LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY BY- PRODUCTS:

PROCESSING AND USES ! A REVIEW

BY

MR. G.G. MUSTAPHA

RMRDC, YOBE STATE COORDINATING OFFICE,

FEDERAL SECRETARIAT, DAMATURU.

PRESENTED AT: MONTHLY SEMINAR;

RMRDC, HEADQUARTERS, ABUJA.

DATE: 23RD APRIL 2012

1 ABSTRACT.

Livestock and poultry by-products are processed into various products and utilized in various ways. The uses and the processing methods of these by-products were reviewed. The by-products under focus include bone and bone meal, meat meal, meat extracts, meat and bone meal, blood and blood meal, organs and glands, hides and skins, tallow and lards, horns and hooves, rumen content, feathers and feather meal, livestock and poultry dung/manure, egg shell and hatchery by-product meal, mohair and tail hair and milk by- products (skim milk, butter milk and whey). Base on the fact that livestock and poultry by-product are not effectively harnessed and utilized in Nigeria, the recommendations given include: there is need for public enlightenment on the uses and processing of livestock and poultry by- products be intensified; the Private sector and Government should be encouraged to set-up factories for processing these by-products into useful material; Universities and Research Institutes should focus their research on the uses and processing of these by- products. For example there is the need to explore the possibilities of using feather meal or rumen content for livestock feeding in developing countries like Nigeria; by- products should always be properly processed before use to avoid the spread of diseases from infected by-products; the use of livestock and poultry manure as fertilizer, in biogas, fish and poultry feeds should be encourage; there is need to explore local and international markets for some of the by-products such as horns, hooves and bone meal; and blood for processing into blood meal should be processed as soon as possible after collection to ensure that it does not deteriorate to a level that it will affect the quality of the meal.

2 1. INTRODUCTION

Livestock and poultry by-products have a lot of economic and nutritional significance for the livestock industry which needed to be harness. Hornby (1998) stated that any substance produced during the making of something else is a by- product. In other words any other product(s) obtained in any industry after the production of primary product(s) is/are referred to as by-product(s).

In the Livestock Industry, the primary objective(s) of keeping livestock (cattle, sheep, goat and camel) are for meat and milk production, while in poultry, the primary objectives are for meat and eggs. Thus, any other product(s) produced after these primary products are by- product(s). These include bones, blood, horn, hooves, skin, condemned carcass, dung, feathers, egg shell, rumen content, etc.

Literature indicates that by-products of cattle, pigs and sheep represent 66.0%,

52.0% and 68.0% of the live weight, respectively (Liu, 2009). More than half of the animal" s by-products are not suitable for normal consumption, because of their unusual physical and chemical characteristics. As a result, a valuable source of potential revenue is lost, and the cost of disposing of these by-products is increasing.

Efficient utilization of meat by-products is important for profitability of the meat industry. It has been estimated that 11.4% of the gross income from beef and 7.5% of the income from pork comes from the by-products (Liu, 2009). In the past by-products were favourite foods in Asia, but health concern has led to an increase focus on non ! food uses such as pet foods and pharmaceuticals (Liu, 2009).Tradition, culture and religion are often important when meat by- products are being utilized as food.

3 Livestock and poultry by-products are processed in various ways to enhance their uses. The by-products under focused in this presentation include the following:-

(1) Bone and bone meal.

(2) Meat meal.

(3) Meat extractions.

(4) Meat and bone meal.

(5) Blood and blood meal.

(6) Organs and Glands.

(7) Hides and skins.

(8) Tallow and Lards.

(9) Horns and Hooves.

(10) Rumen content.

(11) Feather and Feather meals.

(12) Livestock dung and poultry manure.

(13) Egg shell and hatchery by-product meal.

(14) Mohair and Tail hair and

(15) Milk by-products ( skim milk, butter milk and whey ).

1.2 Objective.

The objective of this paper is to review the processing methods and uses of common

Livestock and poultry by-products. These are with the view to arousing the interest of scholars and the general public on the potentials of these by-products and possibly think of ways of diversifying their uses for the economic benefit of mankind.

4 2.0 PROCESSING AND USES OF LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY BY-

PRODUCTS.

The Processing and uses of Livestock and poultry by-products are presented and discussed using the format and the sub-titles: name of the by-product, description and production, the chemical composition, uses in animal nutrition and others as well as limitations to their uses.

