DOLFLDE\7KH,QVWLWXWHIRU$JULFXOWXUDO%LRGLYHUVLW\DQG5XUDO'HYHORSPHQW ,QVWLWXWRGH %LRGLYHUVLGDGH$JUDULDH'HVHQYROYHPHQWR5XUDO - ,%$'(5 ,%$'(5LVDMRLQW RUJDQL]DWLRQVHWXSLQ E\WKH*DOLFLDQJRvernment,WKDVDQDFDGHPLFVWDWXVRI LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\FKDUDFWHU,%$'(5LVDFRQJORPHUDWHRIDFDGHPLFVDQGSROLF\-makers from the University RI6DQWLDJRGH&RPSRVWHOD 86& 7KH0LQLVWU\RI5XUDO$IIDLUV &RQVHOOHUtDGH0HGLR5XUDO The Ministry of EnYLURQPHQWDQG6XVWDLQDEOH'HYHORSPHQW &RQVHOOHUtDGH0HGLR$PELHQWHH'HVHQYROYHPHQWR6RVWLEOH and The Lugo Institute for (FRQRPLFDQG6RFLDO'HYHORSPHQW ,QVWLWXWR/XFHQVHGH'HVUUROOR(FRQyPLFR\6RFLDO - ,1/8'(6 ,WVPDLQWDVNLVWKHGHVLJQDWLRQDQGDGMXVWPHQWRIWKH1DWXUDVLWHVEXWDOVR issues related to domestic animal care and consultancy ,%$'(5FROODERUDWHVZLWKSXEOLF DGPLQLVWUDWLRQEXWDOVRZLWKHQWHUSULVHVDPRQJZKLFKDUHSRZHUIXOWUDQVQDWLRQDOFDUWHOVIRU HQHUJ\SURGXFWLRQDQGGLVWULEution such as 8QLyQ)HQRVD ,%$'(5QHHGVWREHYHU\HIIHFWLYHDQGDOZD\VRQWLPH³,W¶VKHOOZRUNLQJLQWKHUH´ 35FRQIHVVHG$VKHFRQWLQXHVGHVFULELQJWKHFUXHOGHDGOLQHVKHHPSKDVL]HVRQHYHU\ LQWHUHVWLQJDVSHFWQDPHO\WKHLPSRVVLELOLW\RIFRXQWHUaction in due time since the orders do QRWFRPHIURPWKHORFDOJRYHUQPHQWEXWIURP³KLJKHUUDQNVYHU\KLJKRQHV´ GHDUULEDPX\ DUULED +HSRLQWVRQKRZ'*(QYLURQPHQWDVNVIRUQHZSURWHFWHGVLWHVLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWK WKHQXPEHUVWKDWWKH%UXVVHOV¶WHFKQRFUDWVKDYHDWKDQGFRQFHUQLQJWKHEDODQFHEHWZHHQWKH ELRGLYHUVLW\ORVVDQGWKHELRGLYHUVLW\SRWHQWLDORIWKHPHPEHUVWDWHV,Q6SDLQWKHVKDUHVLQ 124 ELRGLYHUVLW\DUHUHGLVWULEXWHGWRS-GRZQIURP0DGULGDQG0DGULGH[SHFWVLQWXUQSURPSW LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ&RQWHVWLQJ0DGULG¶VUHTXLUHPHQWVLVDULVN\VWUDWHJ\WKDWWKH;XQWDLVQRW ZLOOLQJWRXQGHUWDNHGXHWREURDGHUSROLWLFDOLPSOLFDWLRQV7KHRQO\RQHVZKRFDQRSSRVHDUH WKRVHZKRRZQWKHODQGV%XWWKH\DUHLQIRUPHGSRVW-IDFWXP 9.6. Natura 2000 on its way to Vrancea ³$FWXDOO\WKLVLVWKHFRQIXVLRQWKDWQRERG\NQRZVZKDWUHVWULFWLRQV1DWXUDGHPDQGV %HFDXVHLIWKHUHDUHUHVWULFWLRQV WKHUHVKRXOGEHFRPSHQVDWLRQV´ ,03XWQD9UDQFHD 1DWXUDO3DUNDQG0XQĠLL9UDQFHL1DWXUD6&, and SPA administrDWRU QRWHV RI5RPDQLD¶VWHUULWRU\LVLQWKH1DWXUDQHWZRUN7KHUHDUHDQXPEHURIVLWHV DOORYHUWKHFRXQWU\$UHFHQWµVRFLRORJLFDO¶ VWXG\PDGHE\WKH1DWXUD1*2&RDOLWLRQ LQWKHFRPPXQLWLHVSDUWLDOO\RUWRWDOO\ORFDWHGLQWKHVLWHVUHYHDOVWKDWRIWKHSHRSOH TXHVWLRQHGKDGQHYHUKHDUGDERXW1DWXUDDQGKHDUGVRPHWKLQJEXWDUHXQDZDUHRI ZKDWLWPHDQV 1DWXUD1*2&RDOLWLRQ :KDWFRQWRUWVWKH%LUGVDQG+DELWDWV GLUHFWLYHVRQWKHLUZD\IURP%UXVVHOVWR9UDQFHD" ,Q5RPDQLDWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHWZRGLUHFWLYHVLVWKHWDVNRIWKH1DWLRQDO Ministry of Environment and Forests 0LQLVWHUXO0HGLXOXLúL3GXULORU WKURXJKLWV 'HSDUWPHQW 'LUHFĠLD RI%LRGLYHUVLW\7KHUHFRQILJXUDWLRQRIWKHPLQLVWU\¶VWDVNVDQd its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´ 07QRWHV %HLQJDQH[SHUWLVQRWQHFHVVDULO\DQDGYDQWDJHEXWLWPD\WXUQLQWRD GLVDGYDQWDJH7KLVZDVWKHFDVHIRU07ZKROHIWWKHGHSDUWPHQWVKRUWO\DIWHU,LQWHUYLHZHG KLP8QGHUVWDQGLQJDQGGHDOLQJZLWKWKHSROLWLFDOJDPHVZLWKLQWKHPLQLVWU\LVQRWDQHDV\ MRE 7KHPLQLVWU\JLYHVWKHRUGHUVEXWWKHPRQH\IRUDGPLQLVWUDWLQJWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDV PRVWRIWKHSHUVRQQHODQGORJLVWLFVFRPHVIURPDQRWKHUSODFHQDPHO\7KH1DWLRQDO 'HSDUWPHQWRI)RUHVWU\ 5HJLD1DĠLRQDOD3GXULORU513 513LVDQDXWRQRPRXVVWDWH LQVWLWXWLRQRXWVLGHWKHPLQLVWU\$IWHU 513ZDVRQHRIWKHULFKHVWLQVWLWXWLRQVRIWKH 5RPDQLDQVWDWHIRULWRZQHGDQGDGPLQLVWHUHGDOOWKHIRUHVWVLQ5RPDQLD$IWHUZKHQ WKHSURSHUW\UHVWLWXWLRQSURFHVVVWDUWHGWKH513ORVWDERXWKDOIRIWKHIRUHVWVLQIDYRURIWKH IRUPHU SUH- RZQHUV7KHUH-HVWDEOLVKPHQWRISULYDWHSURSHUW\ULJKWVFDXVHGKXJH FRQIOLFWVZLWKLQ513DQGDQVXEVWDQWLDOORVVRISHUVRQQHO0RVWRIWKHGLVPLVVHGSHUsonnel PLJUDWHGWRWKHQHZO\FUHDWHGSURWHFWHGDUHDV+HUHWKH\ODFNHGWKHVXSSRUWRIWKHLUIRUPHU LQVWLWXWLRQ513IRUWKHLQVWLWXWLRQZDVDOUHDG\ILQDQFLDOO\UXLQHGGXHWRODFNRIDFWLYLW\7KH GLVPLVVHGSHUVRQQHOVHDUFKHGIRUKHOSDWWKHPLQLVWU\7KH PLQLVWU\XUJHG513WRILQDQFLDOO\ VXVWDLQWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVGHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWLWGLGQRWHQGRUVHGHMXUH DXWKRULW\RYHU513 7KXVVLQFH\HDUWKHGHFLVLRQ-making SLQJ-SRQJ EHWZHHQ513DQGWKH0LQLVWU\RI (QYLURQPHQWEHFDPHSURYHUELDOLQ5RPDQLDQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ 0RVWRIWKHSHUVRQQHOIURPWKH0LQLVWU\RI(QYLURQPHQWWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVDQGRI FRXUVH513KDYHDEDFNJURXQGLQIRUHVWU\VFLHQFH:KLOHWKHIRUHVWU\HQGRUVHGJUHDWUHVSHFW GXULQJWKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPHVRGLGWKHIRUHVWU\SHUVRQQHO,QOHVVWKDQWZR\HDUVWKHVH SHRSOHWXUQHGIURP9,3VLQWKHZRUOGRIH[SHUWVWRREVWDFOHVLQWKHZD\RIHYHU\ERG\ IURP ORFDOSHRSOHZKRZDQWHGWKHLUSURSHUWLHVEDFNWRPLQLVWULHVDQGWRUHIRUPLQJHQHUDO$OORI WKHPZHUHROGVFKRRODQGKDGWDNHQFDUHRIµ5RPDQLD¶VIRUHVWV¶IRUDORQJWLPH6RPHZHUH IRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVDOUHDG\LQWKHVHFRQGJHQHUDWLRQ7KH\KDGDSHUVRQDODWWDFKPHQWZLWK IRUHVWU\DQGZLWKHQYLURQPHQWDOSURWHFWLRQLQJHQHUDO7KHµJUHDWSULYDWL]DWLRQ¶OHIWWKHPSRRU mostly in terPVRISUHVWLJH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWhe restitution of forests to former owners FDXVHGPDVVLYHGHIRUHVWDWLRQVLQ5RPDQLD9UDQFHDLQFOXGHG7KHHFRQRPLFVKRUW-comings FRXSOHGZLWKWKHHFRQRPLFVRDURIWKH QRXYHDXULFKH OHGLQVRPHDUHDVWRPDMRU environmentDOGHJUDGDWLRQ7KHHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQFRXSOHGZLWKWKHHQWUDQFHRI 1DWXUDFUHDWHGWKHSHUIHFWIHUPHQWDWLRQVPXGJHIRUWKH513SHUVRQQHO¶VµUHYHQJH¶ 126 ,Q5RPDQLDUHFHLYHGFOHDUVLJQDOVWKDW(8DGPLVVLRQZRXOGKDSSHQLQ 7KH1*2VDOVRFRQWULEXWHWRWKHH[WUHPHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHGLUHFWLYHV$VWKHHPSLULFDO SDUWZLOOVKRZSHRSOHLQYROYHGLQHQYLURQPHQWDO1*2VXQGHUWDNHWKHLUDFWLYLVPZLWKD GHGLFDWHGSDVVLRQIRUQDWXUH:LWKRXWUHDOL]LQJLWWKH\UHSURGXFHWKHVDPHJUHHQOLEHUDO thinkiQJRIWKHGLYLVLRQEHWZHHQKXPDQQHHGVDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOHTXLOLEULXP7KRVHZKRDFW ORFDOO\GRVHHWKHORFDOSHRSOHDVWKHILUVWHQHPLHVRIµQDWXUH¶7KLVFRQILUPV+DUYH\¶V FRQFOXVLRQ IROORZLQJ&rRZDQ¶VHWDODQWKURSRORJLFDOLQVLJKWVLQWRFXOWure and ULJKWV ³7KHXQLYHUVDOLW\SURSRVHGLQ³ULJKWVWDON´DQGWKHGHGLFDWLRQRI1*2VDQG DGYRFDF\JURXSVWRXQLYHUVDOSULQFLSOHVVLWVXQHDVLO\ZLWKWKHORFDOSDUWLFXODULWLHVDQGGDLO\ SUDFWLFHVRISROLWLFDOHFRQRPLFOLIH´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µPDGHRQWKHNQHHV¶QR FRQVXOWDWLRQDWWKHORFDOOHYHODQGDVWKHHPSLULFDOSDUWVZLOOVKRZIXUWKHUVRFLDOFRQIOLFWVDQG ecological degradation on the grRXQG7KHVHSDWWHUQVFRQWUDGLFWWKH1HGHUODQGV¶DQG %HOJLXP¶V)ODQGHUV YDQ=DGHOKRII VWRU\DERXWLPSOHPHQWLQJ1DWXUDDQGSDUWLDOO\WKH 128 DOUHDG\ZHOONQRZ)UHQFKRQH 3Lnton 2008 EXWDUHVLPLODUZLWKWKRVHIURP)LQODQG %M|UNHOO8 DQG3RODQG YDQGHU:LQGW8 7KHFRQWH[WXDOL]DWLRQRI1DWXUDVWDUWVWKHUHIRUHDWQDWLRQDOOHYHOEXWXQGHUJRHV SHUSHWXDOFKDQJHXQWLOWKHHYHU\VLWHLVXQGHUFRQFHUQ6LQFHWKHGRPHVWLFDFWRUVLQYROYHGLQ SROLF\-PDNLQJFRPSODLQDERXWWKHODFNRIFOHDUUXOHVRILPSOHPHQWDWLRQIURP%UXVVHOVZH PLJKWEHWHPSWHGWRPDNHRXWDSDUDGR[QDPHO\ZKLOHWKHWRSSROLWLFDOGHFLVLRQ-making GHVLJQVORVHUHJXODWLRQVIRULPSOHPHQWDWLRQWKHGRPHVWLFDFWRUVDVNIRUVWULFWHUUXOHV%XW DFWXDOO\WKHUHLVQRSDUDGR[7KLVSURJUHVVLYHFRQWH[WXDOL]DWLRQ48 E\ZKLFKJRYHUQDQFH IUDPHZRUNVDGYDQFHWRZDUGVWKHERWWRPOHYHORILPSOHPHQWDWLRQEHFRPHVPRUHQHVWHGLQ EURDGHUSROLWLFDODQGHFRQRPLFLVVXHVDVLWDGYDQFHV7KHELJJHUWKHFKDLQLVWKHPRUH FRQWH[WXDOL]DWLRQLVKDSSHQLQJWKHPRUHXQFOHDUWKHWRSOHYHOLV7KHQH[WWZRHPSLULFDOSDUWV ZLOOLOOXVWUDWHKRZWKLVQHVWLQJLVKDSSHQLQJZKLOHWKHILQDOSDUWZLOOWU\WRH[SOLFDWHZK\LV WKLVWKHFDVH 48 I dLVWDQFHP\VHOIIURPWKHVHQVHWKDW9D\GD JLYHVWRWKHWHUPEXW,ILQGLWLQVSLULQJQHYHUWKHOHVV Chapter 10 - Conclusions 7KLVHPSLULFDOSDUWVWDUWHGOLWHUDOO\IURP$GDPDQG (YH,LQYLWHGWKHUHDGHUWRDFKDOOHQJLQJ MRXUQH\LQZKDWZDVWKHPHDQLQJRISURWHFWLQJQDWXUHLQWKHSDVWDQGKRZWKLVSDVWLQIOXHQFHG ZKDWZHZLWQHVVWRGD\7KHEDVLFDVVXPSWLRQLVWKDWWRGD\¶VFURVV-ERUGHUOHJLVODWLRQIRU QDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDWWKH(XURSHDQOHYHOGLGQRWDSSHDUH[-QLKLOR EXWLVWKHSURGXFWRID WKLQNLQJWUDGLWLRQRQWKHSUREOHPRIWKHYDOXHRIQDWXUH7KLVWKLQNLQJWUDGLWLRQHYROYHGLQWKH RYHUDOOVRFLHWDOFRQWH[WGXULQJGLVWLQFWSHULRGVRIWLPH7KHWDNHKRPHPHVVDJHLVWKDWQDWXUH SURWHFWLRQVHUYHGRWKHUGLIIHUHQWLQWHUHVWVWKDQLWZDVLQLWLDOO\GHVLJQHGIRU7KHVHµRWKHU LQWHUHVWV¶FDQQRWEHVLPSO\SXWXQGHUWKHXPEUHOODRIXQLQWHQGHGFRQVHTXHQFHVEXW,ZRXOG rather call them GHULYDWLYHDLPVRIJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHV Humankind was caOOHGWRPDVWHUQDWXUHWKDW*RGJDYHWKHPLQFRPPRQE\WKHWKUHH $EUDKDPLFUHOLJLRQV -XGDLVP&KULVWLDQLW\DQG,VODP)DFHGZLWKWKHSUREOHPRIRULJLQDO HTXDOLW\WKHIDWKHUVRIWKH&KXUFKOHJLWLPL]HGWKHLQHTXDOLW\LQDFFHVVWRµQDWXUH¶E\WKH original sLQDQGWKXVVRPHKDGWKHULJKWWRPDVWHUPRUHWKDQRWKHUV-RKQ/RFNHLQWKH FRQWH[WRI(QJOLVK5HIRUPDWLRQSURGXFHGDTXDNHLQWKHSROLWLFDOWKLQNLQJE\VWDWLQJWKDWWKLV ZDVQRWDFRQYHQWLRQDOULJKWEXWDQDWXUDOULJKWWKXVHYHU\RQHKDGWKHULJKWWRSURWHFWWKDW SDUWRIQDWXUHWKDWVKHLVZRUNLQJRQDQGPDNHLWSURSHUW\7KHUHZDVQRQHHGIRUSURWHFWLQJ QDWXUHRXWVLGHRQH¶VRZQSURSHUW\RQH¶VRZQVRXUFHRIOLYLQJDQGZHDOWKEHFDXVHQDWXUHZDV LQILQLWH3URWHFWLQJQDWXUHZDVSURWHFWLQJDUHVRXUFH SURWHFWLQJWKHUHVRXUFHPHDQWSURWHFWLQJ LQGLYLGXDOSURSHUW\'HIHQGLQJSULYDWHSURSHUW\WXUQHGLQWRDGHULYDWLYHDLPIURPWKHRULJLQDO GHPLVHRIWKH&KXUFK¶VSRZHU 7KHPLJUDWLRQWRWKH$PHULFDQFRQWLQHQWIXHOHGWKLVSKLORVRSK\EXWDOVRSURYLGHGLWV liPLWV/RFNH¶VSKLORVRSK\ZDVWUDQVODWHGLQOHJDOWHUPVLQWKH$PHULFDQ%LOORIULJKWVRQWKH EDVLVRIZKLFKWKH$PHULFDQVOHJLWLPL]HGWKHLUFRORQL]DWLRQRIWKHµZLOGZHVW¶7KHSUREOHP RIYDQLVKLQJWKHIURQWLHUFDOOHGLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHSURWHFWLRQRIQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV&HUWDLQ QDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVZHUHSURWHFWHGEHIRUHDVZHOODVXQGHUWKHVWDWH¶VRUGLIIHUHQWJXLOGV¶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¶VLGHQWLW\ PDUN+RZHYHUHFRQRPLFSUHVVXUHVUHPDLQHGKLJKDQGWKHVFLHQWLILFOHJLWLPL]DWLRQRI IRUHVWU\RIIHUHGDJRRGVXSSRUWIRUFRQWLQXLQJWKHH[SORLWDWLRQRIQDWXUHE\claiming to SURWHFWLQJLWDWWKHVDPHWLPH7KLVGXDOGLVFRXUVHRYHUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQSHUVLVWVXQWLO nowadays1DWXUDDSSHDUVLQWKLVFRQWH[WDVDQDWWHPSWWRXQLI\WKLVGRXEOHGLVFRXUVHLQ an even more FRKHUHQWPDQQHU 131 Part III: Access to Natural Valuables and Environmental Conflicts in Galicia ³7KHFRORQ\RIDFLYLOL]HGQDWLRQZKLFKWDNHVSRVVHVVLRQHLWKHURIDZDVWHFRXQWU\RURIRQH VRWLJKWO\LQKDELWHGWKDWWKHQDWLYHVHDVLO\JLYHSODFHWRWKHQHZVHWWOHUVDGYDQFHPRUHUDSLGO\ WRZHDOWKDQGJUHDWQHVVWKDQDQ\RWKHUKXPDQVRFLHW\´ Adam 6PLWK7KH:HDOWKRI1DWLRQV >@ $Yy JHWVRQWKHVPDOO-RKQ'HHUPRZHU+HLVDQGOLNHVGULYLQJWKLVVPDOOPDFKLQHWRWKH 0RQWH DWHYHU\RFFDVLRQ ³$IWHUWKHZDUWKHUHZDVIDPLQH I worked only for food in various households in the YLOODJH7KH\ZHUHWKHULFK5LFKPHDQWWKDWWKH\KDGEUHDG7KHUHZDVQRSD\PHQW DW WKHHQGRIWKHGD\\RXZHUHKDSS\LIWKH\ZRXOGWHOO\RXWRFRPHEDFNWKHQH[WGD\– \RXKDGVRPHWKLQJWRHDWWKHQH[WGD\WRR2SDWULPRQLRQHUXLQR >µ7KHSXEOLF GHSDUWPHQWIRUDJULFXOWXUH¶UXLQHGXV@(YHU\WKLQJZDVSODQWHGZLWKSLQHVDQGSHRSOH KDGQRSDVWXUHV,WZDVIDPHQHJUD EODFNIDPLQH EHOLHYHPH7KHUHZHUHZHJR QRZZKHUHWKHHROLFRV >ZLQGPLOOSRZHUJHQHUDWRUV@DUHZHKDGSDVWXUHV7KH\FDQ EXLOGHROLFRV RIPHWHUVKLJKEXWZHVWLOOFDQQRWSORZIRUFHQWLPHWHUVIRUPDNLQJ SDVWXUHV´ $YyILHOGZRUNQRWHV :KHQZHDUULYH$YyH[SODLQVIXUWKHU ³6HHWKHSUREOHPLVWKLV RWR[R:KHQLWLVOLWWOHWKH hRUVHVHDWLWEHFDXVHLWLVVPDOODQGWKHWKRUQVDUHOLWWOH%XWZKHQLWJHWVELJJHU\RXKDYHWR FXWLWEHFDXVHLW¶VJURZLQJHYHU\ZKHUH´7KHQKHVWDUWVWKHHQJLQHRIWKHPRZHU ³:KDW,GR QRZ\RXPXVWQRWWHOOEHFDXVHWKH\ SURWHFWLW,DPQRWDOORZHGWRFXWLWZLWKRXWSHUPLVVLRQ´ $IWHUQRWLQJWKLVFRQYHUVDWLRQLQP\ILHOGQRWHERRN,ZURWH $YR¶VH[SUHVVLRQZKLOHFXWWLQJ WR[R LVEOLVVIXO,ZDVDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIP\ILHOGZRUNLQ*DOLFLDDQG,GLGQRWNQRZWKDWKLV VSDUNOLQJH\HVPHDQWVRPHWKLQJHOVH 7KHTXRWHVIURPWKHLQIRUPDQWVPLJKWEHIURPZULWWHQRUUHFRUGHGLQWHUYLHZV,QRWHWKHH[DFWLQWHUYLHZDQG the time when the interview was recorded ZKHQWKLVQRWHLVPLVVLQJWKDQWKHTXRWHLVUHSURGXFHGIURPP\ ILHOGZRUNQRWHV 132 Chapter 11 - O Monte O 0RQWH LVWKHNH\FRQFHSWIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHSDVWDQGSUHVHQWHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVLQ *DOLFLD 50 $OOWUDQVODWLRQVIURP6SDQLVK*DOLFLDQ3RUWXJXHVHDQG)UHQFKWKDWIROORZDUHPLQH,ZLOOSURYLGHWKHRULJLQDO WH[WLQWKHUHVSHFWLYHLGLRPZKHQWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHWH[WLWUHTXLUHVThis is the case hereThe original is the IROORZLQJ ³VHHQWLHQGHSRU0RQWH WRGRWHUUHQRHQHOTXHYHJHWDQHVSHFLHVIRUHVWDOHVDUEyUHDVDUEXVWLYDVGH PDWRUUDORKHUEiFHDVVHDHVSRQWiQHDPHQWHRSURFHGDQGHVLHPEUDRSODQWDFLyQTXHFXPSODQRSXHGDQFXPSOLU IXQFLRQHVDPELHQWDOHVSURWHFWRUDVSURGXFWRUDVFXOWXUDOHVSDLVDMtVWLFDVRUHFUHDWLYDV´ /H\(VWDWDOGH0RQWHs DUW 133 FKDSWHURIWKH*DOLFLDQSDUWLVWRLQWURGXFHWKHFRQFHSWRI0RQWH IURPDMXULGLFDOVWDQGDVZHOO DVWRSLFWXUHWKHWUDGLWLRQDOXVHVIURPWKHPLG-eighteenth to the mid-twentieth century as they DUHGHVFULEHGLQWKHOLWHUDWXUH+RZWKHVHXVHVFKDQJHGGXULQJWKHODVWWZRDQGDKDOI FHQWXULHVDQGZKDWFRQVHTXHQFHVDWWKHORFDOOHYHOLWFDXVHG,ZLOOSUHVHQWLQWKHVHFRQGDQG WKLUGFKDSWHUV+RZGRWKH\ORRNWRGD\DQGZKDWLV their nRZDGD\VG\QDPLF,ZLOOSUHVHQWLQ WKHILQDOFKDSWHUVE\WDNLQJWKHH[DPSOHRIWKHYLOODJHRI/DEUDGDVLWXDWHGLQWKH/XJR 3URYLQFHQRUWKHDVWHUQ*DOLFLD 11.1. The uses During the last two and a half centuries the traditional uses of 0RQWH FDQEHGLvided in three PDLQFDWHJRULHV FURSJURZLQJDQLPDOIDUPLQJDQGZRRGFXWWLQJIRUILUHDQGFRQVWUXFWLRQ 7KHVHWKUHHXVHVZHUHDQGSDUWLDOO\LQVRPHSODFHVOLNH/DEUDGDVWLOODUHGHHSO\LQWHUOLQNHG, VD\SDUWLDOO\EHFDXVHWKHFURSJURZLQJLQ0RQWH GLVDSSHDUHGLQ*DOLFLDLQWKHSDVWWKLUW\ \HDUV O Toxo and A Xesta $VHVWLYDGDV UHIHUVWRDFURSJURZLQJURWDWLRQV\VWHP$FFRUGLQJWR%RXKLHU WKLV DJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPFHDVHGE\WKHPLG ¶V3HRSOHIURP/DEUDGDFRXOGVWLOOUHFRUGKRZDV UR]DVthe local name for HVWLYDGDV ZHUHGRQHODVWUR]DV LQWKHYLOODJHEHLQJPDGHDURXQG )LUVWFXWWLQJ-RIIWKHEXVK\YHJHWDWLRQPRVWO\LQFOXGLQJRWR[R 8OH[HXURSDHXV D WKRUQ\EXVKDQGD[HVWD 6DURWDPQXVVFRSDULXV ERWKYHU\LQYDVLYHSODQWV7KLVµFOHaning’ SURFHGXUHWRRNSODFHGXULQJWKHHDUO\VXPPHUDQGWKHYHJHWDWLRQZDVOHWWRGU\IRUDERXWD PRQWK$IWHUWKHVHSDLOVRIYHJHWDWLRQZHUHZHOOGULHGWKH\ZHUHEXUQHG7KHDVKHVZHUHZHOO GLVWULEXWHGRQWKHVRLO7KLVSUHSDUDWLRQZDVVXSSRVHGWREHILQLVKHGE\HDUO\2FWREHUWKH ODWHVWVRWKDWWKHSORZLQJDQGVHHGLQJFRXOGSODFHEHIRUHWKHUDLQ\GD\VRIDXWXPQ7KHFRSV FRQVLVWHGPRVWO\RIZKHDWDQGU\HDQGVRPHWLPHVFRUQRUSRWDWRHV7KHLPSRUWDQWSDUWLVWKDW WKURXJKWKLVSURFHVVXVXDOO\ oneDQGQRPRUHWKDQWKUHHKDUYHVWVFRXOGEHREWDLQHGWKLV EHFDXVHLQWKHIROORZLQJ\HDUWKHSURGXFWLRQZDVGLPLQLVKLQJFRQVLGHUDEO\)RUWKDWSLHFHRI ODQGWRQDWXUDOO\UHFRYHULWVIHUWLOLW\DQGEHUHDG\IRUFXOWLYDWLRQDJDLQDWOHDVWWHQ\HDUVKDGWR SDVV $VHVWLYDGDV ZHUHPHDQWWRFRPSHQVDWHWKHKDUYHVWIURPLQGLYLGXDOSORWVRUVLPSO\DV DSUHFDXWLRQPHDVXUHIRUIRRGVHFXULW\ Picture 9: O Toxo and $;HVWD. 6RXUFH :LNLSHGLD 7KXVWKHKRUVHVDQGWKHVXUYLYDORISDVWXUHVLQWKHmRQWH DUHIXQGDPHQWDOO\LQWHUOLQNHG 7RGD\KHUGVRIZLOGKRUVHVSDVWXUHIUHHLQWKHmRQWH of /DEUDGDLQDµVWUDQJH¶SURSHUW\ DUUDQJHPHQW%XWFRQVLGHULQJWKHUROHRIRWR[R and D[HVWD in the local ecology as negative ZRXOGEHDQHUURU ,QWLPHVRIODFNRIIRGGHUWKHSHDVDQWVZHUHFUXVKLQJWKHWR[R and [HVWD and were PL[LQJLWZLWKKH\RURWKHUYHJHWDOPDVVIRUIHHGLQJWKHLUDQLPDOV%XWDVDUXOHRWR[R and a 135 [HVWD ZHUHXVHGDVEHGGLQJIRUFDWWOH%HIRUHEHLQJILYH\HDUVROGWKHVHSODQWVZHUHFXWDQG XVHGLQWKHVWDOOV7RJHWKHUZLWKWKHGXQJLWIHUPHQWHGDQGFRQVWLWXWHGDQLQGLVSHQVDEOH IHUWLOL]HUIRUWKHSRRUVRLOVRI*DOLFLD$V%DOERDSXWLWWKHVHSODQWVZHUHNH\HOHPHQWVLQWKH SHDVDQWHFRQRP\RI*DOLFLD LELG 7RGD\LWVUROHLVVWLOOVWULQJHQWEXWQRWLQWKHORFDO HFRQRP\EXWUDWKHULQORFDOSROLWLFV 7KHSHUPDQHQWKDUYHVWof RWR[R and D[HVWD KDGDYHU\LPSRUWDQWHFRORJLFDOLPSDFW )LUVWIRUDVVXULQJDSHUPDQHQWUHJHQHUDWLRQRIWKHVRLO7KHFRQWUROOHGDUVRQVUHJXODWHGWKH DFLGLW\RIWKHVRLODQGIDFLOLWDWHGWKHLQILOWUDWLRQRIHVVHQWLDOPLQHUDOVVXFKDVSRWDVVLXPZKLFK IXUWKHURQPDGHSRVVLEOHWKHJURZLQJRIYDOXDEOHWUHHV 6LJDXW - 516LJDXW GRFXPHQWVHYHQSUDFWLFHVRIFXOWLYDWLRQRIWR[R LQ*DOLFLDGXULQJWKHODVWURXQGRIVHHGLQJ FURSV LELG 7KHFKHVWQXWVWUHHVDQGRDNVDPRQJRWKHUVSHFLHVWKDWRQH can find in the 0RQWHZHUHHVVHQWLDOIRULPSHGLQJWKHVRXOHURVLRQZKLOHDFRUQVDQGFKHVQXWVZHUHXVHGLQ WKHKRXVHKROGIRUERWKDQLPDODQGKXPDQV:HDUULYHDWDQRWKHULPSRUWDQWXVHRIWKH0RQWH QDPHO\WKHZRRG As Fragas *DOLFLDLVQRWFRYHUHGE\GHQVHGHHSIRUHVWVDVZHVHHLQWKH&DUSDWKLDQVIRUH[DPSOHDQGLQ WKHODVWILYHWKRXVDQG\HDUVLWQHYHUZDV:KLOHWKH$WODQWLFFOLPDWHKDVVRPHLQIOXHQFHLWLV QRWDGHFLVLYHIDFWRU)ROORZLQJSROOHQDQDO\VLVIURPVRLOVDPSOHVIURP%&RQZDUGV LuLV*XLWLiQ5LYHUDFRQFOXGHVWKDWWKHDJULFXOWXUDOWHFKQLTXHVRIHVWLYDGDV or UR]DV had a PDMRULPSDFWRQOLPLWLQJDQGVHOHFWLQJWKHIRUHVWDOOODQGVFDSHLQ*DOLFLD 7KHH[WHQVLYHDJULFXOWXUDOSUDFWLFHVLQmRQWH in the system of HVWLYDGDV JDYHELUWKWRD SDUWLFXODUW\SHRIIRUHVWVRUIRUHVWHGODQGVQDPHGIUDJDVRULQ6SDQLVKGHKDVDV7KHVH FRPSDFWRUVFDWWHUHGZRRGVRIYDULRXVGLPHQVLRQVZHUHRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHORFDO µQDWLRQDO¶ GHSHQGLQJRQWKHWLPHZHDUHUHIHUULQJWR DQG LQWHUQDWLRQDOVFDOH$V,ZLOO H[SODLQLQWKHIROORZLQJWZRFKDSWHUVZRRGKDGDFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHORFDOHFRQRP\ DQGFRQVHTXHQWO\IRUWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVWKDWVKDSHGWKHKLVWRU\RIWKLVUHJLRQ$WWKH local level DVIUDJDV were an essentLDOVKHOWHUIRUERWKGRPHVWLFDQGZLOGDQLPDOVDQG FRQVWLWXWHGWKHZRRGUHVRXUFHIRUFRQVWUXFWLRQ%XWLQWKHVDPHWLPHWKH\ZHUHELJHQRXJK IRUDVVXULQJDUHOLDEOHUHVRXUFHIRUWKHQDYDOLQGXVWU\DQGODWHURQLQGXVWULDODWHOLHUV³,QWKH last years oIWKH0LGGOH$JHVWKH.LQJGRPRI*DOLFLDGLVSRVHGRIIRUHVWVDEOHWRSURGXFH 51 6LJDXW¶VVWXG\EULQJVZHOOGRFXPHQWHGH[DPSOHVRIKRZFHUWDLQVSHFLHVHVSHFLDOO\RDNDUHIDYRUHGLQ their JHUPLQDWLRQSURFHVVE\DUVRQV 136 HQRXJKWLPEHUIRUWKHORFDOSRSXODWLRQDQGWRPDLQWDLQDQLQWHQVHH[WRUWLYHDFWLYLW\LQWKH VDPHWLPH « 52´ LELG 7KHOHJDOSRVVHVVLRQRIWKHmRQWHV IRUWKHYHFLxRVZDVRQO\UHFRJQL]HGLQ VHH FKDSWHU EXWSHUPDQHQWVWDWHDWWHPSWVIRUSLQQLQJGRZQDQXQLYHUVDOMXULGLFDOVWDWXVIRU DFFHVVLQJWKHVHODQGVWRRNSODFHVLQFHWKHODWH0LGGOH$JHVRQZDUGV,QWKHIROORZLQJZHZLOO WDNHDJOLPSVHRQZKDWWKHMXULGLFDOVWDWus of PRQWH ZDVOLNH 11.2. The juridical status 'XULQJWKHSDVWWKUHHFHQWXULHVWKHmRQWHV ZHUHGLVSDWFKHGLQWKHKLVWRULFDOGRFXPHQWVLQ WKUHHPDLQFDWHJRULHV GHYDUDVYHFLxDLVDQGGHSURSULRV:KLOHDOOWKUHHRIWKHPDUHDIRUP RIFROOHFWLYHSULYDWHSURSHUW\WKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHPPDUNWRP\XQGHUVWDQGLQJWKH SDVVDJHVIRUPRQHKLVWRULFDOSHULRGWRDQRWKHU The access to the 0RQWH in the system of YHFLxDLV LVHJDOLWDULDQDQGLVEDVHGRQWKH DWWULEXWHRIYLFLQLW\WKDWRQHKDVWRKDYHLQ RUGHUWRDFFHVVLW9LFLQLW\PHDQVWKDWRQHKDVWR OLYHLQDFRPPXQLW\DQGEHUHFRJQL]HGE\DFHUWDLQVRFLDOJURXSDVYHFLxLR7KHVRFLDO FRPPXQLW\FDQEHDSDULVKRUQRWDYLOODJHRUQRW HVVHQWLDOO\LWFDQEHDQ\KXPDQ community that is recognized as VXFK,QWKHGRFXPHQWVWKDWWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHGKLVWRULDQV DQGJHRJUDSKHUVVWXGLHGDFRPPXQLW\FRXOGEHFRPSRVHGHYHQRIILYHKRXVHKROGV &XVWRPDU\WKHYLFLQLW\ is defined as FDVDDEHUWDFRQIXPH-OXPHWKHRSHQHGKRXVHZLWK VPRNHDQGILUH7KLVLPSOLHVWKDWRQHKDVWRKDYHDQHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\LQWKHYLOODJH$V, DVNHGLQ/DEUDGDIRUDSDLQWHUWKDWFRPHVDQGEX\VDKRXVHLQWKHYLOODJHDQGZDQWVWREHD YHFLxRVKHZRXOGQRWEHDOORZHGVLQFHKHKDVQRHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\LQWKHYLOODJH0RUHRYHU if one OHDYHVWKHFRPPXQLW\RQHORVHVWKHYLFLQLW\DQGWKHULJKWVWRDFFHVVWKHmRQWH 2VPRQWHVGHYDUDV means that the access to the mRQWH LVGLYLGHGXQHTXDOO\EHWZHHQ WKHKRXVHKROGVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLQGLYLGXDOIDUPLQJODQGWKDWHDFKIDPLO\KDV,WPHDQVWKat a IDPLO\FDQWHPSRUDU\HQFORVHSORWVLQWKHmRQWH IRUPDNLQJFURSFXOWLYDWLRQ– DV HVWLYDGDVUR]DVSURSRUWLRQDOO\ZLWKWKHLQGLYLGXDOSORWVWKDWWKHIDPLO\KDV$FFRUGLQJO\ SHRSOHLQWURGXFHDV\VWHPRITXRWDVLQWKHmRQWHDVZHOODVDYHU\LQVWDEOHVystem of LQKHULWDQFHDQGVDOH %DOERD 6DDYHGUD 7KHRULJLQRIWKLVSURSHUW\ UHJLPHLVXQFOHDUDQGVWLOODPDWWHURIGHEDWHLQWKH*DOLFLDQDQG6SDQLVKKLVWRULRJUDSK\ %DOERD 1LHWR 6DDvedrD %RXKLHU /RSH] :KLOH%RXKLHUDQGLQ VRPHUHVSHFW%DOERDWHQGWRFRQVLGHUWKHRULJLQRIWKLVXQHTXDOW\SHRIDFFHVVLQDQFLHQWWULEDO 52 +HUHWKHDXWKRUFRPSHOV the data from the soil analysis with historical data from mid fourteenth and mid ILIWHHQWKFHQWXU\ VRFLHWDORUJDQL]DWLRQRI*DOLFLD %RXKLHU %DOERD - ,JLYHPRUHFUHGLW WRWKHLGHDWKDWWKLVXQHTXDOW\SHRIDFFHVV is the result of the medieval institution of IRUR 'H-XUHLQ*DOLFLDWKHmRQWHVZHUHWKHSURSHUW\RIWKHFKXUFKRURIWKHFURZQ53EXW LQWKHGLUHFWDQGFRQWLQXRXVXVHRIWKHSHDVDQWV547KHIRUR ZDVDFRQWUDFWEHWZHHQIRUiVWDWKH &KXUFKRUWKH&URZQ and IRUHURWKHLQGLYLGXDOSHDVDQWXVXDOO\WKHKHDGRIWKHKRXVHKROG 7KHFRQWUDFWZDVLQWHUPHGLDWHGE\WKHORFDOSULHVWDQGIROORZHGWKHWHUULWRULDODGPLQLVWUDWLYH GLYLVLRQRIWKH&DWKROLF&KXUFKZKLFKKDGWKHSDULVKDVLWVEDVLFXQLW7KHSULHVWNQHZKow PDQ\SHRSOHOLYHGLQWKHSDULVKDQGKRZPXFKWKHSDULVKKDGWRSD\WRIRULVWD LQWKHHQG7KH FRQWUDFWZDVPDGHRQDYHU\ORQJSHULRGRIWLPHDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\WKHIRULVWD assured its LQFRPHVDQGVHUYLFHVIRUDORQJSHULRGRIWLPHDQGWKHIRUHUR had the security of access to the UHVRXUFHV7KH IRUHUR KDGGLIIHUHQWREOLJDWLRQVWRZDUGVWKHIRULVWD WKHSD\PHQWRIUHQW PDLQO\LQSURGXFWVWRSURYLGHFHUWDLQVHUYLFHVDQGZRUNVDQGWKHREOLJDWLRQRIEHLQJ³DJRRG DQGREHGLHQWYDVVDO” %DOERD/ySH] These contractual characteristics turned IRUR LQWRDQLQVWLWXWLRQZKLFKUHJXODWHGVRFLDOSROLWLFDODQGHFRQRPLFUHODWLRQEHWZHHQSHDVDQWU\ DQGQRELOLW\GXULQJWKHPLGGOHDJHVDQGXSWRPRGHUQWLPHV551RZWKHmRQWHVGHYDUDV FRH[LVWHGZLWKWKHmRQWHVYHFLxDLV LQYHU\SUR[LPLW\ERWKZHUHFRQVLGHUHGZDVWH- WHUUDV LQFXOWDVEXWWKHGLIIHUHQFHLVWKDWWKHILUVWZHUHVXEMHFWWRIRURZKLOHWKHODWWHUZHUHQRW56 :KLOH%RXKLHUFRQVLGHUVWKDWWKHQRUWKHUQKDOIRI*DOLFLDFRQVLVWHGPDLQO\RIPRQWHVGH YDUDVEy the mid-QLQHWHHQWKDQGWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\WKH\VWDUWHGWREHDVVLPLODWHGDVmRQWHV YHFLxDLV 7KLVSHULRGRIWLPHFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKHH[SURSULDWLRQDQGWKHSULYDWL]DWLRQRIWKH PRQDVWLFSURSHUWLHVLQ6SDLQ– /D'HVDPRUWL]DFLyQZKLFKVWDUWHGZLWKDVHWRIdecrees EHWZHHQDQGLQLWLDWHGE\WKH0LQLVWHURI7UHDVXU\WKHHFRQRPLVWJuan Álvarez 0HQGL]iEDO After 0HQGL]iEDO¶VUHIRUPVWKH6SDQLVKVWDWHWULHGWREHFRPHWKHRZQHURIWKLVODQG E\WUDQVIRUPLQJWKHPLQmRQWHVGHSURSULRVZKLFKEDVLFDOO\Peans PRQWHV WKDWEHORQJWR 53 $WWKHHQGRIWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\RIWKH*DOLFLDQWHUULWRU\EHORQJHGWRWKHPRQDVWHULHV /ySH] 54 ,GLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQSHDVDQW and IDUPHU QRWKLVWRULFDOO\EXWHFRQRPLFDOO\3HDVDQWVDUHSHRSOHSURGXFLQJ their living in self-VXIILFLHQWDXWDUFKLFHFRQRPLHVZLWKQRGLUHFWLQFHQWLYHIRUVHOOLQJWKHLUSURGXFWVRQWKH markeW,VHHIDUPHUVDVHFRQRPLFHQWUHSUHQHXUV 55 The institution of IRUR ZDVQRWVWDWLF%DOERD IRXQGVWKUHHPDMRUFKDQJHVWKDWKDSSHQHGGXULQJWKH *DOLFLDQHQOLJKWHQPHQW ORRVHQHVVRIWKHYDVVDOLW\FKDUDFWHU WKHULVHLQSRZHURIDQLQWHUPediary social JURXSLGODKLGDOJXtD WKHUHQWRIWKHODQGWRWKLUGSDUW\DFWRUV³SRZHUIXOEHQHILFLDU\´WKDWZHUHDOORZHGWR UHGLVWULEXWHWKHODQGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUZLOO 56 This is still an XQGHUVWXGLHGWRSLFLQWKHOLWHUDWXUH 0\LPSUHVVLRQLV that ;HVXV%DOERDLVQRWDOZD\VFRQVLVWHQW ZLWKWKHGDWDKHLVSUHVHQWLQJ:KLOHTXRWLQJRIILFLDODGPLQLVWUDWLYHGRFXPHQWVIURPWKDWVWDWHFOHDUO\WKDW only the mRQWHVRIYDUDV DUHVXEMHFWWRUHQW %DOERD KHFRQFOXGHVWKDWWKHUHZDVQRIL[ed rent for them PRQWH,DGPLWWKDW,GLGQRWKDYH GLUHFWDFFHVVWRWKHGRFXPHQWVDQGWKDWWKHWRSLFRIIRUR is only tangent to the SUHVHQWVWXG\EXWLIZHFRQVLGHUIRUR DVDFRQWUDFWPDGHRQORQJWHUPWKDQLWPLJKWEHWKDWWKH0RQWHVGHYDUDV ZHUHVXEMHFWWRDPRUHRFFDVLRQDOUHQW+RZHYHULQWKHOLWHUDWXUH,KDYHQRWIRXQGDQ\UHIHUHQFHIRUUHQWIURP WKHmRQWHVYHFLxDLV 138 PXQLFLSDOLWLHV7KHILUVWLH\GH0RQWHV from 1863 WKDW,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQWKHQH[WFKDSWHU ZKLFKLQWKH6SDQLVKMXULGLFDOOLWHUDWXUHKDVWKHPHDQLQJRIIRUHVWU\ODZHPSRZHUHGWKHILUVW JHQHUDWLRQVRIIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVWRDEROLsh the customary uses of mRQWHQDPHO\HVWLYDGDVLQ WKHQDPHRIQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQ$V,GHVFULEHGLQWKHILVWSDUWQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQZDV FRQFHSWXDOO\WKHDSSHQGDJHRIWKHPDUNHWPHFKDQLVPVRIZKDWZHFDOODIWHU:RUOG &RPPLVVLRQRQ(QYLURQPHQWDQG'HYHORSPHQW¶VUHSRUW :&(' IURP ³VXVWDLQDEOHXVH RIQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV´7KLVLVZK\,WHQGWREHOLHYHWKDWWKHDUWLILFLDOGLYLVLRQWKDWZHILQGLQ the documents concerning RVmRQWHVGHYDUDV YHFLxDLV DQGGHSURSULRVFRUUHVSRQGVPRUHWR H[WHUQDODWWHPSWVWRUHJXODWHWKHDFFHVVWRWKHVHODQGVDQGQRWWRWKHVRFLDOUHDOLW\RQWKH JURXQG7KHUHIRUH,FRQVLGHULQOLQHZLWK6DDYHGUD DQG%DOERD WKDWWKHV\VWHP of mRQWHVYHFLxDLV LVWKHµRUJDQLF¶MXULGLFDOV\VWHPRIUHJXODWLQJWKHDFFHVVWRWKe PRQWHVat WKHORFDOOHYHOFKDUDFWHULVWLFIRUWKHZKROH*DOLFLD$QRWKHUFRQILUPDWLRQIRUWKLVVWDQGLVWKDW nowadays the mRQWHVGHYDUDV FRQVWLWXWHDUDULW\ZKLOHWKHmRQWHVGHSURSULRV GRQRWH[LVW DQ\PRUH The agro-sylvo-SDVWRUDOV\VWHPof mRQWH aQGWKHDXWDUFKLFHFRQRP\RIWKH*DOLFLDQ household were intimately linked7KHWZRIRUPHGWKHWUDGLWLRQDODJUDULDQV\VWHPLQ*DOLFLD %RXKLHU 2WR[R and a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onstantly two thirds RIWKH*DOLFLDQWHUULWRU\UHPDLQHGWKURXJKRXWKLVWRU\mRQWH 7KHDWWHPSWVIRULQGLYLGXDODQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOHQFORVXUHRIWKHmRQWH intensified from WKHPLGQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\RQZDUGV Chapter 12 - The Roots of State Forest Regulations ,QWKLVFKDSWHU,ZLOOVKRZKRZWKHZRRGFULVLVFDPHDERXWLQ(XURSHDQGHVSHFLDOO\LQ6SDLQ 7KHQ,ZLOOSRLQWWRWKHILUVWIRUHVWSURWHFWLRQPHDVXUHVRIWKH6SDQLVKVWDWHDQGLWV FRQVHTXHQFHVIRUQRUWKHUQ*DOLFLD7KHSUHVHQWDWLRQWKDWIROORZVDERXWZRRG-PDGHVKLSVLV LPSRUWDQWEHFDXVHEXLOGLQJVKLSVPHDQWGLVSRVVHVVLRQRIWKHORFDOSHDVDQWV– and the memory oIWKLVGLVSRVLWLRQLVXVHGDV,ZLOOGHVFULEHODWHURQE\WKHORFDOHOLWHVDWWKHYLOODJHOHYHOLQ their struggles to defend the rights to access the PRQWH E\WKHFRPPXQLW\RI/DEUDGD6HFRQG LWVKRZVWKHRYHUDOOFRQWH[WRIWKHILUVWIRUHVWSURWHFWLRQUHJXODWLRQVDQGLWVFRQVHTXHQFHVIRU *DOLFLD 12.1. The Floating Forests ,WLVKDUGWRLPDJLQHQRZDGD\VWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIZRRGIRUWKHFUHDWLRQRIWKHZRUOGHFRQRP\ LQWKHGD\VRIPHUFKDQWFDSLWDOLVP:RRGZDVYLWDOIRUWKHHPHUJLQJVKLSEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\ +DYLQJFRORQLHVRQDOOFRQWLQHQWVRIWKHJOREH 58 7KHILUVWVKLSVXQNE\WKHXVHRIJXQILUHLQ(XURSHZDVLQ 8QJHU 140 7KHZD\WKHVHWUDQVFRQWLQHQWDOUHDOPVZHUHJRYHUQHGDQGKRZWKH6SDQLDUGVOHJLWLPL]HGWKHLUDFFHVVDQG SRVVHVVLRQWRWKHVHQHZWHUULWRULHVLVDQXQGHUVWXGLHGWRSLFWKDWFDQEULQJLPSRUWDQWFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHVWXGLHVRI transnational governance DQGSROLWLFDOHFRORJ\)RUH[DPSOH(FRPLHQGD and 0LWD are the state institutions WKURXJKZKLFKWKH6SDQLVKHPSLUHOHJLWLPL]HGLWVFODLPVWRWKHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVLQWKHFRORQLHV7KH7KRPLVWLF SKLORVRSK\RI³FRPPRQJRRG´ZDVDWWKHFRQFHSWXDOEDVLVRIWKHP 9LYHV -21; for the Thomistic GHILQLWLRQRI³FRPPRQJRRG´VHHIRUH[DPSOH6PLWK - )RUHVWRIWKHVHDWKLVLVZKDWZHZLWQHVV WKDWIURP8O\VVHVWKH&KULVWLDQRQZDUGVWKHIDLWKDORQH WDNHV\RXRXWIURPWKH6SDQLVKPDUJLQV DJDLQVWWKHIDOVLW\RIDVLUHQ´ /RSHGH9HJD6RQQHW ³$ODMRUQDGDGH,QJDOWHUUD´LQ 0DQGHUVFKHLG RZQWUDQVODWLRQ 141 of them were sunk in the Anglo-6SDQLVKZDU - WRJHWKHUZLWKWKHVXSUHPDF\RIWKH 6SDQLVKZRUOGHPSLUH $WWKHWLPHZKHQWKH6SDQLVKEXLOWWKHLU*UDQGH\)HOLFtVLPD$UPDGD6SDLQZDV already in great difficulty concerning wood resourceV)RUEXLOGLQJKLVQDY\3KLOOLS,,KDGWR EX\ZRRGIURP3RODQGDQGEULQJLWIORDWLQJWRWKHVKLSEXLOGLQJKDUERUVRI)HUURO LQ*DOLFLD %XUJRVDQG6DQWDQGHU LQWKH%DVTXHFRXQWU\ WKH6SDQLVKWLPEHUEHLQJE\IDULQVXIILFLHQW 3RQWLQJ %HVLGHV EXLOGLQJWKHELJJHVWZDUDQGFDUJRIOHHWLQWKHZRUOG3KLOOLSKDG DQRWKHUYHU\DPELWLRXVSURMHFW,QUHDFWLRQWRWKHSURWHVWDQWUHIRUPDWLRQWKDWZDVKDXQWLQJ (XURSH3KLOOLSVDZWKHJHRSROLWLFDORSSRUWXQLW\WKDWRSHQHGXSWR6SDLQ WREHFRPHWKH stronghoOGRI&DWKROLFLVPDQGXOWLPDWHO\RI&KULVWLDQLW\ZKLOH0DGULGWREHWKH7KLUG 5RPH617KHUHIRUHKHSURFHHGHGZLWKWKHEXLOGLQJRI(O(VFRULDOWKHUR\DOSDODFHRIWKH NLQJVRI6SDLQDQGWKHHFFOHVLDVWLFFHQWHURIWKH6SDQLVK(PSLUHDPDVWHUIXOEXWYHU\Fostly DUFKLWHFWXUDOSURMHFW 61 7KHP\WKRI7KH7KLUG5RPHLVDYHU\ROGSROLWLFDOREVHVVLRQRIYDULRXVOHDGHUVRIWKH(XURSHDQFRQWLQHQW ZKLFKFRPELQHVWKHKROO\KHULWDJHRI&KULVWLDQLW\ZLWKWKHUHVXUJHQFHRIPLOLWDU\GRPLQDWLRQ$V,ZLOOVKRZLQ WKHWKLUGSDUW0RVFRZ¶VSan-6ODYLFSURMHFWDIWHUWKHIDOORIWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUHZDVURRWHGLQWKHVDPHUKHWRULF 142 WKHLUVWUDWHJLFUHVRXUFHVLQ&HQWUDO$PHULFDHVSHFLDOO\&XED,WZDV3KLOLS,,ZKRPRYHGWKH ILUVWVKLSEXLOGLQJKDUERUIURPFRQWLQHQWDO6SDLQWRWKHFRORQLHVLQWKH¶V+DYDQDEHFDPH WKHPDMRUFHQWHULQVKLSEXLOGLQJRI6SDLQ62:KLOHGHIRUHVWDWLRQFDXVHE\WKHULVHRIWKH VKLSEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\PDGHSODFHWRVXJDUSODQWDWLRQVLQ&XED )XQHV0RQ]RWH DQGLQ WKH&DULEEHDQ,VODQGV 0LQW] WKHIRUHVWVLQ6SDLQUHFRYHUHGVRLWWKDWLWZDVWKHWLPH IRUQHZ,EHULDQ-PDGHVKLSV 7KLVZDVWKHVRFLDOSROLWLFDOHFRQRPLFDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQWH[WRUZKDW,ZLOOFDOOLQIHZ ZRUGVIURPQRZRQWKHPRPHQWXP RIWKHODZ ZKHQLQ)HUQDQGR9,JDYHWZRUR\DO GHFUHHVFRQFHUQLQJIRUHVWSURWHFWLRQ7KHILUVWZDVLQ-DQXDU\- ³IRUWKHFonservation and H[WHQVLRQRI0RQWHV´DQGWKHVHFRQGLQ'HFHPEHU³IRUWKHH[WHQVLRQDQGFRQVHUYDWLRQRI 0RQWHV and 3ODQWLRV´ DUHDVZLWKSODQWHGWUHHV %RWKZHUHDFWXDOO\DWUDQVODWLRQ QRWLQWKH OLWHUDOVHQVHRIWKHZRUG RIWKH³2UGRQDQFHVXUOHIDLWGHVHDX[HW)RUHW´ IURP RIWKH )UHQFKPLQLVWHU&ROEHUWDQGERWKDLPHGDWVWUHQJWKHQLQJWKHQDYDOIRUFHRI6SDLQDVLWZDV WKHFDVHIRUWKHLU)UHQFKFRXQWHUSDUWV *URRPH $FFRUGLQJWRWKHVHODZVDOO0RQWHV that were situated within 25 OHJXDV NP IURP WKHFRDVWRUDQ\QDYLJDEOHULYHUVSDVVHGXQGHUWKHDUPDGD¶VDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ63'XHWRLWV JHRJUDSK\DOO0RQWHV LQ*DOLFLDFDPHXQGHUWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQRIWKHUR\DO6SDQLVKQDY\DQG WKHXVHDQGH[WUDFWLRQRIZRRGZLWKRXWVSHFLDOSHUPLWVIrom the intendants of the navy was VWULFWO\IRUELGGHQ%XWWKHFKXUFKNHSWLWVULJKWDQGVRGLGWKHFURZQ7KLVPHDQVWKDWDQRWKHU OD\HURIJRYHUQDQFHZDVDGGHGWRWKHH[LVWLQJIHXGDORQH 62 5DOSK'DYLVQRWHVLQKLVKLVWRU\RI7KHULVHRIWKH$WODQWLF(FRQRPLHV WKDW³WKHQHHGVRI$WODQWLFVKLSSLQJKDG JURZQVRIDVWGXULQJWKHVL[WHHQFHQWXU\WKDWWKH%DVTXHVKLSEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\ZDVXQDEOHWRNHHSSDFHZLWK WKHPDQGFRORQLDOVKLSEXLOGLQJZDVEHJXQILUVWLQ+DYDQDLQWKH¶V´ 'DYLV 63 7KLVZDVWKHFDVHIRUWKHFRORQLHVDVZHOOQRWRQO\LQWKH,EHULFSHQLQVXODRQO\WKDWLQ&XEDIRUH[DPSle the DPSOLWXGHRIWKHFRQWUROOHGWHUULWRU\ZDVQRWOHJXDVEXW Funes Monzote 2008 143 7KHUHFRYHULQJRIWKH,EHULFVKLSEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\LQWKHVHFRQGKDOIRIWKHHLJKWHHQWh FHQWXU\KDGGHYDVWDWLQJHFRORJLFDOFRQVHTXHQFHV7KLVZDVEHFDXVHWKH$UPDGDWDUJHWHG HVSHFLDOO\WKHWUHHVIURPDVIUDJDV WKDW,GHVFULEHGLQWKHILUVWFKDSWHU*XLWLiQ5LYHUDQRWHV ³$FWXDOO\ODVIUDJDV and GHKDVDV IURPWKHSURYLQFHVRI6DQWLDJR0RQGRxHGR>P\UHVHDUFK DUHDQD@DQG/D&RUXxDZHUHYHU\PXFKDIIHFWHGE\WKHUHEXLOGLQJRIWKHDUVHQDOIURP )HUURO7KHODWHU>/D&RUXxD@IRUH[DPSOHZDVSURYLGLQJDTXDQWLW\RIFDUWVRIRDNDQG FKHVWQXWWLPEHUSHUGD\ « ZKLFKUHSUHVHQWEHWZHHQDQGPHWULFWRQVSHU\HDU´ *XLWLiQ5LYHUD From these measures coal merchants and industry man took advantage through their formal and informal relations with the navy officials so that the later would allocate VXSSOHPHQWDU\TXDQWLWLHVRIZRRGWRWKHLUEXVLQHVVHV3HDVDQWVLQ*DOLFLDVDZWKHLUULJKWVRI DFFHVVPRUHDQGPRUHUHVWULFWHG:KDWVWDUWHGDVSURWHFWLRQRIPRVWLPSRUWDQWWUHHVIRU EXLOGLQJVKLSVGHIDFWR HQGHGXSLQDVWURQJHUUHVWULFWLRQIRUPRVWRIWKHIXHO-ZRRG7KH restrictLRQIRUSHDVDQWVWXUQHGLQIDYRURIWKHQHZO\EXLOW*DOLFLDQVWHHODWHOLHUVDQGVPDOO IDFWRULHV 6D\DUHWDO 3UDGR*yPH] &DUPRQD%DGtD $VDUHVXOWLQ D UHYROWWRRNSODFHLQWKHQRUWKHUQSDUWRI*DOLFLD)RXUWKRXVDQGSHDVDQWVDVVDulted and destroyed the steel factory in Sargadelos64 RZQHGE\$QWRQLR5DLPXQGR,EDxH] 0DUTXHVRI 6DUJDGHORV KLPVHOIDQDUPDGRU VKLS-RZQHU 7KLVHYHQWLVWKHPRVWVWULNLQJFROOHFWLYH PRELOL]DWLRQRI*DOLFLDQSHDVDQWU\WRGHIHQGWKHLUDFFHVVWR0RQWHV in the eighteenth century 6D\HUDWDO %XWWKLVHYHQWLVDOVRLOOXVWUDWLYHIRUWKHFODVKEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWOD\HUVRI governance around the 0RQWHVEDFNWKHQ/HW¶VWDNHDFORVHUORRNDWWKLVHSLVRGH $OOVWDUWHGLQZKHQDFRPPLWWHHRIYHFLxRVIURPWKHSDULVKRISanta Maria da 5~D DOORZHG,EDxH]WRFRQVWUXFW³RQHRUPRUHIDFWRULHVRIVWHHO´ 3DUGR TXRWHGLQ 3UDGR*yPH] RQWKHLUODQG+DYLQJWKLVILUVWDJUHHPHQWDWKDQG,EDxH]DVNHGIRU WKHSHUPLVVLRQRIWKH&URZQWREXLOG KLVVWHHOIDFWRU\%XWWKH%LVKRSRI0RQGRxHGRZKRGH MXUH ZDVWKHMXULVGLFWLRQDOVHxRU RIWKHODQGRSSRVHG7KHELVKRSIHDUHGWKDWWKHIDFWRU\ ZRXOGZHDNHQWKHLQIOXHQFHRIWKH&KXUFKLQWKDWDUHD7KHHDVLQHVVZLWKZKLFKWKHSHDVDQWV from Santa Maria GD5~DJDYHFRQFHVVLRQULJKWVWR,EDxH]LVTXLWHEL]DUUHILUVWEHFDXVHWKHUH ZHUHRWKHUDFWRUVDURXQGZKLFKZHUHDJDLQVWWKHIDFWRU\*yPH] LELG - QRWHVWKDWWKHUH ZDVDJURXSRIRSSRVLQJRZQHUV SURSULHWDULRV DQGSHDVDQWV DOGHDQRV WKDWVDZLQWKe steel LQVWDOODWLRQVDQLPSRUWDQWFRQWHVWDQWRIWKHLUDFFHVVULJKWVDQGDFRPSHWLWRUIRUWKHZRRG UHVRXUFHV6HFRQGEHFDXVHWKHSRZHURIWKHDUPDGDZDVVWLOOWKHUHDQG³WKH&RPPLVVDUIURm 64 NPQRUWKRI/DEUDGD 144 9HYHLUR+DUERUFRQVLGHUHG >WKHIDFWRU\@ DPHQDFHWRWKHQDY\¶VWLPEHUUHVHUYHVDQGWKDWLW ZLOOPXOWLSO\WKHZRRGUDYDJHVLQ6DUJDGHORV¶IRUHVWV´ LGHP $VDUHVXOWRQ2FWREHU WKH*RYHUQPHQWGHQLHG,EDxH]UHTXHVW%XWWKHFKDQFHWXUQHGWRZDUGVWKH HQWUHSUHQHXU &DUORV,,,GLHGLQ'HFHPEHUWKHVDPH\HDUDQG RQHRI,EDxH]¶WUXVWHHVLQ (VFRULDO*RGR\JRWDSSRLQWHGVXSHUPLQLVWUR,QWKHQH[WWZR\HDUV,EDxH]PDGHPXOWLSOH YR\DJHVWR0DGULGDQGHVWDEOLVKHGFORVHFRQWDFWVZLWKFHUWDLQLQIOXHQWLDO$VWXULDQJURXSV,Q -DQXDU\ ERWKWKH%LVKRSDQGWKH&RPPLVVDr gave their concent and on the 5th of )HEUXDU\WKHQHZNLQJ&DUORV,9VLJQHGWKHUR\DODFWWKURXJKZKLFK,EDxH]ZDVDOORZHGWR EXLOG ³RQHRUPRUHVWHHOIDFWRULHVLQWKHZDWHUSHULPHWHURIWKH5LR&HUYR´65 LGHP 7KHILUVW VWHHOEDUVZHUHGHOLYHUHGLQ6HSWHPEHUWRWKH$UPDGDIRUWKHVKLSEXLOGLQJDUVHQDOLQ )HUURO7KHIDFWRU\ZDVDEOHWRSURFHVVDERXWWRUDZPDWHULDOSHUGD\DERXW TXLQWDOVSHU\HDU %DGLD ,Qµ DQG¶ GLIIHUHQWVPDOOSHDVDQWUHYROWVWRRN SODFHLQWKHYLOODJHVDURXQGIROORZLQJWKHPRUHUHVWULFWHGDFFHVVWRWKHIXHO-wood that SHDVDQWVKDGWRIDFH $OOWKHVDPHWKHVHILUVWIRUHVWFRQVHUYDWLRQPHDVXUHVZHUHUHODWHGWRWKHYHU\ FKDUDFWHURIWKHFDSLWDOLVWHFRQRPLFV\VWHP WKHIDVWHULWJRHVWR PRUHVWDEOHLWLVWKHPRUH QHHGIRUQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVLWKDV$QG*DOLFLDWKURXJKLWVVKLSEXLOGLQJKDUERUVHVSHFLDOO\ )HUUROZDVLQWKHPLVWRILWDOODORQJWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\,QWKHHYHRILQGXVWULDOUHYROXWLRQ WKHGHHS-water transatlantic wooded-PDGHVKLSVUHDFKHGJLJDQWHVTXHGLPHQVLRQV:KHQD ZDUVKLSRIFDQQRQVZDVEXLOWLQ LQ)HUURODWRWDORI FRGRVFXELFRV DSSUR[LPDWHO\FXELFPHWHUVRIWLPEHUZHUHXVHG 0DQGHUVFKHLG - 2XWRI 65 In original ³HQODV$JuDVGHULR&HUYR´We notice that $JXDVWKHZDWHUSHULPHWHU refers to the OHJXDV PHQWLRQHGDERYH 145 WKLVTXDQWLW\FRGRV were fURPQRUWKHUQ(XURSHZKLOHWKHUHVWZDVORFDO LGHP 7KHDERYHGDWDVKRZVKRZWKHILUVWPHDVXUHVLQ6SDLQIRUIRUHVWSURWHFWLRQZHUHURRWHGLQWKH SHUPDQHQWLPSHULDOQHHGVIRUWHUULWRULDOH[SDQVLRQ6LQFHWKHILUVWDQGPRVWSRZHUIXOZHDSRQ LQDFTXLULQJ³QHZ´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he Political Forests ,IGXULQJWKHDQFLHQWUHJLPHUR\DOGHFUHHVZHUHWUDQVODWHGIURPRQH(XURSHDQFRXUWWRDQRWKHU DVH[HPSOLILHGDERYHWKLVHPEU\RQLFWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHEORRPHGDIWHUWKH 1DSROHRQLFZDUV%\WKHPLG-nLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ZRUOGRG\VVH\VZHUHDPDWWHURIKLVWRU\ (YHU\ERG\DFNQRZOHGJHGWKDWXQIRUWXQDWHO\WKHZRUOGKDVPDUJLQVDQGQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVDUH ILQLWH7KXVWKHUHVRXUFHVGLVFRYHUHGKDGWREHPDQDJHGE\WKHUDWLRQDOODZVRIVFLHQFH,WLV not the cDVHDQ\PRUHWRUHLWHUDWHWKDWWKHWHFKQRFUDWLFHUDLQIRUHVWU\ZKLFKDFWXDOO\LVQRW RYHU\HWUHSUHVHQWHGWKHPHDQVE\ZKLFKWKHVWDWHZRRGSURGXFWLRQDQGUHIRUHVWDWLRQZDV 66 SDQWLVLPD7ULQLGDG ZDVEXLOGLQ+DYDQDDQGILQLVKHGLQ0DUFK 6LPLODUFRQFOXVLRQVZHUHUHDFKHGE\$JUDZDOIRU,QGLD $JUDZDO - 'DYLVIRU&KLQD 'DYLV DQG3HOXVRIRU,QGRQHVLD 3HOXVR 146 HIIHFWHG 'DYLV/L6FRWW %XWZDVWKHUHDOLQNEHWZHHQIorestry SROLFHVHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQFHUQVDQGZRRGLQGXVWU\"*DUFLD3pUH]DQG+HOHQ*URRPH FDPHWRWKHIROORZLQJFRQFOXVLRQLQWKHLUVWXG\RI6SDQLVKIRUHVWU\LQWKHQLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ WKHUHZDV³DFROOXVLRQRILQWHUHVWVEHWZHHQWKHVWDWHDQGWKHZRRGSXOSLQGXVWULHVIRU WKHSURGXFWLRQRIFKHHSZRRGUDWKHUWKDQODQGSURWHFWLRQ7KHUKHWRULFRISURWHFWLRQZDVXVHG WRPDVNWKHUHDOLW\RISURGXFWLRQ´+RZZDVWKLVSRVVLEOHWKURXJKZKLFKPHFKDQLVPVRI legitimization did state technocrats administrated natural resources in nineteenth century *DOLFLD"7KHDQVZHUOLHVLQWKHUROHRIFXOWXUDOEURNHUV Although essentially an agricultural region68 and at the margin of the continental 6SDQLVKHPSLUH*DOLFLDEHQHILWHGRIDQLQWHQVLYHLQWHOOHFWXDODQGHFonomic life in the mid- HLJKWHHQWKDQGQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\2QHRIWKHILUVWHFRQRPLFVRFLHWLHV LQ6SDLQ/RVDPLJRV GHO3DtVDYHU\IDVKLRQDEOHLQWHOOHFWXDOLQVWLWXWLRQLQ(XURSHEDFNWKHQZDVIRXQGHGLQ$ &RUXx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³DFURVV-FXOWXUDOWUDGH´ZKHUHLQGLYLGXDOVZHUH³FURVV-FXOWXUDOEURNHUV´ &XUWLQ 7KLVIRUPRIFXOWXUDOEURNHUDJHZDVZHOOLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG ZLWKFOHDUUXOHV ULWXDOV SDVVZRUGVGDWHVRIFHOHEUDWLRQRIHYHQWVHWF LQZKLFKWKHLGHDVZHUHH[FKDQJHGQRW 68 In the eighteenth century in *DOLFLDWKHUHZHUHWRVWHHODWHOLHUVDQGIDFWRULHVZKLOHLQWKH%DVTXHFRXQWU\ WKHUHZHUHDURXQG %DGtD 7KHWRSLFRI³(FRQRPLF6RFLHWLHV´LQODWHHLJKWHHQWKDQGQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\(XURSHHVSHFLDOO\(DVWHUQ (XURSHZDVOLWWOHDGGUHVVHG LQHFRQRPLFKLVWRU\2QO\UHFHQWO\ZHILQGDQLQFUHDVLQJDWWHQWLRQLQWKHZRUNRI $JXHOORDQG*XLGL³7KH6SUHDGRI3ROLWLFDO(FRQRP\DQGWKH3URIHVVLRQDOLVDWLRQRI(FRQRPLVWV (FRQRPLF 6RFLHWLHVLQ(XURSH$PHULFDDQG-DSDQLQWKH1LQHWHHQWK&HQWXU\´ZKLch stands for a sound study of this SKHQRPHQRQ ,ZLOOFRPHEDFNZLWKHPSLULFDOH[DPSOHVRIFXOWXUDOEURNHUDJH ODWHURQZKLOHGHVFULELQJKRZWKHDFWXDO resistDQFHWRZDUGV1DWXUDLVKDSSHQLQJ 6KDIHUQRWHV ³,WZRXOGVHHPWREHDSHUYHUVLRQRIWKHIDFWWRGHQ\WKDWPRVWRIWKHDFWLYLWLHVRIWKH6RFLHWLHV UHYROYHGLQRQHZD\RUDQRWKHUDURXQGHFRQRPLFIDFWRUV ´DQGDIHZOLQHVEHORZ ³>L@WLVHVSHFLDOO\PLsleading to DVVHUWWKDWWKHPDLQLQWHUHVWZDVLQHGXFDWLRQZLWKRXWDGGLQJWKDWLWZDVHGXFDWLRQWRLPSURYHLQGXVWU\DQG DJULFXOWXUH´ 6KDIHU +DQV&DUOYRQ&DUORZLW]SXEOLVKHGKLV³6\OYLFXOWXUDRHFRQRPLFD´LQLQ/HLS]LJ%XWIRUHVWVFLHQtists FRQVLGHU*RWWIULHGYRQ0RVHU¶V³*UXQGVlW]HGHU)RUHVW-gNRQRPLH´SXEOLVKHGLQDVWKHILUVWVRXQG VFLHQWLILFDSSURDFKWRIRUHVWV 0DQGHUVFKHLG 148 GH2GyQ 6SHFLDO6FKRROIRU)RUHVW(QJLQHHUV9LOODYLFLRVDGH2GyQ QHDU0DGULGLQ 7KH\VWDUWHGSXEOLVKLQJUHYLHZVGHGLFDWHGWRIRUHVWU\ among which the first was 5HYLVWDGH 0RQWHV\3ODQWtRV 5HYLHZRI)RUHVWVDQG5HIRUHVWDWLRQ 0RUHRYHUWKHILUVWJHQHUDWLRQVRI HQJLQHHUVSOD\HGDPDMRUUROHLQHVWDEOLVKLQJWKHILUVW/H\GH0RQWHV )RUHVWU\/DZ in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yQ(FOHVLiVWLFDLQWKURXJKZKLFKWKHHFFOHVLDVWLFDOSURSHUWLHVILUVW