2.1 Bones and bone meal.

2.1.1 Description and production.

Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates and has the function to move, support and protect various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals (Wikipedia; the free encyclopedia, 2010a). Bones account for approximately 15% of the weight of the dressed carcass of the animal, depending on the age and condition of the beast. In extremely fat beasts, it may be only

12% while in emaciated cattle it can be up to 30% (Williamson and Payne, 1978). Bones are obtained from slaughterhouses after slaughtered animals are dressed and meat removed.

Bone meal is a substance made from crushed and coarsely ground bone that is used in animal feed or organic fertilizer for plants (Answers.com, 2009). Calcinated bone meal or bone ash could be obtained when bones are piled on a metal frame, burnt to sterilize and rid them of all organic materials (Gohl, 1981). They are friable and can easily be pulverized. For steam bone meal, more expensive equipments are required. The bones are cooked under pressure to remove excess meat and fat. Under steam pressure the bone become more bristle and easily ground into a meal. The meal is of good quality

5 and free from disagreeable smells. Special steam bone meal is for gelatin and glue production. In raw bone meal, the fresh bones are boiled in an open kettle until they are free of all adhering materials. The bones are then dried and ground

2.1.2 Chemical composition.

The chemical compositions of differently processed bone meals reported by various authors are presented in Table 1. The chemical composition varies with the methods of processing. They are mostly high in ash content and low in crude protein, ether extract and crude fibre contents. The calcium content is about 30% and phosphorus

15%. Answers. Com (2009) reported that the nutrients typically present in bone meal include the minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium and zinc as well as traces of other elements. Bone meal, especially when steamed or cooked, is also rich in vitamins A and D.

2. 1. 3. Uses of bones and bone meal in animal nutrition and others.

Bone meals are used as sources of phosphorus and calcium in livestock /poultry feeding. They are also good sources of trace elements. They can either be mixed with concentrate supplements or used in cattle lick in the field (Gohl, 1981). In Europe and U.

S bone meal were formerly used as a supplement in both animal and human foods as a source of calcium and phosphorus, but it is no longer used because of the risk of transmitting Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) or mad cow disease

(Answer.com 2009). In 1990, bone meal was identified as a vector for BSE among livestock (Answers.com 2009, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009a).

6 Table 1: The chemical composition per (percent of dry matter) of various bone meals.

S/N Differently DM CP TP EE CF NFE Total Ca P Source(s) processed bone Ash meal 1. Locally crushed 99.54 2.86 2.65 0.88 0.53 85.99 7.74 - - Oyenuga bone meal (1968) 2. Locally crushed 94.50 12.50 - 3.10 2.10 - 70.50 - - Philips bone meal (1977) 3. Locally crushed 91.63 26.03 - 2.66 2.30 9.33 53.05 - - FAO bone meal (2010) 4. Raw Bone meal 75.00 36.00 - 4.00 3.00 8.00 49.00 22.00 10.00 Gohl (1981) 5. Steamed bone 93.00 10.00 - 3.00 2.00 7.00 78.00 32.00 15.00 Gohl meal (1981) 6. Special steamed 92.00 6.00 - 1.00 0.00 1.00 92.00 33.00 15.00 Gohl bone meal (1981) 7. Calcinated bone 94.00 0.000 - 0.00 0.00 1.00 99.00 34.00 16.00 Gohl meal (1981)

DM = Dry Matter; CP = Crude Protein; TP = True Protein; EE = Ether Extract; CF = Crude Fibre; NFE = Nitrogen-Free Extract;

Ca = Calcium; P = Phosphorus.

7 Bone meal is also used as organic fertilizer for plants. The NPK ratio of bone meal is generally 4: 12: 0, though some steamed bone meal have NPK ratio of 1: 13: 0

(Wekipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009a; Vanderlinder, 2009).

Bone from livestock and poultry also have several other uses. Specially processed cartilages from the breast-bone of young cattle are used by plastic surgeons to replace facial bone in humans (Liu, 2009). The marrow inside some of the bones can be used as food and to treat patients who have low red blood cells count. Bone collagen/ossein is normally produced for gelatin extraction. Liu (2009) also reported that gelatin is added to a wide range of foods as well as forming major ingredients, in jelly, aspic and in making the outer covering of capsules as well as binding and compounding agent in the manufacture of medicated tablets and pastilles. Chicken bones are often used for flavouring a concentrate used in cooking. These extractions are often used as soup base or noodle, product, stew, sauce etc.

2.1.4. Limitations.

Before bones are used either as mineral supplement or fertilizer, they should be properly sterilized; otherwise they may be source of some dangerous diseases such as anthrax or botulism (Williamson and Payne, 1978) and BSE or mad cow disease

(Answers.com, 2009; Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009a). Bone meal is also not palatable and the recommended inclusion level in poultry is 2 to 3%, pigs (2 to 4%) and cattle (5%}.