EHFDPHWKHSURSHUW\RIWKHVWDWHDQGDIWHUZDUGVZHUHSULYDWL]HG WKHVDPHODZ,UHIHUUHGWRLQ WKHSUHYLRXVFKDSWHU 7KRVHZKREHQHILWHGIURPWKHSULYDWL]DWLRQZDVWKHQHZERXUJHRLVLH 6D\DUHWDO ZKLOHWKHQXPEHURf EUDFHURV GD\ODERUHUV LQFUHDVHGWUHPHQGRXVO\ WRJHWKHUZLWKWKHVRFLDOWHQVLRQVLQUXUDODUHDV 0DQGHUVFKHLG /RVEUDFHURV were HPSOR\HGPDLQO\DVFRDO-PHQIRUSURGXFLQJFKDUFRDOIRUWKHXSULVLQJVWHDOIDFWRULHVOLNHWKRVH LQ6DUJDGHORV$V,PHQWLRQHGHDUOLHUZKDWZDVQRWXVHGE\WKHQDY\ZDVXVHG for charcoal SURGXFWLRQ,QWKHPLG-QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ERWK*DOLFLDDQGWKHZKROHRI6SDLQZHUHIDFLQJD KXJHHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFW $VDFRQVHTXHQFHWKHILUVWIRUHVWHQJLQHHUVIURP(VFXHOD)RUHVWDO were called to H[HUFLVHWKHLUNQRZOHGJHRQKRZWRFXWWUHHVZLWKRXWH[WLQFWLQJWKHP%XWWKHPDNLQJDQGWKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHILUVWIRUHVWU\FRGHLQ6SDLQIDFHGDWHQVLRQWKDWODWHURQWKH8QLWHG States faced as well when 3LQFKRWFDPHIURP)UDQFH ZLWKWKHLGHDVRI%UDQGLVLQPLQG 1DPHO\LQRUGHUWRLPSOHPHQWDIRUHVWU\SODQWKHIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVQHHGHGDELJFRPSDFW VXUIDFHDUHD7KLVZDVDWRGGVZLWKWKHQHZWUHQGRISULYDWL]DWLRQVHWXSE\WKH OLEHUDO movement of 'HVDPRUWL]DFLyQ2QWKHRWKHUKDQG6SDLQODFNHGDSHUVRQDOLW\OLNH-RKQ0XLU WRFRXQWHUEDODQFHWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHWUHQG,QWKHIROORZLQJ,ZLOOLQPRUHGHWDLOKRZWKLQJV KDSSHQHG 7KHILUVW6SDQLVKIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVZHUHIDVFLQDWHGE\WKHQHZVFLHQFHDQGQRXULVKHG GHHSDGPLUDWLRQIRUWKHLU*HUPDQPDVWHUV*HUPDQODQJXDJHZDVPDQGDWRU\LQWKH(VFXHOD /RVDPLJRVZHUHDOUHDG\SXEOLVKLQJDQGGLVWULEXWLQJUHYLHZVVXFKDV³(OVHPLQDULRGH$JULFXOWXUD\$UWHV´ ³5HYLVWDGH$JULFXOWXUD3UiFWLFD´DQG³(ODPLJRGHO3DtV´ 7KHWHFKQLFDOEDVLVRIWKH/DZZDVWKH)UHQFK&RGH)RUHVWLqUH IURP IURPWKHEHJLQQLQJXQWLO 7KLVZDVEHFDXVH%HUQDUGRGHOD7RUUH5RMDVVWDWHGDV IRUHVLJKWWKDWHYHU\IRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVKRXOGVWXG\*HUPDQEHFDXVHLWLVWKHODQJXDJH³LQ ZKLFKWKH IRUHVWU\VFLHQFHZDVERUQDQGLQZKLFKLWLVFXOWLYDWHG´ TXRWHGLQ%DOERD/RSH] FKDSWHUQRWH 0RVWRIWKHIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVZHUHJRLQJWRILQLVKWKHLU DSSUHQWLFHVKLSLQ*HUPDQ\%XWZKHQFRPLQJKRPHWKH\IDFHGWKHSUREOHPWKDWZKDWWKH\ leDUQHGLQ*HUPDQ\GLGQRWILWWKH6SDQLVKUHDOLW\2QHRI+HLQULFK&RWWD¶VEDVLFSULQFLSOHV ZDVWKDWRQO\WKHVWDWHKDVWKHEUHDGDQGWKHEXWWHUWKHLQWHUHVWDQGWKHPHDQVWREULQJIRUWK FRQVHUYHDQGXVHWKHIRUHVWV7KXVWKHHQJLQHHUVLQRUGHUWRH[HUFLVHWKHLUEXVLQHVVKDGWR IDFHWKHOLEHUDOLGHDVWKDWZHUHYHU\PXFKIORXULVKLQJLQ6SDLQIROORZLQJDV,PHQWLRQHGWKH H[SURSULDWLRQRIWKH&KXUFKSURSHUWLHV The engineers were not interested in who owned what - they were interested in the administratLRQRIDVPXFKIRUHVWHGRUSRWHQWLDOO\IRUHVWHGODQGDVSRVVLEOHLQRUGHUWR OHJLWLPL]HWKHLUSUDFWLFHDQGWKHQHZVFLHQFH$VDFRQVHTXHQFHLQWKHPDNLQJRIWKHODZWKH\ SXVKHGIRUKDYLQJDVPXFKDGPLQLVWUDWLYHSRZHUDVSRVVLEOH$JXVWLQ3DVFXDO*RQ]iOHV was WKHRQO\IRUHVWU\VSHFLDOLVWLQWKHFRPPLVVLRQWKDWVHW–XSWKHEDVLFSULQFLSOHV FRPLVLyQ UHGDFWRUD RIWKHILUVW6SDQLVKIRUHVWU\ODZ %DOERD/RSH] :KLOHKHVXSSRUWHGWKH OLEHUDOLGHDVRIIUHHPDUNHWKHDOVRWULHGWRFRQYLQFHKLVSDUWQHUVLQWKHVDPHZD\WKDW 3LQFKRWGLGRQWKHDGYDQWDJHVIRUKDYLQJDVPXFKXQLIRUPL]HGIRUHVWDGPLQLVWUDWLRQDV SRVVLEOH$QGKHVXFFHHGHG'LVUHJDUGLQJWKHRZQHUVKLS0RQWHVGHSURSULRVSULYDWHRUVWDWH RZQHGIRUHVWVWKHIRUHVWVZHUHLQWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLon of the 0LQLVWU\RI'HYHORSPHQW 0LQLVWHULRGH)RPHQWR DQGWKHH[WUDFWLRQRIZRRGKDGWRIROORZWKHOLPLWVRIWKHQDWXUDO JURZWK %XWRQHRIWKHPDMRUIXQFWLRQVRIWKHQHZ6HUYLFLR that the law recognized was that of DIIRUHVWDWLRQDQGUHIRUHVWDWLRQThe forestry engineers saw DVIUDJDV DVVLJQVRISHUPDQHQW GHIRUHVWDWLRQE\WKHSHDVDQWVDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\WKHVHVXUIDFHDUHDVKDGWREHUH-IRUHVWHG The IRUHVWU\ODZHQIRUFHGIRUHVWJXDUGVZLWKXQOLPLWHGSRZHURYHUWKHORFDOXVHVLQWKH0RQWHWKH SURWHFWLRQRIWUHHSODQWDWLRQVDQGIRUHVWFRQVHUYDWLRQ7KHILIWK7LWXOR from the set of rules 5HJXODPHQWR WKDWDFFRPSDQLHGWKHODZIRULWVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQFRQVHQWVWR³WKHHOLPLQDWLRQ VXSULPDWLRQ RISHDVDQWV¶XVXIUXFWVZKHQWKHVHDUHQRWFRPSDWLEOHZLWKWKHIRUHVW FRQVHUYDWLRQSULQFLSOHV´ LQ %DOERD/RSH] - ‘The good conservation of the 0RQWHV¶ZDVWUDQVODWHGLQKDYLQJDIRUHVWU\SODQ7KLV SODQZDVPDGHDQQXDOO\IRUHDFKSURYLQFHE\WKHIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVEDVHGRQWKHGDWD SURYLGHGE\WKHQHZVWDWHORFDODGPLQLVWUDWLRQWKHORFDOD\XQWDPLHQWRV7KHD\XQWDPLHQWRV KDGWRSURYLGHLQIRUPDWLRQIRUWKHDQQXDOWLPEHUH[WUDFWLRQIRUPWKH0RQWHs DVZHOODVIRUWKH 150 XVHVWKDWZHUHQRWUHODWHGWRWLPEHU 7KXVWKHODZPDNHUVNQHZWKDWWKHUHZHUHRWKHUXVHV EHVLGHVWKHH[WUDFWLRQRIWLPEHUEXWZK\WRKDYHDUHFRUGRQWKHP":HOOWKHODZPDNHUVDOVR NQHZLQWKDWWKH6SDQLVKVWDWHKDGOLWWOHILQDQFLDOFDSDFLW\IRULPSOHPHQWLQJVXFKD JLJDQWLFSURMHFWRIUHIRUHVWDWLRQ$QGIRXUWHHQ\HDUVODWHULQDQew law was decided HVSHFLDOO\DLPLQJDWLQFUHDVLQJWKHVWDWHIXQGVIRUUH-DIIRUHVWDWLRQ,QWKHVL[WKDUWLFOHRIWKLV ODZLWLVVWLSXODWHGWKDWIRU ³DFTXLULQJWKHUHIRUHVWDWLRQDQGWKHDPHOLRUDWLRQRIIRUHVWVWKH SUHVHQWODZGLVSRVHV WKDWHYHU\YLOODJHVKDOOFRQWULEXWHZLWKRIWKHYDOXHRIWKHWRWDOXVHV IURPWKH0RQWHV ZKLOHKDYLQJWKHULJKWWRXVLQJWKHPIRUIUHH´ TXRWHGLQ%DOERD :HUHPHPEHUWKDWDWWKLVPRPHQWWKH0RQWHs were 0RQWHVGHSURSULRVWKXVEHORQJLQJWRWKH PXQLFLSDOLWLHVUHDGLQJ- WKHVWDWH7KHODZHVWDEOLVKHGYHU\FOHDUWKDWLQRUGHUIRUWKHYLOODJHV to have access to the 0RQWH WKH\ZRXOGKDYHWRSUHVHQW³ODFDUWDGHSDJR´- WKHSD\PHQWFDUG RWKHUZLVHWKH³*DUGD&LYLO´ QDWLRQDOSROLFH VKDOOSUHYHQWWKHSHDVDQWVIURP getting into the 0RQWH :KDWZHUHWKHIRUPVRIUHVLVWDQFHRIWKHSHDVDQWVWRWKLVVLWXDWLRQ"9HU\VLPSOH JRLQJ into the 0RQWH ZLWKRXWSD\LQJWKHWHQSHUFHQW7KHODZZDVRQO\DVRXUFHRIWHQVLRQDWWKH ORFDOOHYHO7KHORFDODGPLQLVWUDWLRQLQ*DOLFLDFRQVWDQWO\DYRLGHGFRPSO\LQJZLWKWKHODZ ZKLOHWKHIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVIDFHGUHDOGLIILFXOWLHVLQDFFRPSOLVKLQJWKHLUDIIRUHVWDWLRQSODQV 7KHVHGLIILFXOWLHVZHUHUHSRUWHGLQWKHGRFXPHQWVDV³LQGROHHVSHFLDO´ PHDQLQJWKDWWKHSODQV for afforestation were QRWFRPSOHWHGGXHWRVSHFLDOUHDVRQV7KHVHUHDVRQVZHUHDFWXDOO\WKH HVVHQWLDOUHTXLUHPHQWVIRUKDYLQJWKHDIIRUHVWDWLRQSODQLPSOHPHQWHG FRUUHFWLGHQWLILFDWLRQRI WKHXVHVWKHULJRURXVGHPDUFDWLRQRIWKHOLPLWVRIWKHSURSHUWLHVDQGWKHSD\PHQWRIWKe FDUWD GHSDJR:HOOQRQHRIWKHPFRXOGEHDFKLHYHG,QWKH/XJRUHJLRQWKHHQJLQHHUSHUPDQHQWO\ UHSRUWHGWKDWWKHVRLOLVQRWRSWLPDOIRUDIIRUHVWDWLRQ,QWKHSURYLQFHVRI$&RUXxDDQG 3RQWHYHGUDIURPWR WKHQXPEHURIKHFWDUHVSODQWHGZDVzero LELG - ,GHVFULEHGDERYHKRZUHIRUHVWDWLRQSROLF\LQQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\6SDLQLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKWKH OLEHUDOHFRQRPLFSULQFLSOHVRIWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\GLGQRWZRUNRQWKHJURXQG,DOVR LOOXVWUDWHGKRZWKHH[LVWHQFHRIFXOWXUDO-EURNHUDJH SUDFWLFHVLVLQWLPDWHO\OLQNHGZLWKD WUDQVSRVLWLRQRIDVSHFLILFUKHWRULFRUGLVFRXUVHLQWRDQHZVSDFH:HWRRNQRWHRI3HGUR 5RGUtJXHV¶LGHDVDQGPDQ\RWKHUH[DPSOHVFDQEHEURXJKWKHUH7KXVWKHUROHRIWKHFXOWXUDO- EURNHUVDVOLQNDJHVEHWZHHQDQLQVLGH and DQRXWVLGH is first related to ideas and later on to SUDFWLFHV 6WDWHODZIURPRI-XO\ 151 Chapter 13 - Franco’s forests 7KHILUVWIRUHVWU\FRGHIURPUHPDLQHGEDVLFDOO\XQFKDQJHGXQWLO ZKLOHWKHDFFHVV WRWKHUHVRXUFHVZDV³DQHFGRWLF´DV6RWR)HUQDQGH]DQG3ULHWRSXWLW PHDQLQJD SHUPDQHQWFUHDWLYHFRPSOLDQFHZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHVWDWHODZERWKE\SHDVDQWVDVE\WKHVWDWH officials that were in charge of law enforcement The LQGROHHVSHFLDOZDVQRWDPHWDSKRUEXW WKHVWDWHRIWKHDUWLQDSSO\LQJ-FRPSO\LQJZLWKDODZWKDWGLGQRWILWWKHORFDOVRFLDOFRQWH[W 7KHSROLWLFDOWXPXOWXRXVIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\PDGHLQGROHHVSHFLDOto ODVWIRUIHZPRUHGHFDGHV7KHDQHFGRWHVHQGHGZKHQDOOPRQWHVZHUHGHFODUHGVWDWHSURSHUW\ E\WKHVWDWHGHFUHHIURP1RYHPEHUth 7KHVDPHVWDWHODZHVWDEOLVKHVWKH6HUYLFLR 2EOLJDWRULDGH7UDEDMR)RUHVWDO 7KH'HSDUWPHQWIRU2EOLJDWRU\)RUHVWU\:RUN DQG0LOLWLD )RUHVWDOGH(VSDxD 6WDWH)RUHVWU\3ROLFH $JDLQWKHLGHDRIWKLVµQHZPRGHRIJRYernance’ FDPHIURPDEURDG,WRULJLQDWHGLQIDVFLVW,WDO\ZKHUH*HQHUDO$JRVWLQLKDGSUHYLRXVO\ FUHDWHGDVLPLODUPLOLWLD 5LFR IRRWQRWH 7KHLGHDSDVVHGWR3RUWXJDOYHU\ TXLFNO\DQGZDVDGRSWHGE\6DOD]DU¶VPLQLVWU\RIDJULFXOWXUH LELG 7KHDLPZDVWKH IROORZLQJ ³REWDLQLQJILUVWWKHQDWLRQDODXWDUFK\LQWKLVUHJDUGDQGODWHURQEHFRPH H[SRUWHUV´ 7KH'LUHFWRURIWKH)RUHVWU\GHSDUWPHQWLQDGLVFRXUVHLQ LQ 5LFR 3LQHVDQGHXFDO\SWVZHUHDFFRUGLQJWRWKHIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVWKHPRVWHIILFLHQWLH SURGXFLQJWKHELJJHVWTXDQWLW\RIWLPEHULQWKHVKRUWHVWSHULRGRIWLPH,QWZHQW\\HDUVWKH\ DUHUHDG\IRUFHOOXORVHDQGSDSHUSURGXFWLRQalights fRUPLQHVDQGVRIRUWK,QWKLVFKDSWHU, ZLOOSUHVHQWKRZ)UDQFR¶VSROLF\RIDIIRUHVWDWLRQFRQVWLWXWHGDSUDFWLFHRIODQGJUDEELQJ7KH ILUVWSDUWSUHVHQWVWKHIRUFHGDWWHPSWVRILPSRVLQJWKHDIIRUHVWDWLRQSROLF\DQGWKHSHDVDQW UHVLVWDQFH7KHVHFRQGSDUWSUHVHQWVZKDWZHUHWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIWKLVUHVLVWDQFH 13.1. “La orden es de Franco – Basta!” 7KHUKHWRULFXVHGE\VWDWHRIILFLDOVLQWKHDIIRUHVWDWLRQFDPSDJQHVZDVRQHRILPSURYLQJWKH TXDOLW\RIOLIHIRUSHRSOHKHDOWKDQGWKHEULJKWIXWXUHRIWKHQDWLRQWKHVDPHDVLQFRPPXQLVW 5RPDQLDDV,ZLOOGHVFULEHODWHU+HUHLVRQHH[DPSOHIURP E\WKH0LQLVWU\RI $JULFXOWXUH ³7KHZRUNVDOUHDG\EHJDQ « WKRXVDQGVRIPDQGXULQJWKHSUHVHQWPRQWKLQD MR\IXO\RXQJPRELOL]DWLRQMRLQWKHLUHIIRUWVIRUDWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIQDWLRQ¶VVRLO HOVXHORGHOD 3DWULD ´ LGHP %XWWKHGHFUHHSURKLELWHGWKHH[SORLWDWLRQDQGXVHRIZRRGDQGWLPEHUE\ DQ\³XQRIILFLDOSHUVRQQHO´,WZDVDOVRSURKLELWHGWKHFXWWLQJWKHWR[R,QIHZZRUGVWKHVWDWH XVHGDQ\PHDQVWRNHHSWKHSHDVDQWVRXWIURP0RQWHV7KHUHDFWLRQVZHUHPXOWLSOHDQG vehHPHQW 152 ,Q WKHUHZHUHD\XQWDPLQWRV LQ*DOLFLD$\XQWDPLHQWR is the smallest DGPLQLVWUDWLYHXQLWLQ6SDLQDQGIROORZLQJWKH1DSROLDQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHPRGHOLWLVWKHVWDWH UHSUHVHQWDWLYHDWWKHORFDOOHYHO8QGHUWKH)UDQFRUHJLPHDOO0RQWHVYHFLxDLV were owned GH MXUH E\WKHD\XQWDPLQWRV%HWZHHQ DQG D\XQWDPLHQWRVLQ*DOLFLDZHUHVXEMHFW WRUHIRUHVWDWLRQLQWHUYHQWLRQVLQWRWDOKDRIIRUHVWHGODQG7KHSURJUDPZDVGHFODUHG of 3XEOLF8WLOLW\ DQGWKHVWDWH³QHJRWLDWHG´LWVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRQO\ZLWKWKHD\XQWDPLHQWRV 6RWR)HUQDQGH]DQG3ULHWR *UXSRGRV&RP~QV - ,QRWKHUZRUGVWKH VWDWHQHJRWLDWHGZLWKLWVHOI7KLVWRS-GRZQDSSURDFKLVEHVWFDSWXUHGLQWKHZRUGVRI5DIDHO &DEHVWDQ\WKH6SDQLVKPLQLVWHUIRUDJULFXOWXUHIURP WR ³7KH0LQLVWU\RI $JULFXOWXUHKDVUHFHLYHGDVKDUSRUGHULQH[RUDEOHDQGERQH-GU\ WRIRUFHWKHUHIRUHVWDWLRQ RQPD[LP7KHRUGHUFRPHVIURP)UDQFRWKDW¶VLW´ 5LFR%RTXHWH LQ 6RWR )HUQDQGH]DQG3ULHWR 7KHSURJUDPKDGQRHFRORJLFDOEDVLVDQGZDVRQO\PHDQW WRSURYLGHWKHUDZPDWHULDOIRUWKHFHOOXORVHLQGXVWU\LQZKLFK*DOLFLDZDVVXSSRVHGWR EHFRPHWKH(XURSHDQOHDGHU 6RWR)HUQDQGH]DQG3ULHWR 153 3URYLQFHV &RPSODLQWV 1XPEHURI 1XPEHURI *DOicia YLOODJHV QRW signatures DMXQWDPHQWRV $&RUXxD 1248 Lugo 106 158 2003 Ourense 66 3RQWHYHGUD 24 345 7RWDO*DOLFLD 382 4015 Figure 5 :ULWWHQFRPSODLQWVDJDLQVWWKHDEXVLYHIRUHVWDWLRQEHWZHHQ - SRXUFH Soto Fernandez and 3ULHWR 6RPHWLPHVORFDOSROLWLFDOOHDGHUVVXSSRUWHGWKHSHDVDQWVDVLWZDVWKHFDVHLQ*XQWLQ DOVRORFDWHGLQWKH/XJR3URYLQFH+HUHWKHVHFUHWDU\RID\XQWDPLHQWR RSSRVHGafforestation RSHQO\DQGWRJHWKHUZLWKWKH YLOODJHDVVHPEO\ EORFNHGWKHVWDWHRIILFLDOVWRVWDUWWKH SODQWDWLRQV7KHVHFUHWDU\JRWDUUHVWHGDQGWKHYLOODJHUVZHUHIRUFHGWRGRYROXQWDU\ZRUNIRU KHOSLQJZLWKWKHSODQWDWLRQ,QRQO\DIHZGD\VWKH\SODQWHGSLQHVRQWKHFRPPRQ SURSHUW\RIWKHYLOODJH%XWDVVRRQDVWKHHQJLQHHUVDQG*XDUGD&LYLO OHIWWKHSHDVDQWV UHOHDVHGWKHFRZVLQWKHSODQWDWLRQGXULQJWKHQLJKW*XDUGD&LYLO could not find out who H[DFWO\UHOHDVHGWKHDQLPDOVLQWRWKHSODQWDWLRQWKHRIILFLDOYHUVLRQEHLQJWKDWWKHDQLPDOV HVFDSHGIURPWKHVWDEOHV7KXVRQO\WKHIRUHVWJXDUGVFRXOGEHSXQLVKHG LGHP ,QRULJLQDO ³3HURDGHPiVGHSURWHJHUORVSLQRV\HVRWDPELpQHUDSDUDKDFHUXQFLHUUH\KDFHUVHGXHxRGH )UDJDEHOODGHHVWHWHUUHQR´ $YyLQWPLQ 154 $QGDUDJDFKDGR ZDVWKHHYHU\GD\IRUPRIUHVLVWDQFH 6FRWW LQ/DEUDGDD mode of creati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à-YLVRQHHDFKRWKHU7KHVH harsh measures were related to the PDTXLV guerrillas the anti-Franco left wing resistance that ZDVDFWLYHLQ*DOLFLDXQWLO 82 ³«WKLVJROGWKDWFRYHUVWKHYLOODJHVOLNHDEHQHGLFWLRQ´ )UDQFR LQ 5LFR WKLVZDV)UDQFR¶VUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIIRUHVWV3URWHFWLQJWKHIRUHVWVZDVDPDWWHURI VWDWHSULRULW\ DQGPHDQWSURWHFWLQJWKHVWDWHLWVHOIDJXDUDQWHHIRULWVHFRQRPLFDXWDUFK\LQWKHEHJLQQLQJ DQGDIDYRUDEOHSODFHRQWKHZRUOGPDUNHWODWHURQ 13.2. The law of Montes Veciñais en Man Común 7KHUHSUHVVLYHUHJLPHORVWLWVLQWHQVLW\E\WKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHV6HYHUDOUHDVRQVFDQEH PHQWLRQHGKHUH WKHDQQLKLODWLRQRIFRPPXQLVWUHVLVWDQFHWKH3DFWRI0DGULGIURP ZLWK WKH86 6SDLQUHFHLYHGELOOLRQ86GROODUVIRUDOORZLQJ86IRUFHVWRPDLQWDLQDPLOLWDU\EDVH RQLWVWHUULWRU\ DQGWKHPDNLQJRI(XURSHDQ(FRQRPLF&RPPXQLW\ ((& LQ )UDQFR ZDVQRWLQVHQVLWLYHWRWKHHFRQRPLFLVRODWLRQRI6SDLQDQGWKHFUHDWLRQRIWKH((&LQcluding WKHQHLJKERULQJ,WDO\LQYDQJXDUGZDVDGHFLVLYHVLJQIRU(O*HQHUDOLVLPR that things were FKDQJLQJDURXQG%HWZHHQ DQG )UDQFRZDVRSHQWRGLDORJFRQFHUQLQJ6SDQLVK never-HQGLQJUHFHVVLRQ+HOHDQHGIRUPDUNHWRSHQLQJDQGHVWDEOLVKHGDQHconomic advisory 80 *DOLFLDQSHRSOHDUHNQRZQIRUKDYLQJ³VWUDQJHKXPRU´)DODUFRQUHWUDQFDRUVLPSO\UHWUDQFD means to talk LQPXOWLSOHPHDQLQJVEXWDOVRWRPDNHIXQRIVRPHERG\$QGDUDJDFKDGR LVRQHH[DPSOHRIUHWUDQFD,WKLQN WKDWWKHEHVWWUDQVODWLRQLQWR(QJOLVKZRXOGEHWRGXFN DFFRUGLQJWRWKHRQOLQHYHUVLRQRIWKH2[IRUG(QJOLVK 'LFWLRQDU\VHHKWWS ZZZRHGFRPYLHZ(QWU\"UVNH\ -+0I UHVXOW LV$GYDQFHG IDOVHHLG LQWKH VHQVHRIDYRLGLQJEXWDOVRLQWKHVHQVHWKDWGXFNVGRQRWJHWZHWZKHQWKH\JRWKURXJKZDWHUVRRIQRWEHLQJWRR PXFKDIIHFWHGE\VRPHWKLQJRUVRPHERG\ 81 7KLVFRQILUPHGE\DYHU\JRRGVWXG\RI/RXUHQ]R3ULHWR 3ULHWR 82 The last anti-IUDQTXLVPRILJKWHUIURPWKHHQWLUHQDWLRQDOUHVLVWDQFHPRYHPHQWLVFRQVLGHUHG ;RVp&DVWUR 9HLJD ZKRJRWVKRWE\WKHORFDOSROLFHVRPHNPDZD\IURP/DEUDGDRQ0DUFKth 155 ERDUGFRPSRVHGRIEDQNHUVHFRQRPLVWVDQGDFDGHPLFV -XDQDDQG5RGUtJXH] ,Q 6SDLQMRLQHGWKH,0)DQGWKH:RUOG%DQN)XUWKHUHFRQRPLFLQYHVWPHQWIROORZHGWKHPRVW QRWDEOHRQHIRU*DOLFLDZDVWKHRSHQLQJRIWKH&LWURsQIDFWRU\LQ9LJRLQ 83 TKHQDWLRQDOYHUVLRQRIZKDWLVIRUD*HUPDQ/DQGDQ$PWVEODWW 156 eighteenth century in order to improve, through taxation, the famine of peasants; and towards them also rushed the state officials and lawmakers (OHJLVODGRUHV from the Illustration period84 and from the first years of the nineteenth century in order to satisfy, through its implementation, the hunger for land of the peasants and of the profiteers of liberalism.´ LELG - )ROORZLQJWKLVORJLFKHFRQFOXGHVWKDWLWVKRXOGQRW EHVXUSULVLQJWKDWRQFHDJDLQLQDPRPHQWRIFULVLVWKHSROLWLFLDQVWXUQWKHLUDWWHQWLRQWRZDUGV WKLVSURSHUW\UHJLPH 1LHWR¶VGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHPRPHQWXPRIWKHODZ LVYHU\LPSRUWDQWIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKHIDOODF\LQWKH6SDQLVKDQG*DOLFLDQHQYLURQPHQWDOODZVEHIRUHDnd after the accession to ((& 84 He refers here to the law of 'HVDPRUWL]DFLyQ(FOHVLiVWLFD IURP LWZDVWRVKRZDOLWWOHFRQVLGHUDWLRQIRUWKHYHFLQRVVRWKDWWKH\ZLOORSSRVHOHVVWRWKH DIRUHVWDWLRQ « %DVLFDOO\WKH\FDPHZLWKWKLVFDQG\ FDUDPHOR RNORRNZH UHFRJQL]HWKHPDVSUHVXPHGRZQHUVDQGLWGRHVQ¶WPDWWHUWKDWWKH\DUHRZQHUVDQG WKH\FDQWDNHWKHVPDOOVKDUHRIWKHIRUHVWU\SURGXFWLRQXQGHUFHUWDLQUXOHVEXWDW OHDVWZHWXUQWKHPLQWRDOOLHVDQGQRWHQHPLHV%XWUHFRJQL]LQJWKHRZQHUVKLSRIWKH SHDVDQWVRYHUWKHPRQWHVGLGQ¶WVROYHWKHSUREOHPDWDOOEHFDXVHWKHPDLQSUREOHP ZDVQRWWKHRZQHUVKLSULJKWVEXWWKHFKDQJHWKDWWKHDIIRUHVWDWLRQSURGXFHGLQODQG XVH´ &(,, - The law of 0RQWHVYHFLxDOHVHQPDQFRP~Q UHFRJQL]HGWKHLQGLYLVLEOHFKDUDFWHr of the SURSHUW\WKHHTXDOLWDULDQULJKWRIDFFHVVRIWKH³RZQHUV´DQGWKHLPSRVVLELOLW\RIVHOOLQJLW,Q RWKHUZRUGVLWUHFRJQL]HGLQMXULGLFDOWHUPVWKDWWKLVW\SHRISURSHUW\UHJLPHLVRXWVLGHWKH PDUNHWUHDOP0RUHLPSRUWDQWLWVSHFLILHGWKDWWKH³RZQHUV´DUHDQ\VRFLDOJURXSWKDW DFFHVVHVLWZLWKWKHFRQGLWLRQWREHUHFRJQL]HGDVIRUPDORULQIRUPDODGPLQLVWUDWLYHXQLWRID D\XQWDPLHQWR,WDOVRJLYHVWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRWKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHVWRPRGLI\WKHVWDWXV DFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUQHHGV7KHUHIRUHWKHODZRI0RQWHV9HFLQDOHVDGGUHVVHVPDLQO\WKHULJKWV RIDFFHVVEXWGRHVQRWJXDUDQWHHWKHSUHVHUYDWLRQRIWKHXVHRIWKHODQGDFFRUGLQJWRORFDO QHHGV 7KHYLOODJHRI/DEUDGDZDVHQWLWOHGRQWKHVXUIDFHLWZDVXVLQJKHFWDUHVLQ EXWWKH RYHUDOOSURFHVVRIOHJDODSSURSULDWLRQRIWKH0RQWHVE\WKHSHRSOHZDVTXLWHDVORZ RQH)RUWKHDJUDULDQFHQVXVIURP WKHUHZHUHUHJLVWHUHGKHFWDUHVDV0RQWHV YHFLxDOHV ZKLOHZHUHUHJLVWHUHGDV0RQWHVSXEOLFRV EHLQJDGPLQLVWUDWHGE\Whe D\XQWDPLQWRV,QWKHUHZHUHKHFWDUHVYHFLxDOHV DQGSXEOLFRQHV85 (O*HQHUDOLVLPR GLHGLQ DWWKHDJHRIFRYHUHGZLWKJORU\+HZDVWKHRQHZKRVDYHG WKH&DWKROLF&KXUFKIURPWKHLQIDPRXVFRPPXQLVWVNHHSLWQHXWUDOLQWKHEORRGLHVWZDULQWKH KLVWRU\RIPDQNLQGDQGEURXJKWEDFNWKHGLJQLW\RIWKH6SDQLDUGV$OWKRXJK*DOLFLDQ )UDQFR ZDVERUQLQ)HUURO WKH*DOLFLDQSHRSOHZHUHQRWUHOLHYHG7KHQHZIRUHVWU\GHSDUWPHQW ,&21$ZDVQRWDNLQWRWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH³QHZ´SURSHUW\UHJLPHEXWFRQWLQXHGWR SXVKIRUWKHDIIRUHVWDWLRQ7KLVEURXJKWQHZWHQVLRQVLQUXUDO*DOLFLDEXWDOVRWKHFXOWXUDO EURNHUV EDFNRQWKHVWDJH 9LROHQWSURWHVWVWRRNSODFHGXULQJWKHVERWKLQWKHYLOODJHVDQGLQWKHFLWLHV The organized DUVRQVUHPDLQHGDFRPPRQIRUPRISURWHVWULJKWDIWHU)UDQFR¶VGHDWK2QO\LQ KDRIIRUHVWEXUQWLQGLIIHUHQWILUHVDFURVV*DOLFLDDQGDOOWKHUHSRUWVRIWKH fireman noted the same conclusion – GHOLEHUDWHDUVRQ &,(6 7KHUHZHUH PXOWLSOH UHDVRQVEHKLQGWKLV ILUVWLWZDVDSHDVDQWV¶UHYROWDJDLQVWWKHFKDQJHLQODQGXVHWKDWWKH 85 7KHWZRVXPPHGDUHKHFWDUHVZKLFKUHSUHVHQWVDSSUR[LPDWHO\RQHWKLUGRIWKH*DOLFLDQWHUULWRU\ 158 DIIRUHVWDWLRQSROLF\EURXJKWLQ%XWWRWKLVFRPPRQFKDJULQDQHZRQHDGGHGWKLVWLPHUHODWHG WRSURSHUW\ULJKWV7KHDXFWLRQVRUJDQL]HGE\WKHVWDWHDJHQF\,&21$IRUWKHH[SORLWDWLRQRI IRUHVWSDUFHOVZHUHRUJDQL]HGZLWKRXWFRQVXOWLQJWKHµQHZ¶RZQHUVWKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHV DQGPRUHRYHUZHUHDIDNH,QPRVWRIWKHVLWXDWLRQVWKHUHZDVRQO\RQHFRPSDQ\DXFWLRQLQJ IRUHDFKSDUFHOWKXVWKHSULFHZDVHVWDEOLVKHGDFFRUGLQJWRLWVZLOOPRVWRIWKHWLPHEHLQJ ULGLFXORXVORZ7KHSHDVDQWVZHUHQRWWDNLQJSDUWLQWKHDXFWLRQVQHLWKHUZHUHWKH\HQWLWOHGWR VHQGDUHSUHVHQWDWLYHWKXVWKHZKROHSURFHVVZDVQRWWUDQVSDUHQW 7KHSURWHVWVZHUHVXSSRUWHGE\WKH local left wing intelligentsia who saw in this SDUWLFXODUIRUPRISURSHUW\UHJLPHWKHPRQWHEHVLGHVDFRQILUPDWLRQRI0DU[LVWVWKHRU\RI FDSLWDOLVWGHYHORSPHQWDQLGHQWLW\V\PEROIRUWKH*DOLFLDQFXOWXUH2QHRIVXFKDVVRFLDWLRQ ³&tUFXORGH,QIRUPDFLyQ\(VWXGLRV6RFLDOHV´ 7KH&LUFOHRI,QIRUPDWLRQDQG6RFLDO6WXGLHV ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGE\DQXPEHURI*DOLFLDQLQWHOOHFWXDOVDQGVWXGHQWVLQ LQWKHVRXWKRI *DOLFLDDIWHUWKHHQFORVXUHRIWKH0RQWHV for the construction of the $XWRSLVWDGHO$WODQWLFR WKHKLJKZD\WKDWOLQNV)HUUROZLWK3RUWXJDO7KHDLPRIWKHDVVRFLDWLRQZDVFOHDUO\GHILQHG WR KHOSORFDOSHRSOHWRUHVLVWUHIRUHVWDWLRQWRSURPRWH*DOLFLDQFXOWXUHDQGORFDOLGHQWLW\860RVW RIWKHSHRSOHLQYROYHGZHUHWKHILUVWJHQHUDWLRQRILQWHOOHFWuals in their families and had their NLQVKLSURRWVLQUXUDODUHDV7KH\ZHUHRUJDQL]LQJSXEOLFGHEDWHVLQWKHORFDOPHGLDQDWLRQDO DQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOVHPLQDUVDQGFRQIHUHQFHVDQGWKH\ZHUHDFWLQJORFDOO\E\LQIRUPLQJORFDO SHRSOHZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHLUFLYLO ULJKWVDQGKHOSLQJWKHPWRRUJDQL]HWKHLUSURWHVWV2QWKH RWKHUKDQGWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVGHIHQGHGWKHSHDVDQWVLQWKHDUVRQVFDQGDOV7KH\ZHUHDUJXLQJ WKDWWKHDUVRQVZHUHRUJDQL]HGE\WKHFRPSDQLHVWKHPVHOYHVIRUJHWWLQJDFFHVVWRORZFRVWUDZ material aIWHUZDUGV &,(6 - +RZHYHUYLHZWKHIDFWWKDWWKHIRUHVWVSODQWDWLRQV ZHUHH[FOXVLYHO\IRUPHGIURPSLQHVDQGHXFDO\SWVOLWWOHZDVOHIWDIWHUWKHDUVRQDQGWKH SHDVDQWV¶QH[WPRYHZDVWRLQWURGXFHFDWWOHLQWKH³QDWXUDOO\´GHIRUHVWHGDUHDV $VVRFLDWLRQVVXFKDVWKH&tUFXOR acted as FXOWXUDOEURNHUVEXWWKLVWLPHLQWKH RSSRVLWHGLUHFWLRQERWWRP-XSFRPSDUHGZLWKKRZ7KH)ULHQGVRIWKH1DWLRQKDGDFWHGLQWKH mid-HLJKWHHQWKDQGGXULQJWKHZKROHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\7KH\KDGJRRGFRQQHFWLons with VLPLODURUJDQL]DWLRQVLQ(XURSH HVSHFLDOO\)UDQFH DQG/DWLQ$PHULFD2QFHDJDLQZHVHH WKDWWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]DWLRQRIFXOWXUDOEURNHUDJHWDNHVWKHIRUPRIDWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPPXQLW\ 7KHVHDVVRFLDWLRQVZHUHWKHHPEU\RQLFIRUPRIWKHODWHUHQYLURQPHQWDOPRYHPHQWVLQ*DOLFLD DQGRIWKHHQYLURQPHQWDO1*2VQRZDGD\V 86 1XPHURXVHWKQRJUDSKLFZRUNVZHUHGRQHE\WKLVDVVRFLDWLRQLQFOXGLQJDGRFXPHQWDU\ILOPDERXWWKH resistance against IUDQTXLVPR LQUXUDO*DOLFLD6HHDWUDLOHUKHUH LQ*DOLFLDQ KWWS ZZZ\RXWXEHFRPZDWFK"Y JV\UYD/KB Chapter 14 - The EUropean environmental coordination 14.1. Seventeen ways to deal with Natura 2000 7KH(XURSHDQ&RPPXQLW\¶VDWWHPSWVWREULGJHEHWZHHQHQYLURQPHQWDODQGHFRQRPLFDLPs ZHUHTXLWHKHVLWDQWEHIRUH 0RVWQRWDEOHLVLWVDFWLRQ-SURJUDPIURP ZLWKUHJDUGWR IRUHVWH[SORLWDWLRQZKLFKVWLSXODWHVWKDWWKHILQDODLPLVWRUDLVHWKHYROXPHDQGWKHTXDOLW\RI WKHSURGXFWLRQRIWLPEHUDWPLQLPXPFRVWVDQGWRUHGXFHWRPLQLmum the FRVWVRIH[SORLWDWLRQ ZLWKRXWGLVUHJDUGLQJHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQFHUQV%XWLQWKHVDPHWLPHWKHDFWLRQ-SURJUDPXrges WKHPHPEHUVWDWHV“to convert the unproductive forests into plantations” &RPLVLRQGHODV &RPXQLGDGHV(XURSHDV 3URJUDPHGHDFFLyQGHLQYHVWLJDWLy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aGPLQLVWUDWLYHGHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQLQFUHDVHGVRFLDODQGHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVDWWKHORFDOOHYHO ³,QUHDOLW\WKHKLVWRU\RIWKHOHJLVODWLRQIRUQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLQ6SDLQLVDFRQVHTXHQFHRI WKHLPSRVLWLRQRIWKH(8OHJLVODWLRQDIWHU7KLVLVWRVD\ WKDWLQIDFW6SDLQZDVWKHEHHWURRW RI(XURSHLQWKLVUHJDUG´ '6LQWHUYLHZQRWHV $VDKLVWRULDQ'6LVRQHRIWKH*DOLFLDQ DFDGHPLFVWKDWDFWLYHO\WRRNSDUWLQFULWLFLVPRIWKH hazy legal initiatives concerning envLURQPHQWDOLVVXHVLQ6SDLQ UQWLO0DUFKZKHQWKH6SDQLVKQDWLRQDOSDUOLDPHQWDGRSWHG7KH(QYLURQPHQWDO ,PSDFW$VVHVVPHQW (,$ WKHUHZDVQRSDUOLDPHQWDU\DGRSWHGHQYLURQPHQWDOODZLQ6SDLQ 8SWRWKLVGDWHHQYLURQPHQWDOUHJXODWLRQVDWVWDWHOHYHOZHUHE\'HFUHWR-/H\ZKLFKPHDns µXUJHQWODZV¶DSSURYHGE\WKHJRYHUQPHQW6RRQDIWHULWVDGPLVVLRQLQWRWKH((&6SDLQZDV FRQVLGHUHGWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPXQLW\¶VZRUVWSROOXWHU2QO\LQ 6SDLQKDGILIW\VHYHQ instances of non-FRPSOLDQFHZLWK(XURSHDQ&RPPXQLW\HQYLURQPHQWDOVWDQGDUGVZKLOH:HVW *HUPDQ\IRUH[DPSOHKDGWZHQW\QLQHIURP WR 6LOYHUV EIA was DGRSWHGLQ*DOLFLDIHZPRQWKVODWHUDQGZDVLPPHGLDWHO\IROORZHGE\DPRUHUHVWULFWLYHDFW FRQFHUQLQJQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ$FWRI$XJXVWst7KHGHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQSURFHVVGLGQRW 160 VROYHHQYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHVEXWSDVVHGWKHPLQWKHKDQGVRIWKHDXWRQRPRXVUHJLRQV+HUH WKHSUREOHPVFRQFHUQLQJFRRUGLQDWLRQLQWHQVLILHG IQ6SDLQHQYLURQPHQWDOSURWHFWLRQregional aXWRQRP\DQG1DWXUDDUHGHHSO\ intertZLQHG7KHVXSHUSRVLWLRQRIWKHVHPXOWLSOHOD\HUVRIJRYHUQDQFHIRUQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQ GRXEOHGZLWKWKHDXWRQRPRXVDPELWLRQVRIWKHUHJLRQVFUHDWHVDFDFRSKRQ\LQWKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQSURFHVVDWWKHORFDOOHYHO)LUVWQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLQ6SDLQLVHQWLrely a FRPSHWHQFHRIWKHUHJLRQV7KLVPHDQVODZVRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ QHWZRUNVRISURWHFWHG areas and ZD\VRISURWHFWLQJendangerHGVSHFLHV$IWHUWKHSURFODPDWLRQRIWKHDXWRQRP\ WKHKLVWRULFUHJLRQVDPRQJWKHP*DOLFLDZHUHPRUHHDJHUWRJHW DOOW\SHVRIFRPSHWHQFLHVDV VRRQDVSRVVLEOH(QYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHVZHUHDPRQJWKHP 7KHUHIRUH the resSRQVLELOLW\IRULPSOHPHQWLQJHQYLURQPHQWDOGLUHFWLYHVLVWKH FRPSHWHQFHRIWKHQDWLRQDOVWDWHVWKDWKDYHWRFRPSO\ZLWKWKH(8GLUHFWLYHVZLWKLQWZR\HDUV DIWHUWKHLUSURPXOJDWLRQ,Q6SDLQHQYLURQPHQWDOSROLFLHVDUHHQWLUHO\LQWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\RI the regionsZLWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRIWKHQDWLRQDOSDUNVDFRQFHSWZLFKRWKHUZLVHZRXOGKDYH lost its sense :KHQWKH1DWXUDVLWH6HUUDGR;LVWUDOZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQRQWKH SURSHUW\RIWKH&RPXQLGDGGH/DEUD VHH$QQH[ WKHHQWLUHUHJLRQRI6HUUDGR;LVWUDO was 6HH$QQH[IRUWKHWHFKQLFDOGHWDLOVDERXWWKHVLWH 161 SDUWRIWKH%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYH88 7HUUDVGR0LxR ZKLFKZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQ 7KHUHVHUYH ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGPDLQO\EHFDXVHRIWKHDFWLYHSHDWUHVHUYHORFDWHGLQWKH;LVWUDO VHHDOVR 0DQR'XUDLQWHUYLHZZLWK35 – ZKLFKLVWKHELJJHst and the oldest of its kind LQ(XURSH%HFDXVHRIWKHODUJHVXUIDFHRIWKLVUHVHUYH LWLQFOXGHVFRPPXQLWLHV WKH FRQVHUYDWLRQUHJLPHZDVFDUHIXOO\GHVLJQHGWRUHVSHFWWKHORFDOHFRQRPLFDFWLYLWLHV0RZLQJ the WR[R DQGEXLOGLQJSDVWXUHVZDVQRWKDUPLQJWKHSHDWUHVHUYHE\DQ\PHDQVDQGZHUH DOORZHG 88 %LRVSKHUH5HVHUYHLVWKHKLJKHVWGHJUHHLQQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQPRVWRIWKHVLWHVVXFKDVWKH'DQXEH'HOWD DQGP\FDVH7HUUDVGR0LxRZHUHHYHQGHFODUHG81(62SDWULPRQLHVIRUQDWXUH 162 14.2. The burden of new land-use Picture 10 & Picture 11: Banners used by A Asociación para a Defensa Ecolóxica de Galiza (ADEGA) to protest against the wind farming in Xitral and other parts of Galicia. SRXUFH $'(*$ZZZDGHJDLQIR 6HUUDGR;LVWUDOKDVLWVPD[LPXPKLJKSRLQWDWPHWHUV7KLVORZPRXQWDLQRXV JHRJUDSKLF IRUPLVWKHILUVWREVWDFOHLQWKHZD\RIWKH$WODQWLFFXUUHQWVFRPLQJIURPWKHZHVW +HUHZLQGLVDOZD\VEORZLQJ$VDFRQVHTXHQFHLWKDVWKHELJJHVWFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIZLQG IDUPVLQ*DOLFLD VHH$QQH[ 7KHSUREOHPLVWKDWWKHVDPHVSRWDV,VKRZHGDERYHKDVWKH ROGHVWDQGELJJHVWSHDWUHVHUYHLQ(XURSH$QGQRWRQO\EHFDXVHRISDUWLFXODUKDELWDWVWKLV WHUULWRU\LVD6&,VLWHLQWKH1DWXUDSURJUDP7KLVLVKRZQDWXUHPDNHVWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQ WKLVPXOWLOD\HUFRQIOLFWRUKRZQDWXUH¶VDJHQF\PDWWHUV 7KHSUREOHPLVQRWRQO\HFRORJLFDOEXWLWLVDPDMRUVRFLDOSUREOHPZLWKYHU\ LPSRUWDQWHFRQRPLFLPSDFW$FFRUGLQJWRWKHODWHVWGDWDDYDLODEOHZKLFKLVIURPWKH SXEOLFSURILWVFRPLQJIURPWKHLQYRLFLQJ IDFWXUDWLRQ RIWKHZLQGIDUPFRPSDQLHVUHSUHVHQWV RIWKHWRWDOLQFRPHLQWKHDJUDULDQVHFWRU 5HQGD$JUDULD LQ*DOLFLD This means that this new economic activity developed in rural Galicia produces more than half of all other rural economic activities together,QWKHVDPHWLPHEHWZHHQ DQGWKH QXPEHURIDJULFXOWXUDOZRUNHUVLQ*DOLFLDGLPLQLVKHGE\0RUHRYHUWKHDEDQGRQRI KRXVHKROGVLQWKHUHPRWHDUHDVRI*DOLFLDLVKLJK7KHQXPEHURI³HQWLGDGHVVLQJXODUHVGH SRElDFLyQ´ DEDQGRQHGZHQWXSLQWKH/XJRGLVWULFW ZKHUH/DEUDGDLVORFDWHG IURPWR EHWZHHQ DQG,QWKHOLJKWRIWKLVGDWDLt is easy to understand now why there is VROLWWOHLQWHUHVWLQWKHDJULFXOWXUDOSUREOHPVRIWKHIDUPHUVIURPWKHSDUWRI;XQWDGH*DOLFLD '9LVPHPEHURIWKH1*2$$VRFLDFLyQSDUDD'HIHQVD(FROy[LFDGH*DOL]D henceforward $'(*$ . This association has a long tradition in militating against wind IDUPLQJLQ;LVWUDO+HWROGPHWKDWKHZURWHWZROHWWHUVWRWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ I want to thank 3URI;DYLHU6LPRQDQG'DPLDQ&RSHQDIURPWKH)DFXOW\RI(FRQRPLFV8QLYHUVLW\RI9LJR IRUWKHGDWD $FFRUGLQJWRWKH6SDQLVK1DWLRQDOInstitute of Statistics ZZZLQHHV WKLVUHSUHVHQWV ³DQ\DUHDLQKDELWHGE\ DQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHHQWLW\RIWKHVWDWH´,WEDVLFDOO\UHIHUVWRDOGHDVKDPOHWV 163 FRPSODLQLQJIRUWKHGLVDVWHULQ;LVWUDODQGWKHEDGLPSOHPHQWDWLRQDQGPDQDJHPHQWRI1DWXUD LQ*DOLFLDLQJHQHUDO:KHQ,DVNHGWKHUHVSRQVLEOHRI1DWXUDLQ*'(QYULURQPHQW LQ%UXVVHOVKHDQVZHUHGWKDWQRVXFKOHWWHUVKDYHDUULYHG³:HDUHRQO\SHRSOHZRUNLQJLQ WKLVGHSDUWPHQWIRUWKHZKROH 1DWXUDSURJUDP%XWZHKDYHWRDQVZHUWRHYHU\OHWWHU WKDWDUULYHVDQGLIWKHOHWWHUDUULYHGZHVKRXOGKDYHDQVZHUHGWRLW´ 6/LQWHUYLHZ PLQ $VIRUPRQLWRULQJFDSDFLW\WKLVLVLPSRVVLEOH- QRWRQO\EHFDXVHRIWKHODFNRI SHUVRQQHOEXWDOVREHFDXVHWKH'*(QYLURQPHQWFKDQJHGLWVDSSURDFK³:HGRQ¶WZDQWDQ HQYLURQPHQWDOSROLFH´ $QGKHFRQWLQXHV ³7KHUHZHUHPLVWDNHVLQWKHSDVWLWZDVDWRS- GRZQLPSOHPHQWDWLRQWKDWGLGQ¶WZRUN%XW ZHOHDUQHGIURPWKLV´ +HH[SODLQVPHKRw )UDQFHSOD\HGDQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKLVUHSRVLWLRQLQJ$WWKHEHJLQQLQJORFDORIILFLDOVDQGWKH SXEOLFZHUHUHWLFHQWWRWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHGLUHFWLYHV%XWWKHGHSDUWPHQWVDZWKH QHFHVVLW\RIEULQJLQJDOOVWDNHKROGHUVDWWKHWDEOHIRUGLVFXVVLRQ and a more down to earth DSSURDFKZDVXVHGE\WKHFRPPLVVLRQPRUHUHFHQWO\ 14.3. A case of cultural brokerage and institutional hypocrisy $V,PHQWLRQHGSUHYLRXVO\DFFRUGLQJWR&XUWDLQFXOWXUDOEURNHUDJHGRHVQRWZRUNLQ VLWXDWLRQVRIILUPLPSRVLWLRQZKHQRQHSDUW\FDQFDOOWKHWXQH,QWKLVVHFWLRQ,JLYHDQ H[DPSOHRIDSDUWLFXODUW\SHRIFXOWXUDOEURNHUDJHZKHQRIILFLDOQDWLRQDODQGVXSUD-national DXWKRULWLHVDUHLQYROYHG,ZLOOGHVFULEHWKHDWWHPSWVRIEXLOGLQJFXOWXUDOEURNHUDJHDQG forming DWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPPXQLW\RIORFDODFWRUVXQGHUWKH(8LQVWLWXWLRQDOVXSHUYLVLRQ 7ZLQQLQJLVRQHH[DPSOHRI(8URSHDQSURMHFWVGHVLJQHGWREXLOGWUDQVQDWLRQDO FRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQORFDODFWRUVIURP(8PHPEHUVWDWHVDQGSRWHQWLDOPHPEHUVWDWHV,W started LQ DWWKHLQLWLDWLYHRIWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ (& LQRUGHUWRKHOSSRWHQWLDO PHPEHUVWDWHVWRincrease ³HIILFLHQWDGPLQLVWUDWLRQVZLWKWKHVWUXFWXUHVKXPDQUHVRXUFHV DQGPDQDJHPHQWVNLOOVQHHGHGWRLPSOHPHQWWKH EU DFTXLV” RQWKHLUZD\IURPSUe- DFFHVVLRQWRDFFHVVLRQ,WLVE\GHVLJQDWKUHHVLGHGSURJUDPFRPSRVHGRIRQHFRRUGLQDWRUD SURMHFWOHDGHUDQGDEHQHILFLDU\ 2QHWZLQQLQJSURJUDPZDVVHW-XSEHWZHHQ/D6RFLHGDGH*DOHJDGR0HGLR$PELHQWH 6$ 62*$0$ DVSURMHFWOHDGHUWKH5HJLRQDO(QYLURQPHQWDO3URWHFWLRQ$JHQF\RI1RUWK- (DVW5RPDQLDDVDEHQHILFLDU\DQG6HQWHU1RYHPDQDGYRFDF\DJHQF\SDUWRIWKH'XWFK 0LQLVWU\RI+RXVLQJ6SDWLDO3ODQQLQJDQG(QYLURQPHQWDVSDUWQHUFRRUGLQDWRU62*$0$is DQHQWHUSULVHZLWKSXEOLFVKDUHVDQG SULYDWH,WZDVFUHDWHG E\WKHGHFUHH-law RIWKH;XQWDGH*DOLFLDDQGLWLVVXERUGLQDWHGWR&RQVHOOHUtDGH0HGLR$PELHQWH 7HUULWRULRH,QIUDHVWUXWXUDV 0LQLVWU\RI(QYLURQPHQW7HUULWRU\DQG,QIUDVWUXFWXUH 7KH 6RXUFH KWWS HFHXURSDHXHQODUJHPHQWKRZ-does-it-work/technical-DVVLVWDQFHWZLQQLQJBHQKWP 164 RIVKDUHVDUHRZQHGE\WKH *UXSR*DV1DWXUDO )HQRVD7KLVLVDPXOWLQDWLRQDOFRUSRUDWLRQ whose main share-holders are &ULWHULD&DL[DFRUS6$ZLWKDQG5HSVRO<3)6$ 2QHRIWKHPDLQHFRQRPLFDFWLYLWLHVRIWKHWZRLVZLQGIDUPLQJ7KHPRVWUHFHQW H[DPSOH RQ0DUFK*UXSR*DV1DWXUDOVLJQHGDQDJUHHPHQWZLWKWKH0DGULG 5HJLRQ /D&RPXQLGDGGH0DGULG IRU³QHZPRGHOVRIHQHUJHWLFQHWZRUNV´ZLWKDQ LQYHVWPHQWRIPLOOLRQHXURIRUWKHQH[WWZR\HDUV ,QWHUQHWSRUWDORI*UXSR*DV1DWXUDO )HQRVDKWWS SRUWDOJDVQDWXUDOFRP 7KHSURJUDPWRRNSODFHEHWZHHQ0DUFKDQG$XJXVW $VHULHVRIVHPLQDUV ZHUHRUJDQL]HGE\WKH'XWFKDQG*DOLFLDQRIILFLDOV7KUHHRIWKHVHVHPLQDUVZHUHRUJDQL]HG E\WKH6SDQLVKVSHFLDOLVWVRI62*$0$RQELRGLYHUVLW\DQGQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ$PRQJWKH VXEMHFWVZHILQG - ³1DWXUD0DQDJHPHQWLQ*DOLFLD([DPSOHVRIJRRGSUDFWLFHVDQGSURPRWLRQRI LQWHJUDODQGVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQWZLWKLQWKHVHDUHDV´; - ³:D\VWRLPSURYHWKHVRFLRHFRQRPLFDOVWDWXVRISRSXODWLRQ liYLQJLQVLGH1DWXUDVLWHV DQGLQFUHDVLQJWKHLUSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQWLQLWLDWLYHV´; - ³)LQDQFLQJRIGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRISURMHFWVDQGSURJUDPVLQ1DWXUDVLWHV´ 7ZLQQLQJ 3URMHFW5HSRUW S- :KHQFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHGDWDIURP*DOLFLDWKHVWDWHPHQWVDERYHEHFRPHDQH[DPSOHRI K\SRFULWHLQVWLWXWLRQDOEHKDYLRU,LQWHUYLHZHG,XOLDQ0RYLOӽWKH5RPDQLDQPDLQUHVSRQVLEOH LQWKHSURMHFWDERXWZKDWKHIRXQGPRVWLPSUHVVLYHLQWKHWZLQQLQJSURMHFW +HDQVZHUHG ³, KRSHWKDWRQHGD\ZH DVDQHQYLURQPHQWDODJHQF\will UHDFKWKHOHYHORI62*$0$7KH\ KDYHDQRWKHURUJDQL]DWLRQWKH\DUHDSXEOLF-SULYDWHSDUWQHUVKLSIRUHQYLURQPHQWDODJHQF\ ZLWKDJUHDWILQDQFLDOSRZHUDQGZLWKWKLV,VDLGHYHU\WKLQJ,WKLQN«´ ,XOLDQ0RYLOӽ LQWHUYLHZ - ,DVNHG0U0RYLODLIKHVWD\HGLQFRQWDFWZLWKWKH*DOLFLDQVRUWKH 'XWFK+HDQVZHUHGWKDWKHGLGQRWWKDWWKH\ZHUHVWDWHRIILFLDOVDQGWKH\QRZZRUNLQRWKHU SURMHFWV+HPHQWLRQHGWKDWRQHRIWKH62*$0$HPSOR\HHVQRZZRUNVLQ7XUNH\,WKLQNLW LVSHUIHFWO\OHJLWLPDWHWRDVNZKDWLVWKHWUXHREMHFWLYHRIWKHVHWZLQQLQJWUDLQLQJSURJUDPV" %XW,GRQRWZDQWWRJRIXUWKHUWRWKLVLVVXH2IFRXUVHWKDW0U0RYLOӽZDVQRWDZDUHRIWKH SROLWLFDOLQFRKHUHQFLHVRIWKH ;XQWDDQGWKHVRFLDODQGWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQMXVWLFHWKDW 62*$0$FDXVHGLQ*DOLFLD%XWµWKH:HVWLVWKHEHVW¶DQGinstitutional mimetism is one of WKHPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVLQ5RPDQLDQSROLWLFVDV,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQWKHQH[WSDUW 7KHUHSRUWFDQEHDFFHVVHGRQOLQHKHUH KWWS ZZZWZLQQLQJ-waste-EDFDXURRYHUYLHZ-of-twinning-SURMHFW-ro- 06-LE-en-06 165 Chapter 15 - The dynamic of bundle of rights LRFDOQDWLRQDODQGVXSUDQDWLRQDODFWRUVXVHWKHVDPHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV 15.1. A community There are not a few the social scientists who romantize the hom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decision-PDNLQJDWWKHORFDOOHYHODQLVVXHWKDWSXSV-XS DORQJWKLVFKDSWHU,VWDUWIURPWKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWDFRPPXQLW\LVDOLYLQJERG\RIKXPDQ LQGLYLGXDOVWKDWDUHERXQGHGWRDWHUULWRU\XQGHUWDNHFROOHFWLYHDFWLYLWLHVDQGDFKLHYH FROOHFWLYHJRDOV 166 $VVWDWHGLQWKHLQWURGXFWLRQ/DEUDGDKDV YHFLQRVZKLFKPHDQV KRXVHV WKHUH DUHSHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHRXWRIZKLFKDUHPDOHV WKHDYHUDJHDJHLV WKXVDTXLWH DJHGSRSXODWLRQ/DEUDGDLVSDUWRIWKHD\XQWDPLHQWR RI$EDGLQ$OWKRXJKWKH SULPDU\ administrative unit is the D\XQWDPLHQWRWKHYLOODJHVDVSDULVKHVFRQWLQXHWRSUHVHUYHWKHLU DGPLQLVWUDWLYHOLPLWVHVWDEOLVKHGE\WKH&DWKROLF&KXUFK WKHVHOLPLWVDUHUHFRJQL]HGE\WKH D\XQWDPLHQWR+RZHYHUWKHFRPPRQSURSHUWLHVRIWKHYLOODJHs do not match neither the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as agro-sylvo-SDVWRUDOV\VWHPLV HVVHQWLDOO\DFROOHFWLYHDUUDQJHPHQWRIODQGXVH 15.2. Peasants and farmers Similar with othHUSDUWVRIUXUDO*DOLFLDEHIRUHWKHGHFODUDFLRQHV there were no village DVVHPEOLHVLQWKHIRUPWKDWZHUHLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HGE\WKHODZRIPRQWHVYHFLxDOHVHQPDQ FRP~Q3HRSOHZHUHJDWKHULQJLQPRUHLQIRUPDOZD\WRGHFLGHZKHUHWRPDNHSORWVIRUWKH FURSV in the PRQWHZKHUHWRPDNHWKHUR]DV%\WKHHQGRI$SULO- EHJLQQLQJRI0D\WHQWR ILIWHHQSHRSOHVRPHWLPHVOHVVZHUHJDWKHULQJSRUEDUULR E\ hamlets in the house of a YHFLxo7KHUHIRUHDEDUULR FRXOGKDYHWZRRUPRUHJURXSVRIYHFLxRV organizing themselves for making UR]DV7KHUHZHUHPHQDQGZRPHQPDLQO\WKHKHDGRIWKHKRXVHKROGVWRGHFLGH ZKLFKSDUWRIWKHPRQWH VKDOOEHSORXJKHG:HQHHGWRNHHSLQPLQGWKDWDQ\IRUPRI DVVRFLDWLRQDWWKHORFDOOHYHOZDVSURKLELWHGGXULQJ)UDQFR,Q/DEUDGDSHRSOHUHPHPEHUWKDW WKHVHPHHWLQJVKDGDVHFUHWFKDUDFWHUEDFNWKHQ+RZHYHULOOHJDOLWZDVGXHWRWKHJUHDW DPRXQWRIZRUNSHRSOHQHHGHGWRJDWKHUIRUZRUNLQJWKHODQG FXWWLQJWKHWR[RSLOLQJLWXS EXUQLQJLWDQGVSUHDGLQJWKHDVK7KHVRZLQJZDVDOVRGRQHLQFRPPRQ2QO\DIWHUDOOWKLV ZRUNZDVDFFRPSOLVKHGWKHYHFLxRVZHUHGLYLGLQJWKHZKROHSORWDPRQJWKHP2IFRXUVH HDFKRQHRIWKHPKDGDQLGHDRIKRZPXFKVKHQHHGHG7KHIHQFLQJRIWKHUR]D was done with a EDODGRDSUDFWLFHWKDW,GHVFULEHLQGHWDLOIHZSDJHVDERYH7KHOLPLWVZLWKLQWKHUR]D WKDWZHUHGHOLPLWLQJKRZPXFKHDFKIDPLO\VKDOOWDNHZHUHGRQHE\WUDFLQJDGHHSHUIXUURZ LQWKHVRLO$Q\YHFLxR was allowed to take as much DVWKHIDPLO\QHHG3HRSOHGRQRW UHPHPEHULQGLYLGXDOVJRLng and working alone in the PRQWHDQGWKLVPDLQO\EHFDXVHRIWKH DPRXQWRIZRUNWKHVHSURFHGXUHVUHTXLUH'HVSLQDRQHRIWKHROGHVWZRPHQLQ/DEUDGD UHPHPEHUVKRZGXULQJWKHKDUVKWLPHVRIIDPLQHDQGFLYLOZDUSHRSOHZHUHPRUHXQLWHG ³3HRSOHZHUHPRUHWRJHWKHULQWKHIRUPHUWLPHVZHOLNHGWREHWRJHWKHU1RZ LW LVDVLIZH DUHDIUDLGRQHRIHDFKRWKHU´ 6KHUHPHPEHUVKRZLPSRUWDQWWKHUR]DV ZHUH ³LIZHZHUHQRW VRZLQJLQWLPHDQGQRWWDNLQJFDUHRIUR]DVWRJHWKHUZHZRXOGKDYHGLHG RIKXQJHURU OHIWWR $UJHQWLQD´ I mentioned earlier that not few social scientists tend to romanticize the good old times RIUXUDOVRFLHWLHVDQGKHUHLVWKHFDVHRIWKHPRVWORFDOVWXGLHVLQERWK*DOFLDDQG5RPDQLD 168 EHWWHU%XWWRJHWKHUZLWKWKH LQWURGXFWLRQRIQHZFRZVDJUHDWWUDQVIRUPDWLRQWRRNSODFHLQ WKHYLOODJH WKHGLYLVLRQEHWZHHQPLONFRZVDQGFRZVIRUPHDW%RWKZHUHQHZVSHFLHVDQG UHTXLUHGVSHFLDODWWHQWLRQ%XWWKHQHZEUHHGVZHUHQRWDVUHVLVWDQWDVWKHORFDORQHV%\WKH ninetieVDOPRVWDOOOLYHVWRFNLQ/DEUDGDFKDQJHG WKHQXPEHURIJRDWVDQGVKHHSGLPLQLVKHG GUDVWLFDOO\ GXULQJP\VWD\LQ/DEUDGD,ZLWQHVVHGWKHVHOOLQJRIWKHODVWIORFNRIJRDWVLQWKH YLOODJH0RGHVWR¶VJRDWV DQGWKHORFDO5XELD*DOHJD JRWµLPSURYHG¶E\artificial LQVHPLQDWLRQ7KH(XURSHDQVXEYHQWLRQVIXHOHGWKLVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQIXUWKHU+RZHYHUGXHWR KLJKFRVWVRIWHFKQRORJ\LQPLONSUHSDUDWLRQRQO\WKUHHIDPLOLHVLQWKHYLOODJHVHWWKHLUIDUPV IRUPLONSURGXFWLRQWKHUHVWRIWKHPZHQWRQZLWKFRZVIRUPHDW1HYHUWKHOHVVERWK FDWHJRULHVRIIDUPHUVKDYHWKHVDPHSUREOHP WKHQHZEUHHGVRIFRZVDUH«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more UHVLVWDQWRUQRWLVRIOHVVLPSRUWDQFH:KDWLVLPSRUWDQWLVWKDWWKHLGHQWLILFDWLRQRIDVLQJOH FDVHRIEUXFHOORVLVDWWKHVHDVRQDOYHWHULQDU\FRQWUROUHTXLUHVWKHH[WHUPLQDWLRQRIWKHHQWLUH OLYHVWRFNDQGWKHTXDUDQWLQHRIWKHIDUPIRUDWOHDVWWKUHHPRQWKV;DYLHUH[SODLQV ³%HIRUH FRZVKDGEUXFHOORVLVDQGWKH\ZHUHKHDOLQJE\WKHPVHOYHV:KHQSHRSOHKDGIHYHUZHVWD\HG LQEHGIRUDZHHNDQGEDVWDEXWWKLVZDVYHU\UDUHNowZLWK%UXVVHOV- RVLVWKH\UXLQHGXV´ ;DYLHUDGPLWVWKDWPD\EHWKHSHRSOHEDFNLQWKHGD\VZHUHQRWDZDUHRIVRPDQ\EUXFHOORVLV FDVHV $QRWKHUGLUHFWFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHVDQLWDU\UHTXLUHPHQWVLQVWLWXWHGE\WKH6SDQLVKVWDWH DQGHQIRUFHGE\WKH(8¶VVXEYHQWLRQVIRUWKHFROOHFWLYHXVHRIWKHPRQWH was the enclosure of SDVWXUHV3HRSOHEHFDPHFDXWLRXVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHIUHHPRYHPHQWRIFDWtle within the FRPPRQSURSHUWLHVRIWKHQHLJKERULQJYLOODJHVPRUHWRDYRLG%UXVVHOV- RVLV FRQVHTXHQFHV than %UXFHOORVLV FRQWDPLQDWLRQ7KHFRZVHQGHGXSIHQFHGLQODUJHSDVWXUHVLQWKHPRQWH 6RKRZSHRSOHH[SHULHQFHWKHLQVHFXULW\RIIUHHGRPLQ/DEUDGDand how do they RYHUFRPHLW"%RWKTXHVWLRQVDUHUHODWHGWRWKHVHQVHRIFRPPXQLW\WKDWSHRSOHKDYH QRZDGD\V7KHILUVWLVUHODWHGWRWKHHQWUHSUHQHXULDOVSLULWDWWKHORFDOOHYHO,QWKHSURFHVVRI WUDQVLWLRQIRUPSHDVDQWVWRIDUPHUVSHRSOHLQ/DEUDGDXQGHUVWRRGWKDWHYHU\ERG\LVRQLWV RZQDQGWKDWWKHHFRQRPLFLQWHUHVWVFRXQWPRUHWKDQDQ\WKLQJHOVH7KHHIIRUWVRI+HQDULQ KDYLQJPRUHSURILWIRUWKHFRPPXQLW\IURPWKHZLQGPLOOFRPSDQLHVRUIRUJHWWLQJ FRPSHQVDWLRQVIRUQRWEHLQJDEOHWRPDNHSDVWXUHVLn the PRQWH DUHXQGHUVWRRGE\VRPHLQWKH YLOODJHDVSXUHVHOILVKHFRQRPLFLQWHUHVWV7KHHWKQRJUDSKLFILOPWKDW,PDGHLQWKHYLOODJH 6WURQJKROG VKRZVKRZSHRSOHGXULQJWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEO\DFFXVHWKHERDUGRI DGPLQLVWUDWLRQDVUHSUHVHQWLQJRQO\WKe interests of those in the community who have more FRZVDQGQRWWKHSRRUWKHVLFNWKHROGRUWKHORQHO\SHRSOH+HQDUSUHVHQWVZKDWZRXOGEH WKHDGYDQWDJHVIRUWKHFRPPXQLW\LQDVNLQJIRUFRPSHQVDWLRQVDQGVKHKDVDGLVFRXUVHLQ ZKLFKVKHSUDLVHVWKHDncestors that defended the PRQWH DORQJWKHWLPH$OWKRXJKVKHPLJKW KDYHEURXJKWWKLVGLVFRXUVHGXHWRP\SUHVHQFHLQWKHURRPDQGIRUWKHFDPHUDSHRSOHDJUHHG ZLWKKHUDUJXPHQWV PRUHKRHIRUWKHFRZV'RXULQRLVDQGKHH[SODLQHGPHKRZSHRSOHIHDUWKDWDQHYHQWXDO EDUJDLQZLWKWKHFRPSDQLHVIRUKDYLQJIUHHHQHUJ\LQWKHYLOODJHRUWRUDLVHWKHSD\PHQWRIWKH UHQWIRUWKHODQGDFFRUGLQJWRPRUHULJRURXVFDOFXOLQRWRIWKHYDOXHRIWKHODQGEXWRIWKH value that thHZLQGPLOOSURGXFHVLVRIQRVHQVHIRUWKHPDMRULW\RIWKHSHRSOH$QGWKLVLV PDLQO\EHFDXVHSHRSOHIHDUWKHHYHQWXDOMXULGLFDOEDWWOHWKDWWKHFRPPXQLW\ZRXOGXQGHUWDNH 7DWDLVDQGLVYHU\PXFKLQIDYRUIRUUHQHJRWLDWLQJWKHFRQWDFWVZLWKWKHFRPSDQLHV)RU WKLVWKHYRWHRIWKHPDMRULW\RIWKHSHRSOHLVQHHGHGEXWLQKLVZRUGV³WKHSUREOHPLVWKDW SHRSOHIHDUWKHODZ\HUVDQGZHSUHIHUWRORVHZKDWEHORQJVWRXVWKDQWRJRWREDWWOH7KHUHLV DVD\LQJ WKH\SLVVRQXVDQGZHVD\WKDWWKDWLWUDLQVDQGWKLVLVWKHFDVHQRZLQ/DEUDGD´ +HQDUSXWVWKHODFNRIFRKHVLRQDWWKHFRPPXQLW\OHYHOLQDEURDGHUFRQWH[W6KHH[SODLQHG PHWKDWVLQFHWKHPDMRULW\RIWKHSHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHDUHSHQVLRQHUVDQGWKH\KDYHWKHLU FKLOGUHQZLWKDVWDEOHVRFLDOSRVLWLRQ PHDQLQJWKDWWKH\KDYHMREVDIDPLO\ WKH\DUHYHU\ PXFKFRPIRUWDEOHZLWKZKDWWKH\KDYHDQGWKH\GRQRWIHHOOLNHILJKWLQJIRUPRUHULJKWV 6KHDOVRUHODWHVWKHLUUHIXVHWRWKHIDFWWKDWWKHROGSHRSOH³DUHWLUHGRI ILJKWLQJ´ after the Franco rHJLPH+RZHYHUWKLVWKHPHGLGQRWDSSHDUGXULQJP\GLVFXVVLRQVDQGLQWHUYLHZV ZLWKHOGHUO\SHUVRQVLQWKHYLOODJH,SXWWKLVFRQFOXVLRQRI+HQDUPRUHRQWKHFRPEDWLYHVSLULW WKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HVKHUDFWLRQVLQWKHYLOODJHLQIOXHQFHGE\WKHVWURQJWLHVWKDW she has with DFWLYLVWVDQGDFDGHPLFVRXWVLGHWKHYLOODJH$V,ZLOOGHVFULEHODWHU+HQDULVDFXOWXUDOERUNHU DWWKHORFDOOHYHO 7KHYLOODJHDVVHPEO\LV DQDUHQDVRWRVD\ZKHUHWKHGLVKDUPRQLHVLQYLOODJH¶VFRPPRQ DFWLYLWLHVRUVWUDWHJLHVDUHSXWVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGE\DQ\FRQWHVWDQW LVDVRUWRIPRUDOLQVWDQFH ZKHUHHYHU\ERG\KDVWKHULJKWWROHWJRZKDWHYHUVKHKDVRQWKHKHDUWZLWKUHJDUGWRWKH fellRZYHFLxRV7KHUHDGHUVKRXOGEHDZDUHRIWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHOLIHLQWKHVPDOOYLOODJH RI/DEUDGD- LWZRXOGEHDQHUURUWRWKLQNWKDWSHRSOHPHHWLQWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEOLHVWRUHDFK FRKHVLRQLQGHFLVLRQPDNLQJ7KHQHJRWLDWLRQVDQGFRKHVLRQWDNHSODFHLQVRPHSODFHHOVH +HQDUDQG*HRUJHKDYHWZRFKLOGUHQ-XPDUDDQG0DUFRVRIDQG\HDUVROG%RWKNLGVZRUNRXWVLGH /DEUDGD 15.3. Party people 7KHYLOODJHIHVWLYLWLHVDUHDQLPSRUWDQWFROOHFWLYHDFWLYLW\7KHUHDUHWKUHHYLOODJHILHVWDVLQ /DEUDGD 6DQ3HGUR – WKHSDWURQRIWKHYLOODJHRQ RI-XQH 6DQ$QWRQLR- the first weekend after June 13; and 9LUJHQGHO&DUPHQRU2&DUPLX LQWKHYHUQDFXODUODQJXDJHFHOHEUDWHGon July +HUHDJDLQWKHILHVWDVZHUHQRWFHOHEUDWHGLQWKHVDPHPDQQHUDQGZLWKWKHVDPH IHUYRULQWKHSDVWGHFDGHV:KLOHWKHFROOHFWLYHODERULQWKHPRQWH GHFUHDVHGWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQWKHFRPPRQILHVWDVLQFUHDVHG ,GRQRWFODLPDQ\FDXVDOUHODWLRQKHUH 6DQ3HGURDVWKHSURWHFWRURIWKHYLOODJHKDVDOZD\VEHHQFHOHEUDWHGZLWKIHUYRU7KH FHOHEUDWLRQRI6DQ3HGURLVDOVROLQNHGWRIXQHUDOULWXDOVQDPHO\DOPVJLYLQJIRUWKHGHDG and UHOLJLRXVVHUYLFHLQWKHFHPHWHU\%XW6DQ$QWRQLRDQG2&DUPLRX were not village fiestas XQWLOUHFHQWO\6DQ$QWRQLRLVWKHSURWHFWRURIDVPDOOFKDSHOLQWKHQRUWKRIWKHYLOODJHLQWKH EDUULR &DVDV9HOODV which literally means the 2OG+RXVHV7KHFKDSHOJRWUHQRYDWHGVRPH ILIWHHQ\HDUVDJRXVLQJFROOHFWLYHPRQH\GHULYHGIURPVHOOLQJWKHWLPEHULQWKHPRQWH,WZDVD PRPHQWRIJUHDWFHOHEUDWLRQLQWKHYLOODJHDQGDQRSSRUWXQLW\WRVKRZWKHDGYDQWDJHVRI FRPPXQDOODQGWHQXUH7KHILHVWDRUJDQL]HGDIWHUWKHEHQHGLFWLRQRIWKHFKDSHOZHQWYHU\ZHOO VRWKDWHYHU\ERG\DJUHHGWKDWQH[W\HDUSHRSOHVKRXOGFHOHEUDWH6DQ$QWRQLRDJDLQQH[WWRWKH FKDSHO$QGVLQFHWKHQSHRSOHFHOHEUDWHLWHYHU\\HDU 1XHVWUD6HxRUDGH0RQWH &DUPHORRU9LUJHQGHO&DUPHQLVWKHSURWHFWRURIPDULQHUV DQGRIWKH6SDQLVK$UPDGDVLQFHWKHWKLUWHHQWKFHQWXU\DQGLVFHOHEUDWHGRQ-XO\Although /DEUDGDLVQRWDFRDVWDOYLOODJHSHRSOHFHOHEUDWHWKHSDWURQRIWKH6SDQLVK$UPDGD,W DSSHDUHGZHLUGWRPHZKHQ,ILUVWKHDUGDERXWWKLV ,GLGQRWXQGHUVWDQGZK\DYLOODJHVLWXDWHG DWNPIURPWKHFRVWDYLOODJHZLWKQRWUDGLWLRQLQVDLOLQJZKDWVRHYHUFHOHEUDWHVWKHSDWURQ RIWKH6SDQLVK$UPDGD"2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLQWKH&DWKROLFFDOHQGDU9LUJHQGHO&DUPHQ is not DPDMRUFHOHEUDWLRQGD\QRULVLWDSXEOLFKROLGD\7KHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHYLOODJHRI/DEUDGD DQGWKH6SDQLVK$UPDGDLVQRWYLYLGLQWKHFROOHFWLYHPHPRU\RIWKHSHRSOH EXWLVYLYLGLQWKH local ritual of 2&DUPLRX3HRSOHGRQRWSD\WRRPXFKLPSRUWDQFHWRZK\FHOHEUDWing the O &DUPLouWKH\DQVZHUYHU\VLPSOH ZHDOZD\VGLG TKLVFHOHEUDWLRQZDVQRWDYLOODJHFHOHEUDWLRQEXW a ILHVWDGHEDUULRV meaning that it ZDVKDSSHQLQJVHSDUDWHO\LQHYHU\KDPOHW2QHQHHGWRWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWDOVRWKDWIURPWKH hamlet of 2XWULUoVLWXDWHGDWWKHOLPLWRIWKHQRUWKWRWKHYLOODJH¶VFKXUFKWKHUHDUHVL[ NLORPHWHUVDQGWKHPRVWFRPPRQPHDQVRIWUDQVSRUWDWLRQEDFNLQWKHWLPHZDVZDONLQJ $Q\KRZIURPDFRORUIXOILHVWDLQHYHU\EDUULR LQWKHPLG ¶V 2&DUPLRX ten years ago was PRUHDQRSSRUWXQLW\IRUYLVLWLQJIULHQGVDQGQHLJKERUV 3HRSOHVWDUWHGWRFHOHEUDWH together 2&DUPLRX LQWKHSDVW\HDUVZLWKPRQH\IURPWKHZLQGPLOOFRPSDQLHV+HQDU H[SODLQHGPHKRZDIWHUUHQRYDWLQJWKHSDURFKLDOKRXVH in 2001 some money was left so that WKHERDUGRIDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWRRNWKHGHFLVLRQWRFHOHEUDWH2&DUPLRX as a village fiesta on the JODGHLQIURQWRIWKHFKXUFKLQWKHVDPHZD\DV6DQ3HGURLVFHOHEUDWHG,QWKHIROORZLQJ \HDUVWKHUHZHUHQRWVRPDQ\LQYHVWPHQWVOHIWWRPDNHLQWKHFRmmon goods or infrastructure ZLWKWKHPRQH\IURPWKHFRPSDQLHVWKHUHIRUH2&DUPLRX got institutionalized as the third YLOODJHILHVWD $YLOODJHILHVWDVWDUWVLQWKHDIWHUQRRQDIWHUHYHU\ERG\ZHQWKRPHIRUOXQFK%XW SHRSOHGRQRWHDWVHSDUDWHO\RQWKHFHOHEUDWLRQGD\XVXDOO\WKH\JDWKHUWRJHWKHULQVPDOO JURXSVDQGJRWRWKHKRXVHRIRQHRIWKHP7KHJURXSVDUHHVWDEOLVKHGXSRQKRXVHSUR[LPLW\ DQGV\PSDWKLHV'XULQJOXQFKDQGWKHSRVWUHZKLFKPLJKWEHVZHHWVDQGFRIIHHFRJQDFRU ZLQHSHRSOHLQWHUPLQJOHGD\WRGD\LVVXHVWRWKHYLOODJHUHODWHGSUREOHPV7KLVLVWKHPRPHQW ZKHQVRFLDOFRKHVLRQDWWKHYLOODJHOHYHOOHDYHQV7KHYHFLxRVDUULYHDWWKHILHVWDZLWKWKH DJHQGDVHWVRWRVD\DQGDOWKRXJKWKH\VWLFNLQLWLDOO\WRWKHLUOXQFKJURXSVDVVRRQ as music DQGGDQFHVWDUWWKH\PL[PRUHZLWKHDFKRWKHU7KHGULQNVDUHSURYLGHGE\FROOHFWLYH DUUDQJHPHQWDQGVRLVWKHEDQGUHPXQHUDWHG7KHGHEDWHVWDNHSODFHDPRQJJODVVHVRIFLGHURU ZLQHZKLOHWKHEDQGSOD\VLWVUHSHUWRLUH3HRSOHUHIUDLQIURPVSHFNLng loud and offensive one WRHDFKRWKHUOLNHLWLVWKHFDVHLQWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEOLHVIRUNHHSLQJZLWKWKHOXGLFVSLULWRI WKHILHVWD5HWUDQFDFRPHVLQIRUHIURQWDVWKHPDLQPHDQRIFRPPXQLFDWLQJGLVDJUHHPHQW +RZHYHUWKLVLVQRWWRVD\WKDWDYLOODJHILHVWDQHFHVVDULO\OHDGVWRIXOODQGSHUPDQHQW FRKHVLRQLQGHFLVLRQPDNLQJ%XWLWLVWKHWLPHZKHQWKHDQWLSDWKLHVDSSHDVHDQGSHRSOHFKHHU XSWLPHIRUMRNHVDQGIXUWKHUJRVVLSLVZKHQPRUHVHULRXVGLVFXVVLRQVFDQWDNHSODFHDSDUW form the frugal meetinJVDORQJWKHURDGRURIPRUHGDLO\LQWHPSHVWLYHYLVLWV 15.4. Hunters *DPHVEHFRPHWKHPDMRUFROOHFWLYHXVHRIWKHPRQWHDSUDFWLFHWKDWWUDQVODWHVWKHERXQGDULHV RIWKHYLOODJH,WZDVDFROG6XQGD\RI2FWREHUDQGIRUWKHILUVWWLPH,ZHQWZLWK'RXULQR to WKHZLOGERDUFKDVHLQo PRQWH+XQWLQJLVDXVHPRUHRIV\PEROLFLPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHIDUPHUV LQWKHUHJLRQ*DPHLVOLQNHGZLWKUXUDOLGHQWLW\DQGSHDVDQWUHVLVWDQFH³$OPRVWDOOPHQWKDW ZRUNWKHODQGDUHKXQWHUV´'RXULQRWROOHGPH +HUHPHPEHUVKRZ EDFNLQWKH)UDQFR pSRTXHWKHUHZHUHQRJDPHDVVRFLDWLRQVDQ\NLQGRIDVVRFLDWLRVDWWKHORFDOOHYHOZHUH IRUELGGHQ%XWLWZDVDOORZHGWRKDYHDULIOH6RWKH\ZHUHJDWKHULQJDQGZHUHJRLQJKXQWLQJ DQ\ZD\ $VIRUHYHU\KXQWLQJVHVVLRQSHRSOHPHHWLQWKHKRXVHRI3HSHODFDVHYHUGH – the JUHHQKRXVHKRZLWLVNQRZQLQWKHYLOODJH3HSHLVWKHSUHVLGHQWRIWKHKXQWLQJDVVRFLDWLRQ 7KHIROORZLQJTXRWHVDUHUHSURGXFHVIRUPP\ILHOG-QRWHERRN In his FDVDYHUGH ZDVWKHODVWWDYHUQIURP/DEUDGD+HFORVHGVRPHWKUHH\HDUVDJREHFDXVH KHUHWLUHG3HRSOHUHJUHWWKDWWKH\KDYHQRSODFHZKHUHWRJDWKHUIRUSOD\LQJVRPHFDUGVWDON DQGKDYLQJVRPHGULQNVDQ\PRUH7KHQH[WWDYHUQLVLQ$EDGLQDWNPGLVWDQFH%XWWKH KXQWHUVDUHµSULYLOHJHG¶:HILQG3HSHEHKLQGWKHEDUVHUYLQJFRIIHH OLNHDOZD\V%HKLQGKLP some vine ERWWOHVZDLWWKHLUWXUQ)RUWKHKXQWHUVFDVDYHUGH LVVWLOOWKHPHHWLQJSRLQW 0RUHRYHU3HSHDUUDQJHGLQKLVROGEDUQVRPHWHFKQLFDOIDFLOLWLHVIRUHYLVFHUDWLQJDQGEXWFKHU WKHSUH\6RLQWKHHYHQLQJWKHKXQWHUVUHWXUQWRFDVHYHUGH IRUDGULQNWDONDQGWRSRUWLRQWKH PHHWDQGIXUV :KHQ'RXULQRDQG,DUULYHDOPRVWHYHU\ERG\ZDVWKHUH7KHROGWDYHUQLVIXOORI VPRNHDQGLWLVFROGEXWWKHSHRSOHDUHYLYDFLRXV3HSH¶VZLIHFRPHVLQZLWKVRPHKRPH PDGHFDNHV(YHU\ERG\JUHDWVUHVSHFWIXOO\,GRQRWNQRZLIEHFDXVHRIWKHFDNHVRUIRUFDULQJ PXFKUHVSHFWWR0RGHVWD3HRSOHLQ/DEUDGDWHQGWRKDYHWKHLUEUHDNIDVWDURXQGWHQR¶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³7KHRQO\WKLQJLVWROLNHKXQWLQJ”VD\VRQHRIWKHP'RXULQR¶VVRQ &DOLVWRLVWDNLQJSDVWZLWKDOPRVWHYHU\RFFDVLRQ+HOLYHVVRPHNPDZD\LQ9LOODOED+H LVWKHRQHWKDWRIIHUVPHWKHEHVWLPDJHRIUHVLVWDQFHWRZDUGVWKHXUEDQYDOXHV ³ZHDUHQRW YHJHWDULDQVKHUH´+HH[SODLQVPHWKDWWKHKXQWLQJDVVRFLDWLRQVUHJURXSWKRVHWKDWDUHVWLOO LQWLPDWHO\OLQNHGZLWKWKHROGYDOXHVRIWKHUXUDOOLIH³3HRSOHLQWKHFLW\DUHFRQFHLWHG YDLGRVRV DQGGRQ¶WOLNHWKHKuQW%XWWKH\GRQ¶WNQRZKRZDFRZORRNVOLNH´ 5HVLVWDQFHLQ WKH\RXQJVWHUV¶FDVHLVUHODWHGWRDIRUPRIVWXEERUQQHVVLQFRSLQJZLWKWKHXUEDQOLIHVW\OH &DOLVWRLVDQHQJLQHHUZRUNLQJIRUDVPDOOHQWHUSULVH+HFKRVHWROLYHFORVHWRKLVIDWKHUDQG latHUWRPRYHEDFNLQ/DEUDGDDQGFRQWLQXHZLWKDQLPDOIDUPLQJ %XWLVWLPHWRJRWKHKXQWVWDUWV%HVLGHVFRQVLGHULQJWKHPVHOYHVDVWKHGHSRVLWRU\RI WKHµROGUXUDO¶YDOXHVWKHKXQWHUVDOVRWKLQNWKDWWKH\KDYHWKHPRVWDGYDQFHGNQRZOHGJHRQ the surroundLQJQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW,QWUDFLQJWKHDQLPDOVWKH\FRPHWRNQRZHYHU\GHWDLORI the PRQWHHYHU\OLWWOHFKDQJHHYHU\QHZDSSHDUDQFH7KLVLVZK\ZKHQLWFRPHVWR SURWHFWLQJQDWXUHDQG1DWXUDWKHLUDWWLWXGHLVYHU\PXFKUHOXFWDQW%XWWKH\DUHQRW UHOXFWDQWWRWKHSURWHFWLRQLVWLGHDSHUVH; they are reluctant to the idea of having their access UHVWULFWHGLQWKHQDPHRIPDMRUFKDQJHVWKDWWKHHQYLURQPHQWXQGHUJRHV7KH\FRQWHVWWKH VFLHQWLILFOHJLWLPDF\RIWKHUHVWULFWLRQVDQGWKXVWKH\VHHWKHPDEXVLYH'RXULQRH[SODLQV KRZWKHUHVWULFWLRQVFRQFHUQLQJKXQWLQJKDUPVWKHVPDOODJULFXOWXUDODFWLYLWLHVLQWKHYLOODJH PRVWO\WKHSRWDWRILHOGV$FFRUGLQJWRKLPWKHVSHFLDOLVWVIURPWKH0HGLR$PLHQWH do not XQGHUVWDQGWKDWE\DOORZLQJKXQWLQJDFHUWDLQQXPEHURIERDUVDQGGHHUSHU\HDUWKH\ZLOOQRW VROYHWKHSUREOHP³3HRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHDUHQRWDOORZHGXVLQJRWKHUPHWKRGVPRUH WUDGLWLRQDODQGPRUHHIILFLHQWIRUHGXFDWLQJWKHVHDQLPDOVWRQRWJRLQWKHILHOGV´$FFRUGLQJ WRKXQWHUV¶EHOLHYHWUDSVDUHPRUHHIILFLHQWEHFDXVHLWGRHVQRWNLOOWKHDQLPDODOORIDVXGGHQ EXWE\EHLQJNHHSLQJLWLQWKHFDWFKIRUDZKLOHLWVFDUHVWKHRWKHUDQLPDOVDQGWKH\GRQRW FRPHIRUDZKLOH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGE\KXQWLQJWKHERDUVLQWKHPRQWH³\RXNLOOWKHPWKHUH DQGWKH\VWLOOFRPHWRHDWKHUHRYHUDQGRYHUDJDLQEHFDXVHWKH\NQRZWKDWKHUHWKH\KDYH IRRG´ 7KH(QYLURQPHQWDO'HSDUWPHQWRI*DOLFLDKDVDKXQWLQJSODQDFFRUGLQJWRZKLFKD FHUWDLQQXPEHURIDQLPDOVDUHDOORFDWHGIRUHDFKJDPHDVVRFLDWLRQ7KHGHSartment is LQWHUHVWHGLQKDYLQJD³VXVWDLQDEOH´QXPEHURIZLOGDQLPDOVLQWKHPRQWH2QWKHRWKHUKDQG WKH\DOVRSURYLGHVRPHILQDQFLDOFRPSHQVDWLRQIRUWKHGDPDJHVWKDWWKHZLOGDQLPDOVSURGXFH %XWWKHIDUPHUVDUHQRWLQWHUHVWHGLQWKHFRPSHQVDWLRQVZKLFKDFFRUGLQJWRZKDWWKH\WROG PHZHUHQHYHUGHOLYHUHG7KLVUHVWULFWLRQLVRQO\DSDUWRIDELJJHUSLFWXUHWKDWWKHIDUPHUVLQ /DEUDGDSHUFHLYHZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQSROLFLHV 15.5. Wind-mills The first wind-PLOOIDUPZDVVHWXSLQ;LVWUDOLQ RQWKHODQGRIWKH0RQWRXWRYLOODJH QHLJKERULQJ/DEUDGDRQWKHQRUWK2WKHUVIROORZHGXQWLOWKHWLPHRIP\ILHOGZRUNDQGWKHXS- grading RIWKHSRZHU-JHQHUDWRUVLVRQJRLQJDWWKHPRPHQW7KH;WUDQVQDWLRQDO6SDQLVK FRUSRUDWLRQ KHQFHIRUWK;76& KDVWKUHHPDLQGRPDLQVRIDFWLYLW\ URDGDQGUDLOQHWZRUNLQJ ZDWHUSURYLVLRQDQGHQHUJ\SURYLVLRQ,WLVDZRUOGOHDGHULQFOHDQHQHUJ\DQGLQZDWHU SURYLVLRQWKURXJKLQVWDOODWLRQVIRUZDWHUGHSXUDWLRQDQGRVPRVLVGHVDOLQDWLRQ;76&KDV wind mills oI0ZSODQWHGLQ;LVWUDO%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYH5HJURXSHGLQIDUPVWKHZLQG PLOOVDUHLQWHUFRQQHFWHGWKURXJKDVSKDOWHGURDGVRQWKHJURXQGDQGFDEOHVIRUHQHUJ\ GLVWULEXWLRQXQGHUJURXQGSHVWOLQJWKHSHDWUHVHUYH 0LVWKHPDQDJHURIWKHSDUNVVLQFHDQG;76&¶VFKLHIPDQDJHUIRU$VWXULDV DQG*DOLFLDUHJLRQV+HPDGHDQLQWHUHVWLQJUHPDUNZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHDUULYDORIKLVFRPSDQ\ LQ;LVWUDO ³:KHQZHDUULYHGKHUHWKHUHZDVQRWKLQJ7KHVHPRQWHV were HPSW\WKHUHZHUHRQO\EXVKHV %XWWKLVUHJLRQLVWKHZLQGLHVWLQ*DOLFLDDQGWKHVHFRQGZLQGLHVWLQ6SDLQVRDQRSSRUWXQLW\ IRUORFDOGHYHORSPHQW « ,DPSURXGWRZRUNIRUDFRPSDQ\WKDWSURYLGHVFOHDQHQHUJ\ GRHVQRWKDUPWKHHQYLURQPHQW– %XWKRZLVWKLVHQHUJ\FOHDQZKHQGHVWUR\VWKHSHDW UHVHUYH"– )RUPHLWLVFOHDQ´ 6WURQJKROG- ´ Picture 12: Wind farms in Xistral. 3KRWRPDGHE\WKHDXWKRU 0LVUHWHOOLQJWKHVWRU\RIFDSLWDOLVPLQ DYHU\FRQYLQFLQJPDQQHU$VZHQRWLFHGLQWKH VHFRQGSDUWRIWKLVVWXG\GHGLFDWHGWRWKHLQWHU-OLQNEHWZHHQWKHLQYHQWLRQRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ DQGWKHUDLVHRIFDSLWDOLVPWKHUHLVQRWWRPXFKGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQ/RFNH¶VYLVLRQRIZDVW VLF $PHULFDQODQGDQG0¶VLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHQDWXUDODQGWKHVRFLDOHQYLURQPHQWLQ ;LVWUDO%XWZHZLOODQDO\]HWKLVODWHURQLQWKHFRQFOXVLRQVDQGPRUHLQGHSWKLQWKHDQDO\WLFDO SDUW SDUW9 :KDWLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRQRWLFHIRUWKHPRPHQWLVWKDWWKHEXQGOHRIULJKWVLQ ;LVWUDOLVVWURQJO\LQIOXHQFHGE\WKHSHQHWUDWLRQRIH[WHUQDOPHDQLQJVRIWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV :KRZRXOGKDYHWKRXJKWWKDWWKHZLQGKDVDQ\YDOXHLQ;LVWUDO"$QG\HW LWGRHV %XWWKH monetDU\YDOXHRIWKHZLQGHQHUJ\SURGXFHGKHUHLVQRWWRRPXFKUHIOHFWHGLQWKHSURVSHUWLW\ of the ORFDOHFRQRP\7KHPRQH\JRHVZLWKWKHZLQGand the ORFDOGHYHORSPHQWLVa FKLPHUD 9HU\IHZORFDOSHRSOHDUHHPSOR\HGLQWKHZLQGIDUPV7KLVLVGXHWRWKHKLJh technical skills that the maintenance of the wind-JHQHUDWRUVUHTXLUHV$FFRUGLQJWRP\NQRZOHGJHRQO\D VPDOOQXPEHURISHRSOHIURPWKHYLOODJHVDURXQGIRXQGMREVLQWKH;76&ZLQGIDUPV IHZ VHFUHWDULHVIHZWHFKQLFLDQVDQGFOHDQLQJSHUVRQQHO$V/RFNH¶s image of ZDVWH$GDP Smith’s dictum RIFRORQL]DWLRQWKDWEULQJVZHDOWKLVFKDOOHQJHDEOH LQ;LVWUDO ³7KHFRORQ\RID FLYLOL]HGQDWLRQZKLFKWDNHVSRVVHVVLRQHLWKHURIDZDVWHFRXQWU\RURIRQHVRWLJKWO\ LQKDELWHGWKDWWKHQDWLYHVHDVLO\JLYHSODFHWR WKHQHZVHWWOHUVDGYDQFHPRUHUDSLGO\WR ZHDOWKDQGJUHDWQHVVWKDQDQ\RWKHUKXPDQVRFLHW\´ $GDP6PLWK >@ 15.6. One night My interest during the hunting sessions ZDVWRILQGRXWPRUHDERXWWKH0RQWHVKRZWKH KXQWHUVSHUFHLYHWKLVHQYLURQPHQWDQGLIWKH\DUHDIIHFWHGE\WKH1DWXUDUHVWULFWLRQV %XWLQWXUQ,DOVRJRWVRPHIUXJDOLQIRUPDWLRQWKDW,GLGQRWH[SHFW,WZDVGXULQJWKLVJDPH session when I heard for the first time that the PRQWHVEHORQJHGWRthe $UPDGD'RXULQR menWLRQHGVRPHWKLQJEXWKHFRXOGQRWWHOOPHPRUHGHWDLOV$OWKRXJK,GLGQRWEX\WKH DUJXPHQWWKHLGHDZLWKWKHQDY\ZDVLQWHUHVWLQJDQG,SXWLWLQP\QRWH-ERRN6HFRQGWLPH, KHDUGDERXWWKH6SDQLVKQDY\VWRU\ZDVZKHQ,ZHQWWREX\KRQH\IRUP$OH[DQGURHe has VRPHSURSHUWLHVZLWKLQWKH1DWXUDVLWHDQGKHLVQRWDOORZHGWRFXWGRZQDWUHHIURPRQH RIWKHVHSURSHUWLHV+HLVPXFKLQVWLJDWHGDQGVHHVWKHUHVWULFWLRQDVDGLVVSRVVHWLRQRID UHVRXUFHIURPKLVRZQKRXVHKROG ³,VWKLVKRXVHPLQHRUQRWLV WKLVWUHHPLQHRUQRW",ILWLV PLQHWKDQ,VKRXOGFXWLW´ 7KHWUHHLVDQROGPXOEHUU\,PDGHWKHREVHUYDWLRQWKDWWKHUHDUH QRWPDQ\ROGWUHHVLQ/DEUDGDDQ\KRZ+LVDQVZHUZDV ³QRAUPDGDFXWWKHPORQJEHIRUH´ When I asked him details he only mentioned something with regard to the access of Armada to the PRQWHVLQ*DOLFLDEXWKHFDQQRWJLYHPHPRUHGHWDLOV+RZHYHU,JRWSX]]OHGDERXW WKHOLQNKHPDGHEHWZHHQWKHUHVWULFWLRQWRFXWWUHHVDQGWKH$UPDGDWKXV,ZHQWWRDVN+HQDU my host and trust\LQIRUPDQWIURP/DEUDGD6KHWROGPHWKDWVKHGRHVQRWNQRZDQ\WKLQJIRU VXUHEXWVKHKDVWKHLPSUHVVLRQWKDWVKHKHDUGVRPHWKLQJIURPDORFDOSULHVWWKDWEDFNLQWKH HDUO\VVXSSRUWHGWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEO\IRUJHWWLQJWKHHQWLWOHPHQWIRUWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\ %XWPD\EH'9NQRZVPXFKPRUHDERXWLWDQGVKHZLOOLQYLWHKLPIRUGLQQHU7KDWHYHQLQJ ZDVRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFHIRUP\XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHPDNLQJRIWKHPHPRULHVRI GLVSRVVHVVLRQ 0RRUH5 '9LVDIRUHVWU\SURIHVVRUDWWKH(VFXDOD)RUHVWDO IURP/XJR+HZDVSDUWRI&LUFXOR LQHDUO\VDQGQRZLVPHPEHURIDORFDOHQYLURQPHQWDO1*2- A Asociación para a Defensa Ecolóxica de Galiza (ADEGA),ILUVWPHWKLPGXULQJP\ILUVWZHHNVRIILHOGZRUN in the (VFXHOD while studying the statistics RIUHIRUHVWDWLRQGXULQJ)UDQFR2QHPRWKODWHUZH ZHUHWRJHWKHULQ+HQDU¶VKRXVHIRUGLQQHU7KHIROORZLQJVWRU\UHSURGXFHGKHUHE\IURPP\ ILHOGZRUNQRWHERRNLVUHOHYDQWLQRUGHUWRVHHWKHUROHRIFXOWXUDOEURNHUVDWWKHORFDOOHYHODQG how memories of dLVSRVVHVVLRQDUHVKDSHGE\WKHVHDFWRUV +HQDUDQGKHUKXVEDQG*HRUJHILQLVKZLWKPLONLQJDQGIHHGLQJWKHFRZVTXLWHODWH DURXQGSP%\WKHWLPHWKDWWKH\WDNHGLQQHULWLVDOPRVWDFXOLQDU\FXVWRPWKDWZDV PRVWGLIILFXOWWRDGDSWGXULQJP\VWD\LQ/DEUDGD%\WKLVWLPH$EXHOD$YR¶VZLIHKDVWKH IRRGDOUHDG\SUHSDUHG7RQLJKWZHKDYHDVSHFLDOJXHVWVR$EXHODPDNHVWKHWUDGLWLRQDO &DOGR*DOHJR DFRPELQDWLRQRIYHJHWDEOHVDQGFRZLQWHVWLQHV2XWVLGHWKHQHYHU-ending frosty wind-EORZLQJLVVPDVKLQJUDLQGURSVRQWRWKHZLQGRZJODVVLQDVDYDJHULWXDORI REOLWHUDWLRQ:HVWDUWHDWLQJZLWKRXWRXUVSHFLDOJXHVW³+HSUREDEO\KDGPHHWLQJVXQWLOODWH´ +HQDUVD\V,WZDVDTXLWHGLQQHU+HQDUDQG*HRUJHEHLQJZRUULHGDERXW'9¶VGHOD\“You QHYHUNQRZZLWKWKHVHWLJKWURDGV7KRVHIURP$FFLRQD GULYHOLNHFUD]\DQGZLWKWKLVUDLQ« XIII´)LQDOO\'9DUULYHV+HNQRZVWKHZD\YHU\ZHOOKHKDVEHHQWR/DEUDGDVRPDQ\ WLPHVEHIRUH +HQDUWHOOVPH ³KHLVDIULHQGRI/DEUDGD´:KLOHHQWHULQJKHLVJUHeting HYHU\ERG\EXWQRH[FXVHVIRUEHLQJODWH(YHU\ERG\NQRZVWKDWKHLVEXV\DQGDQ\KRZ SXQFWXDOLW\KDVDGLIIHUHQWXQGHUVWDQGLQJLQUXUDO*DOLFLD7KHGLVFXVVLRQVWDUWVZKLOH+HQDU GLVKHVXSWKHKRW&DOGR'9H[SODLQVZKDWKDSSHQHGGXULQJWKHPHHWLQg he had that day with those form 0HGLR$PELHQWH ³DVXVXDOWKH\FDQQRWGRDQ\WKLQJWKH\DUHFRPSOHWHO\ SDUDO\]HG7KH\DUHDIUDLGIRUWKHLUMREV´³$QGWKHQZKDWVKRXOGZHGR"´ +HQDUDVNV³, GRQ¶WNQRZZHQHHGWRWDONZLWKVRPHERG\´ (YHU\ERG\LVVLOHQW7KHLQIRUPDODWWHPSWWRJHW DXWKRUL]DWLRQIRUEXLOGLQJDSDVWXUHIDLOHG+HQDUDQG*HRUJHJHWQHUYRXV)RUWKHPDVIRUWKH SHRSOHIURP/DEUDGDLWLVYLWDOWREXLOGSDVWXUHVLQ0RQWH%HVLGHVWKHPRQO\RQHIDPLO\LQ the village has ‘YDFDVGHOHFKH’ HYHU\ERG\HOVHKDYHµYDFDVGHFDUQH¶:KLOHWKHPLONFRZV JUD]HRQSULYDWHSURSHUWLHVDURXQGWKHYLOODJHDQGDUHQRXULVKHGGXULQJWKHQLJKWLQWKHVWDOOV ORFDWHGLQWKHKRXVHKROGWKHPHDWFRZVJUD]HDQGOLYHLQ0RQWH GXULQJWKHZKROHSHULRGRI WKH\HDU7KH\DUHQRWPLONHGDQGWKH\JLYHELUWKWRFDOYHVDORQHLQWKHPRXQWDLQ Acciona is one of the windmill FRPSDQLHV The road going to the hut ZKHUHWKHWHFKQLFDOKHDGTXDUWHUVRIWKH ZLQGPLOOIDUPVLVORFDWHGSDVVHVLQIURQWRIWKHKRXVH ³7KHUHLVVWLOODZDUIRUHOLPLQDWLQJUXUDOFRPPXQLWLHV– OLNHLQ0DU[DQDO\VLV \RX NQRZ")RUKDYLQJFKHDSODERUIRUFHLQWKHFLWLHV«7KLVLVVSHFXODWLRQQRWSURWHFWLRQ$ SUREOHPKDVDVROXWLRQZKHQLWVHOOVZKHQQRWQRW7KHSURWHFWLRQRIWKHSDUNLVDQHFRQRPLF QHFHVVLW\EXWWKHSUREOHPRIWKHODZLVWKDWLWLVQRWWKHVDPHIRUHYHU\ERG\´And he FRQWLQXHV³)LUVWLWZDVWKHAUPDGD- WKH\WRRNDOOWKHPRXQWDLQVIURPWKHSHRSOHWREXLOG VKLSVWKHQWKH0RQWHVJRWSULYDWL]HGEHFDXVHWKH\QHHGHGYHJHWDOFRDOWKHQ)UDQFRDQGQRZ 5HG1DWXUD 1DWXUDQD (YHU\WLPHLVWKHVDPH(YHU\WLPHWKH\VWULNHLQWKHYLOODJHV XQWLOWKHUHZLOOEHQRYLOODJHOHIWDQGWKH\FDQHQMR\HYHU\WKLQJIRUWKHPVHOYHV” $EXHODDQG +HQDUZHUHVLWWLQJQH[WWRWKHILUHFORVHWRWKHVWRYHWREHUHDG\WRVHUYHWKHGLVKHVRUWREULQJ VRPHWKLQJIURPWKHODUGHU$YyZDVVLWWLQJE\WKHZLQGRZDWWKHKHDGRIWKHVWRQHWDEOHZKLOH *HRUJHDQG,ZHUHOHDQLQJE\WKHZDOO:HZHUHDOOORRNLQJLQWR'9¶VVPRN\EURZQJODVVHV DQGOLVWHQLQJ7KHGLVFXVVLRQFRQWLQXHGXQWLOODWHLQWKHQLJKWZLWK'9DQG+HQDULQ IRUHIURQWDUJXLQJDJDLQVWWKHFRUUXSWHGHQYLURQPHQWDOPHDVXUHVRIWKH;XQWDGH*DOLFLDDQG 62*$0$%HIRUHOHDYLQJ'9UHFHLYHGDFDVVHUROHZLWKWKH&DOGR and some fresh milk for KLVIDPLO\ TKLVHSLVRGHZDVDW\SLFDOLQIRUPDOPHHWLQJEHWZHHQORFDODFWRUVWKDWWU\WRFRRUGLQDWH their actions for defending farmers’ access to 0RQWH Picture 13 & Picture 14: Front cover of a local monograph and a picture of Henar in the same document 7LWOHG³7KHODQGRIWKHVHOI $VKRUWKLVWRU\RI*DOLFLDQ3HDVDQWU\”WKHVPDOOERRNFDQEH ERXJKWLQWKHFKXUFKHVDIWHUWKH6XQGD\VHUYLFH,QWKLVERRNWKHUHDUHSLFWXUHVRIORFDO SHRSOHLPSRUWDQWUHOLJLRXV VLWHVPDSVODQGVFDSHVDQGKRXVHKROGDFWLYLWLHV7KHSLFWXUHRI +HQDULQWKHERRNLVIROORZHGE\WKHWH[W ³,PSRVVLEOHWRNHHSILJKWLQJWKHZD\WKHILJKWVZHUH FDUULHGLQWKH*DOLFLDQUXUDODUHDVZLWKRXWWDNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWWKHZRPHQZLWKWKHLU PXOWLSOHNQRZOHGJHGHWHUPLQDWLRQWHQGHUQHVVZLWKWKHLUFDUHZLWKWKHLUIDLWKZLWKWKHLU KXPRUZLWKWKHLUVRQJ´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do not claim that this ERRNDQGVLPLODUPRQRJUDSKVFDQEHIRXQGLQHYHU\KRXVHRI P\UHVHDUFKDUHDEXWVRPHSHRSOHKDYHLW,RQO\ZDQWWRSRLQWRXWWKDWWKLVLVDFKDQQHORI VRFLDOGLVSHUVLRQRIWKHPHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQ 180 Chapter 16 - Consequences in landuse-change 16.1. The common property and the culture of approximation %HIRUHWKHFODVLFDVLRQGHPRQWHV IURP WKHERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQWKHFRPPRQSURSHUWLHV RIWKHYLOODJHVZHUHOHQLHQW6RZHUHWKHGHOLPLWDWLRQVRISULYDWHSURSHUWLHV$IWHUILQLVKLQJWKH common work for the UR]DVWKHDUHDZDVGLYLGHGDPRQJYHFLQRVXVLQJWKHHVWDGDO7KH HVWDGDO ZDVDPHDVXUHPHQWXQLWRIDERXWPHWHUV ³,WZDVDZRRGHQVWLFNWKDWKDGWREHDVORQJDVDPDQZLWKKLVULJKWKDQGXSDERYH KLVKHDG– $QGKRZFRXOGRQHNQRZLIDHVWDGDOZDVQRWGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHRQHWKDW SHRSOHZHUHXVLQJLQWKHQHLJKERULQJKDPOHW"– 6RZKDWHYHQLIWKHHVWDGDOZDVWHQ WZHQW\RUWKLUW\FHQWLPHWHUVORQJHUQRERG\FDUHG´ ;HVXV, 3HRSOHUHPHPEHUKRZEHIRUH -WKHUHZHUHQRWURXEOHVZLWKWKHERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQ villages’ PRQWH³(YHU\WKLQJVWDUWHGZKHQWKHVWDWHDVNHGHYHU\SDULVKIRUWKH©declaraciones de PRQWH en man commun»”UHPHPEHUV'RXULQR$ODZ\HU came in every village for GRFXPHQWLQJWKHVWDWHPHQWVRISHRSOHDQGWUDFLQJWKHERXQGDULHVLQRPRQWH RQWKHSDSHU 'RXULQRH[SODLQVIXUWKHU ³%HIRUHWKHVHYHU\WKLQJZDVLQFRPPRQ 0RQWRXWR/DEUDGD5RPDUL] (VSLQKDUFDR &DVWURPDMRU&DQGLDDOOWKHVHYLOODJHVZHUHXVLQJWKHPRQWH LQ FRPPRQ7KHDQLPDOVIURPHDFKRIWKHVHYLOODJHVZHUHDOOPL[HG WRJHWKHU7KHUHZDV QRWWKHFDVHWKDWWKHERXQGDULHVRIWKHYLOODJHRI&DQGLDDUHKHUHDQGWKDWRI/DEUDGD KHUHWKHUHZDVQRWURXEOHZLWKWKHVHWKLQJVZHZHUHDOOLQFRPPRQ « %HIRUH QRERG\ZDVVD\LQJ³KH\ORRN\RXUFRZV DUHLQour PRQWH´EXWDIWHUZDUGVSHRSOHLQ WKHYLOODJHVVWDUWHGWRWDONDERXWWKHERXQGDULHV$QGWKHVHSUREOHPVDUHZLWKQR VROXWLRQ´ 'RXULQR,,PLQ 7KHSHRSOHNQRZZKHUHLVWKHPRQWH RIHDFKYLOODJHEXWWKH\GLGQRWNQRZH[DFWO\ZKHUHWKH ERXQGDULHVDUH(YHQWRGD\LWLVQRWNQRZQZKHUHWKHOLPLWVEHWZHHQWKHYLOODJHVH[DFWO\DUH 7KHUHIRUHZKHQµWKHODZ\HU¶ZHQWIXUWKHUZLWKWKHLQIRUPDWLRQWRWKH;XUDGRGH0RQWHV URXJKO\WUDQVODWHGµDVWKHFRXUWIRUPRQWHV¶WKHVWDWHGHSDUWPHQWLQFKDUJHZLWKWKHOegal registration of the PRQWHV WKHSUREOHPVVWDUWHG:KDWZDVGHILQLQJWKHPRQWH of a village ZHUHWKHUR]DV:KHUHSHRSOHKDGWKHUR]DV there was the PRQWH RIWKDWVSHFLILFYLOODJH 0RGHVWDWKHZLIHRI3HGURWKHKXQWHUIURPFDVDYHUGHUHPHPEHUV ³ZKHUHZHPDGHUR]DV ZHFDOOWKH PRQWH manso%XWWKHUHDUHLQWHUPHGLDWHDUHDVEHWZHHQWKHPRQWHV RIWKHYLOODJHV 3HRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHUHIHUWRWKHVWDWHRIILFLDODVDQDYRFDGRDODZ\HU 3HRSOHLQ/DEUDGDH[SODLQHGPHWKDWanyone who wanted to EXLOGDKRXVHDQGKDGQRODQG couOGEXLOGLW in the PRQWHEXWZLWKRXWDFTXLULQJSULYDWHRZQHUVKLSWLWOHV6RPHWRSRQ\PV DWWHVWWKLVSUDFWLFH)RUWKHSODFHFDOOHG2V&DPSRVGRV1RYRVURXJKO\WUDQVODWHGDVWKHODQGV RIWKHQHZFRPHUVDVWLOOSRSXODWHGQXFOHRQRIKRXVHVLQWKHYLOODJH - EDUULRSHRSOHUHPHPEHU WKDWQRERG\KDGLQGLYLGXDOSURSHUW\ULJKWVXQWLOUHFHQWO\7KHROGHVWGRFXPHQWRISULYDWH SURSHUW\LQ2V&DPSRV LVIURP EXWPRVWRIWKHGRFXPHQWV,VDZRUDVNHGDERXWZHUH IURPWKHHQGRIWKHVZKHQWKH6SDQLVKVWDWHSURFHHGHd with the registration of the ERXQGDULHVRIWKHPRQWHs:LWKQRH[FHSWLRQSHRSOHLQ/DEUDGDUHPHPEHUWKDW2V&DPSRV was PRQWH DQGWKHUHZHUHQRKRXVHVLQWKLVSODFHURXJKO\RQHKXQGUHG\HDUVDJR;DYLHU¶V KRXVHKDVWKHGRFXPHQWIURP ,WLVDQDFWRI SURSHUW\EXWKHFDQQRWUHPHPEHUWKH FLUFXPVWDQFHVLQZKLFKWKHGRFXPHQWZDVPDGH+LVIDWKHUSDVVHGDZD\VRPH\HDUVDJR ZKHQKHZDVVWLOODWHHQDJHUEXWKHNQHZZKDWODQGKHDQGKLVEURWKHUVZLOOLQKHULW³7KHODQG ZDVLQKHULWHGLQGLYLGXDOO\IURPIDWKHUWRVRQEXWZLWKRXWDQ\GRFXPHQW(YHU\ERG\NQHZ WKDWWKLVSORWRIODQGZLOOEHPLQHZKHQ,ZLOOJHWPDUULHG RUZKHQP\IDWKHUZLOOSDVVDZD\´ ;DYLHUQRWHV 7KURXJKDZLGHVRFLDOO\DFFHSWHGSUDFWLFHRILQGLYLGXDOSURSHUW\LQKHULWDQFH the PRQWH in 2V&DPSRV EHFDPHSULYDWHSURSHUW\DQGWKHUHZHUHQRSUREOHPVFRQFHUQLQJWKH UHJLVWUDWLRQRIWKHKRXVHV¶ODQGLQWKHODWHV%XWWKHPDSSLQJDQGWKHUHJLVWUDWLRQRIWKH PRQWH IURPWKHHQGRIWKHVWRWKHHDUO\VVHWXSE\WKH6SDQLVKVWDWHPDGHSHRSOe at the local level aware that any new individual enclosure from the PRQWH ZRXOGEHEDQLVKHGE\WKH VWDWHIURPWKDWSRLQWRQ(YHU\YLOODJHKDGLWVPRQWH QRZWKHPRQWH KDGOLPLWV 182 PRQWH RI/DEUDGDDQGWKHPRQWH RI3HUHLUR +RZHYHUSHRSOHLQ2V$JURV EHORQJWRWKH SDULVKRI/DEUDGDDQGJRWHQWLWOHGZLWKSULYDWHSURSHUWLHVWKHVDPHZD\OLNHWKRVHIRUP2V &DPSRV GLG7KHHOGHU;R[D3DEOR;R[DPDGHWKHILUVWDWWHPSWVWRHQFORVHPRUHPRQWH into KLVSULYDWHSURSHUW\LQ +HVROGKHFWDUHVRIODQGIURPWKHPRQWH WRDQRWKHUSHDVDQW IURPWKHQHLJKERULQJYLOODJHRI;LJDGHURDQGWKHODWWHUVROGKLPEDFNLQWhe same day and ZLWKWKHVDPHDPRXQWRIPRQH\$FFRUGLQJWRWKH6SDQLVKVWDWHODZE\WKHYLUWXHRIDGRXEOH EX\LQJFRQWUDFWWKHSURSHUW\FRXOGEHUHJLVWHUHGDVLQGLYLGXDOSULYDWHSURSHUW\LQWKH PXQLFLSDO¶VSURSHUW\ERRNLQJ 5HJLVWURGHOD3URSULHGDG +Hnar argues that ³EHFDXVHWKH\ >SHRSOHLQ2V$JURV@ ZHUHRXWVLGH/DEUDGDWKH\ZHUHGRLQJZKDWHYHUWKH\ZDQWHGWRJHWWLQJ SORWVLQWKHPRQWH ZLWKRXWDQ\UHTXHVWDQGFRQVXOWDWLRQZLWKRWKHUV´,QRWKHUZRUGVWKH ;R[DVZHUHEHQHILWLQJIURPWKHYLFLQLW\VWDWXVEXWZLWKRXWEHLQJJRRGYHFLx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of /DEUDGD6RRQDIWHUWKH;R[DVPRYHGLQWKHYLOODJHRI3HUHLURDQGNHSWRQO\WKHDQLPDO VWDEOHVLQWKHROGKRXVHKROG,Q WKHFRPSDQ\VWDUWHGWKHH[WUDFWLRQ3HRSOHLQ/DEUDGD VXGGHQO\VDZKRZVRPHKHGJHWUXFNVDUULYHGLQWKHYLOODJHDQGWKHELJH[FDYDWRUVZHUH carried in the PRQWH WRWKHQHZO\RSHQHGPLQH%DFNWKHQWKHSUHVLGHQWRIWKHYLOODJH coPPXQLW\ZDV;DYLHU+HUHPHPEHUV ³:HVDZRQHPRUQLQJWKHWUXFNVDQGWUDFWRUVLQWKHPRQWH3HRSOHFDPHWRWHOOPH WKDWWKH\ZHUHH[SORLWLQJFORVHWRWKHKRXVHRI3DEOR;R[D(YHU\ERG\XQGHUVWRRGWKDW GD\ZK\WKH;R[DVPRYHGWR3HUHLUR:HZHQWWRWKHWRZQKDOO DMXQWDPHQWR DQGWRRN DQRWDU\DFWWKDWDWWHVWHGWKDWWKHDUHDLQZKLFKWKHFRPSDQ\RSHQHGWKHPLQHZDV PRQWH RZQHGE\WKHYLOODJHRI/DEUDGDDQGZDVQRWLQGLYLGXDOSURSHUW\” With the official document made according to the law of PRQWHs vecinalHVHQPDQRFRPXQ ;DYLHUZHQWWRFRXUWDQGPDGHDSODLQWDJDLQVWWKHFRPSDQ\)RUDZKLOHWKHFRPSDQ\ VWRSSHGWKHLUDFWLYLW\1RZDGD\VSHRSOHVWLOOFRPSODLQWKDWWKHFRPSDQ\WRRNWKHPDFKLQHU\ EXWZLWKRXWWDNLQJDQ\JUDQLWHZLWKWKHP “WKH\OHWRQO\ VWRQHVEHKLQG´is the common H[SUHVVLRQLQ/DEUDGDIRUODPHQWLQJWKHLPSRVVLELOLW\RISDVWXULQJWKHFRZVLQWKHPLQLQJ 2V&DPSRV on the contrary is not in the PRQWH EUDYR EXWLVQHLJKERULQJWKHEXONRIKRXVHVRIWKHSDULVKRI /DEUDGD 183 DUHD+RZHYHULQWKHWUXFNVFDPHEDFNDQGVWDUHGWRH[WUDFWDJDLQRQO\PHWHUV DZD\IURPWKHILUVWSODFHDJDLQZLWKRXWLQIRUPLQJWKHFRPPXQLW\)ROORZLQJWKLV+HQDUWKH QHZSUHVLGHQWRIWKHFRPPXQLW\FDOOHGIRUDYLOODJHDVVHPEO\IRUDVNLQJSHRSOHLIWKH\ VKRXOGKLUHDODZ\HU7KHSHRSOHDJUHHGDQGDWULDOVWDUWHGDJDLQVWWKHFRPSDQ\DWWKHORFDO FRXUWLQ0RQGRxHGR The trial EURXJKWWROLJKWWKDWWKHPLQLQJFRPSDQ\QHLWKHUKDGQRZRUNLQJFRQVHQW IURPWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\ OLFHQFLDPXQLFLSDOGHREUDV QRUHQYLURQPHQWDOLPSDFWDVVHVVPHQW QRURWKHUQHFHVVDU\GRFXPHQWDWLRQWKDWWKH6SDQLVKnational law requires IRUDSSURYLQJ mining DFWLYLWLHV7KHFRPSDQ\KDGRQO\DGRFXPHQWIRUDOORZDQFHLQJUDQLWHH[WUDFWLRQ JUDQWHGE\WKH'HSDUWPHQWRI(FRQRP\DQG,QGXVWU\RIWKHORFDO*DOLFLDQ*RYHUQPHQW &RQVHOOHULDGH(FRQRPLDH,QGXVWULD DWKDQGZKLFKLVQRWVXIILFLHQWIRUWKLVNLQGRIZRUN 7KXVOHJDOO\VSHDNLQJZLWKWKHGRFXPHQWVWKDWWKHFRPSDQ\KDGLWFRXOGQRWVWDUWPLQLQJ +RZHYHUWKH&RXUWRI0RQGRxHGRVXGGHQO\GHFLGHGWKDWWKHSURFHVVVKDOOVWRSGXHWRDODFN RIHYLGHQFH7RPDNHWKLQJVHYHQPRUHFRPSOLFDWHGWKHDUHDRIH[WUDFWLRQ was declared in WKHPHDQWLPHD%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYHDQGSDUWRI1DWXUD 7KHFRPSDQ\FRQWLQXHG H[SORLWLQJ,WZDVZKHQ+HQDUFRQWDFWHG'9DQGWRJHWKHUZLWK$'(*$GHQRXQFHGWKH DEXVHLQWKHFRXUWDQGWRDOOWKHSDUWVOHJDOO\LQYROYHGLQWKHLVVXH “7KHFRPSDQ\ZDVZRUNLQJLQWKHPRQWH DV,JRZRUNLQJP\ILHOG´)LUD+HQDU¶V QHLJKERUUHPHPEHUV I underline here that the Area of ;LVWUDOZDVGHFODUHGHOLJLEOHDV6&,LQ DQGGHFODUHGSURWHFWHGVLWHLQ DQGWKHEDVLQRIWKH0LxRULYHUIURPZKLFK;LVWUDOLVSDUWRIZDVGHFODUHG%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYHLQ 184 WKHVLQWKHVDPHZD\WKDW;DYLHUGRHV2QO\WKDWLQWKH;R[DV¶FDVHWKHSURSHUW\ULJKWV over tKHZKROHKHFWDUHVDUHQRWUHFRJQL]HGQHLWKHUE\WKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLW\QRUE\WKH VWDWH $VZHVHHWhe recent story of the ;R[DVLVFORVHO\LQWHUOLQNHGZLWKSDVWDQGSUHVHQW conflicts that connect the village to ‘the outside world’7KHFRQflicts are around individual HQFORVXUHDWWHPSWVLQWHUQDOWRWKHFRPPXQLW\DQGEURDGHUDWWHPSWVUHODWHGWRDFWLRQVRI VXUSDVVLQJWKHOHJDOIUDPHZRUNRIWKHQDWLRQDODQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOODZE\WDNLQJDGYDQWDJHRI WKHPRUHSHUPLVVLYHUHJLRQDOOHJDOIUDPHZRUN,QDQ\FDVHLWLVQRWLQWHQGHGKHUHWRVKRZ ZKRLVULJKWDQGZURQJLQWKLVFRPSOLFDWHGVWRU\:KDW,ZDQWWRHPSKDVL]HLVKRZLQGLYLGXDO DFWVRIHQFORVXUHEHFRPHSUREOHPDWLFRQO\LQFRQQHFWLRQWRDEURDGHUVRFLDOHQYLURQPHQW transnational economic activities here included - WKH9UDQFHDFDVHZLOORIIHUPRUHIUXLWIXO LQVLJKWVRQWKLVPDWWHU $VQRWHGEHIRUHWKHZLQGPLOOVDUHLQWHUFRQQHFWHGWKURXJKDVSKDOWHGURDGVRQWKHJURXQGDQG FDEOHVIRUHQHUJ\GLVWULEXWLRQ XQGHUJURXQG7KH;76&¶VZLQGPLOOVZHUHEXLOWLQIRXU GLIIHUHQWSKDVHVXQWLOWKHHQGRI7KRVHIURPWKHPRQWH RI/DEUDGDZHUHEXLOWLQWKHWKLUG SKDVHDSSUR[LPDWHO\IURPWR2QHRIWKHPRVWSUREOHPDWLFLVVXHs that the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the animals freely trans-SDVVLQJVRPHOHQLHQWERXQGDULHV HVWDEOLVKHGPRUHE\WKHWUDGLWLRQDOURWDWLRQRIUR]DVQRZWKH\ZHUH³LQSHUPDQHQWFRQIOLFW RYHUWKHODVWFPRIODQG´KRZ;HVXVH[SODLQHGPH,DVNHGDERXWWKH HVWDGDOLILWKDVDQ\ function noZDGD\V+HDQVZHUHGODXJKLQJ ³:KRFDUHVQRZDERXWestadalQRZ\RXPXVW KDYHWKHH[DFWOLPLWVRI\RXUSURSHUW\ %XWWKHVHOLPLWVDUHQRWUHDODUHWROG E\WKHVDWHOOLWHDQGSHRSOHGRQ¶WNQRZWKHP:H QHHGWROHDUQDQHZWKH OLPLWV RIRXUSURSHUWLHV´ ;HVXV, $QGLQGHHGLWLVVR$WWKLVPRPHQWWKHUHLVDQRQJRLQJSURFHVVRIPHQWDOUH-PDSSLQJRIWKH SURSHUWLHVLQWKHYLOODJHVVXUURXQGLQJ;LVWUDO 185 16.2. The mental re-mapping of the properties within the landscape ,ZDVZLWK+HQDUDQG*HRUJHLQWKHPRQWH PDQ\WLPHVIRUZDWFKLQJWKHFRZVZLWK'RXULQR IRUKXQWLQJZLWK7DWDIRUPXVKURRPVDQGZRRGZLWK0RGHVWRIRUZDWFKLQJKLVJRDWVDQGLW WRRNPHFRQVLGHUDEOHWLPHWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZWKHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHIRUZLQGHQHUJ\PRGLILHG SHRSOH¶VSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHODQGVFDSH,QP\REVHUYDWLRQV,QRWLFHGWKUHHPDLQSUDFWLFHV through which WKHPHQWDOUH-PDSSLQJRISURSHUWLHVLQ;LVWUDO LVWDNLQJSODFH7KHILUVWLVD OHDUQLQJSUDFWLFHDQGGHDOVPDLQO\ZLWKOHDUQLQJWKHQHZUHIHUHQFHSRLQWVLQWKHODQGVFDSH which coQVLVWLQWKHURDGVWKHFKHFNLQJ-SRLQWV-KXWVZKHUHWKHWHQVLRQRIHOHFWULFSRZHULV IUHTXHQWO\PHDVXUHGE\WKHPDLQWHQDQFHWHDPVRIWKHZLQGIDUPFRPSDQLHVDQGWKHQHZ VPDOOGUDLQLQJLQODQGZDWHUZD\V7KHVHFRQGFRPSRQHQWRIWKHUH-PDSSLQJSURFHVVLVWKH QHJRWLDWLRQRIWKHQHZERXQGDULHV DQGWKHWKLUGWKHDGDSWDWLRQRIWKHXVHVWRWKHQHZ SK\VLFDOOLPLWVWKDWRFFXUUHGLQWKHODQGVFDSH D 7KHDVSKDOWHGURDGVEHWZHHQWKHZLQGPLOOVIRUPDQLPSRUWDQWDQGFRPSOLFDWHG network of communication which did QRWH[LVWHGEHIRUHLQ;LVWUDO¶VODQGVFDSH7RJHWKHUZLWK the checking-SRLQWV-KXWVDQGWKHGLWFKHVWKHVHQHZHOHPHQWVRILQIUDVWUXFWXUHDUHNH\ FRPSRQHQWVRIZLQGHQHUJ\SURGXFWLRQEXWLQWKHVDPHWLPHWKH\EULQJUDGLFDOFKDQJHVLQWKH XVHDQGLQWKHUHSresentation of the PRQWH DWWKHORFDOOHYHO 7KHURDGVLPSURYHGSHRSOH¶VSK\VLFDODFFHVVWRWKHSDVWXUHVEXWLQWKHVDPHWLPHLW IDFLOLWDWHGDQHZSUDFWLFHQDPHO\WKHSHUPDQHQWRYHUZLQWHULQJRIWKHFRZVLQWKHPRQWH 8QOLNHWKHKRUVHVWKDWDUHDEOHWRILQGWKHLUIRRGXQGHUWKHVQRZFRZVGRQRW,QIRUPHU WLPHVDVVRRQDVWKHVQRZZDVFRYHULQJWKHHDUWKSHRSOHZHUHEULQJLQJWKHFRZVLQWKH KRXVHKROGVWRIHHGWKHPLQWKHVWDEOHV1RWUDFWRUZDVDEOHWREUHDNWKURXJKLQWKHURXJK terrain of the PRQWH 7RGD\E\XVLQJWKHQHZURDGLQIUDVWUXFWXUHEXLOWE\WKHFRPSDQLHVDIWHU LWLVHDV\WRDFFHVVWKHPRVWUHPRWHSODFHVLQWKHPRQWH HYHQZLWKDXVXDOWRXULQJELNH 186 LPSRUWDQWGHWDLOKHUHLVZRUWKPHQWLRQLQJ7KHQHZLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLVQRWVLJQDOHGZLWK VWDQGDUGVLJQVIRUYHKLFOHVRUVLJQVIRUJHQHUDORULHQWDWLRQVLQFHLWEHORQJVWRWKHFRPSDQLHV and is GHVLJQDWHGIRUIDFLOLWDWLQJWKHDFFHVVRIWKHPDLQWHQDQFHWHDPVWRWKHSRZHUJHQHUDWRUV 7KHUHLVDOHJDOFRQVHQWWKDWVWDWHVWKDWWKHORFDOVDUHDOORZHGWRXVHWKHFRPSDQLHV¶ LQIUDVWUXFWXUHVLQFHLWLVEXLOWRQWKHLUSURSHUWLHV+RZHYHUWKLVURDGLQIUDVtructure it is not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re-PDSSLQJRIWKHSURSHUWLHVZLWKLQWKHODQGVFDSHRFFXUVLVWKHQHJRWLDWLRQRIWKHVHQHZ OLPLWV When the classification of the PRQWHV WRRNSODFHLQ/DEUDGDLQ WKHVWDWHRIILFLDO – ‘RDYRJDGR¶SRLQWHGGRZQWKHERXQGDULHVWKDWSHRSOHPHQWLRQHGLQ/DEUDGDDQGLQWKH QHLJKERULQJYLOODJHVZLWKRXWFRQVXOWLQJERWKRUPXOWLSOHSDUWVDWWKHVDPHWLPH$s FRQVHTXHQFHPRVWRIWKHERXQGDULHVRIWKHPRQWHVZHUHDQGLQVRPHLQVWDQFHVWLOODUH VXSHUSRVLQJRUQRWPHHWLQJWKHLUµQHLJKERUV¶7KHVWDWHRIILFLDOVKDGWRVROYHWKHSUREOHPRI SHDVDQWUHVLVWDQFHDVVRRQDVSRVVLEOHDQGWKXVKDGWRDYRLGDQ\QHZFRQflict situations at the ORFDOOHYHO DVGHVFULEHGHDUOLHU IRUWKDWWKHDIIRUHVWDWLRQSURJUDPRIWKHPRQWHs to follow its FRXUVH%XWWKHDUULYDORIWKHZLQGPLOOIDUPVLQ;LVWUDOPHDQWDQeven more precise GHOLPLWDWLRQRIWKHERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQWKHSURSHUWLHVEHLQJLQGLYLGXDORUFROOHFWLYH +RZHYHUWKLVGLGQRWKDSSHQDVZHPLJKWEHWHPSWHGWRWKLQNEHFDXVHRIWKHZLQGPLOO FRPSDQLHV¶LQWHUHVWWRKDYHDVHFXUHMXULGLFDOEDFN-XSIRUWKHLUFRQWUDFWVTLPHLVPRQH\ and WKHFRPSDQLHVZHUHQRWLQWHUHVWHGLn investing either of these very scarce resources in PDSSLQJWKHSURSHUWLHVLQ;LVWUDO$VZHUHPHPEHUWKHZLQGPLOOFRPSDQLHVGLGQRW QHJRWLDWHWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHZLQGIDUPVZLWKWKHFRPPXQLWLHVEXWZLWKWKH*DOLFLDQ DXWKRULWLHV7KHQHJRWLDWLRQZDVEDVHGRQWKHSUHYLRXVGRFXPHQWDWLRQIURP¶ZKLFKQR PDWWHUKRZFRQIXVLQJLWZDVKDGDOHJDOFKDUDFWHUJXDUDQWHHGE\WKH6SDQLVKVWDWHVRZLWK OLWWOHSRVVLELOLW\WRDIIHFWWKHFRPSDQLHV¶LQWHUHVW7KRVHZKRVWDUWHGWRILJKWIRUDFOHDU delimitation RIWKHSURSHUWLHVZHUHWKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHV(YHU\LPSODQWDWLRQRIDWXUELQH RQWKHYLOODJHSURSHUW\PHDQWDVHFXUHVRXUFHRILQFRPHIRUWKHYLOODJHHYHU\\HDU+HQFH WKHUHZDVQRQHHGIRUWKHZLQGIDUPFRPSDQLHVWRPDSWKHSURSHUWLHVEHFDXVHWKH comm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already set northwardVLQWKHPRQWH RI0RQWRXWRDQG3HUHLURYLOODJHV3HRSOHDOUHDG\NQHZ WKDWWKHSODQWDWLRQRISRZHUJHQHUDWRUVPHDQVDJRRGDPRXQWRIPRQH\IRUWKHFRPPXQLW\ 7KXVVSHFLDOYLOODJHDVVHPEOLHVZHUHRUJDQL]HGLQERWKYLOODJHVRQWKHLVVXH7KH administration ERDUGV D[XQWDUHFWRUD JRWLQFRQWDFWLQRUGHUWRJRLQWKHPRQWH and see ZKHUHWKHOLPLWVEHWZHHQWKHWZRSURSHUWLHVDUH,QWKHPHDQWLPHWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQVZHUH DGYDQFLQJTXLFNO\DQGQRQHRIWKHWZRFRPPXQLWLHVZDVZLOOLQJWRORVHWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WR hDYHZLQGPLOOVRQLWVSURSHUW\DVVRRQDVSRVVLEOH+HQDUUHPHPEHUVKRZRGGWKHILUVW common outing in the PRQWH ZDV ³:HZHUHWKHUHSHRSOH ZHZHUHDOOERUQDQGUDLVHGLQWKHYLOODJHVDQGZHDOO NQRZWKHPRQWHVDVRXURZQKRPHV%XWEHLQJWKHUHZHVWDUWHGWRGHEDWHZKHUH WKH ERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQWKHPRQWH RI/DEUDGDDQGWKHRQHIURP5RPDUL]DUH )ROORZLQJ WKHEDOGRXV IURPWKHUR]DV ZHGLGQ¶WUHDFKDQ\FRQVHQWZKDWVRHYHU ,JRWLQFRQIOLFW ZLWK&DPLOWKHSUHVLGHQWRIWKHFRPPXQLW\RI5RPDUL]+HLVDQLFHJX\ZHZHUH VFKRROPDWHVEXWDIWHUWKDWILUVWPHHWLQJKHGLGQ¶WWDONWR PHIRUPRWKV 8QWLOZHPHHW DJDLQQH[WVSULQJLQWKHD\XQWDPHQWRDQGKHZDVPRUHRSHQWRPH” +HQDURQWKH FRQIOLFWZLWK5RPDUL]SHUVRQDOQRWHV 2QHFDQVWLOOVHHWKHEDODGRXVIURPWKHUR]DV that were in use some 20 years ago in the PRQWH+RZHYHUWKHVH UR]DVZHUHYHU\IHZLQFRPSDULVRQZLWKWKHPRUHH[WHQVLYHSUDFWLFHWKDWZDVLQSODFH\HDUVDJR 188 Henar laughs when telling the story of re-HQJDJLQJLQFRQWDFWZLWKKHUIRUPHUVFKRROPDWH EXWWKLVEHFDXVHWKHVWRU\KDGDKDSS\HQG%DFNWKHQWKHSUREOHPVLQWKHYLOODJHZHUH VHULRXV,KDYHQRWLFHGWKDWWKHUHDUHPDQ\VLPLODUILUVWRUVHFRQGIDPLO\QDPHVLQWKHWZR villages1006KHFRQILUPHGWKDWWKHUHDUHPDQ\SHRSOHWKDWKDYHNLQVKLSLQWKHERWK FRPPXQLWLHV+HQDUH[SODLQHGPHKRZDFWXDOO\WKHWZRYLOODJHVDUHOLNHRQHFRPPXQLW\RQO\ WKDWWKH\KDYHWZRFKXUFKHVVRZHDUHWZRSDULVKHV 7KHWZRERDUGVRIDGPLQLVWUDWLRQPHWIRUWKHVHFRQGWLPHDQGSUHVHQWHGRQHWRHDFKRWKHUWKH OLPLWVWKH\DJUHHGXSRQ)ROORZLQJ+HQDU¶VVXJJHVWLRQWKH\VHWDUELWUDU\OLPLWVEHWZHHQWKH two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ongoing mental re-PDSSLQJRIWKHSURSHUWLHVLQ;LVWUDO,DOUHDG\PHQWLRQHGKRZWKHURDGV modified the locals’ use of the PRQWH PDLQO\E\WKHSUDFWLFHRIRYHUZLQWHULQJWKHFRZV,QWKH IROORZLQJ,ZDQWWRVWUHVVRQKRZWKHQHZSURSHUW\ERXQGDULHVPRGLI\WKHXVHRf the PRQWH )RUWKLV,ZLOOPDNHDFRPSDULVRQZLWKWKHORFDOWUDGLWLRQDOPRGHRIVHSDUDWLQJWKHSURSHUWLHV LQ*DOLFLD $VLPSOHORJLFWHOOVXVWKDWSHRSOHXVHWKHODQGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUQHHGVDVPXFKDV WKH\DUHDOORZHGE\WKHQDWXUDOE\WKHVRFLDOHVWDEOLVKHGEDUULHUVDQGRIFRXUVHE\ WHFKQRORJ\,QRWKHUZRUGVSHRSOHXVHWKHODQGXSWRRQHSK\VLFDOOLPLW:KHQWKLVOLPLWLV VRFLDOO\FRQVWUXFWHGLWLVPDUNHGWKURXJKGLIIHUHQWVLJQVIRUPDUNLQJUHVWULFWLRQLQXVH7KH WUDGLWLRQDOIHQFLQJPHWKRGLQ*alicia is EDODGR SOEDODGRXV - DQLUUHJXODUHDUWK- or stone- PDGHµZDOO¶RQZKLFKYDOXDEOHWUHHVVXFKDV oaks and sweet chestnut-trees EXWDOVREXVKHV JURZDOLNH,WLVDERXWWZRWRIRXUPHWHUVZLGHDQGDERXWRQHPHWHUKLJK7KLVSK\VLFDOOLPLW in land use GRHVQRW UHSUHVHQWVHJUHJDWLRQDQGH[FOXVLRQRQWKHFRQWUDU\7KH EDODGRXV are XVHGIRUGHOLPLWLQJWKHSULYDWHSORWVRIODQGLQWKHYLOODJHRUWKH UR]DV in the PRQWH 102 The word EDODGR LVSRO\VHPDQWLF$PRQJRWKHUPHDQLQJV VXFKDVWREDD it has the meaning of GLVSRVLQJIRU DYRLGLQJQRWLFH7KHVDPHIRUPRISK\VLFDOLncloVXUHLVWREHIRXQGLQ%ULWWDQ\LWLVcalled WDOX*DOLFLDDQG %ULWWDQ\KDYHVLPLODUPLQHUDOPRUSKRORJ\DQGLWLVQRWVXUSULVLQJWRILQGVLPLODULWLHVEHWZHHQWKHWZR, GHVFULEHGVRPHSODFHHOVHWKHHFRORJLFDODQGVRFLDOLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHVHPLFUR-HFRV\VWHPV 0DQWHVFX and the EDODGRXV are not the XOWLPDWHOLPLWEHWZHHQSURSHUWLHV$EDODGR WKDWLVEHWZHHQWZR SORWVRIODQGLVFDOOHGPHGLDQLO SO PHGLDQLOHVZKLFKFDQEHURXJKO\WUDQVODWHGDVEXONKHDG The PHGLDQLO LVWKHSURSHUW\RIERWKRZQHUVDQGERWKKDYHHTXDODFFHVVWRWKHWUHHVRUWRWKH sweet chestnuts – DYDOXDEOHIRRGUHVRXUFHIRUERWKKXPDQVDQGSLJVLQWLPHVRIIDPLQH Figure 6: 7KHVFKHPDWLFUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRISURSHUWLHVLQWKHVRXWKRI/DEUDGD Legend 3VLJQLILHV LQGLYLGXDOSORWRIODQG'UDZLQJPDGHE\WKHDXWKRULQVLWX $YHU\LQWHUHVWLQJVLWXDWLRQLVWKDWRIVHOOLQJWKHSORWV,QWKLVFDVHSHRSOHGRQRWGHVWUR\WKH EDODGRXVEXWPDUNWKHQHZSURSHUW\OLPLWZLWKSLOHVRIVWRQHV PDUFRVGHSLHGUD 2QO\WKH EDODGRXV in the PRQWHIRUWKH UR]DV DUHGHVWUR\HGRUVLPSO\DEDQGRQHG+RZHYHUWKH UHPDLQVDUHYLVLEOHIRU\HDUV This is how the EDODGRXV UHSUHVHQWDKLVWRULFDOPDSRIODQGRZQHUVKLS$OWKRXJKWKH SORWVKDYHFKDQJHGWKHRZQHURUWKHUR]DVKDYHEHHQDEDQGRQHGWKHEDODGRXV remain to ZLWQHVVKRZWKHODQGZDVXVHGDQGLQUHODWLRQWRZKRP$YRWROGPHWKDWRQHVKRXOGQRWORRN for the EDODGRXV LQRUGHUWRVHHWKHSURSHUWLHVEXWWRORRNDWWKHVWRQHVLQVWHDGDQGRQO\LI WKHUHDUHQRVWRQHVWKDQWKHEDODGR LVWKHOLPLW7KHUHIRUHWUDGLWLRQDOO\WKHGHPDUFDWLRQRI SURSHUWLHVLQ*DOLFLDKDVDVFDODUIRUP PHGLDQLOEDODGRVWRQHV7KHXVHRIPHGLDQLO is a SHUPDQHQWQHJRWLDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHRZQHUVDURXQGLW WKHEDODGR LVGHOLPLWDWLQJWKHSURSHUW\ RQWKHRXWVLGHDQGEHORQJVWRRQHRZQHU DQGWKHVWRQHVµEHDW¶WKHEDODGR since can change WKHOLPLWVRIWKHSORWV This scalar SDWWHUQ RIODQGSORWV¶OLPLWVUHVROXWLRQJRWDOWHUHGLQWKHSURFHVVRIWKH HVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHPRUHIL[HGDQGFOHDUOLPLWVIRUERWKFRPPRQDQGLQGLYLGXDOSURSHUWLHV /DWHO\SHRSOHQHHGHGWRDEDQGRQWKHROGZD\RIOHQLHQWGHPDUFDWLRQVDQGWROHDUQQHZPRUH strict ones and a more coercive use of land7KHSUDFWLFHRIOHWWLQJWKHFRZVIUHHLQWKHPRQWH ZDVDEDQGRQHGLQWKHODVW\HDUV1RZWKHFRZVPRYHIURPRQHSDVWXUHWRDQRWKHUZLWKLQ IHQFHVPDGHRIZLUH)RUPDNLQJWKHSDVWXUHVWKHYLOODJHVKDYHWRUHVSHFWWKHQHZVLJQVRI GHPDUFDWLRQDSUDFWLFHWKDWLVQRWHDV\IRUSHRSOHDVWKH\DUHVWLOOXVHGWRWKHROGPRGHRI DSSUHFLDWLYHOLPLWVRISURSHUW\ The re-PDSSLQJRIWKHFRPPRQSURSHUWLHVZDVGLFWDWHGE\WKHXVHRIWKHPRQWH%XWWKLVWLPH E\DQRYHOXVHDXVHRIWKHODQGDOLHQWRWKHFRPPXQLWLes’ economic activities – the wind HQHUJ\LQGXVWU\%HFDXVHthe DQFLHQWPRGHVRIGHOLPLWDWLQJSURSHUWy were not signs of confinement EXWSUDFWLFDOPRGHVRIQHJRWLDWLQJDFFHVVWKURXJKWKHXVHRIPRUSKRORJLFDO characteristics of the natural environmentWKHQHZVLJQVRIGHPDUFDWLRQRISURSHUWLHVDUH SHUFHLYHGDVIRUPVRIGHSULYDWLRQ7UDGLWLRQDOO\LQ/DEUDGDDOLPLWLVSODFHGLQEHWZHHQDQG QRWDWWKHPDUJLQ:KLOHEHLQJSODFHGLQEHWZHHQWKHOLPLWLVEHQHILFLDOVRWRVD\RQWKHERWK sides - ERWKVLGHVFDQDFFHVVLWDQGFURVVLW7KHOLPLWLQWKHIRUPRIEDODGRXV UHSUHVHQWDYLYLG HQYLURQPHQWLQLWVHOIDQHQWLW\LQSHUPDQHQWWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ7KHH[DPSOHRI)UDJDEHOODKHOSV XVWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHOLPLQDOFKDUDFWHURIQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWLQ;LVWUDO 16.3. The liminal environment - Fragabella ,QWKHILUVWFKDSWHURIWKLVSDUW,H[SODLQHGZKDWIUDJD means and its role in the overall agro- sylvo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the cRPPRQSURSHUWLHVRIWKHYLOODJHVFRQQHFWLQJUDWKHUWKDQVHSDUDWLQJWKHSURSHUWLHVDQG WKHXVHRIWKHODQG$VIUDJDV are located in the PRQWH EUDYRWKHUHZHUHQRUR]DVZHUHPDGH WKDWLQWHUPHGLDWH]RQHEHWZHHQWKHYLOODJHVDVGHVFULEHGDERYH$VIUDJDV unify through their ORFDWLRQWKHLUDFFHVVDQGWKHLUPXOWLSOHXVHVWKHQHLJKERULQJYLOODJHV0RUHRYHUEHFDXVHRI WKHLUWKUHVKROGFKDUDFWHUDVIUDJDV HQGRUVHDQHYHQPRUHORRVHRZQHUVKLSVWDWXV7KHSDVW DQGSUHVHQWFRQIOLFWVDURXQG)UDJDEHOODLOOXVWUDWH YHU\ZHOODOOWKHVHSHFXOLDUDVSHFWVRI IUDJDV )UDJDEHOOD LVDQDWXUDOIRUHVWHGDUHDLQ;LVWUDORIDERXWKHFWDUHV,WERUGHUVIRXU FRPPRQSURSHUWLHVEHORQJLQJWRIRXUYLOODJHV /DEUDGD5RPDUL]6LJXHULVDQG(VWHOR7KH ILUVWWZRYLOODJHVEHORQJWRWKHD\XQWDPLHQWRRI$EDGLQWKHODWHUWR0RQGRxHGR$WWKH VRXWKZHVWHUQHGJHRIWKHIRUHVWRQWKH5RPDUL]VLGHWKHUHLVWKHUXLQRIDQROGPDQRUKRXVH 7KLVKRXVHEHORQJHGWR-XDQD,EDUUHFKH\0DUWLQH]GHOD&XHVWDD%DVTXHQREOHZRPDQ According to tKHRIILFLDOGRFXPHQWVIURPWKHD\XQWDPLHQWRKHUSODFHRIUHVLGHQFHZDV(O (VFRULDOLQ0DGULGDQGWKHKRXVHZDVLQKDELWHGE\VRPHWHQDQWV Picture 15: The Galician cow “Cachena” )RUWKLVSURMHFWWKHVWDWHGHSDUWPHQWHQFORVHGZLWKEDODGRXVDQHYHQELJJHUDUHDLQWKHPRQWH all around the IUDJD7KHDUHDDURXQGWKHIRUHVW ZDVRQHRIWKHEHVWODQGVIRUSDVWXUHLQWKH PRQWHDQGWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHSLQHSODQWDWLRQVPHDQWWKHGHSULYDWLRQVWULFWRVHQVRRIWKHEHVW IRUHVWHGDQGSDVWXUHODQGVWKDWWKHIRXUYLOODJHVKDG 7KLVLVDQRWKHUH[DPSOHRIKRZWKH*DOLFLDQUHWUDQFD ZDVDVWURQJKROGWKDWWKHRSSUHVVLYH *XDUGLD FRXOGQRWJHW SUHSDUDWLRQVIRUWKH((&DFFHVVLRQDQGVRRQDIWHUDQHFRORJLFDOIHYHUVWDUWHGLQWKH6SDQLVK IRUHVWU\³:HKDGWREHFRPH(XURSHDQVDQGIRUXVLQ*DOLFLDZHKDGWRPDNHWKHSURRIWKDW ZHGRQ¶WGRRQO\SODQWDWLRQV´ LGHP %XWIRUWKLVSURMHFW,&21$UHSUHVHQWDWLYHVFDPHDQGQHJRWLDWHGZLWKSHRSOH 5HSUHVHQWDWLYHVIURPDOOIRXUYLOODJHVJDWKHUHGDQGGHFLGHGWROHDVHKHFWDUHVRIIRUHVWDQG SDVWXUHVIRUWKHGHHUUHVHUYH1HYHUWKHOHVV ZLWKWKHQHZUHVHUYHRWKHUSUREOHPVVWDUWHG ,Q WKHRIILFHUVIURPWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOGHSDUWPHQWVWDUWHGWREXLOGZLUHIHQFHV DURXQGWKHROGHQFORVHGDUHDFODLPLQJDJDLQWKHDFFHVVWR)UDJDEHOODDQGWKHSDVWXUHVDURXQG 7KLVWLPHWKHORFDOSHRSOHRUJDQL]HGDUHVLVWDQFH+HQDUUHPHPEHUVKRZSHRSOHPRELOL]HG YHU\TXLFNO\LQDOOIRXUYLOODJHV VRPHZHQt in the PRQWH WRGHPROLVKWKHZLUHIHQFHVRWKHUV ZHQWWRWKHPDNHDOOHJDWLRQVLQ0RQGRxHGRDQG$EDGLQ'XULQJWKHZLQWHURI WKHIRXU YLOODJHVRUJDQL]HGFRPPRQSDWUROV3HRSOHUHPHPEHUKRZIRURQHPRQWKGD\DQGQLJKWWZR SHRSOHZHUHSDWUROOLQJLQWhe PRQWH so that thHUDQJHUVIRUP0HGLR$PELHQWHFRXOG not get into the PRQWH7KHUDQJHUVGLGQRWUHWXUQEXWWKHFRQIOLFWFRQWLQXHG ,Q WKH;76&ZDVDOORZHGE\WKH;XQWDGH*DOLFLDWREXLOGDZLQGIDUPLQ )UDJDEHOOD)RUWKLVSURMHFWWKHFRPSDQ\ FXWGRZQDQLPSRUWDQWTXDQWLW\RIWUHHVIURPWKH IUDJDEXWZLWKRXWFRQVXOWLQJWKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHV3HRSOHLQWKHIRXUYLOODJHVJDWKHUHG DJDLQDQGPDGHDOOHJDWLRQVIRUEUHDNLQJWKHLUSURSHUW\ULJKWs5HSUHVHQWDWLYHVIURPWKHIRXU villages concerned weQWWR)UDJDEHOODDQGFRXQWHGWKHWUHHVIRUPDNLQJFDOFXOLRIKRZPXFK WLPEHUZDVH[WUDFWHGIURPWKHLUSDUWRIIUDJD+RZHYHUWKLVZDVRIQRHIIHFW7KH HQYLURQPHQWDOGHSDUWPHQWDFTXLUHGWKHWLPEHUDQGWRRNLWDZD\%XWWKHUHVXOWRIWKH allegations was tKDWWKHSHRSOHIURPWKHIRXUYLOODJHVDURXQG)UDJDEHOODZHUHJUDQWHGWKHULJKW WRUHFHLYHWKHPRQH\IURP;76&¶VZLQGPLOOV :KLOHLQWHUYLHZLQJVRPHRIILFLDOVIURPWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOGHSDUWPHQWDERXWWKHVH FRQIOLFWVWKH\VWDWHGWKDW LQGHHGWKHFRPSDQ\ for granite mining has not yet fulfilled the GRFXPHQWDWLRQas for WKHZLQGPLOORQHV³WKHSDSHUZRUN LVTXLWHORRVH´$VDFRQVHTXHQFH WKH\ILQHGWKHPLQLQJFRPSDQ\³DFFRUGLQJWRWKHODZ´ZLWK(XUREXWWKH\FRXOGQRW VWRSLWVDFWLYLW\LQWKHSURWHFWHGDUHD6RPHWLPHVLWLVKLODULRXVKRZDWWKHHQGRIDQLQWHUYLHZ RQHJHWVWKHPRVWVWULNLQJLQIRUPDWLRQ:KLOHSDFNLQJP\WKLQJVDQGWDNLQJWKHXVXDOFRXUWHV\ ZLWKWKHLQIRUPDQWVRQHRIWKHORFDOHQYLURQPHQWDORIILFHUVVWDWHGVPLOLQJ ³«EXWLW¶V IRUPLGDEOHKRZDVPDOOFRPPXQLW\FDQVWD\DJDLQVWVXFKDELJFRPSDQ\:KDW FDQ we GR"´ LQWKHVHQVH³ZH´WKHHQYLURQPHQWDORIILFHUV :KLOHOHDYLQJWKHLQWHUYLHZSODFH GXULQJWKHLQWHUYLHZWKHVDPHRIILFLDOGLGQRWDOORZPHWRUHFRUG ,KDGWKHLPSUHVVLRQWhat he wanted to offer me a key through which to read the information that he and his fellow FROOHDJXHVSURYLGHGPHHDUOLHU1DPHO\WKDWZKHQWKHRIILFLDOODZVFRQWUDYHQHWKHVRFLDO FRQWH[WLQDZD\WKDWVWULNHVWKHFRPPRQVHQVHWKHHQIRUFHURIWKHODZWhat acts at the local OHYHOIDFHVWKHULGLFXORXVVLWXDWLRQRIGHIHQGLQJWKHDEVXUG$QGHYHQPRUH the enforcer of WKHODZGHOHJLWLPL]HVLWVHOI not only in IURQWRIWKHSHRSOHWKDWVKHVKDOOSHUVXDGHWRIROORZ WKHODZEXWLQIURQWRIKLVKHUVRZQSULQFLSOHV7KHLQWHUURJDWLRQ³ZKDWFDQZH>WKHRIILFLDOV@ GR"´ signals the constraints that the low-UDQNHGEXUHDXFUDWVKDYHZLWKUHJDUGWRODZ- LPSOHPHQWDWLRQDQGPRQLWRULQJ7KHVHFRQVWUDLQWVDUHHPEHGGHGLQWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDOFKDUDFWHU RIWKHLUMREZKLFKWUDQVFHQGVWKHRIILFLDOMREGHVFULSWLRQWDVNV7KHWDFLWDFFHSWDQFHRI HQYLURQPHQWDODEXVHVWKDWWKHVWDWHDXWKRULWLHVHQFRXUDJHDQGWKHGD\-to-day struggle with the VRFLDOFRQIOLFWVDWWKHORFDOOHYHODUHSDUWRIWKHMREDVPXFKDVWKHVXUYHLOODQFHRIWKH SURWHFWHGDUHDV$VPHQWLRQHGHDUOLHUTXHVWLRQLQJWKHZLQGIDUPLQGXVWU\ZLWKLQWKH*DOLFLDQ regional ministriHVLVWDERRDQGLVHTXLYDOHQWZLWKORVLQJMREV7KXVFRQVLGHUHGLQLWVFRQWH[W WKHDERYHPHQWLRQHGH[SUHVVLRQLVQRWDVLJQRISHUSOH[LW\IURPWKHSDUWRIVWDWHRIILFLDOV IDFLQJORFDOUHVLVWDQFHEXWUDWKHUWKHDFNQRZOHGJPHQWRIDQDFWRIHQYLURQPHQWDOMXVWLFH Chapter 17 – Conclusions ³7REHUHDVRQDEOHLIZHOLNHWRKDYHHOHFWULFGHYLFHVLQRXUKRPHVWKHHQHUJ\KDVWREHSURGXFHG VRPHZKHUHWKLVEHLQJLQ/DEUDGD*HUPDQ\RU$UJHQWLQH%XWLQRQHSODFHLW>WKHSURGXFWLRQ@ KDVWR EHORFDWHG EHLQJVRODUSDQHOVDWRPLFPDULQHWXUELQHVRUZLQG7KLVLVWKHSUDFWLFDOVLGH7KH URPDQWLFVLGHOHW¶VVD\LVWKDWKDYLQJ WKHVHPDFKLQHVDOODURXQG\RX LVQRWYHU\SOHDVDQWYLVXDOO\DV ZHOODVDFRXVWLFDOO\ EHFDXVH \RXFDQKHDUWKHPDOOWKHWLPH)RUWKLVWKHFRPSDQLHVSD\YHU\OLWWOH DQGZHGRQ¶WHYHQKDYHIUHHHOHFWULFSRZHUDOWKRXJKLW LVSURGXFHGRQRXUODQGV«´ 79 7KHDERYHTXRWHIURPRQHRIP\LQIRUPDQWVIURP/DEUDGDFDSWXUHVYHU\ZHOOWKHFRPSOH[LW\ RIWKH*DOLFLDQVWRU\WKDW,RUJDQL]HGLQVL[FKDSWHUVXSWRWKLVSRLQW/HW¶VWU\DQHPSLULFDO H[HUFLVHDQGUHSODFHHOHFWULFGHYLFHV LQWKHTXRWHZLWKSDSHUPDWHULDOVand HQHUJ\ with WUHHV; and even further – OHW¶VUHSODFHHOHFWURQLFGHYLFHVZLWKFRWWRQ and energy with ZRRGHQ-PDGH VKLSV:HVHHWKDWWKH*DOLFLDQVWRU\FDQEHRUJDQL]HGDURXQGWKHFRQFHSWRIQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV DORQJWKUHHGLVWLQFWSHULRGVRIWLPH WKHFRORQLDOWKHGLFWDWRULDODQGWKHGHPRFUDWLF$URXQG WKHVHYDOXDEOHVGLIIHUHQWDFWRUVFODLPHGSURSHUW\ULJKWVDQGXVHGGLIIHUHQWWDFWLFVDQG WHFKQLTXHVWRJHWDFFHVVWRWKHP6RPHRIWKHWDFWLFVDQGWHFKQLTXHVZHUHVRFLDOO\ LQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HGRWKHUVQRW,QWKHIROORZLQJ,ZLOOVXPPDUL]HWKHHPSLULFDOGDWDE\DGDSWLQJ the DQDO\WLFDOIUDPHZRUNIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRISURSHUW\ RI)UDQ]DQG.HHEHWYRQ%HQGD- %HFNPDQQDQG0HODQLH:LEHU Figure $QDQDO\WLFDOIUDPHZRUNIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRISURSHUW\ relations (OHPHQWVRISURSHUW\UHODWLRQV /D\HUVRIVRFLDO D6RFLDODFWRUV E9DOXDEOHV F5LJKWVDQG RUJDQL]DWLRQ REOLJDWLRQV /HJDOO\ ,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWhe institutionalized YDOXDEOHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHODZ SURSHUW\UHODWLRQV &RQFUHWHVRFLDO ,,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKH relations YDOXDEOHVLQUHDOSUDFWLFH ,GHRORJ\ ,,,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUG to the YDOXDEOHVHPEHGGHGLQLGHRORJ\ 7KHFRORQLDOSHULRG ,'XULQJWKHSHULRGRIWLPHZKLFKLQP\GHVFULSWLRQH[SDQGVURXJKO\IURPWKHHQGRIthe VL[WHHQWK FHQWXU\XSWRWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKH6SDQLVK&LYLO:DU WKHYDOXDEOHWKDWWKH actors – stDWHFKXUFKHQWUHSUHQHXUVDQGYLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHVWXUQHGLQWRSURSHUW\REMHFWV were the various endemic VSHFLHVRIWUHHV7KHSHDVDQWVZHUHLQIRUDO relation with the state and the church XSWR WKHSURPXOJDWLRQRIWKH first constitution from 1812 and the successive legislative initiatives from 1835- that constituted /D'HVDPRUWL]DFLyQ7KHIRUR was not an HTXLWDEOHHFRQRPLFUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHIRUHUR and IRULVWDZLWKWKHODWWHUEHLQJVXEPLVVLYHWR WKHILUVW7KHUHIRUHWKHVWDWHRUWKHFKXUFKZDVHQWLWled to ask of unlimited access to the YDOXDEOHWUHHV7KHVWDWHGLGVRZKHQLWLQYHVWHGWKH$UPDGDZLWKSRZHULQDFFHVVLQJWKHP DQGWKHFKXUFKGLGQRWRSSRVHDOWKRXJKPRVWRIWKHODQGLQ*DOLFLDZDVLQHFFOHVLDVWLFDO SRVVHVVLRQ%XWWKHFKXUFKDQGWKHVWDWHLQJHQHUDOVXSSRUWLYHRQHWRHDFKRWKHUGLGQRW FRPHWRWHUPVZKHQWKHIRXUWKDFWRUHQWHUHGWKHVFHQH0DUTXHV,EDxH]ZDVHPSRZHUHGE\ WKHVWDWHWRKDYHDFFHVVWRIXHOZRRGIRUKLVDWHOLHUVGHVSLWHWKHRSSRVLWLRQRIWKHFKXUFK After the 'HVDPRUWL]DFLyQ the PRQWHVEHFDPHWKHSURSHUW\RIWKHVWDWHDQGWKHFKXUFKORVWLWV ULJKWVLQODQGRZQHUVKLS7KHIRUR LVFRQVLGHUHGLQYDOLGE\WKHVWDWHDQGWKHPRQWHVEHFDPH WKHSURSHUW\RID\XQWDPLQWRVLQWKHIRUPRIPRQWHVGHSURSULRV7KHSHDVDQWVFDQXVHWKH valXDEOHWUHHVLIWKH\PDNHWKHSURRIRIWKHFDUWDGHSDJR ,,:KDWZDVDFWXDOO\KDSSHQLQJZDVTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPZKDWWKHODZVWLSXODWHGThe social DFWRUVWUDQVIRUPHGWKHYDOXDEOHWUHHVLQWRSURSHUW\REMHFWVLQGLIIHUHQWZD\V WKHYLOODJHUV WKURXJKSHUPDQHQWDFFHVVWRWKHODQGRUWKHWHUULWRU\ZKHUHWKHWUHHVJURZ WKH&KXUFK WKURXJKLWVPLOOHQQLDOFKDULVPDWLFSUHVHQFHLQWKHWHUULWRULHVZKHUHWKHSHRSOHUHVLGH WKH HQWUHSUHQHXUVE\SXVKLQJ-XSLQQRYDWLYHLGHDVRISURGXFWLRQDQGGLVWULEXWLRQRIWKHLUQRless innovative goods; and the colonial state through the rules and regulations in order to assure its FRQWLQXLW\The IRUDO UHODWLRQVZHUHXVHGE\WKHSHDVDQWVWROHJLWLPL]HWKHLUORQJ-lasting free access to the IUDJDV7KH&KXUFKXVHGWKHVDPHFRQWUDFWXDl relations for legitimizing its FODLPVRISURKLELWLQJ,EDxH]IURPWKHPRQWHVDQGWREORFNLQQRYDWLYHLGHDVWRSHQHWUDWHLQLWV WHUULWRU\+RZHYHU,EDxH]¶SUHVXPSWLYHXVHRIXQRIILFLDOOREE\LQJZKLFKJRWGRXEOHGE\WKH luck he had with the death of the k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¶'XULQJ)UDQFR - WKHYDOXDEOHWKDWWKHDFWRUVZHUHGLVSXWLQJGLYHUVLILHG RQRQH side tKHSODQWHGDOLHQVSHFLHVRIWUHHVRQWKHRWKHUWKHSDVWXUHV7KLVSHULRGLVFKDUDFWHUL]HG E\DUHGXFHGQXPEHURIVRFLDODFWRUVWKDWFODLPHGSURSHUW\ULJKWVRYHUWKHDERYHYDOXDEOHV namely only two - WKHVWDWHDQGWKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHV/HJDOO\VSHDNLQJ all PRQWHVZLWK WKHSODQWHGDQGZLWKDXWRFKWKRQVSHFLHVRIWUHHVLQFOXGHGEHORQJHGWRWKHVWDWH%XWWKLV VLWXDWLRQGLGQRWODVWXQWLO ,Q WKHVWDWHSURPXOJDWHGWKHODZRI 0RQWHVYHFLQDOHVHQ PDQRFRPXQ HPSRZHULQJWKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHVZLWKSURSHUW\ULJKWVRYHUWKHPRQWHV +RZHYHUWKHDFFHVVUHPDLQHGUHVWULFWHG7KHVWDWHUHJLPHDVVXPHGWKHREOLJDWLRQRI JXDUDQWHHLQJWKHSURSHUW\ULJKWVRIWKHYLOODJHVEXWLWUHLQIRUFHGLQWKHVDPHWLPHLWVSULPDF\ ZLWKUHJDUGWRµUHIRUHVWDWLRQ¶ DUWLFOH ,,¶7KH)UDQTXLVWUHJLPHEURXJKWLQDQRWKHUSHFXOLDULW\QDPHO\WKDWWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHG FODLPHGGLIIHUHQWQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVORFDWHGRQWKHVDPHWHUULWRU\ WKLVGULIWLQFUHDVHGLQWKH GHPRFUDWLFSHULRGDV,ZLOOVKRZEHORZ 0RUHRYHUWKHWZRUHVRXrces were mutually H[FOXVLYHWKDWLVLWZDVLPSRVVLEOHWRKDYHHXFDO\SWSODQWDWLRQVDQGSDVWXUHVIRUFDWWOHRQWKH VDPHSORWRIODQG7KHDIIRUHVWDWLRQSROLF\RI)UDQFRPHDQWFRQGHPQLQJORFDOSHDVDQWU\ SRSXODWLRQWRVWDUYDWLRQRUPLJUDWLRQ7KHUHIRUHWKHUHVLVWDQFHZDVLQHYLWDEOH7KHODZRI PRQWHVYHFLxDOHVHQPDQFRP~Q ZDVD³FDQG\´DVRQHRIP\LQIRUPDQWVSXWLW LWRIILFLDOO\ UHFRJQL]HGWKHSURSHUW\ULJKWVRIWKHSHDVDQWVEXWLWDFFHQWXDWHGWKHFKDQJHLQODQGXVH:H VHHDJDLQDWKUHHIROGSURFHVV WKHUHVWULFWLRQLQDFFHVVWKHGLVSRVVHVVLRQRIWKHSHDVDQWU\IURP WKHLUPHDQVRISURGXFWLRQDQGWKHLQYHQWLRQRIDQHZFRPPRGLW\– WKHSODQWHGWUHHV ,,,¶7KHLGHRORJ\RIWKHGLFWDWRULDOUHJLPHRI)UDQFRLVEHVWGHQRPLQDWHGDV)UDQTXLVP DVLWV 5RPDQLDQFRXQWHUSDUWLVEHVWFDOOHG&HDXúLVP 7KHHOHPHQWVRI)UDQTXLVP RUVXE- LGHRORJLHVKRZ,QDPHGWKHPHDUOLHU DUH 6SDQLVKQDWLRQDOLVPFRQVHUYDWRULVPHFRQRPLF DXWDUFK\DQWLOLEHUDOLVPFDWKROLFLVPDQGDQWLFRPPXQLVP:HQRWLFHGWKDW)UDQFR¶VUHJLPH FDQEHGLYLGHGLQWZRSHULRGV– the early and the late; the aggregation and the intensity of the HOHPHQWVRILWVLGHRORJ\GLIIHUEHWZHHQWKHWZR)RUH[DPSOHWKHDQWLFRPPXQLVPZDVPXFK PRUHIHURFLRXVLQWKHHDUO\SHULRGWKDQLQWKHODWHURQHDQGVRZDVWKHDQWLOLEHUDOLVP7KH &DWKROLFLVPEHFDPHPRUHSRZHUIXOLQWKHODWHUSHULRGZKLOHDQWLOLEHUDOLVPLQWHQVLW\GHFOLQHG -XOLiDQG'L)HER 7KHLGHDVWKDWOD\DWWKHEDVLVRIWKHVHFRQVWLWXWLYHHOHPHQWVRI )UDQTXLVPMRLQWRJHWKHULQGLIIHUHQWFOXVWHUVDORQJWKH \HDUVRIGLFWDWRUVKLS XQLW\DQG VLQJXODULW\RI6SDQLVKGHVWLQ\KXPDQLQHTXDOLW\EDVHGRQWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHVRFLHW\ pWDWLVPHHFRQRPLFVWDWH-GLULJLVPHVRFLHWDOUHIRUPVDPRQJZKLFKWKHDJULFXOWXUDORQHVZHUH LQWKHIRUHIURQW7KHDFWRUV¶UHODWLRQZLWKUHJDUGWR WKHWZRYDOXDEOHHOHPHQWVWKHSODQWHG WUHHVDQGWKHSDVWXUHVZDVVHWE\Franco’s orders DQGRIIVHWE\WKHSHDVDQWV¶UHVLVWDQFH 7KHGHPRFUDWLFSHULRG I’’7KHGHPRFUDWLFSHULRGVWDUWVZLWK)UDQFR¶VGHDWKLQ DQGODVWVXQWLOQRZDGD\VZLWKD traQVLWLRQSHULRGZKLFKVWDUWVLQWKHODWHSHULRGRI)UDQTXLVPDQGZHGRQRWNQRZZKHQLWZLOO end103'XULQJWKLVSHULRGWKHYDOXDEOHVIURPWKHPRQWH EHFDPHPRUHGLYHUVLILHG SODQWHG WUHHVSDVWXUHVJUDQLWHELRGLYHUVLW\WKHYHJHWDOIRVVLOVIURPWKHSHDWUHVHUYHDQG«WKHZLQG 7KHDFWRUVLQWHUHVWHGLQWXUQLQJWKHVHYDOXDEOHVLQSURSHUW\REMHFWVDOVRPXOWLSO\ EHVLGHVWKH VWDWHDQGWKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHVWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQDQGWKHUHJLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWDUHYHU\ LPSRUWDQWDFWRUVEXWQROHVVLPSRUWDQWDUHWKHIDPLOLHVDVLWLVWKHFDVHRIWKH;R[DV7KH HFRQRPLFHQWUHSUHQHXUVVSDQIURPIDPLO\DJULFXOWXUDOH[SORLWDWLRQVOLNHWKHRQHRI+HQDU¶VRU ;DYLHU¶VWRPXOWLQDWLRQDOFRUSRUDWLRQVIRUPLQLQJDQGZLQG-PLOOHQHUJ\SURGXFWLRQDQG GLVWULEXWLRQRUWRORFDODVVRFLDWLRQVIRUJDPH/HJDOO\VSHDNLQJWKHPRQWHV EHORQJWRWKH YLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHVZLWKHYHU\WKLQJWKDWLVRQLWIROORZLQJZLWKVPDOOPRGLILFDWLRQVWKH same law of PRQWHVYHFLxDOHV IRUP %XWWKHZLQGWKHELRGLYHUVLW\WKHYHJHWDOIRVVLOV \HDUVROGIURPWKHDFWLYHSHDWUHVHUYHEHORQJWRKXPDQLW\ DVDZKROH7KLVLVZK\ ;LVWUDOLVWKHFRUHSDUWRIWKH5LR0LxR%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYHDQGRI81(6&2:RUOG+HULWDJH 103 /LNHLQWKHFDVHRISRVW-VRFLDOLVW5RPDQLDWKHSUREOHPRIVRFLHWDOWransition to democracy is a very delicate RQH,ZLOOWUHDWLWVHSDUDWHO\LQWKHDQDO\WLFDOSDUW 200 3DWULPRQ\WKLVLVZK\WKH1DWXUDFRQVHUYDWLRQVLWHZDVHVWDEOLVKHGDQGZK\WKHZLQG is VWLOOUXQQLQJIUHH ,,¶¶$JDLQZKDWLVDFWXDOO\KDSSHQLQJLVGLIIHUHQWIRUPZKDWWKHODZVWDWHV:HUHPHPEHUWKH TXRWHVIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHILUVWSDUWSDUWLFXODUO\WKHRQHIURPYDQGHU+HLMGHQ that VWDWHVWKDWVXSUDQDWLRQDOUXOHVDQGUHJXODWLRQVUDWKHUWKDQSULYDWHRZQHUVKLSGHWHUPLQHKRZ WKHUXUDODUHDVGHYHORS$OWKRXJKGHMXUHWKHYDOXDEOHVEHORQJWRWKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLW\RI /DEUDGDRUWRWKHZRUOGVXSUD- and infra-QDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHWXUQWKHYDOXDEOHVLQWRSURSHUW\ REMHFWVRUFUHDWHQHZSURSHUW\REMHFWVRXWRIQRQ-YDOXDEOHV- OLNHLVWKHFDVHRIZLQGIRUQRQ- ORFDOHFRQRPLFDFWRUV7KHUHIRUHZHZLWQHVVWKHVDPHWKUHHIROGSURFHVV UHVWULFWLRQRIDFFHVV VHSDUDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHRZQHUVRIWKHODQGDQGWKHLUODQGDVPHDQRISURGXFWLRQE\Fhanging WKHODQGXVHWKURXJKWKHVHSDUDWLRQEHWZHHQRZQHUVKLSDQGPDQDJHPHQWDQGWKHFUHDWLRQRID new commodity – the wind-HQHUJ\ ,,,¶¶7KHGHPRFUDWLFUHJLPHGHVFULEHGKHUHLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DQLGHRORJ\FDOOHG QHROLEHUDOLVP1HROLEHUDOLVPLVDUHVSRQVHWRSDVWSUHVHQWDQGSUHVXPSWLYHWKUHDWVRIWKH FDSLWDOLVWHFRQRPLFV\VWHP$UJXPHQWVSURDQGFRQWUDQHROLEHUDOLVPIRUPWKHEXONRIVRFLDO VFLHQFHUHVHDUFKLQWKHSDVW\HDUV)RUWKHVDNHRIFRKHUHQFHZLWKWKHDERYHVHFWLRQV,ZLOO summarize the mDLQHOHPHQWVRIWKLVLGHRORJ\DVIROORZV SULYDWL]DWLRQPDUNHWL]DWLRQ GHUHJXODWLRQGHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQDQGPDUNHW-EDVHGJRYHUQDQFH7KHLGHDVEHQHDWKWKHVH HOHPHQWVFDQEHUHGXFHGWRRQH XQOLPLWHGIUHHGRP ,QWKLVHPSLULFDOSDUWP\DWWHPSWZDVWRSlace the nowadays environmental conflicts from /DEUDGDLQWKHLUFRQWH[W7KLVFRQWH[WLVKLVWRULFDOWUDQV-VHFWRULDOLQIUD-VXSUD- and trans- QDWLRQDO7KHVWRU\VWDUWVZLWKWKHVKLS-LQGXVWU\LQVL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\6SDLQDQGHQGVZLWKWKH (8WZLQQLQJSURJUDPEHWZHHQ*DOLFLD5RPDQLDDQG7KH1HWKHUODQGV7KLVORQJDQG FRPSOLFDWHGDFFRXQWRIHYHQWVVKRZHGKRZGHIRUHVWDWLRQDIIRUHVWDWLRQDQGUHIRUHVWDWLRQZHUH DIRUPRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQRIORFDOSHRSOH¶VEDVLFPHDQVRISURGXFWLRQLQ*DOLFLDDQGWKHYLOODJH of LaEUDGD:HVDZWKDWE\VRUWLQJWKHGDWDDURXQGWKHFRQFHSWRIQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDQGE\ SD\LQJLQFUHDVHGDWWHQWLRQWRWKHUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHVH YDOXDEOHVDWKUHHIROGSURFHVVUHFXUV WKDWRIHQFORVXUHGLVSRVVHVVLRQDQGFUHDtion of new FRPPRGLWLHV7KLVLVZKDW0DU[FDOOHGSULPLWLYHDFFXPXODWLRQRIFDSLWDO 0DU[ >@ :KLOHXSWRWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\WKHSHDVDQWV¶UHVWULFWLRQWRDFFHVVWKHUHVRXUFHZDV OHJLWLPL]HGE\WKHPLOLWDU\SRZHURIWKH$UPDGDVWDUWLQJZith mid-eighteenth century the 201 OHJLWLPL]DWLRQRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQXVHVDUKHWRULFRIµWKHZLOOWRLPSURYH¶ /L 7KH SURJUDPVIRULPSURYLQJHLWKHUWKHVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQRIWKHSHRSOHRUWKHHQYLURQPHQWDO SRWHQWLDOZHUHDOZD\VEDFNHG-XSE\HFRQRPLFDLPV7KLVUKHWRULFRULWVFRXQWHUSDUWWKH UKHWRULFRIUHVLVWDQFHDUHERWKFDUULHGE\QDWLRQDODQGWUDQVQDWLRQDODFWRUVLQDIRUPRI FXOWXUDOEURNHUDJH,VKRZHGhere KRZDSDUWLFXODUFRQVWHOODWLRQRIDFWRUVZDVLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG as a transnational community since the mid-eighteenth century with direct effect on the 6SDQLVKIRUHVWSROLF\ 202 Part IV: Access to Natural Valuables and Environmental Conflicts in Vrancea “%XWRQWKHFRQWUDU\WKH,QKDELWDQWVWKLQNWKHPVHOYHVEHKROGHQWRKLPZKRE\KLV,QGXVWU\RQQHJOHFWHGDQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ZDVWH/DQGKDVLQFUHDVHGWKHVWRFNRJ&RUQZKLFKWKH\ZDQWHG´ John Locke 2Q3URSHUW\ > @ ,ILUVWVWRSSHGDW&XOLĠӽ¶VKRXVHRQDFROGZLQWHU¶VQLJKWRQRI'HFHPEHU5LWD&XOLĠӽ¶V ZLIHERLOHGDIHZOLWHUVRIUHGZLQHZLWKDURPDWLFKHUEVWKHEHVWUHPHG\IRUFROGNQRZQLQ 9UDQFHD:HZHUHDJURXSRIVHYHQVWXGHQWVVXSHUYLVHGE\DQDVVLVWDQWSURIHVVRr from the 8QLYHUVLW\RI%XFKDUHVWWU\LQJIRUWKHILUVWWLPHWRVHHKRZHWKQRJUDSK\ZRUNVLQSUDFWLFH Picture 16: Researcher in the filed, December, 6th, 2003. 6KDULQJDIHZJODVVHVRIZLQHLVWKHPDLQVRFLDOL]DWLRQSUDFWLFH LQ9UDQFHDWKHIRUHPRVWZLQH-SURGXFLQJFRXQW\ LQ5RPDQLD 3KRWRSUHVXPSWLYHO\WDNHQE\0RQLFD9DVLOH 7KLVILHOGWULSRFFXUUHGWZR\HDUVDIWHUWKHUHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHYLOODJH¶VSURSHUW\ULJKWV IROORZLQJ\HDUVRIXVXUSDWLRQE\WKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPH%HWZHHQ DQGWKH IRUHVWFRQWLQXHGWREHVWDWHSURSHUW\:HIRXQG&XOLĠӽDQJU\IRUWKHLOOHJDOORJJLQJWKDW KDSSHQHGGXULQJWKHWXUPRLORIWKHSURSHUW\UHVWLWXWLRQSURFHVV ³7KHIRUHVWU\GHSDUWPHQWJULQGHGRXUIRUHVW7KH\NQHZWKDWUHVWLWXWLRQ ZRXOGWDNH SODFHDQGODWHO\WKH\¶YHGUDJJHGWKHIRUHVWWLOOLWIHOODSDUW:HZHUHDIHZ\RXQJPHQ IURPWKHYLOODJHWKDWRUJDQL]HGHYHU\WKLQJ:HVDLG– 1R7KLVFDQQRWEH$QGWKH\ >WKHIRUHVWU\RIILFLDOV@DVNHGXV :KDWDUH\RXILJKWLQJIRU"– )RUMXVWLFH´ &XOLĠӽ +XúFӽLQWHUYLHZ'HFHPEHUPLQ,QWHUYLHZPDGHE\0RQLFD9DVLOHDQG /LYLX0DQWHVFX $OWKRXJKPRUHSUDJPDWLFVHYHQ\HDUVODWHU,IRXQG&XOLĠӽOHJLWLPL]LQJSHRSOH¶VDFFHVVWRWKH YLOODJHSURSHUW\LQWKHVDPHKLVWRULFDOO\URRWHGGLVFRXUVHEXWIDFLQJGLIIHUHQWWKUHDWV ³ « LQ WKH\>IRUHLJQFRPSDQLHVIRUZRRGH[WUDFWLRQ@ WRRNRXUIRUHVWVWKH\FXW WKHPE\IRUFH%\WKH7LúLĠD5LYHUWKHUHZDVDUDLOZD\%\WUDLQWKH\WRRNWKHIRUHVWV 203 WKH\WRRNHYHU\WKLQJDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUZLOO $QGDIWHUVRPDQ\LQIHUQRVZHJRWLW EDFNEXWQRZZHKDYHDQRWKHUWURXEOH– WKLVSDUN « 7KLVSDUNZDVHVWDEOLVKHG ZLWKRXWREúWHD¶VDJUHHPHQW+RZFDQRQHJHWLQWRRQH¶VULJKWV":KDWWKHKHOOGRHVWKH ZRUGµRZQHU¶PHDQVQRZDGD\V" « 7KH\VKRXOGDWOHDVWJLYHXVVRPHWKLQJEDFNWR JLYHXVVRPHWKLQJEDFN:KDWVKRXOGZHGRZHZKRDUHOLYLQJKHUHZKDWVKRXOGZH GR«GLH":HKDGDKRSHIRUOLYHOLKRRGLQWKLVIRUHVW:HRQO\KDGWKLVWKLVULJKW 7KRVHIURPWKHIRUPHUFRPPXQLVWFROOHFWLYHIDUPVJRWWKHLU ODQGEDFNRUWKHLU YLQH\DUGVWKH\DOOJRWLWEDFN$QGZHZHGLGQ¶WKDYHRWKHUSURSULHWLHVWDNHQE\WKH VWDWHEXWWKLVDQGZHJRWLWEDFN$QGQRZWKH\WRRNLWDJDLQDQGHDWLW«GRLQJ ZKDWHYHUWKH\ZDQWZLWKLW7KLVLVWKHSUREOHP- WKDWZHGRQRW FRXQW´ Chapter 18 – 2EúWHD Similar to the PRQWHREúWHD LVWKHNH\FRQFHSWIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHSDVWDQGSUHVHQW HQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVLQ9UDQFHD2EúWHD PHDQVDSK\VLFDOWHUULWRU\DSURSHUW\UHJLPHD JURXSRISHRSOHDQGDYLOODJHRUJDQL]DWLRQDOODWWKHVDPHWLPH%HFDXVHRIWKLVZHQHHGWR WUHDWWKLVZRUGZLWKFDUHDQGPDNHVXUHWKDWQRFRQIXVLRQZLOOEHPDGHDORQJWKHZD\LQWKLV \HWDQRWKHUFRPSOH[VWRU\DERXWQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDQGSURSHUW\ The word ‘REúWHD¶KDVDQDUFKDLFHSLWRPHLQWKH5RPDQLDQODQJXDJH1RZDGD\VLW UHIHUVPDLQO\WRDZHOOGHILQHGJURXSRISHRSOH– IRUH[DPSOHWKHPRQNVLQDPRQDVWHU\ZLOO always refer to themselves as REúWHD - LQWKHVHQVHRIDµVRFLHW\¶7KHGHULYHGZRUGµREúWHVF’ is used with the sense of collective – DPD\RULQDUXUDOFRPPXQHZLOOVSHDNDERXWWKH LPPRELOHFROOHFWLYHJRRGVDVµEXQXULREúWHúWL¶7KHVD\LQJµúL-DGDWREúWHVFXOVIkUúLW¶ZKLFK ZRXOGEHWUDQVODWHGDVSDVVLQJWKHXQDYRLGDEOHHQGLVUHIHUUHGWRVRPHRQHZKRGLHGKHUH REúWHVF also carrying the meaning of something that everyone fits into – LQWKLVFDVHGHDWK 5RPDQLDQFXOWXUHLVIXOORIPDFDEUHMRNHVDQGWRFRQWLQXHLQWKHVDPHWRQH,ZRXOGDGGWKDW REúWHVF LVQRWXVHGZKHQRQHWDONVDERXWWD[DWLRQ7KHµFUHDWLYHFRPSOLDQFH¶HWKRVLQSRVW- VRFLDOLVPWKDW,ZLOOGHVFULEHODWHURQLQWKLVVHFWLRQH[SOLFDWHVZK\WKLVLVWKHFDVH ,QWKHDFWRUV¶GLVFRXUVHWKHZRUG9UDQFHDPD\UHIHUWRWZRGLVWLQFWJHRJUDSKLFDQG FXOWXUDOHQWLWLHVWKDWWKHUHDGHUVKDOOQRWFRQIRXQG2QWKHRQHKDQGWKHUHLVthe administrative state county – MXGHĠHVWDEOLVKHGE\WKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPHLQ – WKLVLV9UDQFHD&RXQW\ -XGHĠXO9UDQFHD 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHZHVWHUQSDUWRIWKLVFRXQW\QDPHO\WKHYLOODJHV DORQJDQGLQEHWZHHQWKH=ӽEDODDQG3XWQDULYHUVXSWRWKHSHDNVRIWKH&DUSDWKLDQVDQGGRwn WRWKH9LGUDYLOODJHLVFRPPRQO\NQRZQDVWKH9UDQFHD&RXQWU\ ğDUD9UDQFHL )RUWKH SXUSRVHRIDYRLGLQJWKHFRQIXVLRQEHWZHHQµFRXQW\¶DQGµFRXQWU\¶,ZLOOXVHWKHYHUQDFXODU forms -XGHĠXO9UDQFHDIRUWKHIRUPHUDQGğDUD SURQRXQFHG7]DUD 9UDQFHL RUVLPSO\ 204 9UDQFHDIRUWKHODWWHU7KHVHQVHRIORFDOLW\IRUWKHSHRSOHOLYLQJLQğDUD9UDQFHL LVH[SUHVVHG LQVD\LQJVVXFKDV WKRVHZKR >GDLO\@GULQNZDWHUIURPWKH0LOFRYULYHUDUHQRW9UkQFHQL IURP9UDQFHD %HLQJ9UkQFHDQLVLPSRUWDQWEHFDXVH³9UkQFHDQXO LVERUQDQGGLHVZLWKWKH ULJKWWRDFFHVVWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\ 9UkQFHDQXOVHQDúWHúLPRDUHFXGUHSW ” 104 The TXHVWLRQWKDW,ZDQWWRFODULI\LQWKLVILUVWFKDSWHULVZK\GRHV9UkQFHDQXO KDYHDVSHFLDO ULJKW" ,Q9UDQFHDWKHLQGLYLGXDOULJKWWRWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\LVDFTXLUHGWKURXJKWKH YLFLQLW\VWDWXVDVLQWKH case of the PRQWH%XWXQOLNHLQ*DOLFLDWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKLVFRPPRQ SURSHUW\UHJLPHLVQRWVRPXFKWKHRXWFRPHRIDQDJULFXOWXUDOURWDWLRQV\VWHPEXWWKH survival of customary regulations regarding access to the resources that transcended village OHYHODQGZKLFKEORFNHGWKHSHUHQQLDODWWHPSWVWRWUDQVIRUPWKHZKROH9UDQFHDUHJLRQLQWR IHXGDOSURSHUW\7KHUHIRUHWKLVILUVWFKDSWHUH[SOLFDWHVREúWHD from a historical and legal SHUVSHFWLYH7KHVXEVHTXHQWFKDSWHUVVKRZKRZWKHVHFXVWRPDU\UHJXODWLRQVHYROYHGLQ UHVSRQVHWRQRYHOLQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDOFKDOOHQJHV7KHFUHDWLRQRIWKH3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO 3DUNLQDQGWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI1DWura 2000 in the following year are only later SURYRFDWLRQVIURPDORQJWUDLQRIDWWHPSWVWRUHVWULFWSHRSOH¶VDFFHVVWRWKHLUFRPPRQ SURSHUWLHV Picture 17 & Picture 18: 5RPDQLDDQG-XGHĠXO9UDQFHD 6RXUFH ZZZ]LDUHVLUHYLVWHURLPDJHVKDUWDYUDQFHDMSJ and KWWS VILVLHUXOPHXURWKXPEQDLO7&*9(3,MSJODVWDFFHVVHG0DUFK 104 I think that a VKRUWH[SODQDWLRQFRQFHUQLQJ5RPDQLDQJUDPPDUis needed at thiVSRLQW8QOLNHDOORWKHU 5RPDQFHODQJXDJHVWKHGHILQLWHDUWLFOHLQ5RPDQLDQLVSODFHGDWWKHHQGRIWKHZRUG7KHUHIRUHHQGLQJVVXFKDV -XO-D-R IRUVLQJXODUDQG-L-OH-ORUGHVLJQDWHWKHGHILQLWHDUWLFOH6LQFHDGGLQJ(QJOLVKGHILQLWHDUWLFOHVto a YHUQDFXODUURRWVRXQGVKLODULRXVLQ5RPDQLDQ,ZLOOXVHWKHYHUQDFXODUIRUP 205 ğDUD9UDQFHL ,QWKH0LGGOH$JHVWKHUHZHUHYLOODJHVZLWKDFHUWDLQGHJUHHRILQGHSHQGHQFHZLWKUHJDUGWR WKHIHXGDOSROLWLFDOUHJLPHLQDOOWKUHH5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHV– 7UDQV\OYDQLD0ROGDYLDDQG :DOODFKLD7KHLULQGHSHQGHQFHZDVUHODWHGWRSURSHUW\RYHUODQG8VXDOO\DFRQIHGHUDWLRQRI such villages is denominated in the documents as ğDUD$OODORQJWKH&DUSDWKLDQVRQERWK VLGHV RQH FDQ WRGD\ ILQG VXFK ğUL WKH SOXUDO IRUP RI ğDUD VRPHWLPHV NHHSLQJ D PRUH ORRVHDQGVRPHWLPHVVWURQJHUVHQVHRIFXOWXUDOLGHQWLW\5RPDQLDQKLVWRULRJUDSK\DJUHHVWKDW WKHVH SROLWLFDO DQG FXOWXUDO XQLWV UHSUHVHQW SURWR-feudal state entities which eventually UHJURXSHG XQGHU D SRZHUIXO PLOLWDU\ UXOHU FDOOHG 9RLYRGH ,Q WKH 0LGGOH DQG /DWH 0LGGOH Ages we find these ğUL UHJURXSHG LQ D FRKHUHQW SROLWLFDO HQWLW\ QDPHG 9RLYRGDWH 7UDQV\OYDQLD 0ROGDYLD :DOODFKLD 6RPH RI WKH ğUL NHSW WKHLU LQGHSHQGHQFH VWDWXV ZLWKLQ WKH 9RLYRGDWHV 7KH FDVH RI ğDUD 9UDQFHL LV WKH RQH EHVW GRFXPHQWHG ERWK KLVWRULFDOO\ DQG HWKQRJUDSKLFDOO\105 7KHUHIRUH WKH FRQFHSW RI ğDUD in 9UDQFHD¶V FDVH QHHGV WR EH SURSHUO\ XQGHUVWRRG IRU LW HQFRPSDVVHV WKH PDLQ GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQREúWHD and PRQWHDVSURSHUW\UHJLPHV:KLOHLQWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHWKHYLOODJHVZHUH VXEMHFWVWRIRUR and the PRQWH was considered waste - WHUUDLQFXOWDLQ9UDQFHDWKHYLOODJHV ZHUHQRWVXEMHFWWRVLPLODUIHXGDOLQWXLWLRQDQGWKHLUFRPPRQODQGZKLFKERUHVDOWSDVWXUHV DQGIRUHVWVZHUHKLJKO\YDOXDEOH7KHSROLWLFDOSRZHURIWKLVFRQIHGHUDWLRQRIYLOODJHVZDs VWURQJHUE\IDUWKDQWKH*DOLFLDQFRQVHMRVUXUDOHV DQGSOD\HGDVLJQLILFDQWUROHLQGHIHQGLQJ DFFHVVWRWKHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVWKURXJKRXWWKHHLJKWHHQWKDQGQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ $FFRUGLQJWR'LPLWULH&DQWHPLU106WKHUHZHUHWKUHHSHDVDQWUHSXEOLFV within the 9RLYRGDWHRI0ROGRYDLQWKHODWHVHYHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ &kPSXOXQJLQWKHQRUWKVKDULQJWKH ERUGHUZLWKWKH3ROLVK(PSLUH9UDQFHDLQWKHVRXWKERUGHULQJRQERWK:DOODFKLDDQG 7UDQV\OYDQLDDQG7LJKHFLLQWKHHDVWQRWIDUIURPZKHUHWKH'QLHVWHU5LYHUPHHWVWKH%ODFN 6HDERUGHULQJWKH7DUWDUV$ERXWWKHODWWHU&DQWHPLUZURWH ³7LJKHFLLVDGHHSIRUHVWE\WKH ERUGHUZLWKWKH7DUWDUVIURP%XFHDJDQGLWLV0ROGRYD¶VVWURQJHVWVKLHOGIURPWKH%HVVDUDELD UHJLRQ7KHLQKDELWDQWVSD\DQDQQXDOVPDOOIL[HGOHY\WRWKH&URZQ « WKH\DUHDERXW WZRWKRXVDQGVKRUVHULGHUVEXWWKH\VXUSDVVLQEUDYHQHVVDQ\RWKHU0ROGRYLDQ>VROGLHU@´ LELG - $ERXW9UDQFHD&DQWHPLUQRWHV ³7KHVHFRQGUHSXEOLFVPDOOHULV9UDQFHDLQ 3XWQD6KLUHDWWKHERUGHUZLWK:DOODFKLDVXUURXQGHGE\KLJKPRXQWDLQV>«@7KH\SD\D IL[OHY\WRWKHFURZQDQGWKH\KDYHWKHLURZQUXOHVDQGWKHLURZQFXVWRPV DQGWKH\GRQ¶W 105 Long term eWKQRJUDSKLFILHOGZRUNKDVEHHQFRQGXFWHGLQ9UDQFHDE\WKH5RPDQLDQ6RFLRORJLVWV++6WDKO 'LPLWULH*XVWL7UDLDQ+HUVHQLDQGRWKHUV NQRZQDVWKH%XFKDUHVW6RFLRORJLFDO6FKRRO LQ - - 106 &DQWHPLUZDVDKumanist 5RPDQLDQinteOOHFWXDODQGSROLWLFLDQ9RLYRGHRI0ROGRYDIURPWR+LV work 'HVFULSWLR0ROGDYLH was written XSRQ UHTXHVWRIWKH3UXVVLDQ$FDGHP\ RI6FLHQFHLQ Today located half in the 5HSXEOLF of MoldovaKDOILQ8NUDLQH 206 SXUVXHRUGHUVIURP7KH&URZQQRUMXULGLFDOJXLGDQFH´ &DQWHPLU>@ - :KHWKHUWKHVHWKUHHSHDVDQWUHSXEOLcs gained autonomy within the Moldavian feudal VWDWHE\WKHLUPLOLWDU\PHULWVLVGHEDWDEOH6WDKO DGYDQFHVWKHLGHDWKDWWKLVZDV WKHFDVH,IZHDUHVXUHDERXW7LJKHFLIRU&kPSXOXQJDQG9UDQFHDZHNQRZDOVRIURP &DQWHPLUWKDW³WKRVHIURPWKH1RUWKKDYHOHVVDELOLW\IRUZDUIDUHDQGWKH\DUHQRWYHU\ DFFXVWRPHGZLWKWKH>XVHRI@ILJKWLQJDUPVEHFDXVHWKH\DUHKDSSLHUWRJDLQWKHLUOLYLQJ ZRUNLQJDQGWRHDWWKHLUEUHDGLQSHDFH´ &DQWHPLU 0RUHRYHU&DQWHPLUDGGV WKDW&kPSXOXQJDQG9UDQFHDZHUHZHOONQRZQIRUWKHLUJRRGSDVWXUHV ³WKHUHDUHWKUHH UHJLRQVZLWKSDUWLFXODUO\JRRGSDVWXUHV 3XWLOD&kPSXOXQJDQG9UDQFHD´ LELG 108 :KHWKHURUQRWLWZDVIRUPLOLWDU\UHDVRQVLVOHVVLPSRUWDQWIRUWKHPRPHQW:KDWLVUHOHYDQW is that WKHVHYLOODJHFRQIHGHUDWLRQVWKHVHSHDVDQWUHSXEOLFV IRUPHGDXWRQRPRXVSROLWLFDO XQLWVLQ0ROGRYDDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ ,QWKHFDVHRI9UDQFHDWKHSROLWLFDOILQDQFLDODGPLQLVWUDWLYHDQGMXULGLFDOLVVXHVZHUH UHJXODWHGE\WKHEoard of 2EúWHDRIWKH:KROH9UDQFHD $GXQDUHDD7RDW9UDQFHD ZKLFK ZDVIRUPHGE\WKHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVRIDOOIRXUWHHQYLOODJHVFDOOHGYHFKLOL7KLVVRUWRIµVHQDWH¶ RI9UDQFHDZDVQRWDSHUPDQHQWDVVHPEO\EXWUDWKHUDORRVHRUJDQL]HGJURXSWKDWJDWKHUHG ZKHQHYHULWZDVQHHGHG 6WDKO YRO, 7KHWZRIROORZLQJH[DPSOHVDUH LOOXVWUDWLYH110 The economic role of the YHFKLOL ZDVUHODWHGWRWUDGHDQGILQDQFLDOLVVXHV8QWLOWKH ODWHVSHRSOHLQ9UDQFHDZHUHWUDGLQJRQO\ZLWKRQHWUDGHUFDOOHG1HJXĠWRULXO9UQFLL- 7KH0HUFKDQWIRU9UDQFHD111 7KHFODXVHRIWUDGHDQGWKHSHULRGGXULQJZKLFKWKH2EúWHDRI WKH:KROH9UDQFHD FRQWUDFWHGZLWKWKLVXQLTXHPHUFKDQWZDVHVWDEOLVKHGE\WKHYHFKLOL +RZHYHUWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHWUDGHUDQGWKHYHFKLOL ZDVVXSHUYLVHGE\WKHVWDWH7KH WUDGHUZDVHPSRZHUHGE\WKHIHXGDOFRXUWWROHQGPRQH\WRWKHYHFKLOL in the name of the SHRSOHIURP9UDQFHDRQO\XSWROHL++6WDKOVWDWHVWKDW³WKLVWUDGLWLRQDOODZKDGDW ILUVWWKHUROHWRSUHYHQWWKHSHQHWUDWLRQRIWUDGHUVDQGSDZQEURNHUVVRWKDW9UDQFHD¶VIHGHUDO ERDUGRIDGPLQLVWUDWLRQFRXOGEHWWHUFRQWURORQHVLQJOHWUDGHU´ 6WDKO 8 %XW6WDKO DVDOHIWZLQJVRFLDOVFLHQWLVWZULWLQJLQWKHPLGVWRIVRYLHWFHQVXUHRIWKH ¶VPLJKWKDYH 108 Originally the regions are FDOOHG ³&DPSX-OXQJ5XVHVFRQWR 3XWLOD&DPSX-OXQJ0ROGRYHQHVFRQ 0ROGDYD DQG 9UDQFHD « ´Eut in order to avoid any misunderstanding regarding similarly nameGEXWGLIIHUHQWUHJLRQV I have chosen DVLPSOHUWUDQVODWLRQ In original UHLSXEOLFDHDOLTXDPSUDHVHIHUXPVSHFLHP &DQWHPLU>@ 110 7KHHFRQRPLFKLVWRU\RI9UDQFHDLVDFRPSOLFDWHGDQG\HWXQGHUVWXGLHGWRSLF,IUXJDOO\VLJQDODIHZRf the PRVWLPSRUWDQWLVVXHVZKLFKUHODWHWRWKHWRSLFRIWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\ 111 7KHGRFXPHQWV,NQRZRIZKLFKUHIHUWRWKHVLQJOHPHUFKDQWIRU9UDQFHDDUHIURP0DUFK 1RYHPEHU1RYHPEHUSXEOLVKHGLQ6DYD DQGDOOXVHWKLVGHQRPLQDWLRQ 208 18.2. Past and present uses ,QWKHSDVWWKHPRVWLQWHQVHXVHVRIWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\ZHUHWKHSDVWXUHVIRUHVWVWKHVDOW UHVRXUFHVDQGWKHZDWHUPLOOV,WLVVWLOOGHEDWDEOHDVWRKRZPXFKRIWKHDUDEOHODQGZDV coPPRQSURSHUW\DQGKRZPXFKZDVSULYDWHRZQHUVKLS+RZHYHUWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQ SULYDWHDQGFRPPRQRZQHUVKLSRIODQGLQ9UDQFHD¶VFDVHLVPLVOHDGLQJ IRULQHDUO\VSULQJ DQGODWHDXWXPQDOOSULYDWHODQGSORWVEHFRPHFRPPRQODQGIRUSDVWXUHVLQDV\VWHm of agricultural rotation called moinӽDQGZKLFK,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQEULHIEHORZ Picture 19 & Picture 20: Landscapes in Vrancea in fall 2010. 3KRWRVPDGHE\/LYLX0LKDODFKH )RUPDNLQJWKHLUSORWVIRUFURSVSHRSOHLQ9UDQFHDKDGWREUHDNLQWRFRPPRQIRUHVWV HLWKHUE\FXWWLQJWKHWUHHVRUE\EXUQLQJWKHP7XUQLQJDSORWRIODQGIURPIRUHVWWRILHOG FRQVLVWVRIDORWRIKDUGHIIRUWWKDWXVXDOO\QHFHVVLWDWHGWKHFRPELQHGZRUNIRUFHRIPXOWLSOH IDPLOLHV3HRSOHVWLOOUHPHPEHUHYHQQRZLQ3ӽXOHúWLWKDWIRULQRUGHUWRSORXJKDILHOGWKDW was ĠLKHU DSORWRIDUDEOHODQGWKDWZDVIRUPHUO\IRUHVWVHHSDUW,,FKDSWHU DWOHDVWWKUHH SDLUVRIR[HQSORZLQJZHUHQHHGHGIRUPDQ\\HDUV$QGVLQFHRQO\RQHIDPLO\FRXOGDIIRUG WKLVWKH\ZHUHDVVRUWHGIROORZLQJNLQRUIULHQGVKLSUHODWLRQV2QFHWKHSRSXODWLRQKDGHQRXJK DJULFXOWXUDOODQGWKHIDPLOLHVFRXOGDQGVWLOODUHXVLQJQRZDGD\VDQLQWHUQDOV\VWHPRIILHOG rotation called PRLQ$SORWRIODQGLVLQPRLQ when it is cultivated for one \HDUZLWKFURSV DQGWKHQH[W\HDULVGHVLJQDWHGWRSDVWXUH+RZHYHUWKLVODQGLVQRWSXVWLX VHHSDUW,,FKDSWHU EXWRQO\KRZSHRSOHVD\RERVLW – WLUHGDQGQHHGVWRUHVW,QWKH\HDUZKHQWKLVSORWRI ODQGLVGHVLJQDWHGWRSDVWXUHLQGLYLGXDORUFROOHFWLYHDQLPDOVFDQJUD]HRQLW7KLVGHSHQGVRQ QHLJKERUVDJUHHPHQWVRQZRUNLQJWKHLUSORWVLQWKHVDPHUHJLPHDQGXVXDOO\WKH\GRVR VHH DOVR6WDKO - Pictures 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26: Wood extraction, crafting and transport in Vrancea in 1927 and 2007. :RRGFUDIWHGPDWHULDOVDQGWKHLUWUDQVSRUWLQ9UDQFHDLQ 3LFWXUHVE\0,%HUPDQUHSURGXFHGIURP1HUHM 8QYLOODJHG¶XQHUpJLRQDUFKDwTXHYRO,,,S 210 3LFWXUHVE\0,%HUPDQUHSURGXFHGIURP1HUHM8QYLOODJHG¶XQHUpJLRQDUFKDwTXHYRO,,, On the leIWSKRWRPDGHE\6WHOLDQ'RGHLQ FORVHWR1HUHMYLOODJHUHSURGXFHGIRUP1HUHM8QYLOODJHG¶XQH UpJLRQDUFKDwTXHYRO,,,2QWKHULJKWSKRWRE\WKHDXWKRULQLQ1HUHMYLOODJHDSSUR[LPDWHO\NPVRXWK IURP3ӽXOHúWL :LWKUHJDUGWRVDOW WKHUHDUHGR]HQVRIVDOWZRUNVLQ9UDQFHDVWLOOLQXVHRUDWWHVWHGE\ WRSRQ\PV%XWZKDWLVYHU\LPSRUWDQWLVWKDWVDOWZDVQHYHUDVWDWHPRQRSRO\LQWKLVUHJLRQ +RZHYHUWKHSHRSOHIURP9UDQFHDZHUHIRUELGGHQE\WKH0ROGDYLDQVWDWHWRVHOOLWRXWVLGH 9UDQFHDQRUGLGWKH\DOORZSHRSOHIURPRXWVLGH9UDQFHDWRFRPHDQGH[WUDFWVDOWIURPWKHLU PLQHV 6DYD -6WDKO YRO, - 7KHFXVWRPLVVWLOODOLYH WRGD\$V 1LĠӽH[SODLQHGPH ³:HOOWKHUHDUHSHRSOHWKDWGRQ¶WOLYHLQ9UDQFHDUHODWLYHV\RXNQRZWKDWFRPHWRWDNHVDOW IRUFRQVHUYLQJYHJHWDEOHVLQWKHDXWXPQEXWYHU\IHZ7RGD\WKHVDOWLVVRFKHDSLWLVPRUH FRVWO\WRJRDQGJHWLW%XWQRWKHVWDWHFDQQRWH[SORLWRXUVDOW´ 1LĠӽ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ilize the eDVWHUQIURQWRQWKH&DUSDWKLDQVDIWHUWKHGHIHDWRI0ӽUӽúHúWL 212 RUVHUYLFHVPRVWO\ODERU3HRSOHLQ3ӽXOHúWLUHPHPEHUWKDWWKHVDZLQJPLOOVIXQFWLRQHGXQWLO HDUO\ V 18.3. The juridical status nowadays 1RZDGD\VKDOIRIWKHSULYDWH-RZQHGIRUHVWVLQ5RPDQLD DERXWPLOOLRQKD DUHRZQHGE\ YLOODJHVDQGPDQDJHGLQDSDUWLFLSDWRU\PDQQHU7KHUHLVDZide variety of local institutional VHWWLQJVFRQFHUQLQJWKHVHFRPPRQVEXWKLVWRULFDOO\VSHDNLQJWKH\FRXOGEHJURXSHGLQIRXU PDLQW\SHV REúWHDFRPSRVVHVRUDWHERUGHUOLQHFRPPXQLW\IRUHVWV and PXQLFLSDOLW\IRUHVWV +HUH , IRFXV RQO\ RQ REúWHD W\SH113 7KH VWDWH ODZ LV LQFRPSOHWH DQG YHU\ DPELJXRXV ZLWK UHJDUG WR WKH ULJKWV RI XVH RI WKHVH GLIIHUHQW MRLQW-RZQHUVKLS SURSHUW\ UHJLPHV 0DQWHVFX 9DVLOH DQG 0DQWHVFX (DFK RI WKHP KDV GLIIHUHQW LQVWLWXWLRQDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV different history and is soFLDOO\HPEHGGHGWKURXJKGLIIHUHQWVRFLDOPHFKDQLVPV 2EúWHD FRPPRQ SURSHUW\ UHJLPH LV WR EH IRXQG LQ WKH PRXQWDLQRXV UHJLRQV RI 0ROGDYLDDQG:DOODFKLD7KHUHDUHWZRPDLQW\SHVRIREúWHD HJDOLWDULDQDQGQRQ-HJDOLWDULDQ Figure 8: 7KHVWUXFWXUHRIWKHSURSHUW\V\VWHPRIIRUHVWVLQ5RPDQLD Source 1DWLRQDO)RUHVWU\'HSDUWPHQW 113 Compossessorate (composesorat) LVWKHJHQHULFQDPHRIWKHIRUHVWFRPPRQVLQ7UDQV\OYDQLD,WLVDOVRWKH QDPHRIWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\DVZHOODVWKHLQVWLWXWLRQWKDWPDQDJHVLW7KLVW\SHRIMRLQWRZQHUVKLSLVVLPLODU to the non-HTXDOLWDULDQ2EúWHD VHHEHORZ $ODUJHSHUFHQWage of WKH5RPDQLDQIRUHVWVLVRZQHGE\UXUDO municipalities7KLVW\SHRIIRUHVWFRPPRQSURSHUW\LVTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPREúWHD and FRPSRVVHVVRUDWH7KH SURSHUW\EHORngs WRWKHYLOODJHPXQLFLSDOLW\ VRWKHRUHWLFDOO\DQ\LQKDELWDQWRIWKHYLOODJHKDVHTXDOULJKWWR DFFHVVWKHSURSHUW\KDVHTXDOVKDUHVOLNHLQWKHHTXDOLWDULDQREúWHD FDVH +RZHYHUWKHRZQHULVWKH PXQLFLSDOLW\WKHORFDOVWDWHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHDQGWKHERXQGDULHVRIWKHSURSHUW\IROORZWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\¶V ERXQGDULHV7KLVW\SHRIFRPPRQSURSHUW\UHJLPHLVYHU\PXFKOLNH PRQWHGHSURSULRV7KHERUGHUOLQH FRPPXQLW\IRUHVWVUHIHUVWRWKHYLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHVWKDWMRLQWO\-RZQHGIRUHVWVDQGSDVWXUHVDVUHZDUGIRU PLOLWDU\VHUYLFHLQGHIHQGLQJWKHHDVWHUQIURQWLHUVRIWKH+DEVEXUJ(PSLUH VHHIRUWKLVPDWWHU5RúX 213 7KHHJDOLWDULDQREúWHDSURSHUW\UHJLPHLVVLPLODUWRWKHPRQWHVYHFLxDOHVLQPDQFRP~Q. In 9UDQFHDSHRSOHXVHWKHWHUPREúWHD in order tRGHVLJQDWHWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEO\- ZHREúWHD; to GHVLJQDWHWKHYLOODJHFRPPRQSURSHUW\- on that mountain our REúWHD is; and to name the local µRUJDQL]DWLRQ¶IRUPDQDJLQJWKHYLOODJHIRUHVWVDQGFRPPRQSDVWXUHVZKLFKVSDQVIURP XSWRKD$VDQ µRUJDQL]DWLRQ¶WKHREúWHD RIYLOODJH;KDVRQHSUHVLGHQWWZRWRIRXU FRXQFLORUVDERRN-NHHSHUVHFUHWDULHVHWF$VDQLQVWLWXWLRQDIRUPDODQGLQIRUPDOVHWRIUXOHV IRU PDQDJLQJ WKH FRPPRQ SURSHUW\ REúWHD looks different from region to region and even IURP YLOODJH WR YLOODJH 7KH ULJKWV RI DFFHVV WR FRPPRQ SURSHUW\ DUH FXVWRPDU\ HPEHGGHG VRPHWLPHVLJQRULQJWKHOHJDOVWDWXWHV (YHU\RQHLQWKHYLOODJHKDVWKHULJKWWRHTXDOVKDUHVRIZRRGDQGHTXDODFFHVVWRWKH FRPPRQSDVWXUHV(YHU\PDQDQGZRPDQRYer eighteen has the right to vote for electing the SUHVLGHQW RI REúWHD DQG WKH FRXQFLORUV LQ WKH YLOODJH DVVHPEO\ ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV RQH PDWXUH LQGLYLGXDOHTXDOVKDUHRQHYRWH3HRSOHDQQXDOO\UHFHLYHRQHWRWKUHHFXELFPHWHUVRIIXHO- ZRRG SHU SHUVRQ DQG WKH VDPH TXDQWLW\ RI ZRRG IRU FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK WKH ULJKW WR VHOOLW /RFDOSULYDWHFRPSDQLHVSDUWLFLSDWHLQDXFWLRQVLQRUGHUWRH[SORLWZRRGVXUSOXVRIWKHIRUHVW SORWV :LWKWKH UHVXOWLQJ PRQH\ REúWHD LPSURYHV YLOODJH XWLOLWLHV VXFK DV URDGV VFKRROV RU FKXUFKHV79FDEOHZDWHUV\VWHPVJDVV\VWHPHWF7KHERDUGof REúWHD FDQGLYLGHWKHSURILW WRWKHYLOODJHUVLQHTXDODPRXQWVRIPRQH\LISHRSOHYRWHIRUVXFKEXWLQ3ӽXOHúWLWKLVKDV QHYHUKDSSHQHG 7KHQRQ-HJDOLWDULDQREúWHDPLJKWEHFDOOHGthe JHQHDORJLFDOREúWHD WKHRQO\YLOODJHUV who have rights to access DUHWKRVHDQGRQO\WKRVHZKRVHSDUHQWVKDGVKDUHVLQREúWHD7KH VKDUHVDUHLQKHULWHGLQERWKPDOHIHPDOHOLQHVDQGYRWHVLQWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEO\DUHDOORFDWHG solely according to these shares – LIRQHKDVRQHVKDUHRIZRRGKHVKHKDVRQHYRWHLIKHVhe