2.2. Meat meal.

2.2.1. Description and production.

8 These are animal by-products from the slaughterhouse which include meat trimmings, inedible parts, organs, fetuses and certain condemned carcasses but not including blood, hair, hooves, horns, manure and stomach content, and hide trimming

(Miles and Jacob, 2009). Olomu (1995) also reported that meat meal is almost similar to meat and bone meal except that it guaranteed low phosphorus to show that little or no bone was added.

Boiling is the first step in meat meal production and this is aimed at softening and sterilizing the by-product. This is followed by reducing the moisture content using available press drying and milling. Williamson and Payne (1978) stated that no matter how small, the production should aim at achieving the following:

(1) Sterilization of materials to prevent the spread of diseases,

(2) Quick reduction of moisture before putrefaction sets in, and

(3) The removal of fat, which if left will cause rancidity.

2.2.2. Chemical composition.

The chemical composition of meat meal reported by various author are presented in Table 2. The crude protein contents vary from 54.4% to 80.5%, the ether extracts from

1.6% to 12.8%, the crude fibre from 0.0% to 8.70%, NFE from 7.7% to 19.0%, ash content from 2.4% to 25%, calcium 7.5% to 8.27% and phosphorus from 4.00% to

4.10%.

2.2.3. Uses in animal nutrition and others.

Meat meals are mostly widely used in feeds for poultry and pigs. They are usually too expensive to feed to ruminants, which in any case generally find meat products un palatable. Because of the high price of meat meal, they are used to balance the amino acid

9 Table 2: The chemical composition of various meat meals (as percent of dry matter).

Meat meal DM CP Energy EE CF NFE Ash Ca Source(s) S/ Kcal/kg N 1. Meat meal 92.80 55.00 2300 7.00 2.40 - 25.00 7.50 Olomu (1995)

2. Meat meal 92.00 54.40 2000 7.10 8.70 - - 8.27 NRC (1984)

3. Meat meal 92.00 54.40 2195 7.10 2.70 - - 8.27 NRC (1994)

4. Meat meal 92.90 92.90 - 1.60 2.50 19.0 18.0 - AFRIS(2010) (Tanzania)

5. Meat meal 96.60 96.60 - 6.80 0.00 7.70 5.00 - AFRIS(2010) (Tanzania)

6. Meat meal - - - 12.80 - - 2.40 AFRIS(2010) (Zimbabwe)

DM = Dry Matter; CP = Crude Protein; EE = Ether Extract; CF = Crude Fibre; NFE = Nitrogen-Free Extract; and Ca = Calcium

10 composition of diets rather than a major source of protein (Gohl, 1981). Gohl (1981) also reported that high levels of meat meal in the diet should be avoided as an excess of calcium will disturb the zinc balance. Normally, less than 5% meat meal are used in growing and finishing diet for pigs and less than 10% in the diet for brooding sows and poultry

2.2.4. Limitations.

The feeding of meat meal to livestock and poultry is not highly practiced in

Nigeria perhaps because of high cost and competition between man and livestock/poultry.

If meat meal is not properly sterilized, it could be an avenue for the spread many dangerous diseases e.g. anthrax, BSE etc (Williamson and Payne, 1978; Answers. Com,

2009).

2.3. Meat extract.

A meat extract is the product obtained by extracting fresh meat with boiling water, removing fat and concentrating the liquid by evaporation. Liu (2009) reported that meat extract is used for making soup, stew, sauces, canned meat, gravies and flavouring materials in noodle soup mixture, onion soup, etc. Data is limited on the chemical composition of meat extract.

2.4. Meat and bone meal.

2.4.1. Description and production.

When bones are added to meat meal, it becomes meat and bone meal. High quality meat and bone meal is usually guaranteed to contain a minimum of 50% crude protein, 4% total phosphorus and calcium and which does not exceed 2.2 times the level of total phosphorus (Miles and Jacob 2003). Meat and bone meal is prepared from waste

11 materials associated with slaughtering operations (carcass trimmings, condemned carcasses, condemned liver, inedible offals, lungs and bones) and also from the rendering of dead animals. If the ash content is high, this indicates that it contains a high amount of bones and is referred to as meat and bone meal. If the ash content is low it is referred to as meat meal. Typically, when the phosphorus content is above 4.5%P, then it is called meat and bone meal and when it is below that level, it is referred to as meat meal,

(Animal Feed Resource Information System (AFRIS), 2010).