KDVVKDUHVWKDQKHVKHZLOOKDYHWKHULJKWWRYRWHV,QDOOFDVHVRIQRQ-HTXDOLWDULDQ REúWHD WKHUHVXOWLQJSURILWIURPWKHVXUSOXVRIZRRGH[WUDFWLRQLVGLYLGHGEHWZHHQWKHVKDUH KROGHUVMXVWDVVKDUHVIURPDFRPSDQ\7KHJHQHDORJLFDO REúWHD LVWREHIRXQGLQWKHUHVWRI WKH PRXQWDLQRXV UHJLRQ LQ 0ROGDYLD H[FHSWLQJ 9UDQFHD DQG LQ WKH ZKROH RI PRXQWDLQRXV :DOODFKLD $V , PHQWLRQHG EHIRUH REúWHD DV DQ LQVWLWXWLRQ WR UHJXODWH DFFHVV WR FRPPRQ SURSHUW\ LV KLJKO\ FXVWRPDU\ HPEHGGHG DQG WKH 5RPDQLDQ &LYLO &RGH DQG )RUHVWU\ &RGH GRHV QRW FRYHU WKLV GLYHUVLW\ ,Q ERWK FDVHV WKHUH LV RQO\ RQH SURSHUW\ WLWOH WKH 2EúWHD of YLOODJH ; RZQV WKH ODQG 7KH GLIIHUHQFH LV WKDW LQ WKH ILUVW W\SH REúWHD means the whole YLOODJH ZKLOH LQ WKH VHFRQG RQO\ D SDUW RI LW +RZHYHU LQ ERWK FDVHV WKH SURSHUW\ LV 214 LQGLYLVLEOH – RQH FDQQRW IHQFH KLV VKDUHV IURP WKH FRPPRQ SURSHUW\ EHFDXVH RQH GRHV QRW HYHQ NQRZ ZKHUH WKHVH VKDUHV DUH ORFDWHG DQG WKH VKDUHV FDQQRW EH VROG RXWVLGH REúWHD 0RUHFOHDUO\REúWHD is QRWDQDVVRFLDWLYHIRUPRIDIHZLQGLYLGXDOODQGRZQHUVEXWLVDIRUP RI MRLQW-RZQHUVKLS ,Q WKH WDEOH EHORZ , VXPPDUL]HG WKH PDLQ ILJXUHV FRQFHUQLQJ ULJKWV RI DFFHVVWRWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\LQWKHHJDOLWDULDQREúWHD DVRSSRVHGWRWKHJHQHDORJLFDORQH Figure 7ZRW\SHVRI2EúWHD (TXDOLWDULDQ2EúWHD 1RQ-HTXDOLWDULDQ2EúWHD 6KDUHVSHUSHUVRQ 1 2QHKDOIWKLUGILIWKHWFRUPRUHWKDQRQH 9RWHVSHUSHUVRQ 1 2QHKDOIWKLUGILIWKHWFRUPRUHWKDQRQH 5LJKWVWRVHOORXWVLGHREúWHD 1R 1R 5LJKWVWRVHOOLQVLGHREúWHD 1R %HJLQQLQJ ZLWK WKH \HDU ZKHQ WKH VHFRQG 5RPDQLDQ )RUHVWU\ &RGH ZDV DGRSWHGWKH5RPDQLDQVWDWHWULHG WRUHJXODWHWKLVIRUPRISULYDWHMRLQWO\-RZQHGSURSHUW\DQG LPSRVHGDIL[HGRUJDQL]DWLRQDODQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOIUDPHZRUNWKURXJKDIRUPDOVWDWXWH$V,ZLOO GHVFULEH ODWHU RQ LQ WKLV SDUW LW ZDV LQLWLDOO\ LQWHQGHG WKDW WKLV VWDWH UHJXODWHG IRUP VKRXOG inFOXGH FXVWRPDU\ UHJXODWLRQV EXW HQGHG XS E\ WRWDOO\ LJQRULQJ WKH UHDO GLYHUVLW\ RI FXVWRPDU\ ODZV ,Q WKH FRPPXQLVW SDUW\ VHL]HG SULYDWH SURSHUWLHV LQFOXGLQJ WKH FRPPRQV0RVWRIWKHYLOODJHUVEHFDPHZDJHHDUQHUVZRUNLQJLQWKHLUIRUPHUIRUHVWVIRU the VWDWH FRPSDQ\ ,Q WKH 5RPDQLDQ VWDWH YRWHG IRU WKH ODZ RI UH-HVWDEOLVKLQJ SURSHUW\ ULJKWVIRUWKHIRUPHURZQHUV$YHU\LPSRUWDQWQRWHKDVWREHPDGHKHUH WKH\HDUZDV DOVR WKH \HDU ZKHQ WKH QHJRWLDWLRQ SURFHVV IRU (8 DFFHVVLRQ VWDUWHG LQ 5RPDQLD DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO SROLF\ SOD\HG D VWURQJ UROH LQ WKH PDWWHU 7KH SURFHVV RI UH-HVWDEOLVKLQJ SURSHUW\ ULJKWV ZDV FRQFRPLWDQW ZLWK WKH SURFHVV RI HVWDEOLVKLQJ QHZ SURWHFWHG DUHDV %HWZHHQWKH\HDUDQGWKHDPRXQWRISURWHFWHGDUHDVLQWKHQational territory rose IURPWR 2EúWHDZDVDQGVWLOOLVDV\OYR-SDVWRUDODJULFXOWXUDOV\VWHPDQGDYLOODJHLQVWLWXWLRQDWWKH VDPHWLPH7KHVXUYLYDORIWKHFRPPRQODQGSURSHUW\UHJLPHLQ9UDQFHDZDVQRWGXHWRD SDUWLFXODUXVHRIWKHODQGDVLQWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHEXWGXHWRWKHLQVWLWXWLRQRIREúWHD at village DQGUHJLRQDOOHYHO2EúWHD RIIHUHGDQGVWLOORIIHUVWKHOHJLWLPDF\IRUWKHORFDOSHRSOHWR DFFHVVWKHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVLQ9UDQFHD7KLVLQVWLWXWLRQWKDWUHJXODWHGDQGUHJXODWHVWKHXVH of 215 WKHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVHYROYHGRYHUWLPH,ZLOOIROORZWKHVHFKDQJHVVWDUWLQJZLWKWKHILUVW IRUPVRIVWDWHUHJXODWLRQVIRUDFFHVVLQJWKHFRPPRQIRUHVWV Chapter 19 – The expansion of transnational markets )RUHVWVZHUHQRWV\VWHPDWLFDOO\H[SORLWHGin Moldova until the second half of the nineteenth FHQWXU\DSHULRGZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKHFUHDWLRQRIWKH5RPDQLDQQDWLRQDOVWDWHDQGWKH ILUVWZHVWHUQFDSLWDOLQYHVWPHQWVLQWKHFRXQWU\,QWKLVFKDSWHU,ZLOOVKRZKRZDQGZK\WKLV ZDVSRVVLEOHE\GUDZLQJRQLQVLJKWVIURPWKHJHQHUDOJHRSROLWLFDOVLWXDWLRQRIWKHUHJLRQ FRPELQHGZLWKWKHKLVWRULFDOGDWDWKDWLVUHODWHGWR9UDQFHD 19.1. Two land-based Empires 7KHIDOORIWKH(DVWHUQ5RPDQ(PSLUHSDYHGWKHZD\IRUWKHULVHRIWZRPDMRUODQG-EDVHG HPSLUHVZLWKJUHDWLQIOXHQFHLQVRXWK-HDVWHUQ(XURSH WKH2WWRPDQDQGWKH5XVVLDQ(PSLUHV While the Ottomans saw themselves as the masters of the world for inheritLQJWKHVSOHQGRURI WKH5RPDQ(PSLUHWKHODWWHUEHOLHYHGWKDWWKHKRO\IDLWKRI(DVWHUQ&KULVWHQGRPZDVWKHLU EXVLQHVV7KHFODVKRIWKHWZRDFWXDOO\JDYHZD\WRZHVWHUQFDSLWDOLQYHVWPHQWLQWKHUHJLRQ %HFDXVHRILWVSDUWLFXODUJHRVWUDWHJLFDGYDQWDJHV&RQVWDQWLQRSOHZDVWKHEHVW GHIHQGHGDQGWKHULFKHVWFLW\LQWKH0LGGOH$JHV&RQWUROOLQJVHDWUDGHLQWKH%RVSRUXVDQG WKH'DUGDQHOOHVEURXJKWHQRUPRXVZHDOWKWRWKHFLW\+RZHYHUWKHHQY\LWDFTXLUHG throughout the centuries was not only due to its JROGEXWDOVRWRLWVFXOWXUDODQGHVSHFLDOO\ UHOLJLRXVKHULWDJH&URZOH\QRWHVLQKLVVWXG\RQWKHJHRSROLWLFVRI%\]DQWLXP ³)URPLWV IRXQGLQJWKHFDSLWDOFLW\ZDVFRQFHLYHGDVDUHSOLFDRIKHDYHQDPDQLIHVWDWLRQRIWKHWULXPSK RI&KULVW « 7KHFLW\EHFDPHWKHVWRUHKRXVHRIWKHUHOLFVRI&KULVWHQGRPFROOHFWHGIURPWKH +RO\/DQGDQGH\HGZLWKHQY\E\&KULVWLDQVLQWKH:HVW+HUHWKH\KDGWKHKHDGRI-RKQWKH %DSWLVWWKHFURZQRIWKRUQVWKHQDLOVIURPWKHFURVVDQGWKHVWRQHIURPWKHWRPE « ´ &URZOH\ :KHQ0HKPHG,,LQKLVODYLVK\HDUQLQJIRUJORU\ILQDOO\FRQTXHUHGWKHFLW\RQ WKRI 0D\&RQVWDQWLQRSOH114 KDGOLWWOHOHIWRILWVJROGHQDQGUHOLJLRXVVSOHQGRUV7KH 114 The Ottomans continued to use the name in the form of Kostantiniyye until the late nineteenth FHQWXU\ ,VWDQEXO ZDVLPSRVHGDIWHU when the ILUVW7XUNLVK5HSXEOLFZDVSURFODLPHG$QLQWHUHVWLQJPHDVXUHWR LPSRVHWKHQew name in international affairs and throughout common use outside Turkey ZDVWKHSRVWal 216 FUXVDGHUVRIWKHMRLQHGFDWKROLFDUPLHVRIWKH)RXUWK&UXVDGHGHVSRLOHd the city in 1204 and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until the mid-QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ 7KH9HQHWLDQVLQLWLDOO\VWRRGDJDLQVWWKHSRZHUIXOIOHHWRIWKH2WWRPDQVEXWRQO\IRUD few decades - LQWKH\ZHUHGHIHDWHGLQWKHEDWWOHRI(XERHD$9HQHWLDQFRPPDQGHU ZKRIDFHGWKH2WWRPDQIOHHWLQWKHVDLGEDWWOHZURWH ³7KHZKROHVHDDSSHDUHGOLNHDIRUHVW« ,VZHDUWKDWIURPWKHILUVWYHVVHOWRWKHODVWRQHWKHHQWLUHIOHHWH[WHQGVPRUHWKDQVL[PLOHV« LWFRXOGEHWKHUXLQRI&KULVWLDQLW\´ LQ3HUOLQ 7KH2WWRPDQVGLGQRWIDFHWKH same shortage of wood LQWKHILIWHHQWKFHQWXU\DVGLGWKHZHVWHUQVHDSRZHUV$FFRUGLQJWR 3HUOLQ³>W@KH0XVOLP7XUNVGLGQRWKDYHWRZRUU\DERXWWLPEHUIRUEXLOGLQJDQGPDLQWDLQLQJ DODUJHIOHHW7KH\KHOG%LWK\QLDRQWKHVRXWKZHVWVKRUHRIWKH%ODFN6HDDQG7KUDFHLQ QRUWKHUQ*UHHFHERWKHVWHHPHGIRUPLOOHQQLDIRUWKHLUJUHDWIRUHVWV´ 3HUOLQ 7KLV LVFRQILUPHGE\7XUNLVKKLVWRULRJUDSK\ øQDOFLNDQG4XDWDHUW - =RUOX - 7XQF\=RUOXQRWHVWKDW³WKH2WWRPDQVZLWKWKHLUDEXQGDQWWLPEHUVRXUFHVZHUHOXFNLHUWKDQ PRVWRIWKHQRUWKHUQVWDWHVZKLFKZHUHIRUFHGWRORRNIRURYHUVHDVWLPEHUVRXUFHVLQRUGHUWR FDUU\RXWWKHLUPDULWLPHWUDGHDQGZDJHZDUDJDLQVWWKHLUHQHPLHV´ =RUOX ,QWKH5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHVRI:DOODFKLDDQG0ROGRYDZHUHDOUHDG\XQGHU 2WWRPDQVX]HUDLQW\EXWQRW\HWRFFXSLHG– QRWDSDVKDOXN XQGHUDMXULVGLFWLRQRIDSDVKD TraQV\OYDQLDZDVD3ULQFHGRPXQGHUWKHUXOHRIWKH$XVWULDQ(PSLUH%RWK0ROGRYDDQG :DOODFKLDZHUHSD\LQJIRUWKHLUUHODWLYHLQGHSHQGHQFHZLWKFHUHDOVFDWWOH\RXQJER\VIRUWKH MDQLVVDU\DUP\DQGUDZPDWHULDOVLQFOXGLQJZRRG7KURXJKWKLVSD\PHQWWKH2Wtoman ruler UHFRJQL]HGWKHORFDO9RLYRGHDQGWKHORFDOQRELOLW\7KHUHZHUHQRSROLWLFDOSUHVVXUHVIRU FRQYHUWLQJWKHSRSXODWLRQWR,VODP$JDLQZRRGZDVDNH\HOHPHQWLQWKLVHTXDWLRQ%RWKLQ 0ROGRYDDQGLQ:DOODFKLDLPSRUWDQWTXDQWLWLHVRIUDZPDWHULDOZHUHWUDQVSRUWHGRQULYHUVWR VHUYLFH6WDUWLQJin DQ\GHOLYHU\WRWKHcountry’s FDSLWDOFLW\WKDWaddressed a name other than the correctly VSHOW7XUNLVKøVWDQEXO remained unGHOLYHUHG 6KRZ 6KRZ 6LQFHP\ZRUNKHUHmerely refers to WKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUH,ZLOOrestrict usage to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³0DLQ0DULWLPH$UVHQDO´LQDIRUPRILPSHULDOPRQRSRO\IRU WKHVHUHVRXUFHV %RVWDQ %XWDQRWKHULPSRUWDQWSURFHVVWRRNSODFHDIWHUWKHIDOORI&RQVWDQWLQRSOH WKHULVHRIWKHVR FDOOHG7KLUG5RPH– 0RVFRZ0RVFRZFODLPHGWKHOHJLWLPDF\RIWKH2UWKRGR[&KXUFK KHULWDJHDQGWKH6ODYRQLFFXOWXUHEHFDPHYHU\LQIOXHQWLDOLQ(DVWHUQ(XURSHVWDUWLQJZLWKWKH VL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\ 19.2. The Eastern Question and the Treaty of Adrianople 7KH(DVWHUQ4XHVWLRQ KHQFHIRUWK(4 UHIHUVWRWKHGLSORPDWLFDQGSROLWLFDOFULVLVIROORZLQJ the decay of the OttRPDQ(PSLUH,QVKRUWLWLVDERXWKRZWKHZHVWHUQSRZHUVDQG5XVVLD shared the enormous territory and natural resources that were under the influence of the ‘giant 218 ZLWKFOD\OHJV¶,QWKLVVHFWLRQ,ZLOOGHSLFWKRZWKH(4FRQWULEXWHGWRWKHULVHRIFDSLWalism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he war from 1828- ZDVDQRIIHQVLYHHORQJDWLRQRIWKH*UHHN,QGHSHQGHQFH:DU ZKHUHLQWKHGHFLVLYHEDWWOHRI1DYDULQR RI2FWREHU WKH5XVVLDQVDOOLHGZLWKWKH %ULWLVKDQGWKH)UHQFKQDYLHVDQGGHIHDWHGWKH2WWRPDQIOHHW7KHUHZHUHDOUHDG\VHULRXVIHDUV LQZHVWHUQFKDQFHOOHULHVWKDW5XVVLDIROORZLQJWKH+RO\&DOOWRGHIHQG2UWKRGR[\DQGWR OLEHUDWH&RQVWDQWLQRSOHZRXOGEHFRPHWRRSRZHUIXOLQWKH%ODFN6HDUHJLRQ $QGHUVRQ 0LOOPDQ 7KH5XVVLDQ7VDU1LFRODL, - ZDVDQXOWUDQDWLRQDORUWKRGR[116 DQGKHRSHQO\FODLPHGWKDWDOO&KULVWLDQVIURPWKH+RO\/DQGDQGIURPWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUe VKRXOGSDVVXQGHU5XVVLDQSURWHFWLRQ 115 - -1812; 1828- 7KH&ULPHDQ:DUEHWZHHQ- - 116 Unlike KLVOLEHUDOSUHGHFHVVRU1LFKRODV,ZDs the ILUVWZKRLQWURGXFHG1ationaliVPDQG2UWKRGR[\DVVWDWH SROLFLHV in ImSHULDO5XVVLD VHH5LDVDQRYVN\ - Anderson notes in his in-GHSWKDQDO\VLVRIWKH(DVWHUQ4XHVWLRQ ³7KHTXHVWLRQRIWKH+RO\3ODFHVZKLFK SURYLGHGWKHRVWHQVLEOHRULJLQVWKURXJKLQQRUHDOVHQVHWKHFDXVHRIWKH&ULPHDQ:DUKDGDORQJKLVWRU\)RU RXWFRPHRIWKHZDUZDVYHU\SURILWDEOHIRUWKHDOOLHV LWHVWDEOLVKHGGHIDFWR freedom of trade in the region118 +RZHYHULIWKHROGUXOHZDVDERXWWREHVXEVWLWXWHGE\WKHQHZHFRQRPLFHWKRVRf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øQDOFLNDQG4XDWDHUWFRQFOXGHLQWKHLUDQDO\VLVRI³WKH HFRQRPLFPLQG´LQWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUH ³6LQFHUHGLVWULEXWLRQSUHVXSSRVHVWKHSUHVHQFHRI µDQDOORFDWLRQFHQWHU¶WKHVXOWDQDVVXPHVDIXQGDPHQWDOUROHLQWKHVRFLHW\2EYLRXVO\D SLRXVIRXQGDWLRQ YDNI LQWKH,VODPLFVWDWHLVDSULPRUGLDOLQVWLWXWLRQIRUUHGLVWULEXWLRQZLWK DEDVLFVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFLQWHJUDWLYHIRXQGDWLRQ´ øQDOFLNDQG4XDWDHUW DQG IXUWKHURQ³>W@KH2WWRPDQJRYHUQPHQW¶VHFRQRPLFPHDVXUHVZHUHQRWGHULYHGIURPD V\VWHPDWL]HGDQGFRKHUHQWWKHRU\OLNHLQWKH:HVWEXWDVZDVWUXHLQRWKHUDUHDVRIDFWLYLW\LW VLPSO\IROORZHGWKHORQJ-WHVWHGSUDFWLFHVDQGWUDGLWLRQVLQKHULWHGIURP0LGGOH(DVWHUQVRFLHW\ DQGFXOWXUH´ LELG &RQVHTXHQWO\WKHORFDOHFRQRPLHVZLWKLQWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUHDQG LWVSURWHFWRUDWHVWDWHV ³ZHUHEDVHGRQORQJH[SHULHQFHRIVPDOOWRZQVZLWKOLPLWHGDQGVWDWLF PDUNHWVZKHUHFLWL]HQDQGFUDIWVPDQDOLNHZDQWHGUHJXODWLRQ´ LELG 7KH(DVWHUQ4XHVWLRQLVDORQJDQGFRPSOLFDWHGVWRU\ZKRVHRutset I have only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´ $QGHUVRQ 118 $QLPSRUWDQWGHWDLOKHUH WKLVZDUZDVWKHILUVWPLOLWDU\FRQIOLFWµEURDGFDVWHG¶DURXQGWKHZRUOG7KHPLUDFOH ZDVSRVVLEOHWKURXJKDQHZPDFKLQHFDOOHGthe WHOHJUDSK7KH1HZ 220 0HGLWHUUDQHDQ6HDKDGDGLUHFWLPSDFWRQWKHHFRQRPLFDQGSROLWLFDOOLIHRIWKH5RPDQLDQ 3ULQFLSDOLWLHV 19.3. Being part of Europe and the cultural diffusion of capitalism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µZLQGRIFKDQJH¶RILOOXPLQLVWLGHDVVWDUWHGWREORZ TXLWHODWH,WRQO\EHJDQDIWHUWKH$GULDQRSOH7UHDW\ ZKHQWKHORFDOHOLWHLQWKH 5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHVVWDUWHGWRVWXG\DEURDG DQDWWHPSWZKLFKDVZHZLOOVHHEHORZ SDYHGWKHZD\IRUWKH5HYROXWLRQDQGWKHLQVWDXUDWLRQRIWKHQHZSROLWLFDODQGHFRQRPLF UHJLPHV7KH\RXQJVWXGHQWVVWDUWHGWRIRUPFXOWXUDODVVRFLDWLRQVZLWKLQDQGRXWVLGHWKHLU KRPHFRXQWULHVZLWKWKHGHFODUHGDLPWRFRQWULEXWHWRWKHµLPSURYHPHQW¶RIWKHVRFLDO condition of their fellow citi]HQV7KH\EHFDPHFXOWXUDOEURNHUVEHWZHHQDGHYHORSHGZHVWHUQ FLYLOL]DWLRQDQGDEDFNZDUGHDVWHUQRQH 221 XQLILFDWLRQSURFHVVWKDWOHGWRWKHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH5RPDQLDQNLQJGRPLQ 7KH\ODWHU WRRNSDUWLQWKHXVXUSDWLRQRIWKHGHPRFUDWLFDOO\HOHFWHG5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSH$OH[DQGUX,RQD &X]DDQGWKHFRURQDWLRQRIWKH*HUPDQ6RYHUHLJQ&DURO,7KH\ZHUHWKHPDLQDFWRUVZKR SURSDJDWHGDQGLPSOHPHQWHGOLEHUDOLGHDVLQ5RPDQLDILUVWWKURXJKFXOWXUDOUHYXHVDQG seminars aQGODWHURQGLUHFWO\WKURXJKSROLWLFDOPHDVXUHV KogӽOQLFHDQXIRXQGHGDQGGLUHFWHGWKHUHYXH3URSúLUHD 7KH7KULYLQJ LQ,DúLLQ DQG5RVVHWWLIRXQGHG5RPkQXO 7KH5RPDQLDQ LQ%XFKDUHVW,Q,RQ*KLFD wrote in 3URSúLUHD ³RXUZHLJKWLQWKHEDODQFHRI(XURSHZLOOJURZZLWKWKHQXPEHURI kLORJUDPVRIFHUHDOVWKDWZHZLOOEHDEOHWRH[SRUW´ 3URSӽúLUHD 6LQFHWKH $GULDQRSOH7UHDW\OLEHUDOL]HGWUDGHRQWKH%ODFN6HDWKLVZDVDJRRGPRPHQWIRUWKH 5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHVWRDIILUPWKHLUHFRQRPLHV+RZHYHUWKHFRXQWU\ZDVVWLOOFRYHUHd ZLWKIRUHVWVDQGWKLVDFWXDOO\WXUQHGRXWWREHDQDGYDQWDJH%HWZHHQDQG KHFWDUHVRIIRUHVWVZHUHFKRSSHGGRZQLQ0ROGRYLDonly *LXUHVFX *LXUHVFX JLYHVFUHGLELOLW\WRWKLVQXPEHUFRPSDULQJILYHGLIIHUHQWVRXUFHV7KHHDVLQHVVRIGHSOHWLQJ WKHVXUIDFHVZDVPDLQO\GXHWRWKHJHRJUDSK\ZKHUHWKHVHIRUHVWVZHUHORFDWHGQDPHO\LQWKH SODLQVRI0ROGRYDDQGLQWKHORZKLOOVRIWKH0ROGRYLDQ&DUSDWKLDQV5RPDQLDQVFKRODUV agree that the main cause for deforestation from the mid-ninetieth century onwards was the ULVHRIDJULFXOWXUHLQWKH5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHV *LXUJLX *LXUHVFXFDOFXODWHVWKDW EHWZHHQ - DERXWWKUHHPLOOLRQKHFWDUHVZHUHIHOOHGLQERWK5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHV *LXUHVFX 7KHZRRGZDVUHTXLUHGLQWKHLQWHUQDOPDUNHWIRUEXLOGLQJWKH LQIUDVWUXFWXUHRIWKHQHZERUQQDWLRQDOVWDWHEXWPRVWRILWZDVH[SRUWHGDEURDGPDLQO\WR *UHDW%ULWDLQ%HIRUHORRNLQJDWWKHWUDMHFWRULHVRIWKHZRRGH[SRUWZHQHHGWRXQGHUVWDQGWKH framework of this early WUDQVQDWLRQDOPDUNHW 7KHSHULRGIURP WRLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHDQQLKLODWLRQRIWKHROGFODVVRI IHXGDOER\DUV DQGWKHIRUPDWLRQRID5RPDQLDQOLEHUDOSROLWLFDODQGHFRQRPLFoligarchy7KH ILUVW9RLYRGHRIWKHUHFHQWO\XQLWHGSULQFLSDOLWLHVRI 0ROGRYDDQG:DODFKLD $OH[DQGUX ,RDQ&X]DSURPRWHGLQKLVDJULFXOWXUDOIURPHFRQRPLFHPDVXUHVWKDWZHUHDWRGGVZLWK WKHOLEHUDOLQWHUHVWRIWKLVROLJDUFK\IRUZKLFKUHDVRQVKHZDVRXVWHG,GHVFULEHGDERYHWKH actors involved in the rise of caSLWDOLVPLQWKH5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHVùWHIDQ=HOHWLQ in his JURXQGEUHDNLQJZRUN³7KH5RPDQLDQ%RXUJHRLVLH LWVRULJLQVDQGLWVSROLWLFDOUROH´ stresses RQWKHIDFWWKDWWKHFKDQJHRIUHJLPHVFRXOGQRWEHPDGHRQO\E\VRFLDODFWRUVLIQRWFRXSOHG in a large and more FRPSOH[PHFKDQLVPWKDWZDVWKHH[SDQVLRQRIWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOFDSLWDOLVW =HOHWLQWRRNKLV3K'DWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI(UODJHQVWXGyLQJZLWK5LFKDUG)ODFNHQEHUJHis thesis ttitled 3HUV|QOLFKHU,GHDOLVPXVJHJHQDEVROXWHQ,GHDOLVPXVLQGHUHQJOLVFKHQ3KLORVRSKLHGHU*HJHQZDUW was SXEOLVKHGLQ%HUOLQLQ 222 PDUNHWV ³7KHUHDOFDXVHVRIWKHGRZQIDOORIWKHROGUXOLQJFODVVPXVWEHORRNHGIRULQWKH GLUHFWLQIOXHQFHRIFDSLWDOLVP7KHFKDQJHRIRXUHFRQRP\LQPRQHWDU\HFRQRP\ IRUPVWKH SURSLWLRXVFRQMXQFWXUHIRUWKHGHYHORSPHQWRISULPLWLYHFDSLWDOLVP´ =HOHWLQ> @ ³7KHELUWKRIWKH5RPDQLDQERXUJHRLVLHLVGXHWRWKHH[SDQVLRQRI%ULWLVKFDSLWDOLVP´ ZKLOHLWVSURFHVVIRUPDWLRQ³LVDWLQ\HSLVRGHIURPWKHH[SDQVLRQRIWKH(QJOLVKRQH´ =HOHWLQ TXRWHGLQ0XUJHVFX :HUHPHPEHUKRZWKHRYHUDOOHFRQRPLFV\VWHPLQWKH 2WWRPDQ(PSLUHORRNHGDVGHVFULEHGE\øQDOFLNDQG4XDWDHUWDQGWKH5RPDQLDQRQHZDVQRW IDUIURPLW)ROORZLQJ7RFTXHYLOOH¶VDQDO\VLVRIWKH downfall of the French $QFLHQW5pJLPH =HOHWLQFRQFOXGHV ³DIWHUWKHYLFWRU\>LQWKHUHYROXWLRQ@ WKHOLEHUDOUHYROXWLRQDU\JURXS EHFDPHDOLEHUDOROLJDUFK\JRYHUQLQJLQWKHVDPHZD\DVZHVWHUQDEVROXWLVPDQGE\WKH VDPHPHDQV DYDVWEXUHDXFUDF\EXLOWRQDVWURQJPLOLWDQWLVP´ =HOHWLQ %XW,WKLQNWKDWWKHEHVWSLFWXUHIRUWKHLPSRUWDQFHRILQVWLWXWLRQDOFKDQJHLQPLG- QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\5RPDQLDFRPHVIURP0LKDL(PLQHVFX+HQRWHV ³WKHIRUPHUHFRQRPLF GHSHQGHQF\FKDQJHVXQIRUWXQDWHO\LQRXUWLPHZLWKWKHHFRQRPLFH[WHUPLQDWLRQRIWKHRQH ZKLFKE\KLVZRUNRUE\KLVFXOWXUDOOHYHOGRHVQRWKDYHWKHVDPHDGYDQWDJHVDVKLVPRUH IRUWXQDWHQHLJKERU´ (PLQHVFX 7KHRYHUDOOFXOWXUDOSROLWLFDODQGHFRQRPLF HQYLURQPHQWLQ5RPDQLD in the mid-QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ZDVDJORRP\WDEOHDXRIPLPHWLF LQVWLWXWLRQDOEHKDYLRULQDGHVSHUDWHDWWHPSWWRRQWKHRQHKDQGDIILUPQDWLRQDOLGHQWLW\DQG RQWKHRWKHUWRILWZLWKLQ(XURSHDQYDOXHV7REHSDUWRI(XURSHZDVWKHOHDGLQJGLVFRXUVH and WKLVZDVSRVVLEOHRQO\WKURXJKWKHDGKHVLRQWRWKHOLEHUDOHFRQRPLFYDOXHVDQGE\ HPSKDVLVRQD5RPDQFXOWXUDOKHULWDJH,WLVYHU\LPSRUWDQWWRXQGHUVWDQGWKLVFRQWH[W EHFDXVHWKHVDPHSDWWHUQVZLOODSSHDUDJDLQDIWHUWKHIDOORIWKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPHLQ )RUWKLV,ZLOOSURYLGHDIHZH[DPSOHVRIGLVFRXUVHVDQGSUDFWLFHVEHORZ 7KH7UDQV\OYDQLDQ6FKRRO ùFRDOD$UGHOHDQ DFXOWXUDOPRYHPHQWPLOLWDWLQJIRU LQGHSHQGHQFHIURPWKH$XVWUR-+XQJDULDQ(PSLUHKDGDPDMRULQIOXHQFHQRWRQO\LQ 7UDQV\OYDQLDZHUHLWZDVEDVHGEXWLQ0ROGRYDDQG:DOODFKLDDVZHOO,WKDGDZHOOEDVHG VFLHQWLILFSURJUDPZKRVHRXWFRPHZDVWKHOHJLWLPL]DWLRQRI7UDQV\OYDQLDQ5RPDQLDQVDVWKH GLUHFWGHVFHQGHQWVRIWKH5RPDQ(PSLUH$PRQJWKHPHDVXUHVSURSRVHGDQGDGRSWHGODWHURQ E\WKHQHZERUQ5RPDQLDQ$FDGHP\ZDVWKHH[FOXVLRQRIQRQ-Latin words from the 5RPDQLDQYRFDEXODU\ &ӽOLQHVFX 5RVHWWL ZKRODWHUEHFDPHWKHIRXQGHURIWKH5RPDQLDQ$FDGHP\ DQG,RQ&%UDWLDQX ZURWHWR(GXJDU4XLQHWDIWHUWKHLUDUULYDOLQ5RPDQLD ³$Q\5RPDQLDQKDVWZRPRWKHUODQGV SDWULD ILUVWWKHODQGZKHUHWKH\ZHUHERUQDQGWKHQ)UDQFH)UDQFHQRXULVKHGXVWDXJKW XVWKHVFLHQFHV7KHIODPHWKDWZDUPV-XSRXUFRXQWU\ZHWRRNIURP)UDQFH¶VFKLPQH\ 223 5HPLQG)UDQFH VLF WKDWZHDUHKHUVRQVDQGWKDWZHIRXJKWIRUKHURQEDUULFDGHV$QGQRWH WKDWZKDWZH¶YHGRQHKHUHZHGLGDIWHUKHUH[DPSOH´ LQ =HOHWLQ 7LWX0DLRUHVFXQDPHVWKLVPHFKDQLVP³IRUPVZLWKRXWDEDVLV´ IRUPHIUIRQG ³WKH DEVHQFHRIDQ\VWXUG\>ORFDO@ IXQGDPHQWIRUWKHIRUHLJQIRUPVWKDWZHGRQRWFHGHWRUHFHLYH´ 0DLRUHVFX>@ 0DLRUHVFXDFFXVHGLQPLG;,;FHQWXU\WKHLQWHOOHFWXDOLW\IRU ]HDORXVO\IROORZLQJWKHVSXURILPLWDWLQJDQGUHSURGXFLQJWKHJXLVHVRIZHVWHUQVRFLHWLHV+LV conclusion is that ³WKLVIRUP>LV@LVQRWRQO\ZLWKRXWDEDVLV>DQG@RIQRXVHEXWLVKDUPIXO´ LGHP IRUWKH5RPDQLDQ VRFLHW\)ROORZLQJ0DLRUHVFXDQG(PLQHVFX,ZLOOFDOOWKLVPRGXV RSHUDQGL RILQVWLWXWLRQDOFKDQJHLQVWLWXWLRQDOPLPHWLVPIRULWGUDZVDWWHQWLRQPRUH HIIHFWLYHO\WRWKHPHFKDQLVPWKDWLVEHKLQGLW )RUHVWVUHPDLQHGXQH[SORLWHGLQ9UDQFHDEHFDXVHRIWKHLUORFDWLRQRXWVLGHWKHFDSLWDOLVW PDUNHWUHDOPDQGIRULWVLQVWLWXWLRQDOSHFXOLDULW\ZLWKLQWKH0ROGDYLDQ9RLYRGDWH7KH LPEULFDWLRQRI WKHUHJLRQDODQGORFDOJHRSROLWLFVFRPELQHGZLWKWKHUROHSOD\HGE\REúWHDDW ORFDOOHYHOUHVXOWHGLQ9UDQFHD¶VIRUHVWVEHFRPLQJRIWUDQVQDWLRQDOYDOXHLQWKHODWH;,; FHQWXU\$WWKHVDPHWLPHWKHPDNLQJRIWKHPRGHUQ5RPDQLDQQDWLRQDOVWDWHZDVOHGEy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legitimization of the institution of REúWHD LQ9UDQFHD 224 Chapter 20 - The first forest protection measures and their consequences for Vrancea 7KHGLUHFWLPSDFWRI%ULWLVKIRUHLJQLQYHVWPHQWIRU9UDQFHDZDVWKHGHSOHWLRQRILWVIRUHVWV the introduction of a new market system and the institutional ruin of the confederation of YLOODJHV7KHILUVWDWWHPSWVIRUIRUHVWSURWHFWLRQLQ5RPDQLDZHUHWKHUHVXOWRIWKHHFRORJLFDO GLVDVWHUWKDWIROORZHGWKHH[SORLWDWLRQRIWKHZRRGUHVRXUFHVE\WKHIRUHLJQWUDQVQDWLRQDO FRPSDQLHV 20.1. The Moruzi Decree and the first Forestry Codes $OWKRXJKWKH5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHVKDGOLHJHUHODWLRQVZLWK&RQVWDQWLQRSOHWKH2WWRPDQV GLGQRWHVWDEOLVKDPRQRSRO\RYHUWKHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVZLWKLQWKHLUWHUULWRULHV EXWWKH\ZHUH DEOHWRUHTXHVWIRUDQ\UHVRXUFHVRUVHUYLFHVWKH\ZLVKHG6KRUWO\DIWHUWKHLUGHIHDWE\WKH 5XVVLDQVLQWKH2WWRPDQ+LJK9L]LHUDVNHG$OH[DQGUX,SVLODQWL9RLYRGHRI:DOODFKLD DQG*ULJRUH*KLFD,,,9RLYRGHRI0ROGRYDWRSURYLGHHDFKRIWKHPZLWK³DZDUJDOOHRQ IXOO\HTXLSSHGIRUWKHLPSHULDOIOHHW´ *LXUHVFX - 7KHVKRUWDJHRIZRRGDUULYHG LQ&RQVWDQWLQRSOHWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHHQRUPRXVPLOLWDU\SUHVVXUHOHGE\WKH5XVVLDQVDQG EDFNHG-XSE\WKH%ULWLVK7KHWZR9RLYRGHVREH\HG,Q0ROGRYD*KLFDH[HPSWHGZRRG- UDWHSD\HUVIURP&RYXUOXL5HJLRQIURPWD[SD\PHQWV WKHDGPLQLVWUDWLYHUHJLRQZKHUH*DODW] KDUERULVORFDWHG EHFDXVHWKH\SURYLGHGUDZPDWHULDOVDQGODERUIRUFHIRUWKHJDOOHRQ$WWKDW WLPH*DODW]KDUERUZDVDOUHDG\DQLPSRUWDQWVKLSEXLOGLQJFHQWUHIRU6RXWK(DVWHUQ(XURSH 7KH)UHQFK&RQVXO&ODXGH&KDUOHVGH3H\VVRQHOQRWHVWKDW³LQWKLVWRZQWKHUHDUH PDQ\VKLSEXLOGLQJ\DUGVZKHUHFRPPHUFLDOVKLSVIRUDQ\ORDGDUHEXLOWDWDYHU\ORZSULFH IRUVDLOLQJLQWKH%ODFN6HDDQGRQWKH'DQXEH7KH0ROGRYDQPDVWVDUHDVJRRGDVWKRVH WKDWZHEX\IURPWKHQRUWKHUQFRXQWULHV´ 3H\VVRQHO>@ %XWHYHQEHIRUHWKDW WKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUHKDGEXLOWZDUJDOOHRQVDW*DODW]-RVHSK%RVFRZLFKQRWHVLQWKHGLDU\RI WKHWULSKHPDGHDFFRPSDQ\LQJWKH%ULWLVKDPEDVVDGRU-DFTXH3RUWHULQIURP &RQVWDQWLQRSOHWR3RODQGWKDWLQ*DODW]³RQHRIWKHELJJHVW2WWRPDQVKLSV´ZDVUHDG\WREH UHOHDVHG ³LWKDGQRUPDOVWHSVORQJDQGODUJH´+RZHYHUKHQRWHGWKDW ³WKH VKLSEXLOGLQJFRVWVYHU\OLWWOHLQWKLVFRXQWU\´ EXWWKHVKLSVGRQRWODVWEHFDXVHWKH\DUHPDGH according to ³WKH7XUNLVKWHFKQLTXHZKLFKLVWRXVHWKHJUHHQZRRGIURPWKHQHDUE\IRUHVWV´ %RVFRZLFK - 7KLVLVDOVRFRQILUPHGE\UHFHQWVWXGLHVRIWKHKLVWRU\RIWKH 2WWRPDQQDY\=RUOXHPSKDVL]HVWKHUROHRIWKH*DODW]KDUERULQSURYLGLQJZRRGPDWHULDOIRU WKHLPSHULDOVKLSEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\ ³>W@LPEHUDOVRFDPHIURP*DODW]LQ5XPHOLDSDUWLFXODUO\ 225 LQTXDQWLWLHVVXLWDEOHIRUPDVWV´ =RUOX (YHQEHIRUH'LPLWULH&DQWHPLU wrote in his 'HVFULSULR0ROGDYLH WKDWWKHZRRGIURP0ROGRYDZDVH[SRUWHGQRWRQO\WR &RQVWDQWLQRSOHEXWDOVR³WR(J\SW7UDSH]XQWDQG6LQRSH´ &DQWHPLU>@ %XWZK\GLG*KLFDDVNIRUZRRGVXSSOLHVLQWKH&RYXUOXLUHJLRQ"2IFRXUVHLWZDV eventually the closesWWR*DODW]EXWRWKHUUHJLRQVDOVRKDGLPSRUWDQWIRUHVWUHVRXUFHVWKDW FRXOGYHU\ZHOOEHH[SORLWHGE\WKH&URZQLQRUGHUWRSOHDVH &RQVWDQWLQRSOH2QHRIWKHVH UHJLRQVZDV9UDQFHDZHVWZDUGVRI*DODW]DQGDQRWKHUZDV7LJKHFLLQWKHLPPHGLDWH QRUWKHDVW7KHVHUHJLRQVZHUHDOVRUHODWLYHO\FORVHDQGWKHZRRGFRXOGYHU\HDVLO\EH WUDQVSRUWHGYLDWKH0LOFRY6LUHWDQG'QLHVWHUULYHUV7KXVDQDGGLWLRQDOTXHVWLRQLVDWVWDNH ZK\GLGWKHPHGLHYDOVWDWHQRWSXUVXHDV\VWHPDWLFH[SORLWDWLRQRIIRUHVWUHVRXUFHVLn 0ROGRYD" 7KHRYHUDOOPDUNHWUHDOPZDVQRWYHU\VWURQJLQ0ROGRYDLQWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ %XWWKHEDFNZDUGGHYHORSPHQWRIPHUFKDQWFDSLWDOLVPLQWKHROG5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHVDQG WKHLUUHODWLYHSROLWLFDOLQGHSHQGHQFHIURPWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUHFDQQRWalone H[SODLQZK\ VRPHUHJLRQVZLWKLQWKH0ROGDYLDQ9RLYRGDWHZHUHQRWVXEMHFWWRVXSSOHPHQWDU\VHUYLFHVDQG WD[HVGXULQJWKHUHTXHVWRIWKH2WWRPDQSRZHU7KHUHIRUHDQRWKHULPSRUWDQWDVSHFWVKRXOGEH considered in addition to the overall economic configuUDWLRQQDPHO\WKHSROLWLFDOZHLJKWWKDW FHUWDLQUHJLRQVKDGLQVLGHWKH0ROGDYLDQ9RLYRGDWH7LJKHFL0ROGDYLD¶VVWURQJHVWVKLHOGLQ WKHHDVWDJDLQVWWKHWDUWDUVDV&DQWHPLUQDPHGLWDQG9UDQFHDZLWKLWVVWUDWHJLFORFDWLRQDW WKHERUGHUZLWKERWK:DOODFKLDDQG7UDQV\OYDQLDDQGWKHUHIRUHWKH+DEVEXUJ(PSLUHhad a VSHFLDOSROLWLFDODQGDGPLQLVWUDWLYHUHJLPH7KHLUDXWRQRP\ZDVVRPHWLPHVSDLGIRULQEORRG DV&DQWHPLUFOHDUO\VKRZVIRU7LJKHFLDQGLQERUGHUYLJLODQFHDQGSUHVXPSWLYHO\WURRSVLQ the case RI9UDQFHD 7KHH[SORLWDWLRQRIIRUHVWVFRQWLQXHGDIWHUSDUWLFXODUO\LQWKHORZ-lands of 0ROGRYDIROORZLQJWKHLQFUHDVHGLPSRUWDQFHRI*DODW]LQWKHJHRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WRIWKH (DVWHUQ4XHVWLRQ7KHILUVWIRUHVWU\UHJXODWLRQLQ0ROGRYDLVGLUHFWO\linked with this FRQMXQFWXUH2QWKHRI1RYHPEHU WKH9RLYRGH$OH[DQGUX0RUX]LUHOHDVHGDGHFUHH for the safeguard of FRGULORUPHUHL ODUJHIRUHVWVIURPWKHORZ-ODQGV 7KHUHDVRQVZHUH ³WKH ELJIRUHVWVIURPORZ-ODQGVEHFDPHRSHQILHOGVDVZHDOOFDQVHH « LQWKH&RYXUOXL5HJLRQ WKHUHZHUHcodrii merei WKDWZHUHYHU\XVHIXO EHFDXVHZKHQWKHUHZHUHLPSRUWDQWEHKHVWVIRU WLPEHUIRUWKHQHHGVRI&RQVWDQWLQRSOH « LWZDVHDV\WRILQG>ZRRG@DQGWREULQJ>LW@ WRWKH VKLS\DUGVDQGQRZLVRQO\RSHQILHOG « ´ LQ*LXUHVFX *DODW]KDUERULQFUHDVHGLWVLPSRUWDQFHDIWHUWKH$GULDQRSOH7UHDW\DQGUDSLGO\EHFDPH DQLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOPDUNHWIRUZRRGDQGFHUHDOV1HLJHEDXUQRWHGLQ 226 ³$OWKRXJKWKHUHLVDJUHDWGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQ*DODW]DQG0DQFKHVWHUZKHQFRPSDUHGZLWKWKH JUHDWVSHHGWKDWWKH%ULWLVKIDFWRULHVZRUNWKHUHDUHRQO\-PRQWKVEHWZHHQWKHRUGHUVDQG WKHGHOLYHU\´ 1HLJHEDXU TXRWHGLQ=HOHWLQ 7KHGHFOLQHRIWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUHWKHXQLILFDWLRQRI0ROGRYDDQG:DOODFKLDIURP LQ WKHPDNLQJRIWKHPRGHUQQDWLRQDO5RPDQLDQVWDWHPHDQWDGHFOLQHLQVWUDWHJLFLPSRUWDQFH IRU9UDQFHD)ROORZLQJWKHYLFWRULRXVZDUIOHHWVWKH%ULWLVK$XVWULDQDQG+XQJDULDQ PXOWLQDWLRQDOFRPSDQLHVIRUZRRGH[WUDFWLRQKDGQRMXULGLFDOREVWDFOHVLQFRQWUDFWLQJZLWK YLOODJHVDQGLQGLYLGXDOSHDVDQWVLQ9UDQFHDIRUH[WUDFWLQJZRRGIRUWKH\EURXJKWLQWKH PRGHUQFLYLOFRGH&LYLOL]DWLRQPHDQWLQGLYLGXDOSURSHUW\ULJKWVDQGWKHRSHQLQJRIWKH national territory to thHIUHHZLOORIPDUNHWDFWRUV ,QWKHPHDQWLPHWKHGHFLVLYHZDUIRULQGHSHQGHQFHDUULYHGIRUWKHQDWLRQVLQ VRXWKHDVWHUQ(XURSH 0ROGRYDDQG:DOODFKLDJDLQHGWKHLULQGHSHQGHQFHDVDOOLHVRIWKH 5XVVLDQ(PSLUHLQWKHZDUIURP-,QWKH%DONDQVDQGLQWKH1RUWKRI'DQXEHWKH %ULWLVKDQGWKH)UHQFKVFXUULHGWKHLULQIOXHQFHZLWKWKHKHOSRIWKH*HUPDQUR\DOG\QDVWLHV *HRUJH,RI*UHHFHZDVIURPWKHKRXVHof 6FKOHVZLJ-+ROVWHLQ-6RQGHUEXUJ-*OFNVEXUJ while WKHXQLILHG5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHVIURP RQZDUGV5RPDQLDFDPHXQGHUWKHKRXVHRI +RKHQ]ROOHUQ-6LJPDULQJHQ,RQ*KLFDWKHIRUPHUSUHVLGHQWRIWKHVWXGHQWDVVRFLDWLRQ7KH VRFLHW\IRUWKHHGXFDWLRQRIWKH5RPDQLDQSHRSOH IURP3DULVEHFDPHWKHSULPHPLQLVWHURI 5RPDQLDXQGHU.LQJ&DURO,DQGUHPDLQHGLQWKLVSRVLWLRQIRUHOHYHQ\HDUV%HIRUHWKLV*KLFD SOD\HGDPDMRUUROHLQWKHGHWKURQHPHQWRI$OH[DQGUX,RQ&X]DGXHWR&X]D¶VDJULFXOWXUDO UHIRUPDV,PHQWLRQHGEHIRUH*KLFD¶V PDLQDLPZDVWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIODLVVH]-IDLUH SROLFLHVLQWKH5RPDQLDQHFRQRP\DQGWKHIDFLOLWDWLRQRI%ULWLVKIRUHLJQLQYHVWPHQW+LV SROLWLFVZHUHFRQWLQXHGE\KLVFROOHDJXHDQGROGIULHQG,RQ&%UӽWLDQX 7KHILUVW5RPDQLDQIRUHVWU\FRGHZDVHODERUDWHGXQGHUWKH%UӽWLDQX*RYHUQPHQW - 7KLVIRUHVWU\FRGHZDVSXEOLVKHGLQ0RQLWRUXO2ILFLDO RQWKHRI-XQH,W ZDVYHU\SRRUO\IUDPHGZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHLPSDFWRQSURSHUW\ULJKWVDQGHQYLVDJHGQR REOLJDWLRQVIRUWKRVHZKRZHUHH[SORLWLQJWKHIRUHVWV0RUHRYHULWVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQZDVTXDVL LPSRVVLEOHGXHWR WKHODFNRIIRUHVWU\SHUVRQQHO *LuUHVFX *LXUHVFX LGHP DQG more recent research ,8)52 DUULYHDWWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDWWKLVILUVWIRUHVWU\FRGH ZDVQRWPHDQWWRSURWHFWWKHIRUHVWEXWWRRIIHUDOHJDOVWDQGIRUDSSO\LQJVFLHQWLILFIRrestry PHWKRGVLQ5RPDQLDZKRVHPDLQQRYHOW\ZDVDVVKRZHGLQWKHVHFRQGSDUWWKHH[SORLWDWLRQ RIIRUHVWVDVFURSVLQDQHYHU-HQGLQJSURFHVV%XWWKHWKLUVWIRUFDSLWDORIWKH5RPDQLDQ QRXYHDXULFKHVIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\SHUPDQHQWO\HQFRXUDJHGE\WKH H[LVWHQFHRIDQHZLQWHUQDWLRQDOPDUNHWIRUZRRGLQWKHUHJLRQGHSOHWHGWKHIRUHVWVIURP 0ROGRYDDQG:DOODFKLDLQDVKRUWWLPH 7KHQHZIRUHVWU\FRGHIURP PRUHDFFXUDWHLQWHUPVRIULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVIRU the owners and thHZRRGH[WUDFWLQJSURFHVVFDPHWRRODWH,WVPDNLQJZDVDFWXDOO\D FRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHHFRORJLFDOGLVDVWHUWKDW5RPDQLDZDVIDFLQJLQWKHHDUO\\HDUVRIWKH WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\7KHIROORZLQJH[WUDFWVWDWHVWKHPRWLYHVRIWKHODZ ³7KHELJVRFLHWLHVRIZRRG H[SORLWDWLRQPDLQO\IRUHLJQZLWKWKHKHOSRIORFDOYLOODJH HOLWHVERXJKWWKH >FRPPRQ@ IRUHVWVRIPRúQHQLDQGU]HúL>IUHHSHDVDQWV@ DWYHU\ORZ SULFHVDOPRVWQRWKLQJFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHLUWUXHYDOXH7KHORFDOOHDGHUVRIPRúQHQL DQGrӽ]HúL UHFHLYHGWKHELJJHVWVKDUHRIWKHSULFHGLVWULEXWLQJWRWKHRWKHUFR-RZQHUV YHU\OLWWOHPRQH\,QWKLVZD\WKHIRUHLJQFRPSDQLHVFRXOGDFFHVVWKHHQGOHVVDQG EHDXWLIXOMRLQWO\-RZQHGIRUHVWVDFKLHYLQJWUHPHQGRXVJDLQVDWWKHGLVDGYDQWDJHRI SRRUPRúQHQL DQGrӽ]HúLZKRZHUHWKHYLFWLPVRIWKHLURZQLJQRUDQFHEHFDXVHQRQH RIWKHPOHDGHURUQRWNQHZWKH WUXHYDOXHRIWKHVHIRUHVWV´ &RGXO6LOYLF$SULO th 0RQLWRUXO2ILFLDOTXRWHGLQ6WDKO 120 7KHZKROHRI&KDSWHU9RIWKHODZLVGHGLFDWHGWRWKLVSURSHUW\UHJLPH7KHQDPHRIWKHFKDSWHULV ³7KH HVWDEOLVKPHQWRISURSHUW\ULJKWVIRU PRúQHQL DQGrӽ]HúL´ 0RúQHQLLVWKHQDPHIRUIUHHSHDVDQWVLQ:DOODFKLD and rӽ]HúLLQ0ROGRYD 228 HTXDOLWDULDQ REúWHD system into a shares-RZQHGSURSHUW\V\VWHP7KHVKDUHVFRXOGWKHUHIRUH EHLQKHULWHGVROGDQGERXJKWOLNHDQ\RWKHUJRRGVDQGREúWHD¶VIRUHVWVFRXOGEHVXEMHFWWR OLEHUDOPDUNHWUXOHV 6DYD ;;;9,,, 6WDKO - ,QWKHIROORZLQJ,will VKRZKRZWKHIRUHLJQFRPSDQLHVZHUHDEOHWRDFFHVVWKHIRUHVWVLQ9UDQFHD 20.2. Transnational companies for wood extraction in Vrancea and the memories of peasant resistance in PΑXOHúWL 7DNLQJDGYDQWDJHVRIWKHIRUHVWU\FRGHFRPSDQLHVZHUHEX\LQJrights of access from the LQGLYLGXDOSHDVDQWVIURPWKHOLVWVRI$úH]ӽPkQW6HL]LQJWKHRSSRUWXQLW\IRUPDNLQJPRQH\ VRPHSHDVDQWVVWDUWHGWREX\ULJKWVRIDFFHVVIURPIHOORZYLOODJHUVLQRUGHUWRVHOOWKHPRQWR WKHFRPSDQLHV$QHZORFDOPDUNHWWUDGLQJULJKWVWRDFFHVVWKHFRPPRQIRUHVWDSSHDUHGLQD YHU\VKRUWWLPH:HVHHKRZWKLVPDUNHWFDPHLQWREHLQJLIZHORRNDWWKHIROORZLQJOLVWRI YLOODJHFRPPXQLWLHV,UHSURGXFHDQXPEHURIQLQHH[DPSOHVRXWRIDOLVWRIWZHQW\RQHWKDW ZDVSXEOLVKHGE\$XUHO6DYDLQ Figure 10 7KHEX\LQJRIDFFHVVULJKWVLQ9UDQFHD'DWDUHSURGXFHGIRUP6DYD ;/,, Nr. Name of the Number of FR- Out of which with more than one right REúWHD owners 1. &R]D WZRSHDVDQWVZLWKULJKWVRQHZLWKULJKWVDQGRQHZLWK rights 2. 7LFKLULú RQHSHDVDQWZLWKWZRULJKWV 3. 1HJULOHúWL 481 none - all have one right 4. 3ӽXOHúWL VL[KDYHULJKWVWKUHHKDYHULJKWVRQHZLWKULJKWVDQG one with 10 rights 5 3RLDQD 266 two with 2 rights and one with 3 rights 6. SecӽWXUD3ӽURVXO 425 none – all have one right 7. HӽXOLúFD 263 RQHSHDVDQWKDVWZRULJKWV 8. Tulnici 523 RQHSHDVDQWZLWKULJKWVDQGWZRZLWKULJKWV 9. 1ӽUXMD RQHZLWKULJKWVDQGWZRZLWKULJKWVHDFK The lists with co-RZQHUV DUHQRPLQDOWKHUHIRUHZHNQRZZKLFKYLOODJHUKDGPRUHULJKWVWKDQ KLVIHOORZV:KDWLVLQWHUHVWLQJLVWKDWWKHVHYLOODJHUVZHUHEX\LQJULJKWVRQO\DVDVSHFXODWLYH VWUDWHJ\LQRUGHUWRVHOOWKHPDWDKLJKHUSULFHWRWKHZRRGH[WUDFWLRQFRPSDQLHV LELG ;/,,,- ;/,9 6WDKOGRFXPHQWVWKHSURFHVVLQJUHDWGHWDLODVKHZLWQHVVHGLW 6WDKO -221; 5- 7KHVHORFDOVSHFXODWRUVZHUHFDOOHG³D[KDQGOHV´DQGZHUHRSHQO\DFFXVHGE\ WKHLUIHOORZYLOODJHUVIRU³VHOOLQJ9UDQFHD´ 7KXVIROORZLQJWKLVOHJDOFKHDWWKHFRPSDQLHVFRQWUDFWHGULJKWVIRUDFFHVVLQJWKH IRUHVWLQDOO9UDQFHD,QWKHVXEVHTXHQWSDrt I will detail how Aurel Sava fought against this WULFNHU\LQOHJDOWHUPV1RZOHWXVKDYHDORRNDWKRZ WKHSHDVDQWVUHYROWHGDJDLQVWWKHDEXVHV RIWKHFRPSDQLHV in the village RI3ӽXOHúWL ,GLGQRWILQGLQWKHOLWHUDWXUHWKHSUHFLVHGDWHZKHQWKHIRUHLJQZRRGH[WUDFWLRQFRPSDQLHV DUULYHGLQ9UDQFHDDQGHVSHFLDOO\LQ3ӽXOHúWL-7XOQLFLP\UHVHDUFKDUHD%XWLQ WKHUH ZHUHDOUHDG\FRPSODLQWVIURPSHDVDQWVWRWKHDXWKRULWLHVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHDEXVHRIWKH7LúLĠD &RPSDQ\ in the forests of 2EúWHD3XOHúWL1RPHDVXUHVZHUHWDNHQE\WKHRIILFLDOVPD\EH SDUWLDOO\GXHWRWKHIDFWWKDWPRVWPHQZHUHDOUHDG\FRQFHQWUDWLQJRQZDUVRWKHDXWKRULWLHV ZHUHQRWSDUWLFXODUO\ERWKHUHG 1HDJX %XWZKRZDVWKLV7LúLĠD&RPSDQ\"$WWKH EHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\LQ3XWQDWKH9DOOH\ZKHUHWKHYLOODJHV3ӽXOHúWLDQG7XOQLFL DUHORFDWHGWKHUHZHUHDOUHDG\WKUHHWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPSDQLHVIRUZRRGH[WUDFWLRQ )RUHVWLHUD RZQHGE\WKH*U|GOHEDURQVIURP%XGDSHVWDQRWKHUFRPSDQ\IURP&KHUQLYWVLOHGE\Whe EDURQ9DVLONRDQG7KH3XWQD)RUHVWD%ULWLVKFRPSDQ\IURP/RQGRQ7KHVHFRPSDQLHV ZHUHGLVSXWLQJWKHLUWHUULWRULHVDIWHUWKHPRVWDFFXUDWHVHQVHRIFDSLWDOLVWFRPSHWLWLRQ 6WDKO - 7KHWKUHHIHOOLQWRFRQIOLFWDQG9DVLONR and 7KH3XWQD)RUHVWMRLQHGDQG formed 7LúLĠD&RPSDQ\,RVLI.UHVEHUJDQG9DOHQWLQ'H0DUFRZHUHthe managers of the new FRPSDQ\DQGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLU,'Vthey were residents in the PӽXOHúWLYLOODJH$UWKXU 1LHGHUKRIIHU/XLJL9XHULFKDQGRWKHUDGPLQLVWUDWRUVKDGWKHLU,'VLQWKHQHLJKERULQJ YLOODJH in Tulnici 1HDJX $VZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHIRUHVWU\ZRUNHUVQRQHRIWKHPZDVORFDO DFFRUGLQJWRWKHPHPRU\RIWKHSHRSOH0RVWRIWKHSHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHUHPHPEHUWKDWWKH ZRUNHUVZHUH,WDOLDQV The 7LúLĠDFRPSDQ\EXLOWNPRIUDLOZD\EHWZHHQ*UHúXYLOODJHLQWKHZHVWDWWKH ERUGHUZLWK7UDQV\OYDQLDDQG0ӽUӽúHúWLWKHQHDUHVWPDMRUUDLOZD\QRG7KHIDFWLVWKDWWKH FDUU\LQJFDSDFLW\LQ ZDVUDLOZD\ORFRPRWLYHVZDJRQVIRUFDUU\LQJWUXQNVRIW HDFKDQGZDJRQVIRUSDVVHQJHUV,Q WKHUHZHUHUDLOZD\ORFRPRWLYHV 1HDJX 230 Picture 27: 7KHURXWHGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHLQGXVWULDOUDLOZD\RI7LúLĠD&RPSDQ\ ,QWKHFHQWHURIWKHSLFWXUHRQHFDQHDVLO\UHad *DUD7XOQLFL– 7XOQLFL6WDWLRQ3KRWRUHSURGXFWLRQIURPWKH SHUVRQDODUFKLYHRIùWHIDQ1HDJX 1RZDGD\VSHRSOHLQ3ӽXOHúWLUHPHPEHUWKHDFWVRIVDERWDJHWKDWWKHLUIRUHIDWKHUVGLG DJDLQVWWKHFRPSDQLHV)LUVWWKHUHZHUHWKHGLVORFDWLRQVRIWKHUDLOZD\VHVSHFLDOO\DIWHU raining when the rail-EHGVZHUHORRVHU0RVWRIWKHVWRULHVDUHUHODWHGWRRQHORFDODFWRU %DUDJKLQDQXQXVXDOO\VWURQJPDQDFFRUGLQJWRWKHSRUWUD\DOVWKDWSHRSOHJDYHPH+HOHG VPDOOSHDVDQWJURXSVIRUWKHSXUSRVHRIEHDWLQJXSIRrestry workers in the forest and for GLVORFDWLQJWKHWUDLOVRIWKHLQGXVWULDOWUDLQ+RZHYHUSHRSOHEHFDPHFRQIXVHGDVWRWKHH[DFW WLPHWKDW%DUDJKLQOLYHGDQGKHKDVDFTXLUHGDVRUWRIOHJHQGDU\DXUD6WRULHVDOZD\VSUHVHQW KLPDVDYLROHQWSHUVRQ³EXW RQO\ZLWKWKRVHIURPRXWVLGHZLWKWKHSHRSOHIURPWKHYLOODJHKH ZDVQLFH´ $QRWKHUHSLVRGHIURPWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHSRZHUIXO%DUDJKLQZDVZKHQKHFKDVHG WKHSUHVLGHQWRIREúWHD DZD\IRUQRWILQLVKLQJWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHQHZFKXUFKLQWLPH $JDLQZHVHHWKDWVRFLDOUHVLVWDQFHLVFRRUGLQDWHGDURXQGVRFLDOHOLWHVEXWDVWKHFDVHRI %DUDJKLQVKRZVQRWDOZD\VSULHVWVRURWKHUVRUWVRILQWHOOHFWXDOHOLWHV9LROHQFHLVUHJDUGHG PRUHDVFRXUDJHLQ3ӽXOHúWLZKLFK,KDYHWRVD\HYHQWRGD\LVDQ\WKLQJEXWDn idyllic rural FRPPXQLW\ 231 ,QWKHPHDQWLPHRQWKHWRSOHYHORIWKHVWDWH7DNH,RQHVFX - RQHRIWKHPDLQ OHDGHUVRIWKH/LEHUDO3DUW\DWWKDWWLPH0LQLVWHURI)RUHLJQ$IIDLUV - - ZDV SOHDGLQJLQSDUOLDPHQWIRUWKHDEROLWLRQ RIWKHMRLQWO\-RZQHGSURSHUWLHVLQ5RPDQLD,QKLV RZQZRUGV ³MRLQW-SURSHUW\ GHYӽOPӽúLH LVDJDLQVWWKHWKRURXJKVRFLDORUGHUDQGSURJUHVVLV LQGLYLGXDORZQHUVKLSZKLOHPRúQHQLE\WKLVODZ >WKHQHZIRUHVWU\FRGH@FDQQRWKDYH LQGLYLGXDOSURSHUO\ULJKWV´ 6WDKOTXRWHV,RQHVFXDIWHUSHUVRQDOVWHQRJUDSKLFQRWHVRID SDUOLDPHQWDU\VHVVLRQ6WDKO %XWZDV,RQHVFXRQO\DGHIHQGHURIWKHLQQRYDWLYH VSLULWRIWKHOLEHUDOV"0D\EHEXWKHZDVIDUIURPKDYLQJSLRXVDOWUXLVWLFLQWHQWLRQV7DNH ,RQHVFXZDVWKHODZ\HURIWKH*U|GOH&RPSDQ\7KHFRPSDQ\ZDVH[WUDFWLQJZRRGIURPWKH 3XWQD9DOOH\DVPHQWLRQHGDERYH,WZDVDGPLQLVWHUHGLQ5RPDQLDE\0RULW]+RUQKDGLWV KHDGTXDUWHUVLQ%XGDSHVWDQGZDVVHOOLQJWKHWLPEHULQ0DQFKHVWHU $OWKRXJKWKHODZLPSRVHGDIRUPDOSUHVLGHQWZLWKDERDUGRIDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWKHSHRSOHLQ 9UDQFHDUHVLVWHGWKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHFLYLOFRGHE\QRQ-FRPSOLDQFHZLWKWKHUXOHV6DYD QRWHV ;/,9 WKDW³DOWKRXJKWKHIRUHVWU\FRGHGHPDQGHGWKDWWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQRIREúWL >ZDV@WRWDNHSODFHZLWKLQDIHZPRQWKVIURPWKHSXEOLFDWLRQRIWKHODZXQWLOWRGD\ LH PRVWRIWKHREúWL KDVUHPDLQHGXQRUJDQL]HG>«@DQGWKRVHZKRGLGFRQWLQXHWR RUJDQL]HWKHPVHOYHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUFXVWRPV´ LGHP $FFRUGLQJWR$úH]ӽPkQWHYHU\ REúWHD KDGWRSD\DWD[WRWKHVWDWHEXGJHW6DYDUHFRXQWVKRZWKLVWD[ZDVSDLGE\WKHZKROH YLOODJHDQGQRWRQO\E\WKRVHZKRZHUHRQWKHOLVWV³>«@WKHREúWHD of the whole village goes ahead with the new official REúWHD7KHODWWHUVXUYLYHVIRUPDOO\ZLWKRXWH[LVWLQJGHIDFWR ,QVWHDGDOOWKHYLOODJHUVXVHWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\´ LGHP ,ZDVWROGWKHVDPHLQ3ӽXOHúWLLQ2QHRIWKHHOGHUO\PHQUHPHPEHUVWKRVHGD\V YHU\ZHOO ³%DFNWKHQ WKHSUHVLGHQWZDVFKRVHQEXWLIKHZDVQRWDFWLQJDFFRUGLQJWRWKHZLOORI WKHSHRSOHWKHQH[WGD\KHZDVILUHGLPPHGLDWHO\1RZLVFKRVHQIRU-\HDUVDQG KHGRHVQRWFDUHDQ\PRUH+HKDVDVDODU\EDFNWKHQWKHUHZDVQRVDODU\0\IDWKHU ZDVSUHVLGHQWRIREúWHD DOOKLVOLIH,QHYHUUHPHPEHUKLP EHLQJSDLGDQ\PRQH\7KLV ZDVOLNHDQKRQRUWKDWZDVLW« $IWHUVRPHWLPH VRPHERRNNHHSLQJUHSRUWVZHUHLQWURGXFHG >E\WKHVWDWH@DOVR IRUWKHJRRGVDNHRIREúWHDWKH\VDLGIRUWKHDFFRXQWLQJV:LWKWKHVHWKHUHZHUH VRPHWUDQVSRUWSDSHUV >IRUWKHWLPEHU@EHFDPHPDQGDWRU\DVZHOO2QFHWKHWLPEHU ZDVUHDG\LQWKHIRUHVWRQHZDVSDVVLQJDWWKHSUHVLGHQW¶VKRXVHWRDVNIRUWKH WUDQVSRUWIRUP ,ZDQWWRJR«- :KHUH"7R)RFúDQL– +RZPXFKGR\RXKDYH"– 7KDWPXFK«DQGVRRQ2QHZDVQRWVXSSRVHGWRSD\DQ\WKLQJEXWLWZDVPDQGDWRU\ 232 WRKDYHWKDWVKHHWRISDSHUZLWKRQHVHOI7KHVHZHUHWKHILUVWVLJQVZKHQODZEURNH LQWRWKHIRUHVWVRIWKHSHRSOHIURP9UDQFHD %HIRUHWKLVWKHUHZDVQRWKLQJ1RZLI \RXPHHWWKHIRUHVWU\JXDUGDQGZKHQKHVHHV\RXFRPLQJIURPWKHIRUHVWKHDVNV\RX ZKHUHDUH\RXFRPLQJIURPDQGZKDWGLG\RXGR,WLVQRWDOORZHGWRSLFNPXVKURRPV ZLWKRXWKLVNQRZOHGJH´ 3\HDUVROGLQWHUYLHZPDGHLQ $QRWKHULQIRUPDQWEULQJVQHZLQVLJKWVIRUWKHSRUWUDLWRIWKHLQIRUPDOOHDGHUV of the village FRPPXQLW\ ³7KHOHDGHUVRIREúWHDZHUHVHULRXVSHRSOHEXWDOVRSHRSOHIURPWKHPLGGOH>FODVV@ PRVWRIWKHWLPHZLWKWKUHHXSWRVL[KHFWDUHVRIODQGDQGSHRSOHWKDWGLGQ¶WZDQWWR JHWULFK«>WKHZLIH@ 3HRSOHZLWKJRRGVSLULWVRWKDWWKHYLOODJHFRXOGFRXQWRQWKHP ,WZDVLPSRUWDQWWRNQRZKRZWRUHDGDVZHOO´ &6\HDUVROGLQWHUYLHZPDGHLQ +RZHYHUWKHUHVWULFWHGDFFHVVDWORFDOOHYHOZDVSHUFHLYHGQRWDVDFRQVHUYDWLRQPHDVXUHRU as a normal administrative measure LQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKWKHHYROXWLRQRIWKHVRFLHW\EXWDVD WRS- GRZQLPSRVHGPHDVXUHOLPLWLQJWKHLUDFFHVVWRWKHIRUHVWDQGDOWHULQJWKHLUWUDGLWLRQDO XVHV$OWKRXJKWKHHOGHUVLQWKHYLOODJHUHFRJQL]HGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWHFKQRORJLFDOVKLIWWKH SDSHUEXUHDXFUDF\DQGWKHFRPSXOVRU\LQIRUPDWLRQWKDWWKH\ZHUHUHTXLUHGWRGHOLYHUWRWKH IRUHVWU\JXDUGVZDVDVLJQRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQIRUWKHP7KHVHOLVWVRIco-RZQHUVwere the first DWWHPSWWREUHDNWKHWUDGLWLRQDOSURSHUW\UHJLPHDQGWRLQWURGXFHLQGLYLGXDORZQHUVKLS6RPH YLOODJHFRPPRQVIURP:DOODFKLD0ROGRYDDQG%XNRYLQDZHUHWUDQVIRUPHGLQWRLQGLYLGXDO SURSHUWLHVGXULQJWKLVSURFHVV%XWQRWLQ9UDQFHD:K\"7KHDQVZHUOLHVLQWKHOHJDOILJKW WKDW$XUHO96DYDWKHUHVHDUFKHUDPSO\TXRWHGDERYHXQGHUWRRNIRU\HDUVLQ9UDQFHD 20.3. A lawyer for the people ,QRUGHUWRH[SODLQKRZ6DYDZDVDEOHWRGHIHQGWKHYLOODJHVIURP9UDQFHDLQWKHLUOHJDO EDWWOHVZLWKWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPSDQLHVZHQHHGWRSUHVHQWWKHFRQWH[WDQGWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDO EDFN-XS6DYDKDG 6DYDZDVQRWIURP9UDQFHDEXWDIWHUFRPSOHWLQJWKH/DZ)DFXOW\LQ%XFKDUHVWKH ZDVDSSRLQWHGDODZ\HUDWWKHORFDO3XWQD&RXUW'XULQJKLVVWXGLHVLQ%XFKDUHVWKHZDV FROOHDJXHZLWK++6WDKO6WDKOMRLQHGWKH6RFLRORJLFDOVHPLQDUVRIKLVSURIHVVRUDimitrie *XVWL - 121 *XVWLKDGFORVHFRQWDFWVDQGJRRGUHODWLRQVZLWKWKHUR\DOIDPLO\DQG VXFFHHGHGWRJHWIXQGVIRUKLVPRQRJUDSKLFFDPSDLJQV122 LQUXUDO5RPDQLD6WDKOZDV 121 *XVWLZDVSURIHVVRURIVRFLRORJ\DWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI%XFKDUHVW - PLQLVWHURI(GXFDWLRQ - PHPEHURIWKH5RPDQLDQ$FDGHP\ - DQGSUHVLGHQWRIWKH5RPDQLDQ$FDGHP\ - 122 7KHPRQRJUDSKLFUHVHDUFKZDV*XVWL¶VPHWKRGRILQYHVWLJDWLRQZKLFKZDVEDVHGRQWKHLQTXLU\RIDOO HOHPHQWVRIVRFLDOOLIHRIDJLYHQFRPPXQLW\ VHH*XVWL 7KHUHIRUHWKHUHVHDUFKWHDPVZHUH PXOWLGLVFLSOLQDU\WHDPV PXVLFRORJLVWVVRFLRORJLVWVHFRQRPLVWVODZ\HUVPHGLFDOSUDFWLWLRQHUVOLQJXLVWV KLVWRULDQVJHRJUDSKHUVSKRWRJUDSKHUVDQGFLQHPDWRJUDSKHUV 233 ZKHQKHILUVWZHQWWR9UDQFHDZLWKWKHUHVHDUFKWHDPRI*XVWLLQ1HUHMXYLOODJHZKRVH RXWFRPHLVWKHERRNTXRWHGDERYH- 1HUHM8QYLOODJHG¶XQHUpJLRQDUFKDwTXH'XULQJWKHLU UHVHDUFK*XVWL¶VWHDPDOVRVHDUFKHGIRUKLVWRULFDOGRFXPHQWVDWWHVWLQJWKHSROLWLFDO aGPLQLVWUDWLYHDQGHFRQRPLFUROHRIREúWHDIURP1HUHMX 234 WKDWDFFRUGLQJWR9UDQFHD¶VFXVWRPDU\ODZZKLFKZDVUHFRJQL]HGE\WKH0ROGDYLDQ6WDWHDV statutor\LQIRUPHUOHJDOFRQIOLFWV DPRQJRWKHUVWKHFDVHZLWK%R\DU5R]QRYDQX WKHSHRSOH LQ9UDQFHDKDGLQWXLWXSHUVRQDHDSHUVRQDOULJKWIRUDFFHVVLQJWKHIRUHVWEXWUHODWHGWRD FRPPRQSURSHUW\7KHULJKWWRDFFHVVWKHFRPPRQUHVRXUFHVFRXOGQHLWKHUEHERXJKWQRU LQKHULWHGDQGDQ\SHUVRQZKROHDYHVWKHVRFLDOXQLW YLOODJHKDPOHW ORRVHVWKLVULJKW6DYD ZDVDSLRQHHULQ5RPDQLDODZWKHILUVWZKRSURFHHGHGIRUQDWLRQDOUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHMRLQW- RZQHUVKLS GHYӽOPӽúLH IROORZLQJWKH9UDQFHDFDVH2Q1RYHPEHU DVMXGJHLQ )RFúDQLFRXUWKHPDGHDFRXUWRUGHUDJDLQVWWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPSDQLHVVWDWLQJWKH IROORZLQJ ³2EúWHQLDUHWKHLQKDELWDQWVRIDYLOODJHZKRVHSDUHQWVZHUHDOVRREúWHQL DGXOWV HTXDOPHQDQGZRPHQ WKHLUULJKWLVHTXDOIRUSDVWXUHVDQGIRUZRRG WKLVULJKW EHORQJVWRWKHDGXOWFKLOGUHQHYHQWKRXJKWKHSDUHQWVDUHVWLOOOLYLQJDQGFHDVHVZKHQ WKH\GLH WKHREúWHQLORVHWKHLUULJKWLIWKH\OHDYHWKHFRPPXQLW\DQGJHWLWEDFNLIWKH\ UHWXUQHYHQDIWHUPDQ\\HDUV´ 6DYD ;;;,QRWH 7KHODQGDQGIRUHVWLQ9UDQFHDUHPDLQHGRXWVLGHWKHPDUNHWUHDOPGXHWRWKHFRXUDJHRIWKLV NH\DFWRU$XUHO96DYD 235 Chapter 21 - Fighting “The Red Pest” 21.1. The plot and the elites :KHQWKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPHFDPHLQWRSRZHULQ SULYDWHSURSHUW\ULJKWVRYHUIRUHVWV ZHUHDEROLVKHG,Q VHULRXVFRQIOLFWVRFFXUUHGLQ9UDQFHDEHWZHHQYLOODJHUVDQGWKH FRPPXQLVWDXWKRULWLHV7KHSHDNRIUHYROWRFFXUUHGGXULQJWKHQLJKWRI-24 July123ZKHQLQ WKHYLOODJHRI%kUVHúWL VRPH0 NPHDVWIURP3ӽXOHúWL SHDVDQWVIURPDOOWKHYLOODJHVIURP ğDUD9UDQFHL organized resistance against sWDWHDXWKRULWLHVZKLFKSURFHHGHGWRHVWDEOLVK OLYHVWRFNFRRSHUDWLYHV7KHUHVLVWDQFHZDVSDUWRIDZLGHUQDWLRQDOUHVLVWDQFHSODQDJDLQVWWKH RFFXSDWLRQE\WKH6RYLHWWURRSV7KHUHZHUHVHFUHWRUJDQL]DWLRQVILJKWLQJDOODORQJWKH &DUSDWKLDQ0RXQWDLQV7KHRUJDQL]DWLRQIURP9UDQFHD0RXQWDLQVZDVFDOOHG9ODGğHSHú,, 9ODGWKH,PSDOHU,, 7KHUHYROWIURP%kUVHúWLZDVRUJDQL]HGE\9LFWRU/XSúDDQ DQWLFRPPXQLVWOHDGHU+RZHYHUWKHDXWKRULWLHVIRXQGRXWDERXWWKHSODQDQGWKHSURWHVWV HQGHGLQDEORRGEDWK7KHH[DFWQXPEHURISHRSOHNLOOHGLVXQNQRZQEXW what is more LPSRUWDQWLVWKHIDFWWKDWLQRQHQLJKWDOOWKHORFDOOHDGHUVRIDSRWHQWLDOUHVLVWDQFHWRWKH FRPPXQLVWUHJLPHZHUHFDXJKW:KLOHWDONLQJZLWKSHRSOHDERXWWKLV,IRXQGRXWWKDWWKHUHLV DJHQHULFQDPHIRUWKLVHSLVRGHQDPHO\&RPSORWXO7KH 3ORW 7KHVWRU\WKDWSHRSOHWROGPHLVWKDW/XSúDZDVDVS\RIWKHDXWKRULWLHVPHPEHURI 6LJXUDQĠD WKHLQLWLDOQDPHRIWKHFRPPXQLVWVHFUHWVHUYLFHV6HFXULWDWH DQGKLVSODQZDVWR EUHDNWKHDQWLFRPPXQLVWUHVLVWDQFHLQ9UDQFHD7KRVHWKDWSDUWLFLSDWHGZHUHPDLQO\ORFDO HOLWHV,QRQHQLJKWDOOORFDO economic and educational elites were either caught or were DVVDVVLQDWHG7KHLUIDPLOLHVFRQWLQXHGWREHSHUVHFXWHGGXULQJWKHZKROHSHULRGWKDWWKH FRPPXQLVWUHJLPHODVWHGLQ5RPDQLD7KLVHSLVRGHLVRIXWPRVWLPSRUWDQFHIRUP\DQDO\VLV EHFDXVHDV,ZLOOGHVFULEHLQWKHQH[WVHFWLRQDIWHUWKHIDOORIWKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPHLQ QRRWKHUVRFLDOHOLWHZDVUHDG\WRIRUPDSROLWLFDODOWHUQDWLYHDWORFDOOHYHOEXWWKHROG FRPPXQLVWHOLWHV7KHVWDWHSROLF\RIDQQLKLODWLRQRIDQWLFRPPXQLVWUHVLVWDQFHGLGQot target WKHIRUPVRIUHVLVWDQFHDQGWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHGOLNHLQWKHFDVHLQ*DOLFLDXQGHU)UDQFR )ROORZLQJWKH6WDOLQLVWH[DPSOHWKHILJKWDJDLQVWµWKHHQHP\RIWKHSHRSOH¶ZDVGLUHFWHG against all local forms of local elitism and against the families RIWKRVHWKDWSUHYLRXVO\ HQKDQFHGDQ\IRUPRIORFDOOHDGHUVKLS DQGWKHLURIIVSULQJ 123 -RKQWKH%DSWLVWLVFHOHEUDWHGRQ-XQH E\WKH5RPDQLDQ2UWKRGR[&KXUFK 21.2. The use of the common property during communism 'XULQJWKHFRPPXQLVWSHULRGWKHFRQWDFWEHWZHHQWKHYLOODJHUVDQGWKHLUFRPPRQSURSHUW\ ZDVQRWLQWHUUXSWHG$FFHVVWRWKHIRUHVWEHFDPHSRVVLEOHRQO\WKURXJKWKHVWDWHIRUHVWJXDUG +RZHYHUSHRSOe continued to get fuel-wood and wood for construction from their own FRPPRQSURSHUWLHVHYHQLQWKHFDVHZKHQWKHIRUHVWZDVQRWORFDWHGFORVHWRWKHYLOODJH7KH UDWLRQDOHEHKLQGWKLVLVWKHNQRZOHGJHRIWKHIRUHVW3HRSOHNQRZWKHIRUHVWDQGWKH\KDG SDUWLFXODUVSRWVZKHUHWKH\ZHUHJRLQJLQGLYLGXDOO\WRJHWZRRGDQGHVSHFLDOO\ZRRGIRU FRQVWUXFWLRQ%XLOGLQJDKRXVHIRUWKHFKLOGUHQZDVDVHULRXVLQYHVWPHQWDQGWKHPRVW YDOXDEOHWUHHVZHUHSUHVHUYHGIURPIDWKHUWRVRQLQWKLVUHJDUG7KHVHWUHHVZHUHRf great value IRUDIDPLO\DQGVRPHWLPHVWKH\ZHUHVHFUHWVRPHWLPHVLWZDVNQRZLQWKHFRPPXQLW\WKDWD SDUWLFXODUIDPLO\HQYLVDJHGWRJHWWUHHVIRUFRQVWUXFWLRQLQDSDUWLFXODUVSRW$IWHUWKHURXJK H[SORLWDWLRQE\WKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPSDQLHVWKHPRVWDFFHVVLEOHVSRWVZLWKJRRGZRRG GLVDSSHDUHG6ORZO\VRGLGWKHZDWHU-VDZPLOOV+DYLQJDVDZPLOOZDVFRQVLGHUWKH ERXUJHRQLQJVLJQRIDFDSLWDOLVWHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\DQGWKHUHIRUHIRUELGGHQ %XWWKHJHRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WFKDQJHGDVZHOO,Q 5RPDQLDZas considered a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ӽXOHúWLGXULQJWKLVWLPHZDVWKHLPPHUVLRQRIWKHYLOODJH LQWRWKH7XOQLFLFRPPXQHIROORZLQJWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLYHUHIRUPRI6HSWHPEHU $OWKRXJK RQO\NPDZD\WKLVDFFHQWXDWHGWKHLVRODWLRQRIWKHYLOODJH,WDOVRKDGDQLPSDFWIRUWKH ORFDOSUHVWLJHRIWKHYLOODJHDQGWKHSULGHRIWKHSHRSOH3HRSOHH[SODLQKRZIRUHYHU\SDSHU WKH\KDGWRJRWRWKHFRPPXQHLQ7XOQLFLDQG WKDWIRUWKLVWKH\IHOWKXPLOLDWHG7KH\ZHUH SHUFHLYHGDV³WKRVHIURPDFURVVWKHKLOO´7XOQLFLEHLQJWKHFHQWHURIWKHFRPPXQHDOVR EHQHILWHGIURPDOOWKHLQYHVWPHQWVLQWKHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHPDGHE\WKHFRPPXQLVWVWDWH 7XOQLFL was the first to get elecWULFLW\DVSKDOWWHOHSKRQHDQGDKHDOWKFDUHFHQWUH7KHSROLFHZDVDOVR LQ7XOQLFLEXWVRZDVWKHORFDOIRUHVWU\GHSDUWPHQW7KHJRRGSDUWRIWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLYH LPPHUVLRQZDVWKHDEVHQFHRIVWDWHLQVWLWXWLRQVLQWKHYLOODJH 1RZDGD\VSHRSOHGLVFXVVTXLWHUHOD[HGO\ DERXWWKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPH2QHRIP\ NH\LQIRUPDQWVLQ3ӽXOHúWLUHPHPEHUVKRZKHKDGQRSUREOHPVLQJHWWLQJZRRG ³:HGLGQ¶W IHHODQ\FKDQJHEHVHULRXV7KRVHIURPWKHORZ-ODQGVWKH\KDGWKHLUODQGFRQILVFDWHGDQG WKHYLQH\DUGEXWZHKDGQRYLQH\DUGVDUDEOHODQGFRQILVFDWHG2QO\WKHIRUHVWEXWZHWRRN ZRRGDQ\KRZ´ &\HDUVROGLQWHUYLHZIURP 7KHZD\SHRSOHZHUHH[WUDFWLQJ ZRRGIURPWKHIRUHVWLQWKHODWWHUSHULRGRIWKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPH LH ZDVPRUHRUOHVV OHJDO0RVWRIWKHVWRULHVLPSO\WKHWDFLWDFFHSWDQFHRIWKHIRUHVWU\JXDUGVZKRZHUHORFDOVDV ZHOO ³7KHFRXQWU\JRWPRGHUQL]HGDELWDQGDOOSRRUSHRSOHIURPWKHUHJLRQKDGDSODFHWR ZRUNKHUHLQWKHIRUHVWVZLWKZRRGH[SORLWDWLRQ%XWZHZHUHQRWDOORZHGWRJHW wood,UHPHPEHUKRZLQWKHVGXULQJWKHZLQWHUSHRSOHZHUHFXWWLQJWKHSOXP trees from the garden for there was no fuel-ZRRGWREHIRXQGDQ\PRUHLQWKHVH PRXQWDLQV´ LGHP 7KHUHIRUHVWDWLRQVDFWXDOO\OHGWRWKHFRQFHSWRIVWDWHIRUHVWLQ9UDQFHD3HRSOe lost contact ZLWKWKHLUIRUPHUFRPPRQSURSHUWLHVLQWKHHDUO\V7KH\ZHUHDOOWDNLQJZRRGIURPDQHZ IRUHVWQRZWKHVWDWH¶VIRUHVW7KLVIRUHVWZDVQHZQRWRQO\LQWHUPVRISURSHUW\ULJKWVDQG DFFHVVEXWDOVRSK\VLFDOO\7KHODQGVFDSHFKDQJHGGUDPDWLFDOO\DVVRRQDVSLQHVDQGRWKHU FRQLIHURXVZHUHSODQWHG%XWWKHPHPRU\UHPDLQV« $FRPPRQSUDFWLFHZKHQVWHDOLQJZRRGZDVWREXU\WKHWUXQNVLQWKHFRXUW\DUGRIWKH KRXVHRUDVFORVHDVSRVVLEOHWRWKHLUSODFHRIGHVWLQDWLRQ0RVWRIWKHPHQZHUHFKRSSLQJWKH ZRRGIRUFRQVWUXFWLRQLQLQFUHGLEOHFRQGLWLRQV LQXQGHUJURXQGWUHQFKHVFDPRXIODJHGLQ VWUDZ2QFHWKHWUXQNVZHUHUHDG\WKH\ZHUHLPPHGLDWHO\XVHGLQWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRUFXWLQWR 238 SLHFHVIRUIXHO-ZRRGVRWKDWQRHYLGHQFHRIWKHVWROHQZRRGFRXOGEHIRXQG&XOLĠӽ UHPHPEHUVKRZLQ SROLFHFDPHWRKLVKRXVHZKLOHKHDQGKLVIDWKHUZHUHEXLOGLQJWKH QHZKRXVH ³,ZDVWZHQW\\HDUVROGZKHQP\IDWKHUDQG,VWDUWHGWREXLOGWKLVKRXVH2QHGD\ SROLFHFDPHDQGVDLGWKDWWKH\¶YHEHHQWROGWKDWZHVWROHWKHZRRGIRUWKHKRXVH0\ IDWKHUZDVQH[WWRPHDQGWKHSROLFHZDVDWWKHHQWUDQFHRIWKHFRXUW\DUG,WROGWKHP, GRQ¶WNQRZMXVWOLNHWKDW ZHGLGQ¶WVWHDOIRUWKHIRUHVWLVRXUV7KHSROLFHUHSOLHG KRZ come that it’s yours when it is the state¶VIRUHVW7KHQ,VDLGWKDWWKHIRUHVWPLJKWEH SODQWHGE\WKHVWDWHEXWWKHODQGLVRXUV7KHSROLFHPDQJRWLQWRGLIILFXOWLHVKHZDV QRWIURPKHUHKHZDVIURPVRPHZKHUHLQ7UDQV\OYDQLD$QGWKH\OHIW«ODWHU,ZDV WROGE\P\IDWKHUWKDW,VKDOONHHSP\PRXWKVKXWLI,GRQ¶WZDQWWRJRWRSULVRQ%XW, RQO\WROGZKDW,NQHZ´ 7KHFDVHRIP\KRVW&XOLĠӽLVQRWSDUWLFXODU+HZDVWROGE\KLVIDWKHUDERXWWKHFRPPRQ SURSHUW\+LVIDWKHUZDVDVKHSKHUGDQGOLNHRWKHUVKHSKHUGVLQ9UDQFHDKHFRQWLQXHGZLth his EXVLQHVVGXULQJFRPPXQLVPIRUWKHDOSLQHSDVWXUHVDOWKRXJKVWLOOWKHVWDWH¶VSURSHUW\ UHPDLQHGRSHQHGWRWKHYLOODJHVIRUFRPPRQXVH0DQ\WLPHV&XOLĠӽZHQWZLWKKLVIDWKHULQ WKHPRXQWDLQVDQGWKLVLVZKHUHKHOHDUQHGDERXWWKHFRPPRQSURSHUW\Rf the village and its OLPLWV3HRSOHLQWKHPRXQWDLQVZHUHVSHDNLQJRSHQO\DERXWWKHOLPLWVEHWZHHQWKHFRPPRQ SURSHUWLHVRIWKHYLOODJHVDQGVRPHWLPHVJHWWLQJLQWRILJKWVIRUEUHDNLQJLQWRWKHIRUPHU YLOODJHSURSHUWLHV7KHXVHRIWKHDOSLQHSDVWXUHVUHJHQHUDWHGSHUPDQHQWO\WKHPHPRU\RIWKH FRPPRQSURSHUW\XQWLOZKHQWKHUHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRISURSHUW\ULJKWVIRUWKHYLOODJHVWRRN SODFH7KHVHPHPRULHVZHUHHVVHQWLDOLQSHDFHIXOO\WUDFLQJWKHERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQWKHQHZ REúWHDV 23.3. Environmentalism and local patriotism ,ZDQWHGWRNQRZZKRWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLVWVZHUHGXULQJWKHFRPPXQLVWSHULRGLQ9UDQFHD DQGKRZWKH\YLHZWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQDFWLRQVWRGD\,DVNHGWKHGLUHFWRURIWKHSDUNDQGVRPH HQYLURQPHQWDOLVWVZRUNLQJIRUDORFDO1*2WKH³$VVRFLDWLRQIRUWKH&RQVHUYDWLRQRI %LRGLYHUVLW\´ KHQFHIRUWK$&% 7KH\DOOWROGPHWRJRDQGWDONZLWK)ORULQ³KHLVWKHRQH ZKRNQRZVWKHVHPRXQWDLQVEHVW´ )ORULQ5RPDQLVDERXW\HDUVROGDQGKHLVIURP9UDQFHD+HVWXGLHGJHRJUDSK\DQG EHFDPHDWHDFKHU $VDVWXGHQWKHZDVDOZD\VLQWKHPRXQWDLQVZLWKKLVIHOORZFROOHDJXHV PRUHIRUWKHSOHDVXUHIRUµEHLQJLQQDWXUH¶%XWDVKHWROGPHEHLQJDPRXQWDLQHHUEDFNWKHQ ZDVDIRUPRIUHVLVWDQFHDJDLQVWWKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPH%RRNVSRHPVJXLWDUVRQJVWKDWwere IRUELGGHQE\FHQVXUHZHUHH[FKDQJHGGXULQJWKHVHWULSV7KHPRXQWDLQVZHUHDVSDFHRI IUHHGRPRIH[SUHVVLRQGXULQJFRPPXQLVP)RUEHLQJSDUWRIWKH\RXQJLQWHOOHFWXDOHOLWHRQH KDGWRVWXG\HLWKHUVFLHQFHVUHODWHGWROLWHUDWXUHRUDUFKLWHFWXUHRUVRmehow related to ILHOGZRUN$QGVLQFHVRFLRORJ\ZDVIRUELGGHQEHLQJFRQVLGHUHGDERXUJHRLVVFLHQFHWKH IDFXOWLHVRIJHRJUDSK\DQGJHRORJ\ZHUHDWWKHKHDUWRIWKLVLQIRUPDOPRYHPHQW,KDYHWRVD\ WKDWGXULQJWKHPLG ¶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it was called 0XQĠLL1RúWUL2XU Mountains124 124 7KHVHULHVEHJDQLQ DQGHQGHGLQ GXHWRDODFNRIIXQGLQJ'XULQJ\HDUVWKHUHZHUH SXEOLFDWLRQV,WKLQNWKLVVSHDNVDERXWWKHEUHDGWKRIWKHPRYHPHQW 125 1HFXOD'ӽQLOӽis the oldest sKHSKHUGLQ9UDQFHD0RXQWDLQVDQGLVDOHJHQGDU\ILJXUHIRUWKHORFDOSHRSOH RQH RIWKHIHZVKHSKHUGVOHIW 240 WKHPRXQWDLQVQRUDERXWPH´ ,QGHHGWKHIHZHQWKXVLDVWVDIHZ\HDUVROGHUWKDQPHZKR IRUPHGWKHORFDO1*2$&%DQGZKRDUHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHFUHDWLRQRIWKH3XWQD9UDQFHD 1DWXUDO3DUNDUHDOO)ORULQ¶VGLVFLSOHV³,SXWWKHUXFNVDFNRQWKHLUEDFNV,WDXJKWWKHP HYHU\WKLQJ7KH\KDYHWRFDUHDERXWWKHVHSODFHV WKLVLVZKHUHWKH\EHORQJ´ 7KXVORFDOSDWULRWLVPLVDWWKHFRUHRIQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQLQWKH9UDQFHDUHJLRQ%XW KRZGRHVWKLVSDWULRWLVPOLQNZLWK1DWXUD")ORULQLVYHU\VNHSWLFDOZLWKUHJDUGERWK SURSHUW\UHVWLWXWLRQDQG(XURSHDQQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQPHDVXUHV+HWKLQNVWKDWWKLVLVRQO\ UXLQLQJWKH³QDWXUDOSDWULPRQ\´RIWKHUHJLRQ³,GRQ¶WXQGHUVWDQG KRZFDQRQHSUHVHUYH ZKHQWKHUHLVVRPXFKHFRQRPLFLQWHUHVWDURXQG"7KHWZRVLPSO\GRQ¶WJRWRJHWKHU´ 241 Chapter 24 - Property restitution and the establishment of protected areas 3HRSOHLQ3ӽXOHúWLDUHSX]]OHGDVWRKRZLWFDPHDERXWWKDWULJKWDIWHUWKHWXUPRLORIUH- HVWDEOLVKLQJSURSHUW\ULJKWVQHZUHVWULFWLRQVWRDFFHVVWKHIRUHVWFRXOGIROORZ7KHFRPPRQ GLVFRXUVHLQWKHYLOODJHLVRQHRIPLVWUXVWDQGWUHDFKHU\3HRSOHWKLQNWKDWWKHSDUN DGPLQLVWUDWRUVQHHGDMREDQGWKLVLVKRZWKH\JRWLWE\LQYHQWLQJWKHLUSRVLWLRQVLQD SURWHFWHGDUHD,QZKHQ,ILUVWZHQWWR9UDQFHD5RPDQLDZDVWKLUWHHQ\HDUVGLVWDQFHG IURPWKHHQGRIRQHRIWKHFUXHOHVWFRPPXQLVWGLFWDWRUVKLSVLQWKHHDVWHUQEORFN&HDXúHVFX PD\KDYHEHHQVKRWLQ RQ&KULVWPDVGD\EXWKHZDVVWLOODOLYHDVDSRVWVRFLDOLVWVRQJ VD\V³LQWKHIDFWRULHVLQWKHEXLOGLQJVLQPHDQG\RX´126 24.1. Hotar 7KHSURSHUW\UHVWLWXWLRQSURFHVVLQ5RPDQLDZDVDFFRPSDQLHGE\VWURQJFRQWestations and HQGOHVVWULDOV7KLVZDVSDUWLFXODUO\WKHFDVHIRULQGLYLGXDOSULYDWHSURSHUWLHVDQGIRUWKH UHVWLWXWLRQRIELJSURSHUWLHVRULPSRUWDQWDVVHWVWKDWEHORQJHGWRFROOHFWLYHDFWRUVVXFKDVWKH 5RPDQLDQ2UWKRGR[&KXUFKRUWKH5RPDQLDQ5R\DO)DPLO\%XWWKLVZDVQRW the case for YLOODJHSURSHUWLHVLQ9UDQFHD 9DVLOHDQG0DQWHVFX 0\DUJXPHQWKHUHLVWKDWWKLVZDV GXHWRDSDUWLFXODUDVSHFWGXULQJWKHFROOHFWLYHQHJRWLDWLRQVWKDWWRRNSODFHGXULQJWKH UHVWLWXWLRQSURFHVVQDPHO\WKHUROHRIVKDUHGFROOHFWLYHPHPRULHVLQHVWDEOLVKLQJWKHMXVW ERUGHUVRIWKHSURSHUWLHV,ZLOOGHVFULEHEHORZKRZWKHERUGHULQJRIWKHFRPPRQSURSHUWLHV ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGDFFRUGLQJWRFXVWRPDU\QHJRWLDWLRQVRIMXVWERXQGDULHVwhat SHRSOHFDOO ³KRWDU´ There are diIIHUHQWZRUGVIRUERXQGDULHVLQWKH5RPDQLDQODQJXDJHHDFKRIWKHP EHDULQJGLIIHUHQWPHDQLQJVPHDQLQJVWKDWWKHMXULGLFDOGLFWLRQDULHVLJQRUH/LPLW is a QHRORJLVPDQGZDVDGRSWHGLQWKH5RPDQLDQODQJXDJHIURP)UHQFKSUHVXPSWLYHO\WRJHWKHU ZLWKWKHFLYLOFRGHDVPDQ\RWKHUMXULGLFDOWHUPV/LPLW SOOLPLWH LVXVHGLQOHJDOFRQWUDFWV in formulations such as OLPLWDSURSUHLWĠLL WKHOLPLWVRISURSHUW\ +DW SOKDWXUL is another ZRUGIRUERXQGDULHVUHODWHGWRSURSHUW\,WFRPHVIRUPWKH7XUNLVKZRUGKDGZKLFKPHDQV DXWKRULW\DXWKRUL]DWLRQYDOXHEXWDOVRWRRUGDLQWRRUGHURUGHFUHH OLNHLQWKHH[SUHVVLRQ KDWL-KXPDLXP which means LPSHULDOGHFUHH '(; +DG is also linked with the Ottoman Turkish word KDWZKLFKPHDQVOLQH 7KHZRUGZDVSUHVXPSWLYHO\LQWURGXFHGLQ 126 7KHSRVWVRFLDOLVWFRQWH[WSOD\VDQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKLVVWRU\$OWKRXJK,GRQRWSUHVHQWWKHHYHQWVIURPD SRVWVRFLDOLVWSHUVSHFWLYHWKHUHDGHUVKDOOEHDZDUHRIWKLVGLPHQVLRQ I am thankful to my colleague 'U,SHN*|FPHQ IRUSUHFLRXVJXLGDQFHLQPRGHUQDQG2WWRPDQ7XUNLVK 242 OHJDOFRQWUDFWVGXULQJWKH2WWRPDQDXWKRULW\RYHUWKH5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHV1RZDGD\VWKH word has more archaic connoWDWLRQVLQVSRNHQ5RPDQLDQ+RZHYHUWKHZRUGSHRSOH FRPPRQO\XVHLQ9UDQFHDIRUERXQGDULHVLVQRWµOLPLW¶QRUµKDW¶EXWWKHYHUQDFXODUKRWDU SO KRWDUH PRVWRIWKHWLPHXVHGLQVLQJXODUIRUP +RWDU LVDSRO\VHPQDWLQFZRUG DVDQRXQ it means ERXQGDU\EXWDVDYHUE it means WRDJUHHWRGHFLGH and WRQHLJKERU)RUH[DPSOH 1RLQH-am KRWDUkWDVXSUDDFHVWXLSODQ PHDQVµZHDJUHHGXSRQWKLVSODQ¶ M-am KRWDUkWVPHUJOD%XFXUHúWL PHDQVµ,GHFLGHGWRJRWR%XFKDUHVW¶ 2EúWHD3XOHúWLVHKRWDUúWHFX REúWHD7XOQLFLPHDQVµREúWHD3ӽXOHúWLQHLJKERUV REúWHD7XOQLFL¶ 7KHILUVWWZRPHDQLQJV WRDJUHHDQGWRGHFLGH DUHXVHGLQHYHU\GD\VSRNHQODQJXDJH GLVUHJDUGLQJUHJLRQDOGLIIHUHQFHVZKLOHKRWDUDVQRXQ is used more in the countryside and not LQ5RPDQLD¶VFLWDGHOV,QWKHFLW\SHRSOHZLOOWDONDERXWWKHOLPLWVRIWKHLULQGLYLGXDOSULYDWH SURSHUWLHVDQGQRWDERXWKRWDU XQOHVVWKH\ZDQWWRVRXQGµOLNHSHDVDQWV¶ 0\KXQFKLVWKDWLQWKH5RPDQLDQODQJXDJHOLPLW and KDW are words that denote an H[WHUQDOO\LPSRVHGULJRULQWKHVDPHZD\WKDWLQ(QJOLVKZHWDONDERXWVSHHGOLPLWVGULQNLQJ OLPLWVDQGVRRQ7KHYHUQDFXODU KRWDUPHDQVWKDWWZRRUPRUHWKDQWZRSDUWVKDYHQHJRWLDWHG DQGPXWXDOO\DJUHHGRQWKHERXQGDULHVRIDSURSHUW\RUDVDYHUEWKDWWZRor more than two VRFLDODJHQWVPXWXDOO\DJUHHGRUGHFLGHGXSRQVRPHWKLQJEHKDYLRUDOQRUPVLQFOXGHG+RWDU KDVWKHUHIRUHDQHPEHGGHGVHQVHRIMXVWLFH through its intimate link with DJUHHPHQW of the SDUWVLQYROYHG$QRWKHUDVSHFWRIKRWDUDVQRXQWKXVZLWK WKHVHQVHRIERXQGDU\LVWKDWLW XVXDOO\IROORZVWKHQDWXUDOGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHPRUSKRORJ\RQWKHJURXQG+RWDU ZLOOEHD ULYHUQRPDWWHULIWKHULYHUFKDQJHVLWVFRXUVH$OOWKHVHDVSHFWVFDQEHVXEMHFWWRIXUWKHU LQTXLU\DQGLWLVRIFRXUVHDUJXDEOH how much sense of MXVWLFH does KRWDU HPEHGLQWKH VSRNHQUXUDOODQJXDJHDFURVV5RPDQLDQRZDGD\V%XWLQWKHUHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIYLOODJH SURSHUWLHVLQ3ӽXOHúWLKRWDU KDVPRUHWKDQDOHJDOVHQVH %RJGDQWKHFXUUHQWSUHVLGHQWRIREúWHDUHPHPEHUVKRZWKHFROOHFWLYHEDUJDLQLQJRI ERXQGDULHVWRRNSODFH³3HRSOHJDWKHUHGLQIRUWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHOLPLWV KRWDUHOH RIREúWHD7KHUHZHUHWKHHOGHUO\IURPWKHQHLJKERULQJYLOODJHVDQGZHZHQWLQWRWKH PRXQWDLQV:HWKH\RXQJVWHUVZHUHEHKLQGWKHPFDUU\LQJEXFNHWVRISDLQW$QGWKHHOGHUly ZHUHWDONLQJPDNLQJMRNHVDQGZHZHUHOLVWHQLQJWRWKHP:HZDONHGDURXQGREúWHD¶V SURSHUW\ KRWDUX¶REúWLL DQGDVVRRQDVWKH\ZHUHDJUHHLQJ KRWDUkW RQDSRLQWZHZHUH SDLQWLQJDQ³+´RQDWUHH these ³+´ZLWK\HOORZSDLQWWKDW\RXsaw in the forest´ %RJGDQ, 243 ,KHDUGPDQ\WLPHVWKHVDPHVWRU\IURP&XOLĠӽKHZDVDOVRWKHUH³$QGWKHUHLQWKH PRXQWDLQVZHDJUHHGXSRQWKHOLPLWVRIREúWL $FRORDPKRWUkWREúWLOH ´ &XOLĠӽQRWHV 7KLVODVWSKUDVHLVFRQIXVLQJHYHQIRUPHDVDQDWLYH5RPDQLDQIRULWFDQPHDQ WKHSHRSOH KDYHGHFLGHGXSRQ«RUZHKDYHVHWWOHGWKHOLPLWV:HFDQXQGHUVWDQGQRZWKHWURXEOHWKDW QRWRQO\WKHFXVWRPDU\ULJKWVLQ9UDQFHDFDXVHGWRODZPDNHUVEXWDOVRWKHYRFDEXODU\ :KHQWDONLQJDERXWWKLVHSLVRGHLQ3ӽXOHúWL WKHUHLVDFHUWDLQQRVWDOJLDDQGSULGH LQYROYHG7KLVHSLVRGHKDVDOPRVWDFTXLUHGDFHUHPRQLDOFRQQRWDWLRQUHIHUULQJWRDJROGHQ DJHZKHQSHRSOHDJUHHG XSRQOLPLWV RISURSHUW\RIDXWKRULW\RIGLVFRXUVHRIFODLPV7KHUH ZHUHWKHHOGHUO\ZKRKDGWKHNQRZOHGJHDQGWKHDXWKRULW\DQGWKH\RXQJVWHUV ERWK%RJGDQ DQG&XOLĠӽZHUHDERXWEDFNWKHQ ZKRIROORZHG%RWK%RJGDQDQG&XOLĠӽNQRZWKDWDV VRRQDVWKH\FDPHEDFNLQWKHYLOODJHVHQTXLULHVVWDUWHG SHRSOHZKRFODLPHGWRNQRZEHWWHU from their forefatKHUVFODLPVDERXWZRRG-VKDUHVDERXWWKHULJKWVRQSDVWXUHDQGVRRQ7KHVH FODLPVZHUHSDUWRIWKHORFDOQHJRWLDWLRQSURFHVVDVZHOOWKHVHZHUHWKHHWHUQDOFRQWHVWDWLRQV 7KHVHHWHUQDOFRQWHVWDWLRQVIXQFWLRQDVZHZLOOVHHODWHUZKHQGHVFULELQJWKHYLOlage DVVHPEO\DVµDYDOYH¶IRUUHJXODWLQJORFDOFRQIOLFWV3HRSOHORVHWKHPVHOYHVWKURXJK GLVDJUHHPHQWWKH\FDSWXUHWKHSXEOLFDWWHQWLRQRUWKH\VLPSO\µSD\EDFN¶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úWHD3ӽXOHúWLKDGQRWURXEOHVLQHVWDEOLVKLQJLWVSURSHUW\ULJKWV0RVWRIWKH limits – KRWDUH DUHQDWXUDOVXFKDVULYHUVDQGPRXQWDLQFUHVWV 244 SRVW-socialist coQIOLFWV7KHOLPLWVEHWZHHQ7XOQLFLDQG2MXGXODDUHQRWVLPSOHOLPLWVEHWZHHQ WZRYLOODJHSURSHUWLHVWKH\DUHDOVRWKHSDVWIURQWLHUEHWZHHQWZRHPSLUHVLWLVDJHRVWUDWHJLF SRLQWRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFHLWLVDERUGHUOLQHEHWZHHQWZRFXOWXUHVEHWZHHQWZo totally GLIIHUHQWLGLRPV:KLOHWKHIURQWLHUEHWZHHQWKH$XVWUR-+XQJDULDQ(PSLUHDQGWKH0ROGDYLDQ 3ULQFLSDOLW\YDULHGDORQJWKHFHQWXULHVWKHOLPLWVRIWKHFRPPRQSURSHUWLHVDQGWKHULJKWVRI land-XVHDOVRYDULHG7KHVHULJKWVZHUHDWWLPHVVHHQMXVW or XQMXVW,WLVFRPPRQLQWKH YLOODJHVIURP9UDQFHDWRKHDUµWKLV>LV@ZKHUHWKHOLPLWLVEXWLVQRWWKHKRWDU¶%RJGDQ H[SODLQHGWKLVWRPHLQYHU\VLPSOHWHUPV ³7KHIURQWLHUPRYHGDOOWKHWLPHDQGQRZ2MGXOD ZDQWVWRIROORZWKHROGLPSHULDOOLPLWV OLPLWHOHLPSHULDOH %XWKRWDUXO was never the way WKH\VD\KRWDUXO LVZKHUHWKHZDWHUVVSOLWDQGWKH\KDYHWRUHFRJQL]HWKLVWKHPRXQWDLQVGR QRWPRYH´ %RJGDQLELG %RJGDQUHIHUVWRWKHPRUSKRORJ\RIWKHPRXQWDLQV$FFRUGLQJWRKLPDQGWRWKHlocal NQRZOHGJHLQ9UDQFHDWKHSDVWXULQJOLPLWVEHWZHHQWKHWZRYLOODJHVDUHWKHSODFHZKHUH ZDWHUVVWDUWWRIORZWRZDUGVWKHZHVW$OOYDOOH\VRIWKHULYHUVWKDWIORZHDVWZDUGVEHORQJWR WKHYLOODJHVIURP9UDQFHDDQGWKRVHWKDWUXQZHVWZDUGVEHORQJWR2MGXOD7KHUHIRUHWKHORFDO JHRJUDSKLFDOPRUSKRORJ\LVGHHSO\LQWHUWZLQHGZLWKKRWDU WKHOLPLWVFDQYDU\IURQWLHUVFDQ YDU\LQIDYRURIVRPHDQGGLVIDYRURIRWKHUVEXWKRWDU LVZKHQERWKVLGHVDJUHHDQGQDWXUH FDQEHµDZLWQHVV¶,QWKLVFDVHµQDWXUH¶LVSDUWRIDSULQFLSOHRIPRUDOULJKWQHVVLVDE\VWDQGHU LQHVWDEOLVKLQJMXVWLFH intertwining the human social action in a form of socionature coordination 24.2. Double-edged swords The re-HVWDEOLVKPHQWRISURSHUW\ULJKWVZDVDOPRVWFRQFRPLWDQWZLWKWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI SURWHFWHGDUHDVLQ5RPDQLD%RWKRIWKHPZHUHSDUWRIDZLGHUQDWLRQDOFDPSDLJQIRU (XURSHDQDQG1$72LQWHJUDWLRQ$IWHU 5RPDQLDKDGto SURGXFHDJDLQSURRIs RIEHLQJ DGHPRFUDF\(XURSHDQLQWHJUDWLRQWKLVWLPHPHDQWWKHRIILFLDl negation of the communist SDVWDQGGHIDFWR DGDSWDWLRQRIWKLVSDVWLQWRWKHQHZVFRUHFDUGVGHOLYHUHGE\LQWHUQDWLRQDO donors and non-state UXOHPDNHUVVXFKDVWKH,0):RUOG%DQNDQGWKH(83ULYDWL]DWLRQ SURSHUW\ULJKWVRZQHUVKLSHQWUHSUHQHXUVKLSOLEHUDOLVPIUHHGRPPDUNHWHFRQRP\ VXSHUPDUNHW(XURSHDQ8QLRQDOOWKHVHZRUGVWKDW,FRXOGKHDUHYHU\GD\«VWLOOIRUPWKHEXON RIWKHSXEOLFGLVFRXUVHWKHVHGD\V%XWWKHSUHVVZDVDOVRVSHDNLQJDERXWORFDOEDURQV SUHVV moguls such as the :DOOHW%DURQWKDWLVWKHSUHVLGHQWRIWKHRI9UDQFHD¶V$GPLQLVWUDWLYH 'HSDUWPHQW MXGHĠWKHUHIRUHQRWğDUD 9UDQFHL ZKRZDVLQFORVHUHODWLRQZLWKWKH.LQJRI WKH$VSKDOW DQGPD\EHZLWKWKH.LQJRIWKH2OG,URQ and all kind of characters as in a huge VXUUHDOLVWWKHDWUHDUHQD7KHQHZHFRQRPLFHOLWHVZHUHWKHIRUPHUFRPPXQLVWRQHVUHFycled 245 LQWRWKHPRVWDFWLYHOLEHUDOVZLWKWKHµPRVWSLRXVDOWUXLVWDLPV¶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donors - DPRQJRWKHUVHFWRUVRIFRXUVHQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQ2QHRIWKHPRVWDFWLYH1*2VDW the national level for nature conservation is .RJDLRQ.Rgaion is actually the name of the VDFUHGPRXQWDLQRIWKHDQFLHQWSRSXODWLRQWKDWOLYHGRQ5RPDQLD¶VWHUULWRU\WKH'DFLDQV Kogaion is the mountain of the Dacians’ god – =DOPRO[H 128 ,QP\IDFXOW\SHRSOHZLWKEDFNJURXQGs LQHQJLQHHULQJZHUHDSSRLQWHGSURIHVVRUVLn sociology while having a YHU\OLPLWHGDPRXQWRISXEOLFDWLRQV WKHROG0DU[LVWVZHUHWHDFKLQJ(XURSHDQ,QWHJUDWLRQ ZKLOHWKHH[-director of 6HFXULWDWH9LUJLO0ӽJXUHDQXZDVP\SURIHVVRUIRU3ROLWLFDO6RFLRORJ\ KHRQO\FDPHWRWHDFKWKHFRXUVH once EXW,was ZHOOJUDGHGDQ\ZD\ 246 LQILUVWZLWKWKHODZDQGFRQWLQXHGZLWKODZ 7KXVLQSRVWVRFLDOLVW 5RPDQLDWKHUHDUHWZRFRQFRPLWDQWSURFHVVHVKDSSHQLQJ the process of establishing protected areas and the one for property restitutionXQGHUZKLFKRIFRXUVHWKHIRUHVW SURSHUWLHVDUHIDOOLQJ2QHSURFHVVZDVWKDWRIHQDEOLQJDFFHVVULJKWVWKHRWKHUZDVUHVWULFWLQJ the rights of the ‘new’ owners in the name of naturHSURWHFWLRQ During the re-HVWDEOLVKPHQWRISURSHUW\ULJKWVWKHIRUHVWU\VWDWHGHSDUWPHQW 5RPDVLOYDORVWDERXWRILWVREMHFWDFWLYLW\7KHµQHZ¶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rtment this is a well NQRZQSUREOHPEXWDVRQHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHWROGPH³ZHKDYHWRGHDOZLWKLWLQRUGHUWRPHHW the EU DFTXLV´7KXVWKHSHUVRQQHOIURPWKHSDUNVDUHHLWKHUIRUPHU5RPVLOYDHPSOR\HHV WKDWZHUHLQIRUPDOO\UHGLVWULEXWHGWRWKHSDUNVRUVLPSO\SHRSOHZLWKDSDVVLRQIRUQDWXUHWKDW IRUPHGDQ1*2DQGZHUHHOLJLEOHDFFRUGLQJWRWKHODZIRUDGPLQLVWUDWLQJDSURWHFWHGDUHD 1HHGOHVVWRVD\5RPVLOYDOHIWHLWKHUWKHZRUVWHPSOR\HHVRUWKHRQHVZLWKOHDVWH[SHULHQFH RUVLPSO\WKRVHZKRZHUHQRWSOHDVDQWWRWKHLUVXSHULRUV7KLVSKHQRPHQRQRIHPSOR\PHQW PLJUDWLRQIURPRQHVWUXFWXUHWRDQRWKHULVYHU\LQWHUHVWLQJEHFDXVHWKHVHSHRSOHVWUXJJOHGIRU taking the 1DWXUDO3URWHFWHG$UHDV'HSDUWPHQW IURPXQGHUWKHQDWLRQDOVWDWH¶VXPEUHOODDQG OREELHGIRUWKHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHSDUNVDVMXULGLFDOHQWLWLHV 7KHRWKHUFDWHJRU\RISHUVRQQHOWXUQHGRXWWREHFORVHUWRDQHFRORJLFDOIDQDWLFW\SH ³,VHHWKHZRUOGLQWKHIXWXUHOLNHWKLV IHZJUHHQLVODQGVVXUURXQGHGE\SROOXWLQJIDFWRULHV´ the leader of KRJDLRQWROGPHRQFH%XWWKLVWHQGHQF\FDQEHIRXQGDPRQJDFDGHPLFVDVZHOO 7KHDFDGHPLFVELRORJLVWVRUIRUHVWU\VFLHQWLVWVDUHDQRWKHULPSRUWDQWFOXVWHURIDFWRUV LQYROYHGLQWKHSURFHVVRIWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWDQGDGPLQLVWUDWLRQRISURWHFWHGDUHDVDV,will GHVFULEHODWHULQWKHFDVHRI9UDQFHD7KHGHDQRIRQHIDFXOW\RIWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI6XFHDYD LQYROYHGLQWKHSURFHVVWROGPH ³LQWKLVDUHD DSURWHFWHGDUHDIURP1RUWKHUQ5RPDQLD ZH 7KHDYDWDUVRIWKHODZVIRUSURSHUW\UHVWLWXWLRQ,GHVFULEHGVRPHSODFHHOVH 0DQWHVFX 0DQWHVFXDQG 9DVLOH KDYHDWURSKLFS\UDPLGZLWKZROYHVDQGEHDUVRQWKHWRS:KHQORFDOSHRSOHZLOOXQGHUVWDQG ZKDWDWURSKLFS\UDPLGLVWKHQWKH\ZLOOWDNHSDUWLQWKHQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQPHDVXUHV´ %XWQRPDWWHUZKRWKHSHRSOHLQYROYHGLQWKHGHVLJQDWLRQRIWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQDUHDV ZHUHWKHVHDUHDVZHUHHVWDEOLVKHGLQDELJKXUU\DQGZLWKRXWDVRXQGVFLHQWLILFEDVLVDVVRPH RIWKHSURWHFWLRQLVWVDOVRHPSKDVL]H³7KH\ZHUHPDGHRQWKHNQHHV´WRIROORZDFRPPRQ H[SUHVVLRQ7KLVVWUDWHJ\ZDVDFWXDOO\DFUHDWLYHFRPSOLDQFHVWUDWHJ\LQUHVSRQVHWRVWDWH SUHVVXUHWKDWZDVHDJHUWRFRPSO\ZLWKWKH(8DGKHVLRQVWDQGDUGVDVVRRQDVSRVVLEOH7KH 9UDQFHDFDVHLVDJDLQRXWVWDQGLQJIURPWKLVSHUVSHFWLYH 24.3. www.tara-vrancei.ro /RFDO$FWLRQ*URXS /$* SURJUDPLVDSDUWRIWKH/HDGHU(8SURJUDPIRUrural GHYHORSPHQWKHDGHGE\WKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ,WDLPVDWEULGJLQJSULYDWHDQGSXEOLF DFWRUVIURPWKHUXUDODUHDVZLWKLQWKH(8IURPGLIIHUHQWVRFLR-HFRQRPLFVSKHUHVLQRUGHUWR FUHDWHRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUORFDOGHYHORSPHQW+RZHYHUWKHUHDUHDVHWRIWKHPHVWKDWVHWE\WKH (XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ (& DQGZKLFKDUHFRQVLGHUHGWREHRIVSHFLDOLQWHUHVWDW(8OHYHO $FFRUGLQJWRWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ¶VLQGLFDWLRQV³>H@DFKGHYHORSPHQWSODQPXVWEH VWUXFWXUHGDURXQGRQHRIWKHVHWKHPHV The use of know-how DQGQHZWHFKQRORJLHVWRPDNHWKHSURGXFWVDQGVHUYLFHVRIUXUDO DUHDVPRUHFRPSHWLWLYH ,PSURYLQJWKHTXDOLW\RIOLIHLQUXUDODUHDV $GGLQJYDOXHWRORFDOSURGXFWVLQSDUWLFXODUE\IDFLOLWDWLQJDFFHVVWRPDUNHWVIRUVPDOO SURGXFWLRQXQLWVYLDFROOHFWLYH actions; 0DNLQJWKHEHVWXVHRIQDWXUDODQGFXOWXUDOUHVRXUFHVLQFOXGLQJHQKDQFLQJWKHYDOXHRI VLWHVRI&RPPXQLW\LQWHUHVWVHOHFWHGXQGHU1DWXUD´ KWWS HFHXURSDHXDJULFXOWXUHUXUOHDGHUSOXVIDTBHQKWP 7KHUHDUH /$*VLQ(XURSHDQ8QLRQ- RQHRIWKHPLV*$/ğDUD9UDQFHL$WWKHOHYHORI WKH(8PRVWRIWKH/$*VDUHJURXSHGDURXQGWKHIRXUWKGLPHQVLRQZKLFKGLUHFWO\DGGUHVVHV WKHUXUDODUHDVWKDWDUHDIIHFWHGE\ the land-XVHFKDQJHFDXVHGE\WKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI 1DWXUD130 7KLVZDVDOVRWKHFDVHIRU*$/ğDUD9UDQFHL 7KHLQLWLDWLYHIRU*$/ğDUD9UDQFHLFDPHIURPWKHSUHVLGHQWRI REúWHD 1ӽUXMD 9DOHQWLQ3RSD,KDYHNQRZQ9DOLVLQFHDQGKHLVRQHRIWKH local elites who actively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ğDUD 9UDQFHLZDVDSSURYHGE\WKH(&7KHSURMHFWUHFHLYHG(XURQRQ-UHLPEXUVDEOH IXQGV:KDWDUHWKHQRZDGD\VREMHFWLYHVIRU*$/ğDUD9UDQFHLDUHLQWULQVLFDOO\OLQNHGWR KRZSHRSOHSHUFHLYHQDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQDWORFDOOHYHO ,QRUGHUWREHHOLJLEOHIRUWKH*$/SURJUDPWKHLQLWLDWRU- REúWHD1ӽUXMDKDGWR VXSSO\SURRIWKDWWKHSDUWQHUVZHUHZLOOLQJWREHFR-ILQDQFHUV7KHSDUWQHUVLQWKHSURMHFWDUH GLYLGHGEDVLFDOO\LQWZR DOOWKHREúWLIURPğDUD9UDQFHL LH ZLWKRIVKDUHVDQG FRPPXQHVUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHLUPD\RUVZLWKRIVKDUHV7KHUHVWLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\VPDOO ORFDOHFRQRPLFDFWRUVDQGWKH6LPLRQ0HKHGLQWL+LJK6FKRROIURP9LGUDYLOODJH9DOLLVYHU\ SURXGWKDW*$/ğDUD9UDQFHLLVLQWKHKDQGVRIREúWLDQGWKDWWKHSXEOLFVKDUHLVYHU\VPDOO 7KHREúWLZHUHDEOHWRDVVXUHRIWKHFR-IXQGLQJUHTXLUHPHQWVWKDWLV(XUR ³:H WU\WRXVHRQO\SULYDWHPRQH\DVWKHSXEOLFPRQH\LQ9UDQFHDFRPHZLWKDORWRISROLWLFDO SUHVVXUHV:HDVNHGWKHPD\RUVRIWKHFRPPXQHVWRMRLQXVRQO\EHFDXVHWKHVHZHUHWKH UHTXLUHPHQWVLQWKHSDSHUVEXWILQDQFLDOO\ZLVHWKHREúWLFRXOGFRYHUWKHHQWLUHDPRXQWRI PRQH\WKDWWKH(&DVNHGLQFR-IXQGV´ 9DOL3RSD,, There are three main dimensioQVRIORFDOGHYHORSPHQWWKDWWKH*$/LVDLPLQJDW)LUVW LWUHIHUVWRWKHFUHDWLRQRIMRERSSRUWXQLWLHVDWWKHORFDOOHYHO7KLVVWUDWHJ\WDUJHWVDOOVHFWRUV RIHFRQRPLFDQGHGXFDWLRQDODFWLYLWLHV7KHVHFRQGGLPHQVLRQLVUHODWHG³WRUHEXLOGLQJWKH identity of ğDUD9UDQFHL´DV9DOLWHUPHGLW$QGKHFRQWLQXHV ³:HZDQWWRJDWKHUDOOROGDUWLIDFWVIURPRXUYLOODJHVDQGHVWDEOLVKDQHWZRUNRI YLOODJHPXVHXPVLQğDUD9UDQFHL7KHUHLVDSUREOHPDWWKHLGHQWLW\OHYHO,GRQ¶W NQRZ«$QGKHUHDSURSRV,ZLOOQHHG\RXUKHOS,QHHGDVRFLRORJLFDOVWXG\IRUWKLV – %XWZKDWGR\RXZDQWWRXQGHUVWDQG"- :HOO,KDYHWRFRQIHVVWKDW,GLGQRWH[SHFW9DOLWRIUDPHDVRFLRORJLFDOTXHVWLRQLQVXFKD VKDUSZD\$QGVLQFH,SURPLVHGWKDW,ZRXOGDFWLYHO\WDNHSDUWLQWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH *$/ ğDUD9UDQFHLWKLVGLVVHUWDWLRQLVDQDWWHPSWto look for an answer that will clarify my H[LJHQWIULHQG9DOLWRR IRXURWKHUSURWHFWHGDUHDVWKDWDUHDGPLQLVWUDWHGE\WKH/RFDO)RUHVWU\'HSDUWPHQWIURP 1ӽUXMDWRJHWKHUZLWKWKH1*2$VRFLDĠLDSHQWUX&RQVHUYDUHD'LYHUVLWĠLL%LRORJLFH$SDUW IURPWKHDFTXLVLWLRQRIHTXLSPHQWIRUZLOGOLIHPRQLWRULQJWKHPDLQDLPRI*$/ğDUD9UDQFHL FRQFHUQLQJ1DWXUDLVWRHQKDQFHWKHREúWLZLWKDGPLQLVWUDWLYHWDVNVZLWKLQWKH PDQDJHPHQWRIWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDV9DOLH[SODLQVIXUWKHU ³1RERG\DVNHGWKHSHRSOHZKHQWKH\PDGHWKHVHSURWHFWHGDUHDVLIWKH\DJUHHZLWK VXFKUHVWULFWLRQVRQWKHLUODQGV)LUVWWKHVHUHVWULFWLRQVDUHRYHU-H[DJJHUDWHGE\WKRVH IURPWKHSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHSHRSOHGRQ¶WHYHQNQRZZKDW 1DWXUDLVDERXW6RWKH*$/SURJUDPZLOOSURFHHGZLWKDQ LQIRUPDWLRQ FDPSDLJQIURPYLOODJHWRYLOODJHWRWU\WRH[SODLQWRWKHSHRSOHLQWKHLUODQJXDJH ZKDWLVWKLVDERXW7KHQZHZDQWWRJHWDVPXFKSXEOLFVXSSRUWDVSRVVLEOHIRU REWDLQLQJWKHVWDWXVRIFR-DGPLQLVWUDWRUVRIWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVIRU WKHREúWLWREH SDUWRIWKH$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ&RXQFLODQGQRWRQO\WKHFRQVXOWDWLYHRQHZKLFKEDVLFDOO\ DWWKHPRPHQWGRHVQRWKHOSWKHSHRSOHDWDOO´ LGHP %XWLIZHWDNHDFORVHUORRNDWKRZWKHPDQDJHPHQWSURFHVVRIWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVLVJRLQJRQ ZHVHHWKDWWKLQJVDUHZD\PRUHFRPSOLFDWHGWKDQ9DOLHQYLVDJHV Chapter 25 - The 3DUN1DWXUD2EúWHD7XOQLFLDQG 2EúWHD3ӽXOHúWL ,QWKH3ӽXOHúWLYLOODJHEHFDPHVHSDUDWHGIURPWKH7XOQLFLFRPPXQHDQGEHFDPHD FRPPXQHLQLWVHOI2EúWHD3ӽXOHúWLJDLQHGLWVSURSHUW\EDFNLQ%XWLQWKH3XWQD 9UDQFHD1DWLRQDO3DUNZDVFUHDWHGE\DORFDO1*2‘$VVRFLDWLRQIRUWKH&RQVHUYDWLRQRI %LRGLYHUVLW\¶ $&%DOUHDG\PHQWLRQHGLQVHFWLRQ following the national effervescence of increaVLQJWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVLQWKHWKHZHDNHRI(8DGKesLRQ 7KHSDUN RYHUODSVZLWK two 1DWXUDSURWHFWHGVLWHV DQGEoth REúWHD3ӽXOHúWL and REúWHDTulnici are located in the SDUN 7KHPDLQUHVWULFWLRQVZLWKLQWKHSDUNFRQFHUQZRRGFXWWLQJDQGWKHFRQVWUXction of KRXVHVWRXULVWLFYLOODVRUDQ\LQIUDVWUXFWXUHVXFKDVIRUHVWU\URDGV7KHVHPHDVXUHVERWKHUWKH SHRSOHIURP3ӽXOHúWLand Tulnici villagesEXWQRWDOORIWKHPLQWKHVDPHZD\ 25.1. The land and the actors 3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUNKDVDWRWDOVXUIDFHDUHDRI KHFWDUHV$FFRUGLQJWRWKH 5RPDQLDQOHJLVODWLRQWKHPDQDJHPHQWSODQRIWKHSDUNQHHGVWRLQFOXGHDQLQWHUQDO]RQLQJ )RU3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUN 3913 WKLVLQWHUQDO]RQLQJORRNVDVIROORZV 250 Figure 11 7KHLQWHUQDO]RQLQJRIWKHSDUN6RXUFH 7KH0DQDJHPHQW3ODQRI3913 =RQH IURPWKHWRWDODUHDRIWKHSDUN 6WULFWSURWHFWLRQ ,QWHJUDOSURWHFWLRQ 6XVWDLQDEOHPDQDJHPHQW 6XVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQW The zoning can EHGLYLGHGPDLQO\LQWRDUHDVZHUHQRWUDGLWLRQDOHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\LVDOORZHG DQG DQGWKHODWWHUWZRZKHUHWUDGLWLRQDOHFRQRPLFDFWLYLW\LVDOORZHG Figure 12 7KHFDWHJRULHVRIODQGXVHLQ3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUNDFFRUGLQJWRWKHSDUN¶VPDQDJHPHQWSODQ Land use Surface area in hectares % from park’s surface area Area with civil constructions Hayfields Soft-forested meadows Hard-forested meadows Forest 7RWDOVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHSDUN 3 100 7KHWRWDOQXPEHURIVWDNHKROGHUVIURPWKHSDUNIRUPVWKH&RQVXOWDWLYH&RXQFLORIWKH3DUN,W LVPDQGDWRU\IRUWKHSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWRLQIRUPDOOWKHVWDNHKROGHUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKH SURWHFWLRQPHDVXUHVWKDWWKHSDUNLQWHQGVWRWDNH2IFRXUVHHDFKRIWKHVWDNHKROGHUVEHDU GLIIHUHQWLQWHUHVWVDQGKDYHGLIIHUHQWFKDUJHVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHSURWHFWHGDUHD Figure 13 7KH6WDNHKROGHUVLQ3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUN 1R 6WDNHKROGHUV ,QVWLWXWLRQDODIILOLDWLRQ ,QWHUHVWV 3DUN$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ 1DWLRQDO)RUHVWU\ 'HVLJQLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ 'HSDUWPHQW and monitoring of nature SURWHFWLRQ 9UDQFHD¶V'HSDUWPHQWDO&RPPLVVDULDWRI 6WDWH5HSUHVHQWDWLYH monitoring nature (QYLURQPHQWDO*XDUG &RPLVDULDWXO-XGHĠHDQ SURWHFWLRQELDVHGE\ DO*U]LLGH0HGLX UHJLRQDOSROLWLFV (QYLURQPHQWDO3URWHFWLRQ$JHQF\RI9UDQFHD 6WDWH5HSUHVHQWDWLYH monitoring nature 'HSDUWPHQW $JHQĠLDGHSURWHFĠLHDPHGLXOXL SURWHFWLRQELDVHGE\ 9UDQFHD UHJLRQDOSROLWLFV ,&$6 1DWLRQDO,QVWLWXWHIRU)RUHVWU\5HVHDUFK 3XEOLFLQVWLWXWLRQIRU 6FLHQFHELDVHGE\QDWLRQDO forestry research DQGUHJLRQDOSROLWLFV ,7569 'HSDUWPHQWDO,QVSHFWRUDWHIRUIRUHVWU\ Forestry State monitoring nature DQGKXQW 'HSDUWPHQW SURWHFWLRQELDVHGE\ORFDO 251 SROLWLFV 6WDWH'HSDUWPHQW$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ &RQVLOLXO 6WDWH5HSUHVHQWDWLYH 5HJLRQDODQGORFDOSROLWLFV -XGHĠHDQ 9UDQFHD¶V*RYHUQPHQWDO$JHQF\ 3UHIHFWXUD 6WDWH5HSUHVHQWDWLYH 5HJLRQDODQGORFDOSROLWLFV 9UDQFHD +LGURHOHFWULFD6$ 3ULYDWH(QWHUSULVH 3URILWV /RFDO&RXQFLORI7XOQLFL&RPPXQH &RQVLOLXO 6WDWH5HSUHVHQWDWLYH /RFDO3ROLWLFVELDVHGE\ /RFDO7XOQLFL local oligarchic economic interests 3ӽXOHúWL&RPPXQH 6WDWH5HSUHVHQWDWLYH /RFDO3ROLWLFVELDVHGE\ local oligarchic economic interests ,QVSHFWRUDWHIRU(GXFDWLRQRI9UDQFHD 6WDWH5HSUHVHQWDWLYH Education 'HSDUWPHQW ,QVSHFWRUDWXOùFRODU-XGHĠHDQ 9UDQFHD 6RYHMD/RFDO)RUHVWU\$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ Ocolul 6WDWH5HSUHVHQWDWLYH )RUHVWPDQDJHPHQWELDVHG 6LOYLF6RYHMD E\ORFDODQGUHJLRQDO SROLWLFV Tulnici LocaO)RUHVWU\$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ Ocolul 3ULYDWHRZQHUV WKH )RUHVWPDQDJHPHQWELDVHG 6LOYLF7XOQLFL DGPLQLVWUDWRURIREúWL E\ORFDOROLJDUFKLF economic interest 2EúWHD7XOQLFL)RUHVWU\$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ Ocolul 7XOQLFLYLOODJH 2EúWHD )RUHVWPDQDJHPHQWELDVHG 6LOYLF2EúWHD7XOQLFL E\ORFDOROLJDUFKLF economic interest 2EúWHD&RQGUDWX &RQGUDWX9LOODJH- 2EúWHD&R]D &R]D9LOODJH 2EúWHD+ӽXOLúFD HӽXOLúFD9LOODJH 2EúWHD1HJULOHúWL 1HJULOHúWL9illage &ROOHFWLYHLQWHUHVWORFDO 2EúWHD1LVWRUHúWL 1LVWRUHúWL9LOODJH SROLWLFV 2EúWHD3ӽXOHVWL 3ӽXOHúWL9LOODJH 2EúWHD7XOQLFL 7XOQLFL9LOODJH 2EúWHD9LGUD-7LFKLULú 9LGUDDQG7LFKLULú 9LOODJHV 2EúWHD9LLúRDUD 9LLúRDUD9LOODJH 1*27KH$VVRFLDWLRQIRUWKH &RQVHUYDtion of &LYLO6RFLHW\ 1DWXUHSURWHFWLRQ %LRGLYHUVLW\ $&% $WWKHVDPHWLPHDVOLVWLQJWKHVWDNHKROGHUV,WULHGWRVXPPDUL]HWKHLULQWHUHVWVZLWKUHJDUGWR WKHSURWHFWHGDUHD$OWKRXJKZLWKLQHDFKFDWHJRU\RIVWDNHKROGHUVWKHUHDUHPXOWLSOHDnd FRQIOLFWLQJLQWHUHVWVZHFDQFRQVLGHUWKDWDWOHDVWWKHRIILFLDORQHVFRQYHUJHWRZDUGVD FRPPRQSRLQW,XVHGWKHWHUP³ELDVHG´PRUHWRSUHYHQWWKHUHDGHUUHJDUGLQJ the FLUFXPVWDQFHVZKLFKHQGRZWKHRIILFLDOLQWHUHVWRIDSDUWLFXODUVWDNHKROGHU7KHGHtailed HWKQRJUDSKLFDFFRXQWWKDWIROORZVZLOOEULQJPRUHVXEVWDQFHWRWKHVHVWDWHPHQWV ,PSOHPHQWLQJUHVWULFWLRQPHDVXUHVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHXVHRIWKHODQGQHHGVQRDSSURYDOIURP WKHFRXQFLO¶VSDUWEXWRQO\WKHDSSURYDORIWKHVFLHQWLILFERDUGRIWKHSDUNZKLFKLVFRPSRVHG RIDFDGHPLFV 7KHFRPPRQSURSHUWLHVRIWKHYLOODJHVUHSUHVHQW IURPWKHWRWDOIRUHVWHGDUHD RIWKHSDUN 252 Figure 14 7KHODQGRZQHUVLQ3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUN The Owners – GHMXUH &R-Administrator Surface area in IURP3DUN¶V hectares forested Area 2EúWHD&RQGUDWX &RQGUDWX9LOODJH 2EúWHD&R]D &R]D9LOODJH 2EúWHD+ӽXOLúFD HӽXOLúFD9LOODJH 2EúWHD1HJULOHúWL 1HJULOHúWL9LOODJH 2EúWHD1LVWRUHúWL 1LVWRUHúWL9LOODJH 2EúWHD3ӽXOHúWL 3ӽXOHúWL9LOODJH 2EúWHD7XOQLFL 7XOQLFL9LOODJH 2EúWHD9LGUD-7LFKLULú 9LGUDDQG7LFKLULú 9LOODJHV 2EúWHD9LLúRDUD 9LLúRDUD9LOODge 3ULYDWH,QGLYLGXDO3URSHUW\ 6RYHMD/RFDO)RUHVWU\ /HSúD0RQDVWHU\ Administration and 2EúWHD7XOQLFL)RUHVWU\ Administration 7KH5RPDQLDQ6WDWH 6RYHMD/RFDO)RUHVWU\ $GPLQLVWUDWLRQ Ocolul 6LOYLF6RYHMa TOTAL: 33.533,3 87,80 :KDW,IRXQGYHU\SX]]OLQJZDVWKDWWKHSDUNLVHVWDEOLVKHGIROORZLQJWKHSURSHUW\OLPLWVRI FRPPRQSURSHUWLHV 7KLVLVGXHWRWKHIDFWWKDWZKHQWKHSDUNZDVHVWDEOLVKHGWKHUHZHUHQR RWKHUPDSVDYDLODEOHEXWIRU WKHFDGDVWUDOPDSVRIWKHFRPPRQSURSHUWLHVUHFHQWO\PDGHE\ WKHVWDWHDXWKRULWLHVZLWKWKHKHOSRIWKHRZQHUV,ZLOOH[SODLQODWHURQLQWKLVFKDSWHUWKLV PDSSLQJSURFHVV Picture 28: Internal zoning of the Putna Vrancea NaturalPark. 