2.4.2. Chemical composition.

Composition of meat and bone meal reported by various authors is presented in

Table 3. Meat and bone meal contains about 50% crude protein and high in fat, calcium and phosphorus. The protein quality may vary depending on the quality of meat and extraneous materials in the product. The product is also a good source of lysine but it is some what deficient in methionine, cystine and tryptophan (Olomu, 1995). The protein quality is lower than fish meal or soya bean meal for application in feeding swine or poultry when used to supplement crude protein in cereal based diets (AFRIS, 2010).

2.4.3. Uses in animal nutrition and others.

A meat and bone meal is a good source of protein, calcium and phosphorus supplements, especially for monogastric animals. For hogs, level should be restricted to

2% or less, in starters diets; 3 ! 5% in lactating diets; 5 -7% in grower and gestation diets and 10 ! 15 % in market hog diet (Olomu, 1995). Up to 10% level can be fed in diets meant for poultry. Too high a level in the diet may result in excess and undesirable dietary level of calcium and phosphorus.

12 Table3: The nutritive value of meat and bone meal (as percent of dry matter)

S/N Meal Moisture % CP% EE% Ca% P% Lysine% ME for Source(s) Poultry 1. Bone & meat meal 3.0-11.2 49 ! 8.5- 8-12 3.5-5 2.2-30 1770-2420 Miles and Jacob (2003) 52.8 14.8 2. Bone & meat meal 6.50 50.40 8.60 10.30 5.10 2.60 1960 NRC (1984)

3. Bone & meat meal 7.00 50.40 - - - - - NRC (1994)

4. Bone & meat meal - 50.00 7.80 10.60 4.20 2.60 2150 Musharaf (1990)

5. Bone & meat meal 6.50 50.6 10.60 10.50 5.10 - - Philips (1977)

6. Bone & meat meal 7.40 50.20 10.00 10.00 5.00 - - Olomu (1995)

7. Bone & meat meal 5.36 48.40 9.67 10.23 3.39 - - FAO (2010)

8. Bone & meat meal 4.40 53.3 12.30 10.50 5.20 - - AFRIS (2010)

9. Bone & meat meal 6.01 53.3 14.50 9.20 4.30 - - AFRIS (2010) (USA)

10. Bone & meat meal 7.40 50.2 10.00 7.50 5.00 3.00 1955 Olomu (1995) (Spain)

CP = Crude Protein; EE = Ether Extract; CF = Crude Fibre; NFE = Nitrogen-Free Extract; and Ca = Calcium; M.E = Metabolizable Energy (Kcal/kg )

13 In ruminants, it can readily be used to replace most other supplemental protein sources. The crude protein is less ruminally degradable and will pass through the rumen without being degraded when compared to many other supplemental protein sources.

Processing temperature will also affect the availability of the protein fraction

Thus, excessive heating during processing can reduce the digestibility of the crude protein (Olomu, 1995; AFRIS, 2010). Suggested processing temperature is between 100o

C to 120o C for about 20 minutes.

2.4.4. Limitations.

Long ! term storage of meat and bone meal and other animal by-products are not possible, primarily due to the possibility of oxidative spoilage. Meat that has high fat content can become rancid (Miles and Jacob, 2003). High quality meat and bone meal products are adequately treated with an anti-oxidant.

2.5. Blood and Blood meal.

2.5.1. Description and production.

Blood is a highly specialized body fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body cells such as nutrients and oxygen and transport waste products away from the cells

(Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2010b). Blood consists of several types of cells suspended in a fluid medium called plasma. The cellular constituent consist of red blood cells (erythrocytes) which carries respiratory gases, white blood cells (leucocytes) which fight against diseases, and platelets and cell fragments which play an important role in clotting of blood (Roberts, 1976). So far, blood has a varied structure and performs a wide range of functions.

14 Blood is usually sterile in a healthy animal (Liu, 2009). It has high protein content (17.0%), with reasonably good balance of amino acids. Blood is a significant part of the animal" s body mass (2.4% ! 8.0% of animals live weight).Liu (2009) further revealed that the average percentage of blood that can be recovered from pigs, cattle and sheep is 3.0% ! 4.0%, 3.0% ! 4.0% and 3.5% ! 4.00% respectively.