8QWLO1RYHPEHUWKHUHZDVQRRWKHUPDSRIWKHSDUNEHVLGHVWKHRQHLQWKLVSKRWR ,WZDVPDGHE\WKH,7UHVSRQVLEOH/LYLX0DQRODFKHE\VXSHUSRVLQJWKHFDGDVWUDOPDSVRIWKHREúWL3KRWRE\WKH DXWKRU 25.2. The main economic interests in the park 7KHURDGVIRUDFFHVVLQJWKHZRRGDUHYLWDOIRUWKHSHRSOHDVZHOODVZHOODVIRUWKH HFRQRPLFDFWRUV%XWRSHQLQJQHZURDGVLVIRUELGGHQLQWKHSDUN2EúWHD3ӽXOHúWLUHFHQWO\ UHFHLYHGVWDWHIXQGVIRULPSURYLQJLWVURDGLQIUDVWUXFWXUHEXWLWFDQQRWSURFHHGZLWKWKH ZRUNLQJVIRUSDUWVRIWKHURDGVDUHORFDWHGLQWKHSDUN0RUHRYHULPSRUWDQWTXDQWLWLHVRIIXHO 253 ZRRGDQGZRRGIRUFRQVWUXFWLRQVGHWHULRUDWHVHYHU\\HDUIRUWKHUHVWULFWLRQLQDFFHVVLPSRVHG E\WKHSDUN 7KHQRUWKSDUWRIWKH7XOQLFLFRPPXQHEHFDPHWKHFHQWHURIDUHDOHVWDWHERRPDIWHU ZKLFKLQWHQVLILHGDIWHU7KHQRXYHDXULFKHIURP)RFúDQLDQGWKHQHLJKERULQJ FRXQWLHVERXJKWWKHODQGRILVRODWHGKRXVHKROGVDQGVRRQYLOODVPXVKURRPHGZLWKRXWDQ\SODQ RIXUEDQL]DWLRQ7KH 3XWQD5LYHUEHFDPHVHULRXVO\SROOXWHG7KHUHLVDOVRDJUHDWGDQJHUIRU ILUHZLWKQRSRVVLELOLW\RIILUHILJKWHUDFWLRQVLQFHWKHURDGLQIUDVWUXFWXUHZDVQRWDGDSWHGIRU WKHLUWUXFNV7KHSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQKDGWKHVHDVSHFWVLQPLQGZKHQWKH\PDGHWKHLQWernal ]RQLQJWU\LQJWRUHGXFHSROOXWLRQDQGSURWHFWLQJWKHODQGVFDSH%XWWKHVHDFWXDOO\OHGWR IXUWKHUSUHVVXUHVIURPODQGVSHFXODWRUVIURPWKHPD\RUVRIWKHFRPPXQHLQWHUHVWHGLQORFDO GHYHORSPHQWDQGDIXUWKHULQFUHDVHLQWKHSULFHRIWKHODQG$QGDOOWKHVHEHFDXVHDPDMRU WRXULVWLFDUHDLVHQYLVDJHGE\WKHUHJLRQDOSROLWLFDOOHDGHUV 7KHSXEOLFDGPLQLVWUDWLRQRI-XGHĠXO9UDQFHDPDGHSXEOLFLQLWVLQWHQWLRQVWR EXLOGDVNLUHVRUWLQWKHHDVWRIWKHFRXQW\7KHGRFXPHQWDWLRQZDVUHDG\DQGVRZHre the PRQH\ERWKSXEOLFDQGSULYDWH7KHSUREOHPZDVWKHSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ7KHGLUHFWRURIWKH SDUNLQLWLDOO\RSSRVHGWKHSURMHFWEXWDIWHULQWHQVHQHJRWLDWLRQVKHDJUHHGWRWKHEXLOGLQJRI WKHVNLUHVRUWEXWQRWWKHDFFRPPRGDWLRQVDURXQGLW)RUWKLVKHZDVVXEMHFWWRPXOWLSOH SUHVVXUHVDQGWKUHDWVIRUORVLQJKLVSRVLWLRQEXWZLWKWKHKHOSRIWKHQDWLRQDOPHGLDKH VXFFHHGHGLQGHIHQGLQJWKHSDUN7KHQHJRWLDWLRQVDUHVWLOORQJRLQJDWWKHPRPHQW 25.3. The decision-making within the Consultative Council 7KHSUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHD3ӽXOHúWLLVSDUWRIWKH&RQVXOWDWLYH&RXQFLOWRJHWKHUZLWKDQRWKHU HLJKWSUHVLGHQWVRIREúWL IURPWKHRWKHUYLOODJHVFRQFHUQHGDQGRWKHUGLIIHUHQW VWDNHKROGHUV :KLOHWDNLQJSDUWLQRQHRIWKHFRXQFLO¶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úWHDVWURQJO\FRQWHVWWKHVFLHQWLILFOHJLWLPDF\RIWKHSDUNDQGWhey accuse WKHSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWRUVRIKDYLQJHVWDEOLVKHGWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVRQWKHLUSURSHUWLHVDQGQRWRQ 254 VWDWHSURSHUW\DQGWKHUHIRUHWKDWWKHPDNLQJRIWKHSDUNZDVDSROLWLFDOGHFLVLRQLQRUGHUWR SURWHFWWKH6WDWH)RUHVWU\'HSDUWPHQW¶VH[LVWHQFH OQHVWURQJVRXUFHRIGLVVRQDQFHLQWKLVPHHWLQJZDV2EúWHD7XOQLFL$VSUHVHQWHG DERYHWKLVREúWHDRZQVGHMXUHDOPRVWRIWKHZKROHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHSDUN7KH SUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHD7XOQLFLRQHRIWKHPDLQORFDOHFRQRPLFDFWRUVFDPHDFFRPSDQLHGE\a IHZIHOORZFROOHDJXHVIURPWKHIRUHVWLQGXVWU\IURP7XOQLFLYLOODJH'XULQJWKHZKROHPHHWLQJ WKHJURXSSXVKHGIRUSURRIVFRQFHUQLQJWKHVFLHQWLILFOHJLWLPDF\RIWKHSDUN1RWRQFHGLG, KHDUGWKHVHDFWRUVVD\LQJWKDWREú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think that LQSDUWWKLVZDVIRUVKRZLQJ-RIIEXWWKHUHZHUHPRPHQWVGXULQJWKHGLVFXVVLRQZKHQWKH\ RSHQO\UHFRJQL]HGWKDWWKH\KDYHWRGRVRPHWKLQJIRUWKHYLOODJHDQGWKDWWKH\KDYHWRWDNH DWWLWXGHDJDLQVWWKHLOOHJDOHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHSDUN/DWHU RQ,IRXQGRXWWKDWWKRVHVDPH DFWRUVVSRQVRUGLIIHUHQWFKDULWDEOHDFWLRQVIRUWKHVFKRRODQGIRUWKHFXOWXUDOFHQWHURIWKH YLOODJH2QHRIWKHPHYHQLQLWLDWHGDVWLSHQGIRUSRRUSXSLOVZKRZDQWWRIROORZXSKLJK school studies ³LQWKHFLW\´$OWKRXJKWhis was an action to legitimize their wealth H[-SRVW in IURQWRIWKHSHRSOH,WKLQNWKDWWKHUHODWLRQRIWKHVHORFDOHFRQRPLFHOLWHVZLWKWKHFRPPRQ SURSHUW\RIWKHYLOODJHDQGZLWKWKHSDUNFDQVHUYHDVDQH[DPSOHRIKRZHYHQLQWKHFUXHO SRVWVRFLDOLVW ORFDOHFRQRPLFHQYLURQPHQWHFRQRPLFDFWLRQVDUHPRUDOO\ERXQGHG %HFDXVHRIWKHEDONDQL]DWLRQRIGHFLVLRQ-making concerning the management of SURWHFWHGDUHDVDVWURQJQHJRWLDWLRQDWWKHORFDOOHYHOLVWDNLQJSODFHZLWKHYHU\QHZFRQIOLFW VLWXDWLRQ$VIRUWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQDQGWKHFRPSOLDQFHWRWKHUXOHERWKVLGHVDFWFUHDWLYHO\ 7KHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHLVW\SLFDOO\LOOXVWUDWLYH 7ZR\HDUVDJRWKHSUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHDWRRNWKHGHFLVLRQWRH[WUDFWZRRGIURPDQ HDUWKVOLGHDUHDVLWXDWHGFORVHWRWKHQDWLRQDOURDGWKDWOLQNV0ROGRYDDQG7UDQV\OYDQLD7KH DUHDLVVLWXDWHGLQWKH]RQHRIKLJKSURWHFWLRQGXHWRWKHLGHQWLILFDWLRQRIZROIODLUVE\WKH ELRORJLVWZRUNLQJIRUWKHSDUN7KHSUHVLGHQWVWDUWHGWKHH[WUDFWLRQZLWKRXWKDYLQJWKH DSSURYDORIWKHSDUN)RUWKLVWKHSDUNILQHG2EúWHDZLWKDIHHRIELOOLRQOHL HXUR 255 7KHSUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHDMXVWLILHGKLVDFWLRQWRWKH SDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQE\VD\LQJWKDW WKHH[SORLWDWLRQLVYHU\FORVHWRWKHQDWLRQDOURDGDQGQRZROIODLUVFRXOGEHIRXQGWKHUH– ³$QG,NQRZZKHUHWKHZROIOLYHV ILUVWµFDXVH,ZDVERUQKHUHDQG,NQRZDOOWKHPRXQWDLQV DQGVHFRQG,DPDIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHU´+RZHYHUWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQUHPDLQHGRQLWVSRVLWLRQ 7KHSUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHDLVPHPEHURIWKH'HPRFUDW-/LEHUDO3DUW\WKHOHDGLQJSDUW\LQ 5RPDQLD8VLQJWKHSDUW\FRQQHFWLRQVKHDVNHGWKH3UHIHFWRI9UDQFHD&RXQW\ DOVRPHPEHU of Democrat –/LEHUDO3DUW\ WRPHGLDWHEHWZHHQ2EúWHDDQGWKHORFDOHQYLURQPHQWDl GHSDUWPHQW $JHQĠLDGHPHGLX IRUWKHIHH7KHELOOZDVQHJRWLDWHGLQWKH3UHIHFW¶VRIILFHDQG WKHUHVXOWZDVWKHIROORZLQJ $JHQĠLDGHPHGLX ZLOOJLYHDIHHWRWKHSUHVLGHQWDQGQRWWRWKH 2EúWHDDVDOHJDOSHUVRQ7KHSUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHDZLOOVXH$JHQĠiaDQGWKHODWWHUZLOOORVHWKH WULDO,QWKLVZD\HYHU\ERG\LVFRYHUHG :KLOHWDONLQJZLWKWKHSUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHDDERXWWKLVHSLVRGHKHWROGPHWKDWWKHPDLQ DFKLHYHPHQWLVWKDWWKHSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQDFNQRZOHGJHGWKDWLWFDQQRWPDNHWKHUXOHVDORQH ³$Q\ODZKDVDORJLFULJKW":KDWLVWKHORJLFRIWKLVSDUN",ZLOOQHYHUEHOLHYHWKDWWKHZROI VKHOWHUVWKHUHWKLVKDVQRORJLF>«@7KLVJX\IURPWKH$JHQĠLDGH0HGLXZDVDOVRWKHUHIRU SROLWLFDOUHDVRQVDQGKHXQGHUVWRRGWKDWZHQHHGZRRGDQGWKDWSHUIHFWLRQDVDPDWWHURI IDFWLVLQDQRWKHUSODFH QDLQ+HDYHQ QRWKHUH « >7KHSDUN@QHHGVWRNQRZWKDWZHDUH DOVRKHUHDQGZH¶YHEHHQKHUHVLQFHWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWLPHWKDWRXUDQFHVWRUVIRXJKWIRUWKLV SURSHUW\ ZLWKWKHIRUHLJQFRPSDQLHVZLWKXVXUSHUVZLWKFRPPXQLVWV$QGQRZZKHQZHJRW RXUSURSHUWLHVEDFNFRPHVWKHSDUNDQG(8«1RQR´ ,QWHUYLHZRISUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHD ;PLQ 25.4. The death of the father 7KHIDFWWKDW2EúWHD7XOQLFLLVDQLPSRUWDQWDFWRULQWKHUHJLRQLVQRWDQDFFLGHQW7KH SROLWLFDOHYROXWLRQRIWKH7XOQLFLYLOODJHLQIOXHQFHGDQGVWLOOLQIOXHQFHVWKHSROLWLcal life of the QHLJKERULQJYLOODJHVDVZHOODVWKHPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHSDUN7KHPDMRURIWKH7XOQLFL FRPPXQHDQXQFRQWHVWHGORFDOOHDGHUDQGPRVWSUHHPLQHQWORFDOHFRQRPLFDFWRUZDVWKH IRUPHUGLUHFWRURIWKHFRPPXQLVWVWDWHIDUP &$3 IURPWKHXSSHUVWUHDPRIWKH3XWQD5LYHU +LVYLROHQWGHDWKRQ 0DUFKJLYHVDVHQVHRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHRISRVWVRFLDOLVPDWORFDO OHYHO131 3HRSOHUHFRXQWKRZ0U6RXUWRRNDGYDQWDJHRIKLVOHDGLQJSRVLWLRQRIWKHORFDO FRRSHUDWLYHIDUPLQWKH VDQGDEXVLYHO\VROGWKHPDFKLQHULHVWKDWKHZDVDGPLQLVWUDWLQJ 131 7KLVLVWRFRQILUP+XPSKUH\¶VSUHPLVHZKLFKVWDWHVWKDW³LWZLOOEHSHUYHUVHQRWWRUHFRJQL]HWKHIDFWWKDW SHRSOHIURP(DVW*HUPDQ\WR0RQJROLDDUHPDNLQJSROLWLFDOMXGJPHQWVRYHUDWLPHVSDQWKDWLQFOXGHVWKH VRFLDOLVWSDVWDVWKHLUSULPHUHIHUHQFHSRLQWUDWKHUWKDQWKLQNLQJMXVWDERXWWKHSUHVHQWWUDMHFWRU\WRWKHIXWXUH” +XPSKUH\ 256 7KLVZDVWKHILUVWPRQH\KHKDGIRUVWDUWLQJKLVEXVLQHVVLQZRRGH[WUDFWLRQ,Q KH EHFDPHSDUWRIWKHOHDGLQJ6RFLDO'HPRFUDW3DUW\DQGLQEHFDPHPD\RURIWKH7XOQLFL FRPPXQHDSRVLWLRQZKLFKKHKHOGXQWLOKLVGHDWK+HTXLFNO\EHFDPHRQHRIWKHNH\DFWRUV LQ-XGHĠXO9UDQFHDDV\VWHPEHVWFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\SROLWLFDOFDFLTXLVPR ZKLOHLOOHJDOORJJLQJ RIZRRGZDVOHJDOO\FRYHUHGIURPWKHFHQWHUQDPHO\WKHUHJLRQ¶VFDSLWDO)RFúDQLKHZDV SURYLGLQJPDVVLYHILQDQFLDOVXSSRUWIRUWKHSDUW\DQGPRVWLPSRUWDQWO\YRWHVIRUWKHUHJLRQDO HOHFWLRQV$WWKHVDPHWLPHDWWKHORFDOOHYHOLQIUDVWUXFWXUHVDQGSXEOLFXWLOLWLHVZHUHEDUHO\ H[LVWHQW:LWKLWVLQKDELWDQWVVSUHDGLQJDORQJNPRIWKH3XWQD5LYHUthe Tulnici commune is not much different than other medium size mountainous communes from 5RPDQLD%XWRQWKHRI0DUFKWKHFRPPXQHZDVYLVLWHGE\WRSSROLWLFDOOHDGHUVRI WKHVRFLDOGHPRFUDWV WKHSUHVLGHQWRIWKHSDUW\ZKRDUWKHVDPHWLPHLVSresident of the 5RPDQLDQ6HQDWHDUULYHGYLDDKHOLFRSWHU132 ZKLOHWKHUHJLRQDOSDUW\OHDGHUVDQGWKHSUHVLGHQW RIVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQIRU-XGHĠXO9UDQFHDFRXOGKDUGO\IHHOFRPIRUWDEOHLQWKHLUOLPRXVLQHV GXHWKHJLDQWNHWWOHLQWKHDVSKDOW7KHIXQHUDOZDVRUJDQL]HGZLWKPLOLWDU\KRQRUVDVLVLQWKH FDVHDOVRIRUPLOLWDU\PHQZKRGLHGRQWKHEDWWOHILHOG– IRULPSRUWDQWSHUVRQDOLWLHVRI 5RPDQLDQFXOWXUH7KHVXPSWXRXVIXQHUDOFRQWUDVWHGZLWKWKHSRYHUW\RIWKHFRPPXQH¶V LQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQGRIWKHLQKDELWDQWV Picture 29 & Picture 30: The funeral of the mayor of Tulnici. 6RXUFH =LDUXOGH9UDQFHDRI0DUFK 0U6DXU¶VGHDWKFDXVHGJUHDWVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFWUHPRULQWKHDUHD+LVSROLWLFDOauthority DQGHFRQRPLFSRZHUZHUHIDFWRUVRIVRFLDOHTXLOLEULXPIRUWKHXSSHU-stream region of the 3XWQD5LYHU7KHXQGHUJURXQGSROLWLFDODQGHFRQRPLFFRQIOLFWVHUXSWHGLPPHGLDWHO\DIWHUKLV GHDWK Mr Sauer was very much against the harsh restrictions in DFFHVVRIWKH3XWQD9UDQFHD 3DUN)LUVWKHZDVFRQWHVWLQJWKHVFLHQWLILFOHJLWLPDF\RIWKHLQWHUQDO]RQLQJ:KHQ,WDONHG 132 See the arrival here KWWS ZZZ\RXWXEHFRPZDWFK"Y )00OK\3-'X4 IHDWXUH UHODWHG ZLWKKLPLQVSULQJKHRSHQO\WROGPHWKDWLIWKHSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQZRXOGQRWUHYLHZ WKHLQWHUQDO]RQLQJHVSHFLDOO\WKHVXVWDLQDEOHPDQDJHPHQW]RQH ZKLFKLVDFWXDOO\WKHODUJHVW RQHRIWKHSDUNDUHD KHZRXOGVXHWKHP$WVWDNHZDVQRWWKHIRUHVWEHFDXVHWKH LOOHJDOORJJLQJZDVKDSSHQLQJDQ\ZD\EXWWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIYLOODVLQWKHDUHDIRUWKH XSFRPLQJVNLUHVRUW:LWKWKHHQWLUHGRFXPHQWDWLRQUHDG\DQGDOOWKHILQDQFLDOVXSSRUWIURP µWKHFHQWHU¶QDPHO\)RFúDQL0U6DXUZDVQRWDOORZHGE\WKHSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWRSXVK IXUWKHUWKHVHGHYHORSPHQWSURMHFWV7KHUHIRUHKHZDVFDYLOLQJDQ\QDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLQLWLDWLYH oIWKHSDUN%XWWKHSDUNJRWDQXQH[SHFWHGDOO\ ,WZDVZHOONQRZQWKDWIRUEHLQJSUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHDLQ7XOQLFLRQHQHHGHG0U6DXU¶V EOHVVLQJ+HZDVSDUWRIWKHERDUGRIDGPLQLVWUDWLRQRIWKHREúWHDVLQFHWKHYLOODJHKDGLWV SURSHUW\UHWXUQHG'XULQJP\ILHOGZRUNWKHUHZHUHQHZHOHFWLRQVDWWKH2EúWHD7XOQLFLIRU HOHFWLQJDQHZSUHVLGHQW7KHIRUPHUSUHVLGHQW0U1KDGVHULRXVSUREOHPVFRQFHUQLQJ LOOHJDOORJJLQJVRPHRIWKHPEHLQJLQWKHQDWLRQDOPHGLDQHZV0U1KDGHFRQRPLF contracts to fulfiOODQGWLPEHUWRGHOLYHUDQGORVLQJWKHSULPDF\LQFRQWUDFWLQJ2EúWHD¶VZRRG ZDVQRWYHU\DWHDV\IRUKLP%XW0U6DXUZDVUHDG\IRUDFKDQJHDQGWKLVEHFDXVHWKHEDG LPDJHLQ7XOQLFLZDVDEDGLPDJHIRUWKHVRFLDOGHPRFUDWVDWWKHORFDOOHYHO,WDONHGZith Mr 1WKHGD\EHIRUHWKHHOHFWLRQDQGKHVDLGWKDWWKHUHZDVQRWKLQJKHFRXOGGRDERXWLW:KHQ, DVNHGKLPZK\KHVLPSO\UHSOLHGWKDWHYHU\WKLQJZDVVHW $OLQLVDVFKRROWHDFKHULQ7XOQLFLYLOODJHDQGOLNHKLVIDWKHUKHLVDOLEHUDOEXWZLWKRXW EHLQJDSDUW\PHPEHU+HLVDJRRGIULHQGRIWKHGLUHFWRURIWKHSDUNDQGRQHRILWVRSHQ suSSRUWHUV+HKDVDYHU\JRRGLPDJHLQWKHYLOODJHDQG0U6DXUVXSSRUWHGKLPIRUWKH SUHVLGHQF\RIREúWHD$OLQEHFDPHWKHQHZSUHVLGHQWZKLOH1UHVLJQHG$OLQNQHZWKDW0U 6DXU¶VSODQZDVWRFR-RSWKLPLQWRWKH6RFLDO'HPRFUDW3DUW\IRUWKHSXUSRVHRIVWUengthening WKHSDUW\¶VORFDOSRVLWLRQLQOLJKWRIWKHULVHRIWKHOLEHUDO-GHPRFUDWV 258 DSSOLFDWLRQV7KHWZHQty-VHYHQWKWLPH$OLQDQVZHUHGDQGWROGKLPWKDWKHVLJQHGIRUWKH OLEHUDO-GHPRFUDWSDUW\³7KLVZDVWKHPLVWDNH,VKRXOGQ¶WKDYHWROGKLP´ Alin told me on the SKRQHDIHZGD\VDIWHUZDUGV$OLQORVWWKHHOHFWLRQVZLWKDYHU\WLJKWVFRUHDQGKHVXVSHFWV gURVVIUDXG7KHQHZPD\RULVRQHRIWKHPDLQODQGVSHFXODWRUVLQWKHSDUN133 :KHQ,ILUVWZHQWWR9UDQFHDLQSHRSOHIURPERWK7XOQLFLDQG3ӽXOHúWLFRPSODLQHG DERXWWKHLOOHJDOORJJLQJ%XWDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKHUHZDVDVHQVHRIDGPLUDWLRQIRUWKHORFDO HQWUHSUHQHXUV³ZKRNQRZKRZWRKDQGOHWKLQJV´,PHW0U6DXULQ3ӽXOHúWLLn 2004 while he ZDVYLVLWLQJWKHYLOODJHLQDSUH-HOHFWRUDOUHJLRQDOFDPSDLJQWRHQVXUHDIDYRUDEOHVRFLDO FOLPDWHIRUWKHVRFLDOGHPRFUDWV7KHUHZHUHDIHZSHRSOHDWWKHH[LWRIWKHFXOWXUDOKRXVHRI WKHYLOODJH cPLQFXOWXUDO ZKRZHUHVKRXWLQJ³ORQJOLYH0U6DXUIRU\RXDUHRXUIDWKHU´ 0DQ\IDPLOLHVLQ3ӽXOHúWLDQG7XOQLFLZHUHZRUNLQJLQWKHQRUWKRIWKH7XOQLFLFRPPXQH /HSúDYLOODJHLQEXLOGLQJWRXULVWLFYLOODVHLWKHUDVPDVRQVFDUSHQWHUVRUZRRGPDWHULDO VXSSOLHUVIRUWKHYLOODV7KHHPSOR\PHQWZDVLOOHJDODQGWKHZRRGPDWHULDOZDVRIµXQNQRZQ SURYHQLHQFH¶,UHPHPEHUWKDWDQ\RQHZKRKDGQHHGIRUDELWRIPRQH\FRXOGVHOODFDUWRI ZRRGWRRQHRIWKH³SDWURQV´ &XOLĠӽZDVZRUNLQJDVDFDUSHQWHUIRUPRUHWKDQVHYHQYLOODVLQWKH/HSúDYLOODJH+H VDLGWKDWSHRSOHVKRXOGQRWEHLQFULPLQDWHGIRUVHOOLQJDFDUWRIZRRGEHFDXVH ILUVWLWZDV IURPWKHLUIRUHVWDQGVHFRQGWKHVLWXDWLRQFRXOGQRWEHFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHGHIRUHVWDWLRQ FDXVHGE\WKHELJHFRQRPLFDFWRUVZKLFKKDGWKHEDFN-XSRIWKHORFal state authorities with 0U6DXUDWWKHIRUHIURQW7KHEXLOGLQJRIWRXULVWLFYLOODVZDVIRUDVKRUWWLPHDYHU\JRRG VRXUFHRILQFRPHIRUWKHSRRUSHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHV+RZHYHUZKHQ,FDPHEDFNLQ SHRSOHZHUHGHSORULQJWKHLUVLWXDWLRQ WKRVHZKR VROGWKHLUODQGWRODQGVSHFXODWRUVRU LQYHVWRUVZRUNLQWKHLUIRUPHUKRXVHKROGVRURQWKHLUIRUPHUODQGVDVFOHDQLQJSHUVRQQHO JDUGHQHUVRUGDLO\HPSOR\HHVIRUDERXWWKUHH(XURVSHUGD\%XWDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKH\ZHUH GHSORULQJWKHGHDWKRI0U6DXUDV ZHOOWKHGLVDSSHDUDQFHRI³VXFKDZRQGHUIXODQGPHUFLIXO PD\RU´ 133 6HHDYLOODJHDVVHPEO\RI2EúWHD7XOQLFLhere 25.5. Instruments and tactics in the formation of the memories of dispossession $WRQHRIWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEOLHVWKDW,DVVLVWHGLQ3ӽXOHúWLWKHSUHVLGHQWRIREúWHD had invited DKLJKVFKRROWHDFKHUSURI&H]DU&KHUFLXWRJLYHDVPDOOWDON134,WZDVWKHDVVHPEO\SULRUWR WKHORFDOHOHFWLRQVIRUWKHERDUGDGPLQLVWUDWLRQRIREúWHD7KHSURIHVVRULVDOVRIURP9UDQFHD DQGKDGZULWWHQDIHZKLVWRULFDOERRNVRQWKHWRSLFRIREúWHD The film Stronghold 2000 VKRZVWKHSHRSOH¶VUHDFWLRQYHU\ZHOOVRPHEHLQJLQIDYRURIWKHVSHHFKRWKHUVRSSRVLQJ :KDWWKHILOPZDVQRWDEOHWRVKRZZDVWKHRYHUDOOFRQWH[WRIWKDWVSHHFK WKHSUHVLGHQWRI REúWHD KDGLQYLWHGWKHSURIHVVRULQRUGHUWRVHQVLWL]HWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHSDUWRIWKHDXGLHQFH+LV FRXQWHUFDQGLGDWHSURSRVHGDUHIRUPLVWSURJUDPE\ZKLFKREúWHD¶VSURILWVZRXOGEHLQYHVWHG into a small factory IRUWLPEHUSURFHVVLQJ7KHODWWHUKDVWKHUROHRIWKHHQWUHSUHQHXUZKLOH WKHSUHVLGHQWLVRQWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHVLGHKHLVDJRVSRGDU%HIRUHGHVFULELQJWKHDFWXDOWDFWLFV DQGLQVWUXPHQWVIRUWKHIRUPDWLRQRIWKHPHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQ,ZDQWWRFUHDWe a link KHUHEHWZHHQWKHLGHDRIDFFHVVLQJWKHFRPPRQUHVRXUFHVRIWKHYLOODJHDQGWKHHFRQRPLF HWKRVDWWKHORFDOOHYHO 3HRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHYHU\IUHTXHQWO\UHSURGXFHWKHGLVFRXUVHRIIUHHDFFHVVWRWKH IRUHVWEHIRUH:RUOG:DU,,%XWWKLVGLVFRXUVHis also related to the limited material needs of WKHSHRSOHEDFNWKHQ7LPEHUGLGQRWUHSUHVHQWWKHEDVLVRIWKHKRXVHKROGHFRQRP\EXWWKH KXVEDQGU\GLG:RRGZDVH[WUDFWHGIRUKRXVHKROGQHHGVIRUFRQVWUXFWLRQDQGIXHO7LPEHU ZDVPHDQWWRFRPSHQVDWHWKH QHHGVIRUPRQH\ZKHQWKLVZDVWKHFDVH7LPEHUZDV³RQO\IRU ZKHQRQHQHHGHGPRQH\XUJHQWO\,I,QHHGHGPRQH\IRUWKHZHGGLQJ,ZHQWLQWRWKHIRUHVW PDGHRQHFDUWIXORIWLPEHUZHQWWRWKHPDUNHWLQ)RFVDQLDQGFDPHEDFNKRPHZLWKVRPH PRQH\´ 5\HDUVROGLQWHUYLHZPDGHLQ 135 7KXVLQ3ӽXOHúWLEHIRUH:RUOG:DU,, PRQH\HFRQRP\ZDVUHGXFHGWRSDUWLFXODUQHHGVRULPSRUWDQWLQYHVWPHQWVXFKDVWKH DFTXLVLWLRQPRVWO\RIDQLPDOV What I noticed nowadays in the village is that money has a greDWLPSRUWDQFHIRU HYHU\GD\QHHGV$OLPHQWVVXFKDVEUHDGVXJDURLOWRPDWRHVDQGDOFRKRODUHERXJKWGDLO\ +RZHYHUWKHUHLVVWLOODQHJDWLYHVRFLDOFRQQRWDWLRQRIWKHLGHDRISURILWLQYHVWPHQWDQG HQWUHSUHQHXUVKLS7KHVHWHUPVDUHUHODWHGWRJUHHGDQG DOVRWRLQVWDELOLW\ZLWKVOHHSOHVV QLJKWV7KLVLVKRZWKHQHZDWWHPSWVWRPDNH2EúWHDPRUHSURILWDEOHWRLQYHVWLQRUGHUWR KDYHDSURILWFRPLQJIURPDUHIRUPLVWVLGHZDVUHFHLYHGZLWKUHOXFWDQFHDWWKHYLOODJH DVVHPEO\,DVVXPHWKDWWKLVLVEHFDXVHKDYLQJPRQH\3ӽXOHúWLGRHVQRWQHcessarily mean to 134 This village DVVHPEO\LVSUHVHQWHGLQWKHILOP6WURnghold 2000 DWPLQ - 135 7KHILUVW5RPDQLDQHFRQRPLFFHQVXVVKRZVWKDWLQ3ӽXOHúWLWKHUHZHUHZDWHUZRRG -mills in 1865 that EHORQJHGWRWKHYLOODJHDQGVKHHS,Q WKHUHZHUHVKHHSLQWKHYLOODJHDQGVDPHQXPEHURIZDWHU wood-PLOOV 260 EHJRVSRGDU7KHPRUHWKHGDLU\SURGXFWVDUHSURGXFHGLQWKHKRXVHDQGWKHPRUHWKHZRUNLV OLQNHGWRWKHPHDQVRISURGXFWLRQIRXQGLQWKHKRXVHKROGWKHPRUHRQHLVDJRVSRGDU7KLVLV YHU\ZHOOLOOXVWUDWHGE\&XOLĠӽ¶VKRXVHKROGWKDWKDV³HYHU\WKLQJWKDWRQHQHHGV´ IURPODWKHWR DVDZLQJPDFKLQH,Q3ӽXOHúWLVRFLDOHVWHHPFRPHVZLWKKDUGZRUNDQGLQVRPHH[WHQWLWLV OLQNHGWRPDQXDOZRUN.QRZLQJKRZWRKDQGOHEXVLQHVVLVSHUFHLYHGZLWKDGHJUHHRI VXVSLFLRQEXWDOVRZLWKVRPHHQY\0\XQGHUVWDQGLQJLVWKDWSHRSOHVWLOOEHOLHYHWKDWWKH SUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHDVKRXOGEHDJRVSRGDU and not an HQWUHSUHQHXU 7KHSUHVLGHQWUXQVQREXVLQHVVHVDQGLVWKHSUHVLGHQWRIREúWHDVLQFHLWVUH- HVWDEOLVKPHQWLQ,QWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEO\WKHUHZDV DVWXUG\ILJKWEHWZHHQWKHUHIRUPLVWV DQGWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHVEXWWKLVDOVREHFDXVHRIWKHSROLWLFDOFRORUV7KHUHIRUPLVWVLGHORFDWHG RQWKHOHIWVLGHRIWKHURRPWKHVLGHZLWKWKHGRRULVVXSSRUWHGE\WKHPD\RUZKRLVIURPWKH 6RFLDO'HPRFUDWSDUW\ ZKLOHWKHSUHVLGHQWLVDPHPEHURIWKH/LEHUDO-'HPRFUDWV3HRSOHKDG VWUDWHJLFSRVLWLRQVLQWKHDVVHPEO\URRPLQRUGHUWRGLVWXUEWKHVSHDNHUV$OWKRXJKLQWKHILOP HYHU\WKLQJORRNVUDQGRPWKHVWUDWHJLHVRIGLVFRXUVHVKDGEHHQSUHYLRXVO\VHWXSE\HDFKVide WKHRQO\KRQHVWH[SUHVVLRQLVPD\EHWKHGUXQNHQPDQ 261 FRPPXQLVWUHJLPH KHZDVLPSULVRQHG\HDUVEHFDXVHRIWKH3ORW %XWWKHUHLVQRWKLQJLQ WKLVERRNDERXW%DUDJKLQ¶VVDERWDJHVDJDLQVWWKHZRRGH[WRUWLRQFRPSDQLHV Pictures 31, 32, 33, 34: Local monographies in Vrancea. ,QDQRWKHUPRQRJUDSKWKLVWLPHRI9LGUDYLOODJHWLWOHG9LGUD 7KH*DWHRI9UDQFHD and ZULWWHQE\DQRWKHUORFDOUHVHDUFKHU9DOHULX'&RWHDWKHSLFWXUHRIWKHPRQXPHQWRIWKH UHVLVWDQFHRIWKHIHXGDOXVXUSDWLRQLVSXEOLVKHG7KHPRQXPHQWLVDQDSSUR[LPDWHO\WZR meters high stone-FURVVDQGZDVEXLOWLQ 7KHIROORZLQJWH[WLVZULtten on LW ³,QWKH PHPRU\RIWKRVHZKRIRXJKWLQWKHWULDOIRUGHIHQGLQJ9UDQFHDDJDLQVWWKHER\DUV ,FRQRP ùHUEDQ%DODQ– NUXMD7RDGHUğkUGHD– 6SLQHúWL&RQVW7DIWӽ– 1HJULOHúWL and to all DQFHVWRUVZKRKHOSHGWKHPHWHUQDODSSUHFLDWLRQ´ QELQLWDOLFVLVWKHQDPHRIWKHYLOODJHV ,W 262 refers to the YHFKLOL WKDWVWUXJJOHGIRU9UDQFHD¶VLQGHSHQGHQFHLQWKHWKLUWHHQ\HDUVWULDO GHVFULEHGLQWKHILUVWFKDSWHU7KHPRQXPHQWLVORFDWHGLQ1ӽUXMDYLOODJHE\WKHFKXUFK Picture 35: The stone-cross dedicated to the vechili. 3KRWRUHSURGXFHGIURP&RWHD ZLWKWKHSHUPLVVLRQRIWKHDXWKRU 263 Chapter 26 - Conclusions ,ZLOOUHFDSLWXODWHWKHPDLQHPSLULFDOILQGLQJVE\JURXSLQJWKHPDURXQGWKHFRQFHSWRI YDOXDEOHVLQWKUHHGLVWLQFWKLVWRULFDOSHULRGVDQGIROORZLQJWKHDQDO\WLFDOIUDPHZRUNIRUWKH DQDO\VLVRISURSHUW\ RI)UDQ]DQG.HHEHWYRQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQDQG0HODQLH:LEHU LQ WKHVDPHZD\,GLGLQWKH*DOLFLDQFDVH 7KHFRORQLDO SHULRG ,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHYDOXDEOHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKH law 7KHFRORQ\SHULRGVSDQVURXJKO\IURPWKH$GULDQRSOH7UHDW\ DQGHQGVZLWKWKH EHJLQQLQJRIWKH6HFRQG:RUOG:DU,GLYLGHWKLVSHULRGLQWRDQHDUO\XQWLO– the SXEOLFDWLRQRIWKHILUVW5RPDQLDQ)RUHVWU\&RGHDQGODWHRQH'XULQJWKLVSHULRG9UDQFHD ORVWLWVLQGHSHQGHQFHVWDWXVWKDWLWSUHYLRXVO\KHOGZLWKLQWKH0ROGDYLDQIHXGDOVWDWH7KH PRVWYDOXDEOHUHVRXUFHVGXULQJWKLVSHULRGRIWLPHZHUHWKHHQGHPLFVSHFLHVRIWUHHV The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e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the form of a confederation of villages with a legal status - 2EúWHDRIWKH:KROH9UDQFHD%XW WKHRXWFRPHZDVWKHVWULFWGLYLVLRQRIWKHFRQIHGHUDWLRQ¶VSURSHUW\DPRQJWKHYLOODJHV/DWHU 264 IDFLQJWKHSDUWQHUVKLSEHWZHHQWKHIRUHLJQFRPSDQLHVIRUZRRGH[WUDFWLRQDQGWKHQDWLRQDO VWDWHWKH\GHIHQGHGWKHLUULJKWVZLWKWKHKHOSRINH\DFWRUVVXFKDV$XUHO6DYD%XW6DYD FRXOGQRWVWRSQHLWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDODWWHPSWVWRRZQPRUHWKDQRQHULJKWRIDFFHVVZLWKLQ HDFK2EúWHDQRUWKHIRUHLJQFRPSDQLHVWRH[SORLWWKHIRUHVWV1RQHWKHOHVVRQHZDVVXSSRUWLYH RIWKHRWKHU ,VKRZHGLQWKHWKLUGFKDSWHUKRZWKHSHDVDQWVZHUHFRQVLGHULQJWKHIRUHVWVPRUHRIDQ LPSHGLPHQWWRNHHSLQJWKHLUSDVWRUDODFWLYLWLHV 7KHGLFWDWRULDOSHULRG ,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHYDOXDEOHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKH law ,QWKHHDUO\GLFWDWRULDOSHULRGWKHYDOXDEOHVZHUHDJDLQWKHHQGHPLFWUHHV$IWHU WKH QHZO\SODQWHGWUHHVEHFDPHYDOXDEOH7KHFRPPXQLVWVWDWHKDGDOOWKHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQV with regarGWRWKHVHYDOXDEOHV7KHSHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHVGHVSLWHRSSRVLQJLQWKHHDUO\ SHULRGEHFDPHZDJHHDUQHUVLQWKHLUIRUPHUFRPPRQSURSHUWLHV ,,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHYDOXDEOHVLQUHDOSUDFWLFH ActuallyWKHSHRSOHFRQWLQXHGWRDFFHVVWKHLUFRPPRQSURSHUWLHVORQJDIWHUWKHVHL]XUHRIWKH SURSHUW\ULJKWV:KHQQRHQGHPLFWUHHVZHUHOHIWRQO\WKHJUD]LQJRIVKHHSNHSWWKHPHPRU\ RIWKHIRUPHUFRPPRQSURSHUWLHVDOLYH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHVWDWHRIILFLDOVwere treating the DFFHVVUHVWULFWLRQVZLWKFDUHLQRUGHUVRDVQRWWRFUHDWHORFDOFRQIOLFWV5H-IRUHVWDWLRQZDVSDUW RIVWDWHLGHRORJ\IRUDXWDUFK\ZLWKUHJDUGWRQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHV,QWKLVFRQWH[WWKH\ZHUH SUHYHQWHGIURPEHFRPLQJFRPPRGLWLHVEXWWKH\ZHUHHQGRUVHGZLWKVWURQJSROLWLFDO VLJQLILFDQFH 265 ,,,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHYDOXDEOHVHPEHGGHGLQ ideology 7KHLGHRORJ\GXULQJWKLVWLPHZDV&HDXúLVP7KLVLGHRORJ\LVURRWHGLQVRYLHWFRPPXQLVP DQGHQGRUVHGZLWKVWURQJQDWLRQDOLVP7KHHOHPHQWVRI&HDXúLVPFRXOGEHEULHIO\VXPPDUL]HG DV QDWLRQDOLVPHFRQRPLFDXWDUFK\DQWLOLEHUDOLVP7KHLGHDVEHKLQGWKHPDUH ZHOONQRZ UDGLFDOVRFLDOUHIRUPVDPRQJZKLFKWKHFROOHFWLYL]DWLRQRIDJULFXOWXUHSOD\VDQLPSRUWDQWUROH FRPSOHWHFRQWURORIWKHSXEOLFDQGSULYDWHGLVFRXUVHRIWKHFLWL]HQVSURJUDPPHGHFRQRP\ WKHEXLOGLQJRIDQHZORFDOLGHQWLW\EDVHGRQFRPPXQLVWYDOXHV 7KHGHPRFUDWLFSHULRG ,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHYDOXDEOHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKH law The re-HVWDEOLVKPHQWRIREúWD¶VSURSHUW\ULJKWVWRRNSODFHLQHOHYHQ\HDUVDIWHU &HDúHVFX¶VGHDWK$FFRUGLQJWRWKHODZWKHODQGLVRZQHGE\REúWHDDVDOHJDOHQWLW\3DUWRI WKH2EúWHDFRQVLVWVRIDOOWKHLQKDELWDQWVRIDYLOODJHRUKDPOHWDVDVRFLDOXQLW7KH\KDYH HTXDOULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVZLWKUHJDUGWRREúWHD¶VYDOXDEOHV7KHYDOXDEOHVPXOWLSOLHGGXULQJ WKHGHPRFUDWLFSHULRG WKHWUHHVODQGVFDSHWKHUHDOHVWDWHVWKHFOHDQDQGSULVWLQHQDWXUDO HQYLURQPHQWDQGWKHZLOGIDXQDIRUPWKHEXONRIYDOXDEOHVWKDWREúWHD3ӽXOHúWLGHMXUH SRVVHVVHVQRZDGD\V7KHDFWRUVWKDWFODLPULJKWVWRDFFHVVWKHVHUHVRXUFHVXVHDQ\ RSSRUWXQLW\WRUHVWUDLQREúWHD¶VUROHLQJRYHUQLQJWKHVHUHVRXUFHV7KHVHDUH ORFDOHFRQRPLF DFWRUVWKHVWDWHGHSDUWPHQWVDQGDJHQFLHVUHODWHGWRIRUHVWU\DQGHQYLURQPHQWWKH3XWQD 9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUNWKH(8 ,,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHYDOXDEOHVLQUHDOSUDFWLFH 'HIDFWRWKHPXOWLOD\HUHGJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHFRXSOHGZLWKWKHULVH RIWKHSRVWVRFLDOLVWQHZ ROLJDUFK\UHVWUDLQVWRWKHPLQLPXPWKHJRYHUQLQJUROHRIREúWHD/DWHO\IDFLQJWKHUHVWULFWLRQV LQDFFHVVGXHWR(8QDWXUHFRQVHUYDWLRQWKHREúWHDVLQğDUD9UDQFHLWU\WRGHIHQGWKHLUULJKWV RIDFFHVVE\XVLQJDQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHRSSRUWXQLW\DOVRSURYLGHGE\WKH(8– the local action JURXSVWUDWHJ\*$/ğDUD9UDQFHLLVDYHULWDEOHERWWRP-XSLQLWLDWLYHWRVWUHQJWKHQWKHUROHRI ORFDOFRPPXQLWLHVLQWKHLUSRVLWLRQYLV-à-YLVWKHYDOXDEOHUHVRXUFHVLQWKHFRPSHWLWLRQZLWK RWKHUDFWRUV 7KHYDOXDEOHVDWWKLVSHULRGRIWLPHEHFRPHFRPPRGLWLHVE\HQFRXUDJLQJ different kinds of tourism – IURPKXQWLQJWRXULVPWRHFRORJLFDORUVLPSO\ZHHNHQGWRXULVP %HVLGHVEHLQJQHZO\FUHDWHGE\WKHQDWXUDOSURWHFWLRQUKHWRULFWKHVHFRPPRGLWLHVDUH inaccesVLEOHWRWKHORFDOV 266 ,,,7KHULJKWVDQGREOLJDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLDODFWRUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHYDOXDEOHVHPEHGGHGLQ ideology 7KHLGHRORJ\WKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HVWKLVSHULRGRIWLPHLVQHR-OLEHUDOLVP+RZHYHUWKH SRVWVRFLDOLVPPDUNLVYHU\VWURQJ5RPDQLDQSRVWVRFLDOLVWQHROLEHUDOLVPFDQEHFKDUDFWHUL]HG DVIROORZV XQOLPLWHGIUHHPDUNHWSULYDWL]DWLRQRIVWDWHHQWHUSULVHVHQIRUFHPHQWRISULYDWH SURSHUW\ULJKWVDQGGHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQRIGHFLVLRQ-PDNLQJ7KHSUDFWLFHVRIKRZWKHVHLGHDVDUH WUDQVODWHGLQ9UDQFHDDUH HFRQRPLFROLJDUFK\SROLWLFDOFDFLTXLVPSDWURQ-FOLHQWUHODWLRQVEXW DOVRERWWRP-XSVWUXJJOHVIRUGHIHQGLQJWKHFRPPXQLWLHV¶ rights of access and the land mark LGHQWLWLHVRIğDUD9UDQFHL $VLQWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHLQWKLVHPSLULFDOSDUW,SLFWXUHWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHSUHVHQW HQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVLQ3ӽXOHúWL$VLQWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHWKLVFRQIOLFWLVKLVWRULFDOWUDQV- sectoriDOLQIUD-VXSUD- and trans- QDWLRQDO7KLVSDUWEHJDQZLWKWKHJHRSROLWLFDOFRQIOLFWV DURXQGWKH%RVSRUXVLQWKHODWHILIWHHQWKFHQWXU\DQGHQGHG-XSZLWKWKHGHVFULSWLRQRI local struggles to defend the communities’ access to the common forests facing the LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIDQDWXUDOSDUNWKHULVHRIDORFDOHFRQRPLFROLJDUFK\DQG1DWXUD 7RSLFWXUHWKHPHFKDQLVPVWKDWXQGHUOLQHWKHSUHVHUYDWLRQDQGWKHXVHRIFROOHFWLYHPHPRULHV RIGLVSRVVHVVLRQDFFXUDWHO\\HWVXFFLQFWO\LVFKDOOHQJLQJ)RUWKLVLWZDVILUVWQHFHVVDU\WR VKRZZK\2EúWHDLVVXFKDSHFXOLDUVRFLDOIDFW- LQWKHILUVWFKDSWHU,VKRZHGKRZWKLVLV UHODWHGWRFRPPRQSURSHUW\ULJKWVZLWKUHJDUGWRIRUHVWHGODQGV,QWKHVHFRQGFKDSWHU, VKRZHGKRZDQGZK\WKHIRUHVWVRI9UDQFHDUHPDined untouched until the mid-nineteenth FHQWXU\,WKHQOLQNHGWKHRYHUDOOJHRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WWRWKHFXOWXUDOGLIIXVLRQRIFDSLWDOLVPLQ WKH5RPDQLDQ3ULQFLSDOLWLHVZLWKDVWURQJIRFXVRQWKHVRFLDODFWRUV,VKRZHGKRZWKHDUULYDO RIIRUHLJQFDSLWDOLQMoldova was linked to the generalized discourse of modernization of the QHZERUQ5RPDQLDQVWDWHEDFNHG-XSE\DGLVFXVVLRQRIEDFNZDUGQHVVDQGµWUXH¶5RPDQLDQ YDOXHVDWWKHVDPHWLPH:KLOHSUHDFKLQJWKHOLEHUDOGRFWULQHWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHGRSHQHGWKH way WRWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPSDQLHV7KHGHIHQVHRIREúWHDZDV\HWDQRWKHUVWUXJJOHPRUH GLIILFXOWWKDQWKHSUHFHGLQJIHXGDORQHV7KHULVHRIDQHFRQRPLFROLJDUFK\ZDVDQRWKHU SDWWHUQRIWKLVSHULRG Part V: Roundown - Crossing Borders for Nature ³7KHZLVHVKRXOGEULQJ FRQFHSWXDORUGHU LQ WKHLPSOLFLWWUXWKIRXQGLQWKHJHVWXUHVRIRUGLQDU\SHRSOH´ 8PEHUWR(FR– 7KH1DPHRIWKH5RVH Chapter 27 – Environmental conflicts as political dynamics of property 27.1. Early political and ecological pressures *DOLFLDDQG9UDQFHDZHUHERWKSDUWRIWZRRIWKHZRUOG¶VELJJHVWHPSLUHV *DOLFLDDQ DXWRQRPRXVNLQJGRPFDPHXQGHUWKHFURZQRI&DVWLOH at the end of the thirteenth century; ğDUD9UDQFHLSDUWRIWKH0ROGDYLDQ3ULQFLSDOLW\FDPHXQGHUWKHVX]HUDLQW\RIWKH2WWRPDQ (PSLUHDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHILIWHHQWKFHQWXU\136 7KLVLVDIXQGDPHQWDOGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWZRPRGHVRIJRYHUQDQFHRIWKHWHUULWRULHVVXEMHFW WRWKHWZRHPSLUHV³:KDWFRXOGEHPRUHLPSHULDO– RYHUDUFKLQJDQGXQLYHUVDO- WKDQWKH LQFOXVLYHSROLW\XQGHUWKHVXOWDQ¶VSURWHFWLRQHVSHFLDOO\ZKHQFRPSDUHGZLWKWKH H[FOXVLRQDU\LGHRORJ\RIWKH6SDQLVK,QTXLVLWLRQ"´ %XUEDQNDQG&RRSHUDVNUKHWRULFDOO\ %XUEDQN &RRSHU - %XWWKHJURZLQJSRZHURIWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUHLQ(XURSHLV GLUHFWO\UHODWHGWRWKHRYHUVHDVRG\VVH\VRIWKHZHVWHUQSRZHUV³7KH6SDQLVKUHVSRQVHWRWKH 2WWRPDQJHRVWUDWHJLFDGYDQWDJHVDVZHOODVWKHXQUXOLQHVVRIWKHLURZQGRPDLQVZDV H[SDQVLRQRYHUVHDV´ LELG 136 $OWKRXJKWKHWZRUHJLRQVDUHYHU\GLIIHUHQWDVVXSHUILFLHV *DOLFLDLV NPðDQG9rancea region - ğDUD 9UDQFHL - DERXWNPð , take into consideration their SROLWLFDOKRPRJHQHLW\ as a decisive criteria for FRPSDULVRQ 268 7KH6SDQLVKEXLOWDQRYHUVHDVHPSLUHIROORZLQJWKHHDUO\µLQVWLQFWV¶RIPHUFKDQW FDSLWDOLVP7KH6SDQLVKHPSLUHZDVDFDSLWDOLVWHPSLUH Following the institutional logic of FDSLWDOLVWGHYHORSPHQWWKH6SDQLDUGVZHUHPRUHDNLQWRIROORZWKHWHFKQRORJLFDOLQQRYDWLRQV DQGWRLPSURYHWKHPLQRUGHUµWRNHHSWKHEDQQHUKLJK¶LQFRPSHWLWLRQZLWKWKH%ULWLVKWKH )UHQFKDQGWKH'XWFK,GHVFULEHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHWKLUGHPSLULFDOKRZWKH6SDQLVK ZHUHLQWKHYDQJXDUGIRUVKLSEXLOGLQJHQJLQHHULQJWHVWLQJWRH[WUHPHWKHPDQHXYHUDELOLW\DQG IXQFWLRQDOLW\RIZRRGPDWHULDOV7KHVKLSEXLOGLQJindustry was at the forefront of colonial H[SDQVLRQDQGWKHEDVLVRIWKHYHU\VXUYLYDORIWKHHPSLUH7KHVKLSLQGXVWU\ZDVDZRRG LQGXVWU\DQGWKHODUJHUWKHHPSLUHJUHZWKHJUHDWHULPSRUWDQFHRIWKH IRUHVWVJDWKHUHG 8QOLNHWKH6SDQLVKWKH2WWRPDQVEXLOWDODQG-EDVHGHPSLUH$OWKRXJKZHDOWKLHULQ natural resources than their WHVWHUQFRXQWHUSDUWVWKH\GLGQRWKDYHWKHVDPHWHFKQRORJLFDO OHYHOLQVKLSEXLOGLQJDVGLGWKHZHVWHUQVHDSRZHUVQRUGLGWKH\VHHPWRZDQWLW:HVDZKRZ WKH2WWRPDQWHFKQLTXHLQVKLSEXLOGLQJZDVFRQWHQWZLWKXVLQJWKHZRRGJUHHQZLWKRXW SUHOLPLQDU\SUHSDUDWLRQ,WZDVRQO\DWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\XQGHU6HOLP ,,,ZKHQWKH\VWDUWHGWRPRGHUQL]HWKHLUWHFKQLTXHVLQVKLSEXLOGLQJ =RUOX DQGDVNIRU FRQVXOWDQF\RI:HVWHUQHQJLQHHUV EXWWKLVZDVEHFDXVHRILQFUHDVHGPLOLWDU\SUHVVXUe in the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³3URGXFWLRQDQGSURILWV DUHQRWHQGVEXWPHDQV7KHPRYLQJVRXUFHRIFXUUHQWV\VWHPLVSURILWEXWLQDQ,VODPLF V\VWHPLWLVKXPDQZHOIDUH´ $O-0XEDUDNTXRWHGLQøQDOFLNDQG4XDWDHUW 9DULHWLHVRIFDSLWDOLVPDUHWREHIRXQG LQWKHPHUFKDQWHSRFKDVZHOODQG6SDLQLVDQLOOXVWUDWLYHH[DPSOHIRU WKLVPDWWHU7KHDLPRIWKHSUHVHQWZRUNLVDGMDFHQWWRWKHYDULHWLHVRIPHUFKDQWFDSLWDOLVPDQGWKXV,ZLOOQRWJHW LQWRGHWDLOKHUH,IROORZ'DYLV¶FRQFOXVLRQVIRUKRZDQGZK\6SDQLVKFDSLWDOLVPIDLOHGLQFRQFXUUHQFHZLWKWKH RWKHU:HVWHUQ(XURSHDQVHDSRZHUV³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¶VPLQGV WKDQWKHRSSRUWXQLWLHVWKDWRSHQHGLQ$PHULFDIRUWUDGH$QLPSRUWDQWSDUWRIWKHH[SODQDWLRQRI6SDQLVKGHFOLQH OLHVRXWVLGHWKHPDWHULDOSODQHRXWVLGHWKHIDLOXUHRIUHZDUGVLQWKHQHZFRQGLWLRQVRIWKHVHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\ LW LVGHULYHGIURPWKHSURORQJDWLRQRIWKHPLOLWDU\IHXGDO-GUHDPDQGWKHH[DOWDWLRQRIH[WUHPHUHOLJLRXVDWWLWXGHV VRPHWLPHVDWWKHH[SHQVHRIVDQLW\´ 'DYLV 7KHVHFRQGUHDVRQZK\*DOLFLDKDGPRUHSROLWLFDODQGHQYLURQPHQWDOSUHVVXUHRQLWV UHVRXUFHVWKDQ9UDQFHDSULRUWRWKHULVHRIWKHPRGHUQQDWLRQVWDWHLVHQGRJHQRXVDQGLV related to tKHORFDOSURSHUW\UHJLPH $OOODQGLQ*DOLFLDEHORQJHGGHMXUHWRWKH&URZQRUWRWKH&KXUFKDQGLWZDV administrated in a system of IRURV6XEMHFWWRWD[DWLRQZHUHRQO\WKHDJULFXOWXUDOODQGVZKLOH the PRQWHV ZHUHFRQVLGHUHGXQSURGXFWLYHODQGVZDVWH 7KLVHQFRXUDJHGWKHSHDVDQWU\WR H[SDQGWKHLUDJULFXOWXUHLQWKHVHµXQSURGXFWLYH¶DUHDVDQGWUDQVIRUPWKHPRQWHV into an DJUR- VLOYR-SDVWRUDO V\VWHPZKLFKZDVDWWKHFRUHRISHDVDQW*DOLFLDQDJULFXOWXUH7KHSHDVDQWVKDG the right to usufruct these lands IRUIUHHDQGLQFRPPRQEXWWKH\KDGQROHJDORZQHUVKLSWLWOHV LQWKHLUUHVSHFW ,Q9UDQFHDMRLQW-RZQHUVKLSRIODQG GHYOPDúLH ZDVOHJDOO\UHFRJQL]HGE\WKH PHGLHYDOVWDWHDQGWKHLQKDELWDQWVZHUHIUHHSHDVDQWV U]HúL 7KHYLOODJHVLQ9UDQFHDGLGQRt EHORQJWRDODQGORUGWRDER\DU7KH\ZHUHSROLWLFDOO\DQGHFRQRPLFDOO\LQGHSHQGHQWDQGWKH\ IRUPHGDFRQIHGHUDWLRQRIYLOODJHVZLWKDSDUWLFXODUVHQVHRILQGHSHQGHQFHZLWKLQWKH 0ROGDYLDQ3ULQFLSDOLW\ğDUD9UDQFHLZDVOHGE\a ‘senate’ formed from thHUHSUHVHQWVRIDOO villages and the local elites - YHFKLOL3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQWUDGHUHODWLRQVZDVPHGLDWHGE\ $GXQDUHD9UDQFHL7KH%RDUGRIWKH:KROH9UDQFHDDOWKRXJKSUHVXPDEO\WKHYLOODJHVKDG WKHLURZQHFRQRPLFDIIDLUVDVZHOO +HQFHWKHFKDUDFWHURIWKHLPSHULDOH[SDQVLRQDQGWKHORFDOSURSHUW\UHJLPH LQIOXHQFHGERWKWKHLQQHUDQGWKHRXWHUIRUPVRIDFFHVVWRWKHIRUHVWVLQ*DOLFLDDQGLQ 9UDQFHDSULRUWRWKHULVHRIWKHPRGHUQQDWLRQDOVWDWHV$QRWKHUFRPPXQDOLW\IRUERWKFDVHVLV that the right WRDFFHVVWKHUHVRXUFHVIURPWKHFRPPRQODQGVZDVWHUULWRULDOO\DQGQRWEDVHG RQNLQDQGWKHULJKWZDVHTXDODPRQJVWWKHPHPEHUVRIWKHFRPPXQLW\7KXVULJKWRIDFFHVV ZDVQRWLQKHULWDEOHDQGLWFRXOGQRWEHVROG HLWKHUZLWKLQWKHFRPPXQLW\RURXWVLGHRILW7KH UHFRJQLWLRQRIWKLVFXVWRPDU\ULJKWE\WKHFRQWHPSRUDU\QDWLRQDOVWDWHKDGDVFRQVHTXHQFHLQ ERWKFDVHVWKHMXULGLFDOUHFRJQLWLRQRIDSDUWLFXODUIRUPRISULYDWHMRLQW-RZQHUVKLSRYHUODUJH DUHDVRIODQGZKLFKLVQRZDGD\VRXWVLGHWKHPDUNHWUHDOP 27.2. Early ecological conflicts 7KHPDVVLYHGHIRUHVWDWLRQVOHGWRORFDOVRFLDOFRQIOLFWV$V,SUHVHQWHGLQWKHWKHRUHWLFDO FKDSWHUWKHMXQFWLRQEHWZHHQHFRORJLFDOGHJUDGDWLRQDQGVRFLDOFRQIOLFWVLVFDOOHGLQWKH OLWHUDWXUHHFRORJLFDOFRQIOLFW 7KHILUVWPDVVLYHGHIRUHVWDWLRQVWRRNSODFHLQ*DOLFLDEHIRUHWKHVHYHQWHHQWKFHQWXU\ since for constructing their )HOLFLVLPD$UPDGD DWWKHHQGRIVL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\6SDQLVK RIILFLDOVFRQWUDFWHGZRRGIURP3RODQGDQGIURPWKH1RUGLFFRXUWLHUV 138 2QHRIWKHEORRGLHVWSHDVDQWUHYROWVLQ5RPDQLDQKLVWRU\WRRNSODFHLQ DQGVWDUWHGLQ0ROGRYD$FDXVH DPRQJRWKHUVZDVWKHXQHTXDODFFHVVWRODQGEHWZHHQSHDVDQWVDQGIRUHLJQUHQWHUV KDQGOHV7KLVGLPLQLVKHGVRFLDOWHQVLRQDWORFDOOHYHODQGOHJLWLPL]HGWKHDFFHVVRIWKH FRPSDQLHVWRWKHUHVRXUFHV$FFRUGLQJWR6WDKOWKHD[KDQGOHV were the local elites who later PHWDPRUSKRVLVHG LQWRDSHWLWHYLOODJHERXUJHRLVLH7KLVYLHw follows Lenin’s arguments on WKHDJUDULDQTXHVWLRQEXWHPSLULFDO data I gathHUHGIURP3ӽXOHúWLVKRZVWKDWDcertain FOHYHUQHVV ZDVPRUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQEHLQJSDUWRIDORFDOHOLWH µWKHFOHYHU¶ZKRXQGHUVWRRG WKDWFRPSDQLHVµFRPHDQGJR¶DQGXVHGWKHVHRSSRUWXnities to their RZQDGYDQWDJH :KLOHLQ*DOLFLDWKHPHDVXUHVIRUIRUHVWSURWHFWLRQFDPHLQWKHPLGHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\ IRU9UDQFHDWKHILUVWPHDVXUHVZHUHLPSOHPHQWHGDWWKHHQGRIWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\- we UHPHPEHUWKH0RUXW]L¶VGHFUHHIURP 27.3. The cultural diffusion of capitalism ,QWKH6SDQLVKFDVHWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHIRUHVWSURWHFWLRQLVWPHDVXUHVZDVFORVHO\ UHODWHGWRWKHVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDODFWLRQVRIWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPPXQLWLHVRI/RV$PLJRVGHO 3DtV7KHVHVRFLHWLHVKDGDVDLPWKHHQFRXUDJHPHQWRIOLEHUDOLGHDVLQWKH,EHULDQ3HQLQVXOD WUXHWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRPPXQLWLHVEXWE\FXOWXUDOHOLWHVRULQWHOOHFWXDOV,QWKHIROORZLQJ,ZLOO HPSKDVL]HWKHEDVLFGLVWLQFWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHWZR The transnational communities of /RV$PLJRVGHO3DtV had LQ6Sain an institutional FKDUDFWHUDQGZHUHEDVHGRQWKHVXSSRUWRIWKHKLJKHUHFKHORQVRIQRELOLW\$VSUHYLRXVO\ GHVFULEHGWKHHQGRIWKH$QFLHQW5HJLPH LQ6SDLQZDVQRWDYLROHQWRQHEXWDVORZWUDQVLWLRQ in which the first constitution and the monarchy wHUHHQWDQJOHG0RUHRYHUVLQFHWKH HVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHILUVWVRFLHWLHVLQ¶VWKHDLPZDVDV3HGUR5RGUtJXHVSXWLWWRWDUJHW WKHEHVWHGXFDWHGDPRQJWKHQRELOLW\VLQFH³WKH\SRVVHVVHGWKHULFKHVWODQGDQGZRXOGEHQHILW WKHPRVWIURPWKHLQGXVWU\RI FRPPRQIRON´ 6KDIHU ,Q0ROGDYLDDQGODWHULQ 5RPDQLDWKHHQGRIWKHDQFLHQWUHJLPHZDVDYLROHQWRQHDQGPHDQWWKHHQGRIWKHORFDO QRELOLW\7KLVZDVGXHWRWZRIDFWRUV ILUVWWKHSROLWLFDOVXSSRUWRIWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUHZDV no longer therH$QGVHFRQGRQDFFRXQWRIWKHULVHRIWKHQHZFXOWXUDOHOLWH DQGHFRQRPLF ROLJDUFK\7KLVFXOWXUDOHOLWHDOWKRXJKLQSDUWDFWXDOO\RULJLQDWLQJIURPWKHIRUPHUORFDO QRELOLW\ DVLQWKHFDVHRI*KLFDZDVKDWFKHGLQWKHPLGVWRIWKH)UHQFKUHYROXWLRQIrom DQGDGRSWHGLQLWVHQWLUHW\DOORILWVLGHDOVDPRQJVWZKLFKZDVWKHRQHRIPRVW VLJQLILFDQFH DWRWDOEUHDNZLWKWKHROGQRELOLW\DQGDFHDVLQJRIVHUYLWXGHWRLW 7KHLQWHOOHFWXDODVDVRFLDODFWRUKDGEDFNLQWKDWWLPHWKHYRFDWLRQRIDJHQt of FKDQJHDQGKHZDVWKHILUVWWRDGYRFDWHIRUµWKHQHZ¶IRUWKHFKDQJH0D[:HEHUQRWHV ³WKH LQWHOOHFWXDOVDVZHVKDOOWHQWDWLYHO\FDOOWKRVHZKRXVXUSOHDGHUVKLSLQD.XOWXUJHPHLQVFKDIW >«@DUHVSHFLILFDOO\SUHGHVWLQDWHGWRSURSDJDWHWKH³QDWLRQDO´LGHD7KLVKDSSHQVZKHQWKRVH FXOWXUDODJHQWV«´140 :HEHU ,QKLVZHOONQRZQµ6RFLRORJ\RIWKHLQWHOOHFWXDO’ 6FKXPSHWHUGUDZVDWWHQWLRQWRWZRPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVZLWKRXWZKLFKWKHLQWHOOHFWXDOVFDQQRW fulfill their roles as agents of change in a society – IUHHGRPRISXEOLFGLVFXVVLRQDQGWKHLU DGGLFWLRQWRWKHSHUPDQHQWOHJLWLPL]DWLRQSURFHVVWRZDUGVWKHPDVVHV “HDYLQJQRJHQXLQHDXWKRULW\DQGIHHOLQJDOZD\VLQGDQJHURIEHLQJXQFHUHPRQLRXVO\ WROGWRPLQGKLVRZQEXVLQHVVKHPXVWIODWWHUSURPLVHDQGLQFLWHQXUVHOHIWZLQJVDQG VFRZOLQJPLQRULWLHVVSRQVRUGRXEWIXODQGPDUJLQDOFDVHV DSSHDOWRIULJLG HQGV SURIHVVKLPVHOIUHDG\WRREH\– LQVKRUWEHKDYHWRZDUGVWKHPDVVHVDVKLV SUHGHFHVVRUVILUVW>EHKDYHG@WRZDUGVWKHLUHFFOHVLDVWLFDOVXSHULRUV « ODWHUWRZDUG WKHFROOHFWLYHPDVWHURIERXUJHRLVFRPSOH[LRQ´ 6FKXPSHWHU> @ 2QHVKRXOGEHDZDUHWKDWLQWHUPVRIwealth and influence the QRELOLW\ was far smaller LQ5RPDQLDthan in 6SDLQ 140 This is whHUH:HEHU¶s article “TKH1DWLRQ” HQGV DQGLWZDVQHYHUILQLVKHG)URPWKHQRWHVIRXQGRQWKH margins of the PDQXVFULSWLWZDVFOHDUWKDW:HEHULQWHQGHGWRGHYHORSKLVLGHDVUHODWHGWRWKHFRQFHSWRIQDWLRQ IROORZLQJDFXOWXUDODFWRURULHQWHGDSSURDFK VHHWKHQRWHVWKDWIROORZLGHP 6DQWRV-XOLiRQHRIWKHPRVWSUHHPLQHQW6SDQLVKSROLWLFDOVFLHQWLVWV141IRUPXODWHVWKH GLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHLQWHOOHFWXDOVRIWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWZHQWLHWKcentury and the cultural HOLWHRIWKHDQFLHQWUHJLPHDVIROORZV ³>W@KHQHZQXFOHLRILQWHOOHFWXDOVKDGDSURIHVVLRQDO IRUPDWLRQDQGKDGDILUPHU LQVWLWXWLRQDOEDVLVWKDQWKH>DQFLHQW@ literatos WKDWZHUHOLQNHGWR WKHFDSLWDODQGLQVHDUFKRIJORU\DQGIRUWXQH´ -XOLi 7KHUHIRUHWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHWZRIRUPVRIFXOWXUDOGLIIXVLRQRIFDSLWDOLVPLVWKH IROORZLQJ WKHILUVWFDVHLVDQLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HGIRUPWKHVHFRQGDFWRUFHQWHUHG$OWKRXJKERWK W\SHVRIDFWRUVZHUHDQLPDWHGE\WKH ZLQGVRIFKDQJHWKH,EHULDQHFRQRPLFVRFLHWLHV/RV $PLJRVGHO3DtV ZHUHFRDJXODWHGLQXQLWDU\LQVWLWXWLRQVZKLOHWKHLQWHOOHFWXDOVZHUHVRWR VSHDNIUHHODQFHUV7KHHFRQRPLFVRFLHWLHVGLGQRWPLOLWDWHIRUDUDGLFDOFKDQJHQRUGLGWKH\ UHSUHVHQWDGDQJHUIRUWKH6SDQLVKQDWLRQDOWUDGLWLRQRUIRUWKH&DWKROLF&KXUFKDQGWKH\ ZHUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DVHQVHRISDWHUQDOLVPWRZDUGVWKHOHDGHURIWKHJURXS6KDIHU FRQFOXGHVLQKLVVWXG\SUHVHQWHGDERYH ³>W@KHSDWHUQDOLVPRIWKHVRFLHWLHVZDVLQHYLWDEOH JLYHQWKHVRFLDOVWUXFWXUHRI6SDLQDQG TXLWHLQDFFRUGZLWKWKHVSLULWZLWKHQOLJKWHQHG GHVSRWLVP´ 6KDIHU :KLOHWKHHFRQRPLFVRFLHWLHVKDGDPRUHLQWHJUDWLYHSURJUDP IRUWKHZKROHVRFLDOVWUDWDWKHLQWHOOHFWXDOVZHUHDLPLQJDWJDLQLQJILUVWSROLWLFDOLQIOXHQFH RUDQGSRZHUDVZDVWKHFDVHLQPLGQLQHWHHQWK5RPDQLDWKURXJKSXEOLFGHEDWHVDQGODWHUWR SXWLQSUDFWLFHWKHLULQQRYDWLYHDQGUDGLFDOLGHDV 141 7KHERRN+LVWRULDGHODVGRV(VSDxDV received the 1DWLRQDO3UL]HIRU6SDQLsh KLVWRU\LQ%HFDXVHRI IRFXVLQJRQWKHHQGRIQLQHWHHQWKDQGWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\SHULRG-XOLiGRHVQRWWDNHLQWRKLV DQDO\VLVWKHHFRQRPLFVRFLHWLHV =HOHWLQSRLQWVWRWKHIRUPDWLRQRIDQHFRQRPLFROLJDUFK\RXWRIWKHVHFXOWXUDOHOLWHVLQWKH VDPHPDQQHUDVZDVWKHFDVHRI)UDQFHZKHUHUXSWXUHZLWKWKHROGUHJLPHZDVDOVRDEUXSW DQGFRPSOHWH7KHODFNRIOHJLWLPL]DWLRQFRQWULEXWHGWRVRFLDOWHQVLRQDQGLQVWDELOLW\LQWKH \RXQJ5RPDQLDQVRFLHW\ZKLOHLQ6SDLQWKHHFRQRPLFVRFLHWLHVIXHOHGWKHGUHDPRIZRUOG VXSHUSRZHURUDV6KDIHUSXWLW³>W@KH\KHOSHGFUHDWHWKDWFRQIXVLRQRIWKH6SDQLVKVSLULWLQ FRQWHPSODWLRQRIWKHQHZDJHZKLFKKDVEHHQVRDSSDUHQWLQPRGHUQWLPHV´ 6KDIHU 7KLVROLJDUFKLFFKDUDFWHULVWREHIRXQGRQWKHVDPHFRRUGLQDWHVLQSRVW-socialist 5RPDQLDDQGWKHIRUPV ZLWKRXWDEDVLV LVDEOXHSULQWLQWKH(XURSHQL]DWLRQGLVFRXUVHLQORFDO PHGLD7RVRPHH[WHQWWKH5RPDQLDQFDVHFRQWUDGLFWV6FKXPSHWHU¶VDVVXPSWLRQEHFDXVHIRU WKHPLGQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WKH5RPDQLDQLQWHOOHFWXDOV-³WKHFROOHFWLYHPDVWHURIERXUJHRLV FRPSOH[LRQ´ZHUHORFDWHGRXWVLGHWKHFRXQWU\DQGQRWZLWKLQ7KLVFROOHFWLYHPDVWHU was ORFDWHGLQ3DULV/RQGRQ%HUOLQ9LHQQDDVPXFKDVODWHURQDIWHU LWZDVIRXQGWREH ORFDWHGLQ%UXVVHOVDQG:DVKLQJWRQ 27.4. The authoritarian regimes and the transitions towards EUrope %RWKFDVHVH[SHULHQFHGPDVVLYHUHIRUHVWDWLRQVGXULQJWKHDXWKRULWDULDQUHJLPHVEXWZLWKPRUH QHJDWLYHFRQVHTXHQFHVIRU*DOLFLD,QERWKUHJLRQVWKHUHIRUHVWDWLRQWRRNSODFHGLVUHJDUGLQJ WKHORFDOVSHFLHV%XWLQ*DOLFLDUHIRUHVWDWLRQKDG PRUHGUDPDWLFFRQVHTXHQFHVEHFDXVHRIWKH VWDWHSROLF\WRWXUQWKHUHJLRQLQWRDWLPEHUUHVHUYHIRU(XURSHDQGEHFDXVHRIWKHGHVWUXFWLRQ RIWKHORFDOHFRQRP\ZKLFKZDVEDVHGRQSDVWRUDOLVP 7KHIRUPVRISHDVDQWUHVLVWDQFHGXULQJ the authoritarian regimes ZHUHTXLWHVLPLODU UDQJLQJIURPHYHU\GD\IRUPVRIUHVLVWDQFHWRWKHRUJDQL]HGRQHVRIQDWLRQDOSURSRUWLRQ7KH *DOLFLDQPDTXLV were not V\VWHPDWLFDOO\UHFUXLWHGIURPWKHSHDVDQWU\DQGWKHUHZDVQRWD SHDVDQWUHYROWDVZDVLQ%kUVHVWL9UDQFHD,DVVXPHWKDWWKHDEROLWLRQRISURSHUW\ULJKWV SOD\HGDQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKH5RPDQLDQFDVH7KH6SDQLVKPDTXLV in general had more DEVWUDFWJRDOV7KHVHJRDOVZHUHQRWUHODWHGWRWKHHYHU\GD\QHHGVRIWKHSHDVDQWU\2QWKH RWKHUKDQGWKHUHZDVDOVRWKHLQIOXHQFHRIWKHDQWL-1D]LUHVLVWDQFHWKDWWKHPDTXLV endured in VRXWKHUQ)UDQFHDQGZKLFKOHJLWLPL]HGWKHLUODWHUUHVLVWDQFHLQ6SDLQXQWLOWKH ¶V:LWK UHJDUGWRWKHVWDWH¶VUHSUHVVLRQLQ9UDQFHDWKLVZDVGLUHFWHGDJDLQVWORFDOOHDGHUVGLVUHJDUGLQJ WKHLUHIIHFWLYHSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHDQWL-FRPPXQLVWUHVLVWDQFHIROORZLQJ6WDOLQ¶VGLFWXPWKDW DQ\OHDGHULVDSRWHQWLDOHQHP\%XWLQERWKUHJLRQV forms of civil associations were GLVFRXUDJHGDQGWKHEUHDNLQJRIVRFLDOFRKHVLRQDWYLOODJHOHYHOIXQFWLRQHGLQERWKFDVHVLQWKH VDPHZD\ &RPPRQSURSHUW\UHJLPHVEHFDPHUHJXODWHGIRUWKHILUVWWLPHLQ9UDQFHD LQ IROORZLQJWKHGHSOHWLRQRIIRUHVWVE\WKHIRUHLJQFRPSDQLHVDQGLQ*DOLFLDLQ IROORZLQJ WKHORRVHQLQJRISRZHUE\)UDQFR¶VDXWKRULWDULDQUHJLPH ,QWKHLUWUDQVLWLRQSKDVHWKHWZRFDVHVKDYHDJDLQDPDLQIHDWXUHLQFRPPRQ LQERWKFDVHV WKHGHPRFUDWL]DWLRQSURFHVVZDVVHW-XSDVDSUHFRQGLWLRQIRUWKH(&&(8DFFHVVLRQDQGERWK H[SHULHQFHGWKHGRXEOHPRYHPHQWSURFHVVRILQFUHDVLQJWKHSURWHFWHGVXUIDFHDUHDVZKLOHUH- HVWDEOLVKLQJSULYDWHSURSHUW\ULJKWV The village of LaEUDGDZDVHQWLWOHGLQ DQGLQ 6SDLQZDVDFFHSWHGLQ(&& 3ӽXOHúWLZDVDZDUGHGWKHSURSHUW\EDFNLQDQGLQ5RPDQLDZDVDFFHSWHGLQ(8 %XWWKH1DWXUDSUREOHPVVWDUWHGDWDERXWWKHVDPHWLPHIRUERWKFRPPXQLWLHV7KH6HUUD GR;LVWUDl +DELWDWV'LUHFWLYH6LWH 6&, VLWHZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQDIWHUWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQW of the 5LR 0LxR%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYH LQ $OVRLQWKH3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO3DUN ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGDIWHUWKH3XWQD9UDQFHD 6&,ZDVFUHDWHGLQDQGWZR\HDUVSULRr to the 0XQĠLL9UDQFHL%LUGV'LUHFWLYH6LWH 63$ LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ:KDWLVSUREOHPDWLFIRUWKHORFDO SHRSOHLQWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHLVQRWWKH%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYHEXWWKH(8¶V6&,ZKLOHLQ 9UDQFHD¶VFDVHERWKRIWKHPDUHSUREOHPDWLF$FFRUGLQJWRWKH5RPDQLDQOHJLVODWLRQWKH 1DWXUDVLWHVWKDWVXSHUSRVHZLWKQDWLRQDOSURWHFWHGDUHDVIROORZWKHPRVWUHVWULFWLYH FRQVHUYDWLRQUHJLPH7KLVZDVDJRRGDWWHPSWRIWKH5RPDQLDQVWDWHWRSURYLGHFRKHVLRQLQ QDWXUDOSURWHFWLRQPHDVXUHV,QWKHGHFHQWUDOL]HG6SDQLVKV\VWHPthe conservation measures DUHWRWDOO\XQGHUWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\RIWKHDXWRQRPRXVUHJLRQV7KH*DOLFLDQOHJLVODWLRQGRHV QRWSURYLGHDFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHORFDOHVWDEOLVKHGSURWHFWHGDUHDVDQGWKH(XURSHDQRQHV $QGVLQFHWKH1DWXUDVLWHVZHUHHVWDEOLVKHGIRURWKHUSXUSRVHVWKDQWKHELRVSKHUHUHVHUYHWKH ORFDOJRYHUQPHQWGRHVQRWULVNDQ\SHQDOWLHVIURPWKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ+RZHYHUWRWKH 6SDQLVKODFNRIFRRUGLQDWLRQFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKHµPDNLQJRQWKHNQHHV¶SUDFWLFHRI HVWDEOLVKPHQWIURP5RPDQLD 7KXVLQWKHHQGERWKFDVHVFRQIURQWZLWKPXGGOHGIRUPVRI LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ 27.5. The present conflicts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ngoing transnational initiative IRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ KHDGHGE\WKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQVXFKDV7((%RIIHUVDJRRGLOOXVWUDWLRQWKDWWKLVSURFHVV LVRQLWVWUDFNV :LWKIURPWKH(8¶VWHUULWRU\RQLWVVKRXOGHUVDWHUULWRU\ORFDWHGLQGLIIHUHQW QDWLRQDOSROLWLFDOVHWWLQJVVXEMHFWWRDSOXUDOLW\RIOHJDOFRQVWHOODWLRQVSURSHUW\UHJLPHVDnd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votHV/LWWOHHFRQRPLFLQWHUHVWDQGIHZYRWHVPHDQVOLWWOHSROLWLFDOLQWHUHVWIRUUXUDOSUREOHPV LQ*DOLFLDHYHQZKHQWKLVLPSOLHVHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQDQGVRFLDOLQMXVWLFH GLVSRVVHVVLRQIURP)UDQFR¶VSHULRGDQGHYHQEHIRUHLW,QWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHWKHUHLVQR FRQWHVWDWLRQRIWKHVFLHQWLILFYDOXHRIWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDEXWDFRQWHVWDWLRQRIWKHSROLWLFV DURXQGWKHFRRUGLQDWLRQRIWKH%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYHZLWKWKH1DWXUDVLWHV7KLVLVDOVR EHFDXVHWKH %LRVSKHUH5HVHUYH¶VPDQDJHPHQWSODQGRHVQRWLQWHUIHUHZLWKWKHORFDOXVHRIWKH ODQGZKLOHWKHPDQDJHPHQWRIWKH1DWXUDVLWHVGRHV ,Q9UDQFHD¶VFDVHSHRSOHFRQWHVWWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHSDUNIURPDSROLWLFDOSRLQW RIYLHZEXWDOVRWKHSDUN¶VVFLHQWLILFOHJLWLPDF\7KHSROLWLFDOGLPHQVLRQLVUHODWHGWRWKH GRXEOHPRYHPHQWRISURSHUW\UHVWLWXWLRQODZVDQGWRWKHQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQODZV1RODWHUWKDQ VL[\HDUVDIWHUWKHUH-HVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHLUFROOHFWLYHSURSHUW\ULJKWVSHRSOHLQ9UDQFHD H[SHULHQFHQHZUHVWULFWLRQVLQDFFHVVGXHWRLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH3XWQD9UDQFHD1DWXUDO 3DUNDQGWKH1DWXUDVLWHV6HYHUHRUQRWWKHQHZUHVWULFWLRQVLQZRRGFXWWLQJDQG FRQVWUXFWLRQRIKRXVHVFODVKZLWKSHRSOH¶VVHQVHRISURSHUW\1423HRSOHFODLPWKDWQR cRQVXOWDWLRQWRRNSODFHEHWZHHQWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEOLHVDQGWKHSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQSULRUWRWKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDV7KHVWDWHHQYLURQPHQWDOGHSDUWPHQWUHSUHVHQWDWLYHV FRQILUP GXHWRµUDFLQJ¶WRZDUGVFRPSO\LQJZLWKWKH(8HQYLURQPHQWDODFTXLVLQWKHZDNHRI WKHDGKHVLRQQRFRQVXOWDWLRQWRRNSODFHLQDQ\UHJLRQRI5RPDQLD7KLVLVFRQVLGHUHGE\WKH SHRSOHDVXQMXVWDQGDVLQWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHLWEULQJVEDFNPHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQIURP WKHFRPPXQLVWUHJLPHDQGHYHQSULRUWRLW In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– forestry rangHUVEXWDOVRIRUHVWU\HQJLQHHUVFODLPHGDWUDGLWLRQLQ PDQDJLQJ9UDQFHD¶VIRUHVWVDQGDEHWWHUNQRZOHGJHRILW7KH5RPDQLDQIRUHVWU\VFKRRO IROORZHGWKHVRYLHWSULQFLSOHVE\ZKLFKWKHDJHIRUFXWWLQJWKHWUHHVLVDERXWWKLUW\\HDUV greater than in the weVWHUQVFKRRORIIRUHVWU\$OVRLQWKHVRYLHWIRUHVWU\VFKRROWKH UHIRUHVWDWLRQLVPDLQO\QDWXUDODQGVPDOOSODQWDWLRQVDUHDOORZHG'XHWRWKHKLJKGHJUDGDWLRQ RIWKHVRLOWKHUHIRUHVWDWLRQFDPSDLJQVLQ9UDQFHDZHUHEDVHGRQSODQWDWLRQVPRVWRIWKHWLPe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µPRGHUQ¶NQRZOHGJHDQGPRUHLQQRYDWLYH WHFKQLTXHVIROORZLQJWKH1DWXUDGLUHFWLYHVWKH\ZHUHLPPHGLDWHO\FRQWHVWHGHYHQ VXEMHFWWRPRFNHU\ )XUWKHURQWKHGDWDVKRZHGKRZLQERWK9UDQFHDDQG*DOLFLDWKHSUHVHQWHQYLURQPHQWDO FRQIOLFWVDUHEDFNHG-XSE\FRQIOLFWVRYHUPHDQLQJVFRQFHUQLQJQDWXUHDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\ FRQFHUQLQJQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQ7KHWZRFDVHVDUHDJRRGLOOXVWUDWLRQIRUKRZVWUXJJOHVIRU accessing natural rHVRXUFHVDUHFRQIOLFWVRYHUPHDQLQJV:HKDYHQRWLFHGWKDWERWKLQ/DEUDGD DQG3ӽXOHúWLWKHYLOODJHDVVHPEO\LVDFRPSOH[ORFDOLQVWLWXWLRQZKLFKIROORZLQJWKHXVHVRI WKHFRPPRQODQGWUDQVFHQGVWKHJHRJUDSKLFDOOLPLWVRIWKHYLOODJH,QERWKFDVHVWKHvillage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ty and the use of the land are taken in a more informal way and LQLQIRUPDOVHWWLQJVOLNHILHVWDVDQGWDYHUQV $SURFHVVRILQIRUPDOGLVVHPLQDWLRQRI LQIRUPDWLRQDQGSHUVXDVLRQRIWKHFROOHFWLYH-GHFLVLRQPDNLQJSURFHVVRFFXUVQHYHUWKHOHVV within the villagHEXWQRWLQDEXUHDXFUDWLFPDQQHU7KHYLOODJHDVVHPEO\LVDQLQVWLWXWLRQWKDW UHJXODWHVWKHPRUDOVZLWKLQWKHYLOODJHEXWDOVRWKHHFRQRPLFEHKDYLRURILWVPHPEHUV3HRSOH ZDQWWRSUHVHUYHWKHUXOHVWKDWWKH\DUHDFFXVWRPHGWRLQGHFLVLRQ-making and whiFKDUHEDVHG RQDVKDUHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHQDWXUDODQGKXPDQHQYLURQPHQW7KLVVKDUHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJ LVDG\QDPLFQHYHUWKHOHVVEXWLVDG\QDPLFZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKHLUUK\WKPRIOLIHWRWKHLU 280 OLIHZRUOGV7KHUHJXODWLRQRIRZQHUVKLSLVVRPHWKLQJWKDW SHRSOHLQ3ӽXOHú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³ZHGRQ¶WXQGHUVWDQGZKDW1DWXUDLVDERXW´ and also made room for VXVSLFLRQ:KHQVXVSLFLRXVQHVVLVEDFNHG-XSE\HYLGHQFHRI PLVPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHDUHDVFRQVLGHUHGSURWHFWHG1DWXUDDFTXLUHVDQRSSUHVVLYH GLPHQVLRQ ,QERWK9UDQFHDDQG*DOLFLDWKHPHPRULHVRIGLVSRVVHVVLRQDUHWKHOLQFKSLQLQ articulating lRFDOIRUPVRIUHVLVWDQFHDQGLQFRQWHVWLQJWKHOHJLWLPL]DWLRQRIWKHSURWHFWHG DUHDV 281 WKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ¶VOHJDOGHFLVLRQV,Q*DOLFLDWKHFRPPXQLWLHVDURXQG;LVWUDOZHUH PHQDFHGZLWKH[SURSULDWLRQE\WKHORFDOJRYHUQPHQWLIWKH\GLVDJUHHGZLWKWKHDOUHDG\ LQVWDOOHGZLQGIDUPVDQGZLWKWKHDOUHDG\IL[HGSULFHV:KLOHWKH%LRVSKHUH5HVHUYHGRHVQRW LQWHUIHUHZLWKORFDOXVHLQFDVHRI/DEUDGDWKH1DWXUDVLWHLVOLPLWLQJWKHSHDVDQWV¶ DFFHVVWRSDVWXUHV 7KHIRUPVRIUHVLVWDQFHUDQJHWKHUHIRUHIURPLJQRUDQFHRIWKHODZVFUHDWLYH FRPSOLDQFHWRRIILFLDOSHWLWLRQV%XWWKHVHIRUPVRIUHVLVWDQFHDOWKRXJKFRKHUHQWLQWKHLU IRUPXODWLRQDUHGLVSDUDWHDQGGHVSHUDWHZKHQFRPSDUHGZLWKSDVWRQHVZKLFKKDGPRUHWKH FKDUDFWHURIDFRQVSLUDWRULDOVRFLDOPRYHPHQW7KLVLVIRUUHDVRQVPHQWLRQHG DERYHQDPHO\ the diffeUHQWPDJQLWXGHRIWKHSROLFLHVRQWKHJURXQGDQGWKHGLIIXVHDXWKRULW\LQQDWXUH SURWHFWLRQ,Q9UDQFHDRQHIRUPRIUHVLVWDQFHLVWKHUHFHQWO\FUHDWHG*$/ğDUD9UDQFHL7KH DVVRFLDWLRQKDVDVRIILFLDODLPWKHQHJRWLDWLRQRIPRUHOD[DFFHVVWRWKHYLOODJHcommunities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o %UXVVHOVLVDFWXDOO\QRQH[LVWHQWDQGZLWKRXWWKHKHOSRI+HQDUDQG'9WKHSHWLWLRQVZRXOG QHYHUKDYHEHHQZULWWHQ ,WLVGLIILFXOWWRVD\IURPDJURXQGOHYHOSHUVSHFWLYHZKHQWKHSUHVHQWFRQIOLFWVLWXDWLRQ VWDUWHG7KLVLVGXHWRWKHIDFWWKDWSHRSOHLQERWK*DOLFLDDQG9UDQFHDVHHDSHUPXWDWLRQRIDQ RQJRLQJFRQIOLFWZKLFKVSDQVDERXWWZRFHQWXULHV0D\EHSHRSOHLQ3ӽXOHúWLDQG/DEUDGDGR QRWNQRZWKHFKURQRORJ\RIWKHFRQIOLFWVSUHVHQWHGKHUHE\ YHU\ZHOOEXWWKLVDVSHFWLVQRW 282 LPSRUWDQWQHLWKHUIRUWKHPQRUIRUWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\:KDWLVLPSRUWDQWLVWKDWWKH\SHUFHLYHD F\FOLFDODWWHPSWRIGHSULYDWLRQWKURXJKGLIIHUHQWPHDQVXQGHUGLIIHUHQWJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHV EXWZLWKIRUWKHPWKHVDPHRXWFRPH PRUHUHVWULFWHGDFFHVVWRWKHLUODQGLQWKH name of some µVWUDQJH¶H[WHUQDODVSLUDWLRQVWRµLPSURYH¶ZKLFKEURXJKWDQGEULQJVRQO\SUREOHPVWRWKHLU HYHU\GD\OLYHV7KHUHIRUHWKHSUHVHQWHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQIOLFWVDUHQRWQHZ WKH\DUHRQO\RQH HSLVRGHLQDFRPSOH[SROLWLFDOSURFHVVLQYROYLQJSURSHUty relations dynamics over natural UHVRXUFHV 1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHRXWFRPHVRIWKHIHXGDODQGDXWKRULWDULDQSROLWLFDOGHVLJQVZHUHPXFK PRUHSUHGLFWDEOHWKDQWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDORQHVDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\WKHUHVLVWDQFHDWORFDOOHYHO had more the character of aQLQVXUJHQWPRYHPHQW LQHYHU\GD\ZRUNLQJSUDFWLFHVRUYHLOHGLQ HYHU\GD\VSHHFK,QSUHVHQWGD\9UDQFHDDQG*DOLFLDDFWRUV¶FDSDFLWLHVWRRSSRVHZKDWWKH\ FRQVLGHUXQIDLUDQGRUXQQHFHVVDU\LQWKHLUOLYHVGZLQGOHVLQDGRZQZDUGVVSLUDOZLWKHYHU\ new layHURIJRYHUQDQFHDGGHGLQPDQDJLQJWKHLUFRPPRQODQG 283 Chapter 28 – ‘The Aquarium’ and ‘the Globe’ )RUXQGHUVWDQGLQJKRZWKHSUHVHQWWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHIRUQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLPSDFWVDW ORFDOOHYHO,ZLOOXVHWZRLGHDl-W\SHVRIJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHVDQGWKHLULQWHUFRQQHFWLRQZLWK WKHPHDQLQJRIQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDQGWKHSROLWLFDODFWLRQ7KURXJKRXWWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\WKH DFFHVVWRQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDQGWKHSROLWLFDODFWLRQDWWKHORFDOOHYHOKDYHEHHQWKHWZRPDMRU arenas VXEMHFWWRVFUXWLQ\/HWXVNHHSLQPLQGWKDWWKLVVWXG\IRFXVHVRQWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRQ WKHJURXQGRIWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHDQGWKDWWKHWZRLGHDO-W\SHVDUHQRWKLQJEXW PHWKRGLFDOWRROV7KHVHWZRDQDO\WLFDOH[DJJHUDWLRQV ZLOOKHOSXVRUJDQL]HWKHPHFhanisms E\ZKLFKQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDQGSROLWLFDODFWLRQEHFRPHPRGLILHGLQWKHLUHQFRXQWHUZLWKWKH LQFUHDVHGOHJDOFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHPRGHO TKHVHH-WKRXJKJRYHUQDQFHLGHDO-W\SH, LVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DUHGXFHGDUHDRI DSSOLFDWLRQ RIWKHUXOHVDQGUHJXODWLRQV VPDOOQXPEHURIDFWRUVLQYROYHGLQWKHJRYHUQDQFH SURFHVV DUHGXFHGQXPEHURIUXOHVDQGUHJXODWLRQV DUHGXFHGSRVVLELOLW\RIWKHLU LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ DFRPPRQO\VKDUHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHUXOHVDQGUHJXODWLRQVDQGDXQLWDU\ lDQJXDJHRIFRQYHUVDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHG7KLVLGHDOW\SHLVSRUWUD\HGLQWKLV VWXG\ZLWKWKHWUDGLWLRQDOYLOODJHFRPPRQVJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPH $VWKHHPSLULFDOSDUWVVKRZWKHYLOODJHVRI/DEUDGDDQG3ӽXOHúWLDUHQRWLVRODWHGHQWLWLHV &HQWXULHVEHIRUHWKHDUULYDORI1DWXUDLQ3ӽXOHúWLDQG/DEUDGDWKHYLOODJHV¶JRYHUQDQFH UHJLPHVZHUHVXEMHFWWRSHUPDQHQWFRQQHFWLRQVDQGLQIOXHQFHVIURPWKH RYHUDOOJHRSROLWLFDO HTXDWLRQWRSDUWLFXODULQVWLWXWLRQVVXFKDV³WKHXQLTXHWUDGHU´LQ9UDQFHDRUIRUR LQ*DOLFLD 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPH1DWXUDLVWKHUHVXOWRIDORQJ 284 WUDGLWLRQLQJUHHQOLEHUDOWKLQNLQJ$VVKRZHGLQWKHILUVWHPSLULFDOSDUWQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDV VXFK LVDWUDQVQDWLRQDOSKHQRPHQRQZKLFKZDVFORVHO\FRQQHFWHGZLWKEURDGHUSROLWLFDO LGHRORJLHVWKDWWUDQVFHQGHGE\IDUWKHERUGHUV RIQDWLRQDOVWDWHV %RWKWKHVHH-WKURXJK and the RSDTXH DWWULEXWHVRIJRYHUQDQFHDUHRSHQO\VSHOOHGRXW E\WKHDFWRUVLQWKHILHOG,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHYLOODJHFRPPRQVJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHLV WUDQVSDUHQW IRUSHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHEXWRSDTXH IRUVRPHERG\IURPRXWVLGHLW+RZHYHUIRU HOGHUO\SHRSOHIRUH[DPSOHQHZG\QDPLFV in the governance regimes at village level are in WKHLUYLHZRSDTXHIRUWKHVHG\QDPLFVGRQRWILWZLWKZKDWWKHREúWHD they used to know EHIRUHWKHFRPPXQLVWVFDPHLQWRSRZHU RUKRZPRQWHDVDJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHIXQFWLRQHG EHIRUHWKH law of 0RQWHV9HFLxDLVHQ0DQ&RP~Q RUeven EHIRUH)UDQFR 143 7KLVLVZK\LQFRQFHSWXDOL]LQJWKHVHWZRLGHDOW\SHV,DYRLGWKHFRQFHSWV ³KLJKFRPSOH[LW\´ and ³low FRPSOH[LW\´ 285 Figure 15 7KH$TXDULXP WKH*OREH *RYHUQDQFH PRGHOVRXWFRPHV 1DWXUDOYDOXDEOHV 3ROLWLFDODFWLRQ µ7KH$TXDULXP¶- The ideal-W\SHRIVHH-WKURXJK , ,, JRYHUQDQFH µ7KH*OREH¶- The ideal- W\SHRIRSDTXH ,,, ,9 JRYHUQDQFH 28.1. The natural valuables in ‘the aquarium’ 1DWXUDOYDOXDEOHVLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶DUHEXLOWLQPXOWLSOHVRFLRQDWXUHQHWZRUNV VRFLRQDWXUHV $VSUHYLRXVO\H[SODLQHG FKDSWHU VRFLRQDWXUHVLPEULFDWHLQWHUDFWLYH KXPDQ DQG LQGLIIHUHQW QRQ-KXPDQ DFWRUV6RFLRQDWXUHVDUHHVVHQWLDOO\KLVWRULFDODQGHVVHQWLDOO\ XQSUHGLFWDEOHVWUXFWXUHVZKHUHWKHLQGLIIHUHQWDFWRUVRSHUDWHHUUDWLFDOO\ &DOORQ /DWRXU *HOOHUW 7KHUROHRIRWR[R and D[HVWD or of the 2D naWLRQDOURXQGIRU*DOLFLDQ DQG9UDQFHD¶VORFDOHFRQRPLHVDUHLOOXVWUDWLYHHPSLULFDOH[DPSOHVLQWKLVUHJDUG2WR[R and a [HVWD SOD\HGDFUXFLDOUROHLQPDLQWDLQLQJWKHDJUR-V\OYR-SDVWRUDO V\VWHPLQ*DOLFLDDQG SUHYHQWLQJODQGGHJUDGDWLRQDQGILUHV7KH'national road is a crucial element in the conflict DURXQGWRXULVPGHYHORSPHQW DQGQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQLQ9UDQFHD ,QµWKHDTXDULXP¶JRYHUQDQFHPRGHOWKHLQWHUDFWLYHDFWRUV KXPDQ-DFWRUV GRQRW VHDUFKRQSXUSRVHWRH[WHQGWKHUHJLVWHURIQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV5DWKHUWKHSHUPDQHQWDQG UHFXUUHQWLQWHUDFWLRQZLWKWKHQDWXUDOPLOLHXLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶GHILQHVWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV 7KLVLQWHUDFWLRQLVWDNHQIRUJUDQWHGDQGFKDQJHVZLWKLQLWDUHVXEMHFWWRORFDOQHJRWLDWLRQV 286 QHJRWLDWLQJWKHXVHRIWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶DUHLQFRQWURORIthe meanings RIWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVWKDWWKH\XVH $VWKH*DOLFLDQFDVHLOOXVWUDWHVWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQZKDWPRQWHPDQVR and PRQWH EUDYR PHDQVZDVSHUPDQHQWO\QHJRWLDWHGDPRQJWKHORFDODFWRUV/RFDOGHPRJUDSKLF SUHVVXUHVSXVKHGWKHUHFRQVLGHUDWLRn of what PRQWHEUDYR LPSOLHVIRUXVHV%UDYR in local LGLRPPHDQVµVDYDJH¶ 28.2. The political action in ‘the aquarium’ LHJDOVSDFHVHHQDVWKHWRWDOLW\RIQRUPVUXOHVODZVDQGDQ\UHJXODWRU\IRUPVLVD JRYHUQDQFHUHVRXUFHLQLWVHOI/HDYLQJDVLGHIRUWKHPRPHQWWKHLVVXHVRIFRKHUHQFHDQG DXWKRULW\ZLWKLQOHJDOZHEV 0RRUH YRQ%HQGD-%HFNPDQQ6WUHHFNDQG7KHOHQ %DYLQFNDQG:RRGPDQ WKHLVVXHDWVWDNHKHUHLVKRZDFWRUVPDNHXVHRIWKLV UHVRXUFH7KHEXQGOHRIULJKWVPHQWLRQHGDERYHLVDUHJXODWRU\ZHESDUWRIWKHOHJDOVSDFHLQ µWKHDTXDULXP¶DQGLVXVHGIRURUGHULQJFODLPVDQGFRXQWHU-claims with regard to the natural YDOXDEOHVDPRQJWKHORFDODFWRUV7KLVOHJDOZHELVQRWKRPRJHQRXVEXWGLYHUVHLWLV LQFRQVLVWHQWDQGZLWKQRFOHDUERXQGDULHV$EDUULRIRUH[DPSOHwithin the village of /DEUDGDKDVGLIIHUHQWUXOHVIRUPDNLQJWKHUR]DVRURUJDQL]LQJILHVWDV than other EDUULRV within the same village and using the same PRQWH 144 $OWKRXJK,ERUURZed from Mulgan the notiRQRIFKDQQHORIDFFRXQWDELOLW\WKHZD\,XVHLWKHUHLVLQDOHVV VRSKLVWLFDWHGPDQQHU,UHIHUWRDFFRXQWDELOLW\LQWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHHDUO\HWKQRPHWKRGRORJLVWVZKHQD VRFLDODFWLRQFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGDVDFFRXQWDEOH³WRWKHH[WHQWWKDWLWVZLWQHVVHVILQGLWQRQ-UDQGRPFRKHUHQW PHDQLQJIXODQGRULHQWHGWRDFFRPSOLVKPHQWRISUDFWLFDOJRDOV´ :HLQEHUJ &RQVHTXHQWO\WKHFKDQQHO RIDFFRXQWDELOLW\LVPRUHIRUDYLVXDOGHSLFWLRQRIWKHPHFKDQLVPDFFRXQWDELOLW\RIUXOHVDQGODZVLQD governance regime than an analytical FRQFHSWDVVXFK 288 ZKLOHFUHDWLQJSUHVVXUHWKHORFDODFWRUVUHDFWLYDWHGSUHYLRXVVWUDWHJLHVDQGWHFKQLTXHVDQG WULHGWRDGDSWWKHP7KHDGDSWDWLRQRFFXUVLQDSHULPHWHUGHOLPLWHGE\WKHKLVWRU\RISDVW DWWHPSWV7KHKLVWRULFDOPRGXODWLRQRISROLWLFDODFWLRQLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶FRQIHUVVWUHQJWKWR counter-FODLPV IRUDFRPSOHWHLOOXVWUDWLRQVHH6WURQJKROG min 12- 7KHUHIRUHWKHVWUDWHJLHVDQGWHFKQLTXHVWKDWVXVWDLQWKHSROLWLFDODFWLRQLQµWKH DTXDULXP¶DUHHPEHGGHGLQZLGHUVRFLDOPDQLIHVWDWLRQV.HHSLQJXSZLWKWKHZLGHUVRFLHWDO WUDQVIRUPDWLRQVDWWKHORFDOOHYHOFRQWULEXWHVWRWKHRYHUDOOWUDQVSDUHQW character of the governance rHJLPHZKLOHVWHSSLQJRXWLQFUHDVHVPLVWUXVWPLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHRQJRLQJ GHEDWHVODFNRISDUWLFLSDWLRQLQORFDOSROLWLFDODFWLRQDQGLQFUHDVHVWKHRSDFLW\ of ‘the DTXDULXP¶+RZHYHUEHLQJZHOOFRQQHFWHGLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶LVQRWHQRXJKIRUHQFRXQWHULng VXFFHVVLQSROLWLFDODFWLRQ7KHFRXQWHU-FODLPVQHHGWRKDYHDKLVWRULFDOYDOLGDWLRQ +LVWRU\LQµWKHDTXDULXP¶LVQRWDQDPRUSKRXVHQWLW\WKDWVLWVRQWKHWKURQHDQG JRYHUQVWKHVSLULWVWRXVH2UWHJD¶VIHOLFLWRXVIRUPXODWLRQ 2UWHJD\*DVVHW> @ 183 +LVWRU\LVDOLYHIRULWLVLQSHUPDQHQWUH-making and re-LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ5HMHFWHGDQG SODFHGDVDUHIXJHHDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKHFROOHFWLYHSDVWLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶LVSDUWRIWKH FROOHFWLYHSUHVHQWSUHFLVHO\DVWKHSDVWLVQRWERXQGWRDW\SHFDVW ,QµWKHDTXDULXP¶KLVWRU\LVRSHUDWHGE\FXOWXUDOEURNHUVEXWDSSURYHGFROOHFWLYHO\ 7KHFXOWXUDOEURNHUVDUHWKHYHKLFOHVRIKLVWRU\DQGWKH\FDQEHORFDOVRUQRW7KHFXOWXUDO EURNHUVWHQGWRVWHUHRW\SHWKHSDVWLQRQHZD\RUDQRWKHUEXWWKHFROOHFWLYHERG\RIORFDO DFWRUVLVYHU\OLWWOHVHQVLWLYHWRIDLU\WDOHVIRULWLVWKHLUSDVWXQGHUFRQFHUQVRPHWKLQJWKDWLQ VRPHZD\WKH\KDYHDOOSDUWLFLSDWHGLQDQGZLWKLWWKHOHJLWLPL]DWLRQRISUHVHQWDFWLRQV,QWKH 3ӽXOHúWLFDVHZHILQGDQHSLVRGHWKDW LVYHU\WHOOLQJWKDWRIWKHSURIHVVRU¶VGLVFRXUVHLQWKH YLOODJHFRXQFLOEULQJLQJLQWRWKHPLQGRISHRSOHWKHORQJWUDGLWLRQRIFRPPRQSURSHUW\LQ 9UDQFHD,Q/DEUDGDWKHSUHVLGHQWRIWKHFRPPXQLGDGevokes the atrocities during the Franco regime also in WKHYLOODJHDVVHPEO\7KHSDWKRVRIVSHDNHUVLVVDQFWLRQHGE\WKHSHRSOH JDWKHUHG$QGWKLVLVQRWEHFDXVHWKHSHRSOHKDYHOLWWOHNQRZOHGJHRIKLVWRULFDOIDFWVRUOLWWOH LQWHUHVWLQKLVWRU\3HRSOHDWWKHORFDOOHYHOVHQVHWKDWKLVWRU\PDWWHUVIRUWKHSUHVHQWDQG ZKLOHWKHSUHVHQWLVVWLOOXQGHUFRQVWUXFWLRQKLVWRU\LVUH-FRQVWUXFWHGDVZHOOLQDGLUHFWLRQ WKDWPLJKWEHFRQWUDU\WRWKHLUDVSLUDWLRQV /DVWEXWQRWOHDVWLQWKHDTXDULXP¶VSROLWLFDOOLIHWKHH[WHUQDOFODLPVWRDFFHVVWKH QDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDUHWUHDWHGGLIIHUHQWO\WKDQWKHLQWHUQDOFODLPV%RWKH[DPSOHVRIFRPPRQ SURSHUW\UHJLPHVXVHGLQWKLVVWXG\JUDYLWDWHDURXQGWZRSULQFLSOHV ODQG-EDVHG DQGQRWNLQ EDVHG ULJKWVWRXVHWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDQGWKHSHUPDQHQFHRIUHVLGHQFH7KHH[WHrnal FODLPVWRDFFHVVWKHUHVRXUFHVDVDUHVXOWRIPDUULDJHSURIHVVLRQDOVPRYLQJLQRUWKHSUHVHQFH RIHWKQLFPLQRULW\JURXSVDUHVXEMHFWWRORFDOQHJRWLDWLRQV6RPHPD\DFTXLUHWKHULJKWV RWKHUVQRW7KHUHIRUHZHHQFRXQWHUZKDW:HEHUFDOOHGD³GRXEOHHWKLF´ :HEHU> @ RUDGRXEOHVWDQGDUGZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHRXWVLGH-FODLPVWRDWWDLQHFRQRPLFRSSRUWXQLWLHV ZLWKLQDGHILQHGVRFLDOJURXS:HEHUH[SODLQVKRZWKHFDSLWDOLVWHFRQRP\GHVWUR\VWKLV PHFKDQLVPRISURWHFWLQJLQ-JURXSLQWHUHVWVE\FODLPLQJWKDWQRGLVWLQFWLRQFDQEHPDGH EHWZHHQLQ-JURXSDQGRXW-JURXSPRUDOVLQHFRQRPLFDIIDLUV+RZHYHUERWKWKH5RPDQLDQ DQGWKH6SDQLVKVWDWHVDFFRXQWIRUWKLVSHFXOLDULW\LQWKHLUOHJDOV\VWHPV7KHHYHU-increasing layering of governance towards ‘the JOREH¶LGHDO-W\SHWUHVSDVVHVWKHJXDUDQWHHWKDWWKH QDWLRQDOVWDWHVRIIHUHGWRWKHµGRXEOHHWKLF¶SULQFLSOHLQWKHVHFDVHV 28.3. The natural valuables in ‘the globe’ µ7KHJOREH¶WKDWLVWKHRSDTXHLGHDO-W\SHRIJRYHUQDQFHFRQIURQWVWZRPDMRUWHQVLRQs with UHJDUGWRQDWXUH)LUVWWKHVXQGU\DQGHYHULQFUHDVLQJQXPEHURIWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHGLQ decision-PDNLQJDQGWKHOLPLWHGFDUU\LQJFDSDFLW\RIQDWXUH6HFRQGWKHWHQVLRQEHWZHHQWKH UDWLRQDOLW\RIWKHKXPDQPLQGDQGWKHXQSUHGLFWDELOLW\RIQDWXUDOVHWWLQJV +RUNKHLPHUDQG Adorno > @ )RUVXUSDVVLQJWKHVHWZRPDMRUWHQVLRQVGHFLVLRQ-making relies SULPDULO\RQWKHVFLHQWLILFPHDVXUHPHQWRIQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV8QOLNHLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶WKH HYDOXDWLRQRIWKHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWLVTXDQWLILDEOH7KHXQSUHGLFWDEOHYDULDEOHVDUHQRWSDUW RIWKHFDOFXOLDQGVRKXPDQDFWLYLWLHVEHFRPHGLVPDQWOHGIURPVRFLRQDWXUHVIRUWKHDJHQF\RI the erratic LQGLIIHUHQW QRQ-KXPDQ DFWRUVLVRXWRIWKHIRUPXOD&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHQDWXUDO YDOXDEOHVLQWKH RSDTXHJRYHUQDQFH ideal-W\SHEHFRPHUHVRXUFHVIRUVDWLVI\LQJKXPDQQHHGV $V/HLVVH[SODLQV³>Q@DWXUH « DSSHDUVWRVFLHQWLILFWKRXJKWRQO\DVDFROOHFWLRQRIERGLHVLQ HWHUQDOODZIXOPRWLRQDQGWKHVRFLDOUHIOHFWLRQRIWKLVVFLHQWLILFYHUVLRQLVWKHLGHDRIDVHWof QDWXUDOODZVRIHFRQRPLFEHKDYLRU « ´ /HLVV :KHQWKHKHDGRI7((%WKHIRUPHU'HXWVFKH%DQNGLUHFWRU3DYDQ6XNKGHYVD\VWKDW ³WKHHFRQRPLFLQYLVLELOLW\RIQDWXUHPXVWHQG´ FKDSWHU KHUHIHUVWRLQWKHWHUPVRIWKLV VWXG\DSHUIHFWPDSSLQJRIWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVWKHFRPSOHWLRQRIWKHUHJLVWHURIQDWXUDO UHVRXUFHV7KHRSDTXHQHVVRIQDWXUHLQµWKHJOREH¶LVGHWULPHQWDOWRHFRQRPLFSURILWDELOLW\DQG to decision-PDNLQJ7KLVGDUN-VLGHRIQDWXUHFDQEHEURXJKWWROLJKWWKURXJKLPSUoved LQYHVWLJDWLRQ,QYHVWLJDWLRQFRQWULEXWHVWRPHDQLQJ-change or meaning-creation of the natural YDOXDEOHV%XWDWWKHVDPHWLPHLQYHVWLJDWLRQLVVHSDUDWHIURPXVHVLQµWKHJOREH¶LGHDO-W\SH 8QOLNHLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶FKDQJHVLQPHDQLQJVRUPHDQLQJ-creaWLRQRIWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV DUHQRWLQWLPDWHO\OLQNHGZLWKWKHXVHV7KHLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIQDWXUHDQGWKHFRPSOHWLRQRIWKH UHSHUWRLUHRIQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVLVWKHWDVNRIVFLHQWLVWV7KHVFLHQWLILFLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIERWK human activity and the natural enviURQPHQWLVLQYHVWHGZLWKPHDQLQJ+RZHYHUWKHVFLHQWLVWV DUHQRWWKHRQO\RQHVWKDWFUHDWHRUFKDQJHPHDQLQJVRIWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVLQµWKHJOREH¶ 7KRVHZKRXVHWKHVHUHVRXUFHVFRQWULEXWHDVZHOO%XWXQOLNHLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶PRGHOWKH users and the LQYHVWLJDWRUVDUHQRWWKHVDPHDFWRUVDUHQRWSDUWRIWKHVDPHVRFLDODQG JHRJUDSKLFDOVSKHUHV,QµWKHJOREH¶LGHDO-W\SHZHHQFRXQWHUWKHUHIRUHDQHYHU-LQFUHDVLQJJDS EHWZHHQPHDQLQJFUHDWLRQDQGXVH ,QWKHVHFRQGLWLRQVORFDODFWRUVWKDWLVWKHDFWRUVWKDWDUHFORVHWRWKHSODFHRI H[WUDFWLRQRIWKHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVDUHLQFUHDVLQJO\H[FOXGHGIURPDFFHVVLQJWKHUHVRXUFHV ILUVWE\QRWSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHPHDQLQJ-FKDQJHSURFHVV7KHFRQWURORIWKHPHDQLQJLVQR ORQJHUWKHLUEXVLQHVV7KHµWUXH¶PHDQLQJRIWKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVLVFRPLQJIURPRXWVLGH7KH ORFDODFWRUVWU\WRLQWHUQDOL]HWKHQHZPHDQLQJVRUWKH\WU\WRRSSRVHWKHP:HFDQ UHFDSLWXODWHWKHH[DPSOHRIWKHPRQWHEUDYR and PRQWHPDQVR XSWRWKHHQG7KHGLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQPRQWHPDQVR and mRQWHEUDYR LQWKHORFDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJZDVSHUPDQHQWO\ QHJRWLDWHGDPRQJWKHORFDODFWRUV ZLQGPLOOV7KHZLQGPLOOFRPSDQLHVDUHHQFRXUDJHGE\WKHSROLWLFVRIWKHORFDOJRYHUQPHQW ZKLOHWKHVDPHORFDOJRYHUQPHQWGLVFRXUDJHVWKHDJULFXOWXUDOXVHRIWKHODQG7KHRYHUDOO FRQWH[WRIWKH(8URSHDQPDUNHWDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOLQWHJUDWLRQSOD\VLWVUROHDVZHOO%XWWKH outcome is the same as in tKHWLPHRI)UDQFRPRUHSHRSOHOHDYHWKHYLOODJHVRI*DOLFLD ,QFRQFOXVLRQLQµWKHJOREH¶LGHDOW\SHRIJRYHUQDQFHWKHPHDQLQJVRIQDWXUDO YDOXDEOHVDUHRSDTXHWRWKHORFDODFWRUVIRUWKHUHLVDJDSEHWZHHQWKHPHDQLQJ-creation SURFHVVDQGWKHXVHV7KHVXSUHPDF\RIVFLHQWLILFPHDQLQJ-FUHDWLRQRIQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHV HPSRZHUVH[WHUQDODFWRUVWRYDOXHGLIIHUHQWO\WKHQDWXUDOVHWWLQJDQGWRFRQWUROWKHSURFHVVRI meaning-FUHDWLRQ 28.4. The political action in ‘the globe’ ,QµWKHJOREH¶JRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHWKHFKHVVERDUGRIGHFLVLRQ-PDNLQJLVRSHQHGWRHYHU\RQH 8OWLPDWHO\HYHU\VRFLDODFWRUHYHU\KXPDQEHLQJFDQPDNHFODLPVDQGFRQWHVWFODLPV$WWKH VDPHWLPHZHFRQVLGHUWKHOHJDOVSDFHLQµWKHJOREH¶DUHVRXUFHDVZHGLGLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶ PRGHO7KHEXQGOHRIULJKWVWKDWOLQNVQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVDQGORFDODFWRUVLQµWKHJOREH¶LVSDUW RIWKLVOHJDOVSDFHDQGFRQVWLWXWHVDVZHOODUHVRXUFH KRZWRXVHWKHUHVRXUFHRIWKHOHJDOVSDFHLVDPDWWHURIHYHU\GD\VRFLDOL]DWLRQLQWKHJOREHLW LVWKHWDVNRIH[SHUWV7KHVHH[WHUQDOHSLVWHPLFDJHQWV %XFKDQDQDQG.HRKDQH GR QRWSRVVHVVDOOWKHDELOLWLHVRUDOOWKHLQIRUPDWLRQHLWKHUEXW ELWVRILW$V%XFKDQDQDQG KeoKDQHH[SODLQ³>W@KHIDFWWKDWWKHLQIRUPDWLRQKHOGE\H[WHUQDOHSLVWHPLFDFWRUVLVGLVSHUVHG ZLOOPDNHLWGLIILFXOWIRULQVWLWXWLRQDODJHQWVWRNQRZZKDWLVNQRZQDERXWWKHLUEHKDYLRURUWR SUHGLFWZKHQSRWHQWLDOO\GDPDJLQJLQIRUPDWLRQPD\EHLQWHJUDWHGDQGLQWHUSUHWHGLQZD\VWKDW PDNHLWSROLWLFDOO\SRWHQW´ LGHP :KLOHWKLVDUJXPHQWLVXVHGE\WKHDERYHPHQWLRQHG DXWKRUVIRUVKRZLQJWKHYLUWXHVIRUVWUHQJWKHQLQJGHPRFUDWLFEHKDYLRUZLWKWKHKHOSRI fraJPHQWDU\NQRZOHGJHDQGWKHDEVHQFHRIDFRQFUHWHVHDWRIDXWKRULW\LQJOREDOJRYHUQDQFH, WKLQNWKDWWKHVDPHDUJXPHQWFDQIXQFWLRQWKHRWKHUZD\DURXQGDVZHOO 7KHIUDJPHQWDU\NQRZOHGJHDQGWKHODFNRIDYLVLEOHVHDWRIDXWKRULW\DUHLQFUHDVLQJ WKHRSDTXHQHVVRIµWKHJOREH¶JRYHUQDQFHPRGHOIRUWKHORFDODFWRUV/HDUQLQJKRZWRXVHWKH OHJDOVSDFHLQµWKHJOREH¶DQGWKHHIIHFWLYHXVHRILWLVQRWSDUWRIWKHLU OLIHZRUOGV DQ\PRUH 3HRSOHGRQRWSRVVHVVWKHVWUDWHJLHVDQGWKHWHFKQLTXHVIRUFRQWUROOLQJWKHOHJDOVSDFHDVWKH\ do not have the control over the meaning-FUHDWLRQRUPHDQLQJFKDQJHDQ\ORQJHU7KHQHZ VWUDWHJLHVDQGWHFKQLTXHVIRUXVLQJWKHOHJDOVSDFHGRQRWUHO\RQWKHHPEHGGHGQHVVLQEURDGHU VSKHUHVRIWKHVRFLDOOLIHOLNHLQµWKHDTXDULXP¶ PRGHOEXWRQWKHLUDEVWUDFWVKDUSQHVVWKDWLV WREHHIIHFWLYHLQIUDJPHQWDU\FLUFXPVWDQFHV0RUHRYHUGHIHQGLQJFODLPVDQGFRXQWHU-claims LQµWKHJOREH¶QHHGVQRKLVWRULFDOYDOLGDWLRQ$VWKHGDWDLQWKLVVWXG\VKRZVWKHKLVWRULFDO argument in defending WKHWUDGLWLRQDOODQGXVHLVOHVVSRZHUIXOWKDQWKHVFLHQWLILFRQHIRU SURWHFWLQJQDWXUHDOWKRXJKWUDGLWLRQDOODQGXVHLQFOXGHGSUDFWLFHVWKDWSURWHFWHGWKHODQGIURP GHJUDGDWLRQDQGSUHVHUYHGWKHHQGDQJHUHGVSHFLHVQHYHUWKHOHVV During the feudal and auWKRULWDULDQJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHVWKHFKDQQHORIDFFRXQWDELOLW\ was more WUDQVSDUHQW IRUWKHORFDOSHRSOHERWKLQ9UDQFHDDQGLQ*DOLFLDWKDQLVWKHSUHVHQW WUDQVQDWLRQDORQH%XWZKDWLVPRUHLPSRUWDQWLVWKDWDFOHDUVHDWRIDXWKRULW\ZDVSDUWRI SHRSOH¶VHYHU\GD\OLYHVRIWKHLUOLIHZRUOG7KHSDVWPXOWL-layer governance regimes HPSRZHUHGSHRSOHZLWKDFRQVFLRXVQHVVRIHYHU\GD\UHVLVWDQFHWRZDUGVWKHQROHVVXQMXVW SROLFLHVSUHFLVHO\EHFDXVHLWJDYHWKHPVRPHERG\WREODPH6WUDWHJLHVDQGWHFKQLTXHVRI rHVLVWDQFHZHUHEXLOWKDYLQJDWDUJHWLQIURQWRIWKHLUYHU\H\HV%XWLQµWKHJOREH¶LGHDO-W\SHRI JRYHUQDQFHWKHFKDQQHORIDFFRXQWDELOLW\ OLHVLQREVFXULW\DQGHFKRHVZLWKLQGLIIHUHQFHWKH FDOOVRIWKRVHORRNLQJIRUDUHIHUHQFHSRLQWRIDXWKRULW\/RFDO DFWRUVLQ9UDQFHDDQG*DOLFLD GHVSLWHWKHLUULJKWVLQHQJDJLQJLQSROLF\-making as non-VWDWHDFWRUVODFNWKHPHDQVLQ SXUVXLQJWKHVHDFWLRQV Conclusion: When multi-level governance hits the ground 0RQGD\0DUFKth,QWHUQDWLRQDOPHGLDUHSRUWVQHZHFRORJLFDOGLVDVWHUVLQ6SDQLVK *DOLFLD WKHPRQWHV EXUQDJDLQ/H0RQGHWKH)UDQFHPpWURSRORWDLQH HGLWLRQPDNHVRQWKH ILUVWSDJHDSDUDOOHOEHWZHHQWKHHFRQRPLFGLVDVWHUWKDWKLW6SDLQLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHRQJRLQJ world crisis and the devastatLQJILUHVLQ*DOLFLD7KHDUWLFOHTXRWHV*DOLFLDQRIILFLDOVWKDW GHSORUHWKHVLWXDWLRQVE\VD\LQJWKDWWKHILUHVDUHFDXVHGE\WKHXQXVXDOODFNRISUHFLSLWDWLRQV RYHUWKHSDVWPRQWKVDVZHOODV³YDQGDOLVP´ 0RUHO ,WVHHPVWKDW*DOLFLDQSHRSOH haYHQRWIDLOHGWRUHPHPEHUWKHRUJDQL]HGDUVRQVGXULQJWKH)UDQFRUHJLPH7KHRIILFLDOV ODPHQWKRZQDWXUHLVQRWKHOSLQJWKH*DOLFLDQJRYHUQPHQWEXWLVZRUNLQJDJDLQVWLWVSROLFLHV ,SLFNHG-XSWKHSKRQHDQGFDOOHG+HQDUWRVHHZKDWWKHVLWXDWLRQLQ/DEUDGDLV,DVNHGKHULI WKHUHDUHILUHVDWWKHPRPHQWLQ;LVWUDO³+HUHWKHUHDUHQRILUHVIRUKHUHZHVWLOOKDYHPRQWH- FOHDQHUVUHPHPEHU"´ VKHDQVZHUHGDOOXGLQJZLWKDEHDXWLIXOUHWUDQFDWRWKHUROHRIKRUVHVLQ cleaning the PRQWHEXWDOVRWRWKHLOOHJDl cutting of WR[R and [HVWD LQVXFKDZD\WKDWHYHU\ERG\KDVDYRLFHDQGWKDWQRH[FOXVLYHYLVLRQVVKDOOEHLPSRVHG7KLV study looked at Kow GRWKHlocal DFWRUV¶SDUWRIWKH(8PXOWL-OHYHO JRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHIRU QDWXUHSURWHFWLRQXVHWKLVRSHQFKHVVERDUGRISROLF\-makiQJDV UHVRXUFHIRUDWWDLQLQJWKHLU DLPV %\WDNLQJWKHH[DPSOHRIQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQWKLVVWXG\VKRZHGIURPDFRPSDUDWLYH KLVWRULFDODQGHWKQRJUDSKLFSHUVSHFWLYHWKDWPXOWL-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHQHJDWLYHO\LPSDFWVORFDO DFWRUVZKRGRQRWSRVVHVVWKHDELOLWLHV WRXVHWKHUHVRXUFHVRIWKHOHJDOVSDFHRIWKLVQHZPRGH RIJRYHUQDQFH7KHHPSLULFDOILQGLQJVVKRZWKUHHPDLQFRQVHTXHQFHVDWORFDOOHYHORIWKLV VWDWHRIDUW DOLPLWHGFDSDFLW\LQUHDFKLQJWKHXOWLPDWHVHDWRIDXWKRULW\RIWKHPXOWL-level governance reJLPH DSUHIHUHQFHIRUXVLQJDG-KRFWHFKQLTXHVIRUDWWDLQLQJWKHDLPV DQGD longing for the govern-FHQWHUHGPRGHRIJRYHUQDQFHZKHUHWKHDFFRXQWDELOLW\PDSZDVHDVLHU WRGUDZ 3HRSOHIURP/DEUDGDDQG3ӽXOHúWLKDYHDSKDQWDVPDJRULFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRI%Uussels DVDVHDWRIDXWKRULW\DQGRIWKH(8LQJHQHUDO%UXVVHOVLVVRIDUDZD\IURPWKHPWKDWLW EDUHO\H[LVWV%XWZKHQLWFRPHVWRLVVXHVWKDWFDXVHHYHU\GD\SUREOHPVWRWKHLUOLYHVWKLV µXQUHDO¶DXWKRULW\EHFRPHVPRUHUHDOWKDQHYHUDQGQHHGVWREHDGGUHVVHGVRPHKRZ,QWKH DEVHQFHRIHIILFLHQWFRQGXFWRUVWKDWZRXOGHYHQWXDOO\FDUU\WKHLUPHVVDJHWR%UXVVHOVSHRSOH SURWHVWZLWKWKHLUPRXWKVVKXWLQREVFXULW\3HRSOHLQWKHWZRYLOODJHVWHQGWREUHDNWKHQHZ UHJXODWLRQVDQGVROYHHYHQWXDOSUREOHPVDIWHUZDUGVLQµWKHROGZD\¶7KHH[DPSOHRIWKH SUHVLGHQWRI2EúWHDZKREURNHLQWRWKHSURWHFWHG]RQHWRJHWWKHZRRGYLWDOIRUWKHSHRSOHLQ WKHYLOODJHLVDQLOOXVWUDWLYHH[DPSOH &KDSWHU +HULVNHGDHXURILQHIRUWKH entire village instead oIXVLQJWKHRSSRUWXQLW\RIPXOWL-level governance for making his voice KHDUG:K\")LUVWKHEURNHLQWRWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDEHFDXVHKHKDGWKHVXSSRUWRIWKHYLOODJH 6HFRQGEHFDXVHWKHQHZVSDFHRIJRYHUQDQFHLVWRRFRPSOLFDWHGIRUKLPDQGWKHSHRSOHLQWhe village WRGHDOZLWKLQDVKRUWSHULRGRIWLPH$QGWKLUGEHFDXVHKHNQHZWKDWKHHQGRUVHV SUREOHPVROYLQJFDSDFLW\DWORFDOOHYHO+HVROYHGWKHSUREOHPE\XVLQJUHJLRQDOSROLWLFDO QHWZRUNVZKHUHHYHU\ERG\NQRZVWKDW³MXVWLFHLVLQ+HDYHQDQGQRWRQWKH(DUWK´7KLV H[WUHPHIRUPRIFUHDWLYHFRPSOLDQFHLVWREHIRXQGLQ*DOLFLDDVZHOODVSHRSOHEUHDNLQWRWKH SURWHFWHGDUHDVIRUPDNLQJWKHSDVWXUHVYLWDOIRUWKHLUORFDOHFRQRP\7KHUHDUHQRVLJQVRI UHJUHWEHFDXVHWKH\DOVRVHHWKDWMXVWLFHLVQRWRQ (DUWKIRUWKHZLQGPLOOFRPSDQLHVFDQGR ZKDWHYHUWKH\ZDQWLQWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVZKLOHWKH\DUHWKHRQO\RQHVZKHUHWKH(8 HQYLURQPHQWDOUHJXODWLRQVDSSO\ $WWKHVDPHWLPHSHRSOHNQRZWKDWWKHVHIRUPVRIFUHDWLYHFRPSOLDQFHDUHYHU\ULVN\ for it is hDUGWRDQWLFLSDWHWKHQH[WPRYHFRPLQJIURPWKLVGLVHPERGLHGVSLULWRISRZHUIURP WKLVSKDQWRP-OLNHDXWKRULW\FDOOHG%UXVVHOV7KLVLVDOVRZK\LQERWKFDVHVZHILQGDORQJLQJ for the state-FHQWHUHGIRUPVRIDXWKRULW\%\VD\LQJWKDWGXULQJ)UDQFRRU&HDXúHVFXLWZDV EHWWHUSHRSOHZDQWWRVD\WKDWWKHHYLOZDVHDVLHUWRORFDWHWROHDUQDERXWDQGXOWLPDWHO\WR ILJKW7KHVWDWH-FHQWHUHGIRUPRIDXWKRULW\HYHQWKRXJKKLJKO\UHSUHVVLYHZDVSUHGLFWDEOH DQGSHRSOHFRXOGHDVLHUFDOFXODWHWKHRXWFRPHVRIWKHLr collective or individual forms of UHVLVWDQFH$VWKHGDWDVKRZVLQDVWDWH-FHQWHUHGJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHEHLQJFRORQLDORU QDWLRQDOWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKHULJKWVSHRSOHHQGRUVHDQGWKHPHDQVIRUDWWDLQLQJWKHVHULJKWV ZDVVPDOOHU,QFRQWUDVWLQWKLV(8PXlti-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHWKLVJDSLVODUJHU )URPWKH%UXVVHOV¶VSHUVSHFWLYH1DWXUDLVPXOWL-level governance regime which QHHGVSHUPDQHQWDGDSWDWLRQEXWZKLFKLVEDVHGRQVROLGGHPRFUDWLFJURXQGVRIQRQ- H[FOXVLYHQHVVDQGHIIHFWLYHVKDULQJRIFRPSHWHQFHDWDOOOHYHOV,QWKHFDVHVSUHVHQWHGLQWKLV VWXG\1DWXUDIXQFWLRQVDVDSHFXOLDUWRS-GRZQJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHZKHUHWKHWRSLV KDUGO\YLVLEOHDQGZKHUHWKHQDWLRQDOUHJLRQDODQGORFDOWUDLWVGLVWRUWWKHLQLWLDOSXUSRVHRIWKH GLUHFWLYHV9UDQFHDDQG*DOLFLDDUHSHFXOLDUFDVHVRIUHJLRQVYHU\ULFKLQQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVEXW ZKHUHVNLOOIXODQGFXOWXUDOO\URRWHGFXOWXUDOEURNHUVWKDWZRXOGHYHQWXDOO\XQGRWKHNQRWW\ multi-OHYHOSROLF\FKDLQDUHPLVVLQJ2QRQHKDQGWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQRI%UXVVHOVEDVHG1*2V LQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQSROLF\-PDNLQJLVQRWHQRXJKIRUPDNLQJWKHYRLFHRIWKHORFDOSHRSOH KHDUG2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHORFDO1*2VVXFKDV$'(*$ LQ*DOLFLDRU$&% LQ9UDQFHD KDYHWRROLWWOHH[SHUWLVHDQGUHVRXUFHVLQFOLPELQJXSWKHSROLF\FKDin and are too flimsily URRWHGLQWKHORFDOHYHU\GD\VRFLDOFRQIOLFWVLQRUGHUWRDWWDLQDIXQFWLRQDOFXOWXUDOEURNHUDJH 7KLVFOLPDWHWHQGVWRDGYDQWDJHWKHFRQVROLGDWHGWUDQVQDWLRQDODVLVWKHFDVHLQ*DOLFLD QDWLRQDODQGUHJLRQDODQGLQWKHFDVHLQ9UDQFHDHFRQRPLFLQWHUHVWV$VDFRQVHTXHQFHDWWKH ERWWRPOHYHORIWKHSROLF\FKDLQWKLVPXOWL-OHYHOJRYHUQDQFHDUUDQJHPHQWDSSHDUVWRWKHORFDO SHRSOHDVRSDTXHDJRYHUQDQFHVSDFHZKHUHWKH\GRQRWILQGWKHPVHOYHV 7KHVHHPSLULFDOILQGLQJVFRQWUDVWwith most recent arguments in international regime FRPSOH[LW\VWXGLHVZKLFKVWDWHWKDWGHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWORFDODFWRUVODFNWKHPHDQVWRZRUNLQ WKHODE\ULQWKRIQHZJRYHUQDQFHUHJLPHVXOWLPDWHO\WKHVHµZHDN¶DFWRUVZLOOFUHDWHQRYHO LQVWLWXWLRQVDQG ³RYHUWLPHSRZHUIXODFWRUVZLOOKDYHWRGHDOZLWKWKHUHDOLW\RISDUDOOHO LQVWLWXWLRQVWKDWWKH\FDQQRWFRQWURO´ $OWHUDQG0HXQLHU 0RVWUHFHQWVWXGLHVVWDWH RSWLPLVWLFDOO\WKDWGXHWRWKHGLIIXVHDXWKRULW\WKDWLQWHUQDWLRQDOUHJLPHFRPSOH[LW\RIIHUVDQ\ VRFLDODFWRUFDQPDNHDQGFRQWHVWFODLPVXVLQJWKHDGYDQWDJHVRIDQRSHQHGFKHVVERDUGRI UHJXODWLRQ7KLVDGYDQWDJHVPD\FRPHIURPWKHYHU\H[SHULPHQWDOLVWIHDWXUHVRIWKHSROLWLFDO LQWHUDFWLRQV 2YHUGHYHVWDQG=HLWOLQ RUGXHWRDVWUDtegic use of organizational forms DQGFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQIUDPHV 'REXVFKDQG4XDFN %XWQRWHYHU\ERG\LQWKLVZRUOG NQRZVKRZWRSOD\FKHVV(YHQWXDOO\HYHU\ERG\FDQOHDUQEXWPD\EHWKHUHDUHSHRSOHZKR ZRXOGSUHIHUGDUWVZKROLNHWRVHHWKHWDUJHW(YHQIRUWKRVHZKRZRXOGOLNHWROHDUQRUKDYH QRDOWHUQDWLYHOHDUQLQJUHTXLUHVWLPHDQGUHVRXUFHV7KHWZRLGHDOW\SHVµWKHDTXDULXP¶DQG µWKHJOREH¶VNHWFKHGLQDQH[DFHUEDWHGPDQQHUWKHZD\DFWRUVSRVLWLRQHGDWYDULRXVOHYHOVLQ this multi-level governance regime do not have the same skills in using WKHJRYHUQDQFHVSDFH DVDUHVRXUFHIRUDWWDLQLQJWKHLUDLPV7KLVFDOOVIRUDPRUHHIIHFWLYHDXWKRULW\ZKLFKZRXOG XOWLPDWHO\ZDWFKWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIWKLVUHVRXUFHDQGZKRZRXOGNHHSUXQQLQJPHFKDQLVPs WKDWZRXOGHYHQWXDOO\HQVXUHHTXLWDELOLW\ :KHQORRNLQJDWJRYHUQDQFHDVVXFKZHQRWLFHWKDWQRPDWWHUKRZDEVWUDFWD JRYHUQDQFHPRGHOZRXOGEHLWKLWVWKHJURXQG LQWKHHQG$QGDWJURXQGOHYHOZHHQFRXQWHU VSDFHVILOOHGZLWKKLVWRU\DQGPHPRU\– humDQKLVWRU\DQGHQYLURQPHQWDOKLVWRU\FROOHFWLYH PHPRU\DQGVSDWLDOPHPRU\7KLVLVDQRWKHUGLPHQVLRQWKDWPRVWVWXGLHVLQPXOWL-level JRYHUQDQFHWHQGWRHOXGH8QOLNHWKHHPSLULFDODQGQRUPDWLYHDSSURDFKHVWRHQYLURQPHQWDO JRYHUQDQFHZKLFKNHHSFRXQWLQJRQWKHWUDQVQDWLRQDOSHFXOLDULW\LQQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQWKLV VWXG\WDNHVDFULWLFDOSHUVSHFWLYHDQGVKRZVKRZORFDOLW\ PDWWHUVLQWUDQVQDWLRQDOJRYHUQDQFH ,QWKHVHVWXGLHVWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVDUHPHUHO\DEVWUDFWFDWHJRULHV of a multi-level governance regimHZKLFKPD\IXQFWLRQZHOOLQVRPHUHVSHFWVDQGQRWVRZHOOLQRWKHUV7KLVVWXG\ZDQWV WREULQJDGLIIHUHQWDVSHFWWRWKHIRUHIURQW,WVKRZVWKDWWKHSURWHFWHGDUHDVDUHDFWXDOO\SDUWRI LQWHUVXEMHFWLYH VRFLRQDWXUH QHWZRUNVDQLPDWHGE\OLYLQJDQGGHIXQFWEXWQROHVVLPSRUWDQW human and non-KXPDQDFWRUV3DVWIRUPVRIUHVLVWDQFHWRSUHYLRXVDWWHPSWVWRµJRYHUQIURP RXWVLGH¶WKHYLOODJHFRPPRQVZHUHEDVHGRQWKHDELOLW\RIWKHORFDOSHRSOHWRPDNHXVHRI WKHVHVRFLRQDWXUHVLQGHIHQGLQJWKHLUFODLPV7KHPeanings of the natural environment that the SHRSOHZHUHRSHUDWLQJZLWKLQWKHLUHYHU\GD\OLIHZHUHPHDQLQJIXOLQWKHLUUHVLVWDQFH1DWXUH SURWHFWLRQRSHUDWHVZLWKQHZDEVWUDFWGHVN-PDGHFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQRIQDWXUH QDWXUHDV ELRGLYHUVLW\QDWXUHDVFDSLWDOQDWXUHDVDQHTXLOLEULXPPRGHOWKDWLVLQJUHDWGDQJHURIEHLQJ GHVWDELOL]HGE\KXPDQDFWLRQ $OOWKHVHVFLHQWLILFSUHVXPSWLRQVDUHQRWWUXH at the YLOODJHOHYHO,QWKHYLOODJHV VWXGLHGKXPDQDFWLYLW\LVSDUWRIWKHG\QDPLFRIWKHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQW7KLVHPEHGGHG KXPDQDFWLYLW\LQVRFLRQDWXUHQHWZRUNVGRHVQRWIDOOLQWRWKHHTXDWLRQRIVFLHQWLILFHFRORJLFDO NQRZOHGJHDQGWKHUHIRUHLWQHHGVWREHFDVWDVLGH1DWXUHQHHGVWREHSURWHFWHGEXWIURP ZKRP")URPDKXPDQDFWLYLW\WKDWVKDSHGLWLQWKHSDVWPLOOHQQLDRUIURPQHZH[WHUQDO HFRQRPLFLQFHQWLYHV":KDWKDUPVWKHHQYLURQPHQWWKHSODQWDWLRQZLQGPLOOVLQ;LVWUDORUWKH PDNLQJRISDVWXUHVWKDWSHRSOHXVHGWRGRVLQFHIRUHYHU":KDWLVPRUHGDQJHURXVLQ9UDQFHD getting fuel-ZRRGIURPDUHDVWKDWSHRSOHDOZD\VXVHGWRIRUWKLVSXUSRVHRUWKHSODQWDWLRQRI YLOODVDQGVNLVORSHVE\WKHSRVW-VRFLDOLVWQRXYHDXULFKHV" We see therefore that in multi-level governace ORFDOLW\ LVWKHµODVWEDWWOHILHOHG¶ZKHUHVWUXJJOHVRYHUPHDQLQJVDUHIRXJKWThis study showed WKHLPSRUWDQFHRI taking the dynamics of meaning-creation at the ground level seriously into account when analyzing trasnational or multi-level forms of JRYHUQDQFH for here ZHVHHEHWWHUKRZ striggles over resources are actually struggles over meaninJV :KDWGLVWLQJXLVKHVWKHSUHVHQWFDSDFLW\RIORFDOUHVLVWDQFHIURPWKHSDVWRQHVLVWKDW QRZDGD\VORFDOSHRSOHKDYHORVWFRQWURORIWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWZKHUH WKH\OLYH3DVWDWWHPSWVRIGLVSRVVHVVLQJWKHPIURPWKHLUPHDQVRIDFFHVVto their resources XVHGµEUXWDO¶IRUPVRIXVXUSDWLRQRISURSHUW\RUDFFHVVULJKWV7KHVHIRUPVRIXVXUSDWLRQZHUH PDGHLQWKHQDPHRIDQRSSUHVVLYHSROLWLFDOUHJLPHFRORQLDORUGLFWDWRULDO%XWWKHPHDQLQJRI WKHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVZDVQRWYHU\DEVWUDFW7KHQDWXUDOYDOXDEOHVZRRGLQPRVWRIWKHFDVHV DFTXLUHGQHZLPSRUWDQFHVXFKDVIRUVKLS-EXLOGLQJRUIRUWLPEHU%XWZRRGUHPDLQHGZRRG DQGDWUHHZDVDWUHHIRUWKHSHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHDVIRUWKHFHQWUDOVWDWHRIILFLDOV)RU1DWXUD 2000 a tree is not a tUHHDQ\PRUHLWLVDVHJPHQWRIDFRPSOLFDWHGELRGLYHUVLW\FKDLQWKDWRQO\ VFLHQWLVWVDQGHYHQWXDOO\SROLWLFLDQVFDQXQGHUVWDQGDQGWKDWORFDOSHRSOHWKURXJKWKHLU LJQRUDQFHFDQKDUP7KHUHIRUHSHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHVQHHGWRFKDQJHWKHXVHRIWKHODQG their XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHODQGDQGWROHDUQQHZEHWWHUZD\VWRXVHDQGWRWKLQNDERXWWKHLUQDWXUDO HQYLURQPHQW7KLVLVWKHVDPHDWWLWXGHZHHQFRXQWHUHGLQFRORQLDOLVWWLPHV 7KHILUHVWKDWQRZZKLOH,ZULWHWKHVHOLQHVUDYDJHWKH PRQWHV RI*DOLFLDare not the FRQVHTXHQFHVRIODFNRIUDLQ/DFNRIDGHTXDWHUDLQIDOODOVRRFFXUUHGLQWKHSDVW:KDWLV EXUQLQJLQWKHPRQWHV QRZDUHWKHKLJKO\LQIODPPDEOHEXVKHVWKDWWKHORFDOIDPHUVDUHQRW DOORZHGWRFXWZLWKRXWSHUPLVVLRQ,WLVDYHU\SUDFWLFDOZD\Wo clean the PRQWHVH[DFWO\WKH VDPHDVLQWKHSDVWZKHQWKHSODQWHGHXFDO\SWVUXLQHGWKHLUSDVWXUHV:KDWLVKDSSHQLQJLQWKH PRQWHVQRZLVWKHFRQVHTXHQFHRIGHFDGHVRISHUPDQHQWDWWHPSWVWRFKDQJHWKHORFDOXVHRI WKHODQG1DWXUDLVRQO\WKHODVWLQDORQJVHULHV (8URSHDQLQWHJUDWLRQDQGHFRQRPLFDQGQDWXUHSURWHFWLRQDLPVDWWKHVDPHWLPH$WORFDO OHYHOLWOHDGVWRGLVSRVVHVVLRQVRFLDOLQHTXDOLW\DQGHQYLURQPHQWDOGHJUDGDWLRQ$VWKH,QGLDQ WULEHVLQ