Blood meal is prepared from clean fresh animal blood free of all extraneous

materials such as stomach content, hair and urine except in such traces as might occur

unavoidably in good manufacturing process (Olomu, 1995). Blood meal is made by

steaming or boiling the blood for twenty (20) minutes, collecting of the coagulate,

drying and milling (Gohl, 1981). According to Gohl(1981) care should be taken not

to allow the temperature to exceed 120o C in any phase of the process, or else the

meal will be of inferior quality. Another way to obtain blood meal is by absorption or

mixing blood with any cereal product such as bran, maize or cassava flour and then

spread to dry on mat or tray heated from below. This may be repeated to improve the

nutritive value of the cereal by- product.

2.5.2. Chemical composition of blood and blood meal.

Fresh blood consists of the plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and cell fragments. The plasma consists of mainly 7.0% ! 8.0% protein (albumen) and

91% water. The red blood cells consist of 34% ! 38% protein and 62% water which when dried it will form a powder or meal.

Raw blood can be stabilized and stored for a week by adding 0.7% sulphuric acid or equivalent amount of another acid. Blood can be coagulated to aid in the removal of water by adding 1% unslaked or 3% slaked lime (Gohl, 1981).

15 The chemical compositions of blood meal reported by various authors are presented in

Table 4. Blood meal is high in protein (about 80%) and energy. It is also an excellent source of lysine, if properly prepared. Blood meal is very rich in amino acid, leucine but low in lsoleucine (Olomo, 1995). Blood meal is not a particularly good source of calcium and phosphorus.

2.5.3. Uses in Animal nutrition and others.

Blood should always be heated prior to use as a supplementary protein source for livestock to prevent the transfer of disease organisms (AFRIS, 2010). However, excessive heating will reduce the digestibility of protein and reduce the protein availability to the animals that are consuming the blood meal. Heating at100o C for 15 minutes has been recommended (AFRIS, 2010). Blood meal is hydroscopic and need to be dried to less than 10-12% moisture and stored in dry place.

Blood meal is somewhat unpalatable and so care should be taken not to add more than 5 to 6% blood meal to a ration, especially if high feed consumption and performance are desired (AFRIS, 2010). Large amounts may cause scouring (Gohl, 1981).

Blood meal is limiting in lsoleucine (AFRIS, 2010), so care needs to be taken when formulating rations for monogastric animal to ensure that adequate lsoleucine is contained in the ration for the level of performance desired. Supplement ration with methionine that was formulated with blood meal as the primary supplemental protein source shown improved performance in swine (AFRIS, 2010). AFRIS (2010) also reported that when blood meal replaced fishmeal, performance was reduced in carp and broilers. Combining blood meal with other supplemental protein sources was shown to improve performance in ducks (AFRIS, 2010).

16 Table 4: Chemical composition (on dry matter basis) of pure dried blood meal.

S/N Blood meal DM CP TP EE CF NFE Total Ca P Source(s) Ash 1. Blood meal 89.53 88.46 85.52 1.20 0.36 4.00 5.98 4.15 Oyenuga (1968)

2. Blood meal 91.00 80.0 - 1.60 1.00 2.80 5.50 - Philips (1977)

3. Blood meal 90.00 80.0 - 1.00 0.50 - - - Odiba (1987)

4. Blood meal 91.00 81.10 - 1.60 0.50 - - - NRC (1984)

5. Blood meal 94.00 81.10 - 1.60 0.50 - - - NRC (1994)

6. Blood meal - 88.00 - 1.10 1.00 - - - Musharaf (1990)

7. Blood meal - 85.00 - 1.00 - - 2.70 0.20 0.200 Parr (1988)

8. Blood meal 89.00 76.70 - 1.10 1.20 5.96 4.00 - FAO (2010)

9. Blood meal 94.10 80.20 - 0.71 1.50 - 8.14 0.50 0.40 Olomu (1995)

10. Blood meal 92.80 69.20 - 0.47 1.00 - 4.18 0.28 0.22 Olomu (1995)

11 Blood meal 89.20 88.50 - 1.20 0.40 3.90 6.00 0.28 0.28 Gohl (1981)

DM = Dry Matter; CP = Crude Protein; TP = True Protein; EE = Ether Extract; CF = Crude Fibre; NFE = Nitrogen-Free Extract;

Ca = Calcium; P = Phosphorus

17

Blood meal is also used as fertilizer, if over applied; it can burn plants with excessive ammonia. Blood meal is completely soluble and can be mixed with water to be used as liquid fertilizer (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009b)

Blood from the slaughterhouse especially from cattle has a number of other uses.

Liu (2009) reported on the uses of blood in the following areas:

(i) In some parts of the world, blood is utilized as an edible product for human

beings e.g. in Europe, animal blood has long been used to make blood

sausages, blood pudding, biscuit and bread.

(ii) Blood plasma has an excellent foaming capacity and can be used to replace

egg white in the baking industries.

(iii) Haem derived from animal blood is a valuable source of organic iron.

(iv) Blood is used in food as an emulsifier, stabilizer, a clarifier and colour

additive.

(v) In the laboratory, many blood products (plasma, albumen, globulin and

fibrinogen) are used as nutrient for tissue culture media, as a necessary

ingredient in blood agar and as peptone for microbial use.

(vi) Blood also has industrial uses, as an adhesive in the manufacture of paper,

plywood, fibre, plastic and glue.

(vii) Blood is used as sprays in insecticides and fungicides and as a stabilizer

in cosmetics.

(viii) It is also used as a foaming agent in fire extinguishers.

Similarly, USDA (1993) reported the uses of animal blood in the following areas.

(i) Blood is used in manufacture of shoe polish and in the sizing of leather.

18 (ii) It can also be used by calico printers in fixing certain pigment colours in cloth.

(iii) A new blood substitute, called Hemopure has been developed by Biopure

Corporation (Boston, MP) from an extract of cow" s blood.

2.5.4. Limitations.

Blood should always be heated prior to use as supplemental protein source for livestock to prevent the transfer of disease organisms. Raw blood should not be fed without being heated at 100oC for 15 minutes. As a feedstuff, even though blood meal is high in crude protein, it is not palatable. In the United States and Europe, fear of BSE

(mad cow disease) fully prohibits the use of blood and some meals since these could be routes of infection for BSE (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009b).

The use of blood for stock feed is further limited by its very poor keeping quality, unless processed immediately; it decomposes rapidly under tropical conditions.

2. 6. Organs and Glands.

2.6.1. Description and production.

Condemned animal organs and glands such as liver are dried at low temperature and ground to liver meal and are generally included in small amounts in poultry and pig feed as a source of B-vitamin (Gohl, 1981). Other condemned organs and glands are sometimes processed into meat meal. The production process is highlighted under item

2.2.1.

2.6.2. Chemical composition.

There is limited information on the chemical composition of liver meal; however, the chemical composition of liver meal as reported by Gohl (1981) is represented in

Table 5. The meal is high in dry matter, crude protein, ash and ether extract.

19

Table 5: The chemical composition of liver meal (as percentage of dry matter).

DM CP CF Ash EE NFE Ca P

92.1 73.20 0.00 10.40 9.40 7.00 0.02 0.07

DM = Dry Matter: CP = Crude Protein; CF = Crude fibre; EE = Ether Extract; NFE = Nitrogen-Free Extract; Ca = Calcium;

P = Phosphorus

Source: Gohl (1981)

20 2.6.3. Uses in animal nutrition and others.

Organs such as condemned liver may be converted into liver meal while other condemned organs and glands may form part of meat meal. Liver meal is a good source of B- vitamins and protein especially for monogastrics. Meat meals are used as protein supplement both for ruminants and monogastric animals.

Animal glands and organs are also traditionally used as medicine in many

Countries including China, India and Japan. The function of gland also depends on species, sex and age of the animal.

When glands arrive at the pharmaceutical plant, they are inspected, then chopped and mixed with different solutions for extraction and placed in a vacuum drier. If the dried gland contains too much fat, solution such as gasoline, light petroleum ethylene or acetones are used to remove the fat. After drying and defatting, the glands or extractions are milled to powder and made into capsules or used in liquid form.

Liu (2009) reported on the various medicinal uses of animal glands and organs.

These include:

(a) Adrenal gland consists of at least 20 steroids extracted from cattle, pig or sheep

and are used as anti-inflammatory agent and for treatment of shock and asthma.

Epinephrine and nor ! epinephrine extracted from medulla of cattle, pigs and

sheep are used to stop hemorrhage, stimulate heart action and overcome shocks.

The hormone melatonin, extracted from pineal gland, is being evaluated for the

treatment of schizophrenia, insomnia and other problems including mental

retardation.

21 (b) Adrenal ! Cortex-Stimulating Hormones (ACSH) extracted from the pituitary

gland are used for the treatment of rheumatism, arthritis, eye inflammation and

multiple myeloma.

(c) Some ingredients of the bile, such as prednisone and cortisone can be extracted

separately and used as medicines.

(d) Liver extraction obtained from pig and cattle has been used for a long time as a

source of vitamin B2 and as a nutritional supplement which is used to treat

various types of anaemia

(e) Heparin extracted from liver, lung and lining of the small intestine is used as

anticoagulant to prolong the clotting time of blood. It is also used to thin the

blood to prevent blood clotting during surgery and in organ transplant.

(f) Progesterone and oestrogen can be extracted from pig" s ovaries are used to treat

reproductive problems in women. Relaxin is a hormone taken from the ovaries

of pregnant sows and is often used during childbirth.

(g) Glucagon extract (insulin) from the cells of pancreas is used to increase

blood sugar and to treat insulin overdose or low blood sugar caused by

alcoholism.

(h) The intestine of sheep and calves are used for the manufacture of catgut, to

make internal surgical sutures. Furthermore, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(2009c) highlighted that animals" gastrointestinal tract are also used as strings

in musical instrument, racquets for tennis, sausages and even condoms by

1640AD.

22 USDA (1993) reported that hog heart valves are widely used to replace defective valves

in human heart. It is estimated that over 30,000.00 heart valves from pigs have been

implanted into humans.

2.6.4. Limitations.

Condemned organs and glands that are to be processed into meals needed to be properly sterilized before further processing. The use of organs and glands in medical applications are against some religious and cultural taboos.

2.7. Hides and Skins.

2.7.1. Description and production.

Hides and skins are outer hairy covering of vertebrate animals. Hides refer to the outer covering of large animals e.g. cattle and camels while skins refer to the outer covering of smaller animals e.g. sheep and goats. Hides and skins are processed into leather before being used. Before hides and skins are tanned or processed into leather, the fresh epidermis is removed by either hand or machine scraping. The by-product from this process is made into meal for animal feeding (AFRIS, 2010). Sometimes the leather meals are also hydrolysed the same way as feathers (Gohl, 1981).

2.7.2. Chemical composition. The chemical composition of tannery by ! product meal and hydrolysed leather meal are presented in Table 6. Leather is composed primarily of collagen, a fibrous protein which has a poor amino acid profile.

2.7.3. Uses in animal nutrition and others.

Leather scraps associated with the production of various leather products can be collected and hydrolysed in a similar manner to poultry feathers and used as supplemental protein for livestock (AFRIS, 2010). Limited research has been conducted evaluating the feeding

23 Table 6: Chemical composition of leather meal by- product (as percent of dry matter).

Type of DM CP CF Ash EE NFE Ca P leather by- product Tannery by- 79.7 85.1 0.0 5.5 9.6 0.0 - - product

Hydrolyze 91.6 71.4 - - 7.1 - - - Leather meal

DM = Dry Matter: CP = Crude Protein; CF = Crude fibre; EE = Ether Extract; NFE = Nitrogen-Free Extract; Ca = Calcium;

P = Phosphorus

Source: Gohl (1981)

24 characteristics of leather meal. Primarily, it is used as a supplemental protein source for ruminant applications, since its amino acid profile is of low quality. Hydrolysed leather meal has been shown to be an acceptable source of crude protein for ruminants at levels not exceeding 6% of the diet (Knowlton et al., 1976). Gohl (1981) reported that hydrolysed leather meal can be included into broiler and pig diets at levels of up to 8% and 3% respectively with no adverse effect.

Chromium (Cr) is normally added during the leather tanning process; therefore chromium poisoning is a potential problem when leather meal is fed. The chromium level in the leather meal should not exceed 2.75%; chromium can exist in several different forms and the form present in leather meal seem not to be absorbed easily by animals and does not seem to accumulate in the meat or fat of animals consuming it (AFRIS, 2010).

Animal hides have also been used for shelter, clothing and as containers by human being since prehistoric times. Hides and Skins are generally one of the most valuable by- products from animals. Examples of finished products from hides of cattle and pigs and from sheep pelts are leather shoes and bags, raw hides, athletic equipment, reformed sausage casing and cosmetic products, sausage skins, edible gelatine and glue.

2.7.4. Limitations.

Chromium (Cr) in leather meal can sometimes reach toxic level, so care should be taken when formulating ration using leather meal.

2. 8. Tallow and Lards.

2.8.1. Description and production:-Animal fats are an important by ! product of meat packaging industry. The major edible animal fats are lard and tallow. Lard is the fat

25 rendered from clean tissue of healthy pigs. Tallow is hard fat rendered from fatty tissue of cattle or sheep.

Lard and edible tallow are obtained by dry or wet rendering. In wet rendering, pig fat is boiled in water or steamed at a high temperature and the lard, which is insoluble in water, is skimmed off of the surface of the mixture, or it is separated in industrial centrifuge (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2010c). In dry rendering, the fat is exposed to high heat in a pan or oven without the presences of water (a process similar to frying bacon). The two processes yield somewhat different products. Wet-rendered lard has a more neutral flavour, a lighter colour, and a high smoke point. Dry ! rendered lard is some what more brownish in colour and more noticeably pork flavour and has relatively lower smoke point.

2.8.2. Chemical composition.

The nutritive value per 100g of lard and beef tallow reported by National

Research Council (1976) is presented in Table 7. Animal" s fats are very high in energy and very poor source of protein and carbohydrate. The cholesterol level is of health concern. Cholesterol is found in foods high in saturated fats, like fatty meat, egg yolk, shell fish and whole milk dairy products. However, high levels of cholesterol in the blood may lead to slow buildup of plaque in the arteries over time; a disease called artherosclerosis may occur (CRESTOR, 2010). Eating a lot of fats and not getting enough exercise can cause cholesterol level to rise. Some people inherit genes associated with high cholesterol levels. CRESTOR (2010) also reported that the National Cholesterol

Education Programme of the U.S.A categorized the total cholesterol levels into:

( i) less than 200mg/dl as desirable

26 Table 7: The nutritive value per 100g of lard and beef tallow.

Indices Lard Beef Tallow

Energy KJ (kcal) 3,765.6/(900 ) 3744/(902)

Carbohydrate (g ) 0.00 0.00

Fat (g ) 100.00 100.00

Saturated (g ) 39.00 50.00

Monounsaturated ( g ) 45.00 42.00

Polyunsaturated (g ) 11.00 4.00

Protein ( g ) 0.00 0.00

Cholesterol ( mg ) 95.00 109.00

Zinc (mg ) 0.10 -

Selenium (mg ) 0.20 0.20

Source: National Research Council (NRC) (1976).

27 (ii ) 200 to 239mg/dl as borderline high

( iii ) 240mg/dl or more as high.

The American Heart Association (2010) further explained that total cholesterol level below 200mg/dl put one at relatively low risk of coronary heart disease.

2.8.3. Use in animal nutrition and others.

Animal fats are used together with molasses to increase the palatability of unpalatable feeds e.g. feather meal (AFRIS, 2010). Since they are high in energy they can also be used to supplement the energy in feeds. They are also used to control dustiness in feed.

However, because demand of lard and tallow, they are now often bleached and given a deodorizing treatment before being used in food margarine, fat food (Liu, 2009).

A lot of fat from swine, cattle and poultry also go to cosmetics, especially in the manufacture of lipstick and eye make-up, soap, lubricants, hair sprays, conditioner, deodorant and creams (Gandhi, 2009). Tallow is also used in steel rolling industry to provide lubrication and also in some leather conditioners (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2010d).

2.8.4. Limitations.

Lard and tallow are considered less healthy than vegetable oil (such as olive and sunflower oil) because of its high-saturated fatty acid and cholesterol contents.

2. 9. Horns and hooves.

2.9.1. Description and production.

A horn is a pointed projection of the skin on the head of various animals consisting of a covering of horn (keratin and other proteins) surrounding a core of live

28 bone. True horns are found mainly among ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats); one pair of horns is usual, but two pairs occur in a few wild species and in few domesticated breeds of sheep (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009d). Horns usually have a curved or spiral shape, often with ridges or fluting. In many species only males have horns.

Horns and hoofs are treated separately. The hoofs are soaked in water until they become spongy and can be free from the bone, after which they are spread out in the sun to dry until the horn pith is completely dried and then can be removed by hammering

(Gohl, 1981). The horns and hoofs together are put in an autoclave (digester) and steam cooked after seven hour at 110 to 112oC. The material is then dried and finely ground.

The digestibilities of horns and hooves meal have been shown to increase progressively with fineness of the ground materials (Gohl, 1981).

2. 9. 2. Chemical composition.

The chemical compositions of horn and hoof meal reported by some authors are presented in Table 8. It is high in crude protein (69.5 to 88.6%), ash (5.6 to 15.8%) and ether extract (4.7 to 14.7%). The protein is mainly keratin and other proteins.

2.9.3. Use in animal nutrition and others.

. Horns and hoof meals have been used at low levels in poultry diets with variable results and it seems to be unpalatable to most classes of livestock (Gohl, 1981). A high digestibility, about 80% for crude protein has been reported for horn and hoof meal prepared by steeping the hoofs and horn in 10% sodium carbonate for sixty hours at

20oC, after which the material was boiled in water for one hour and dried at a high temperature until it turned golden yellow (AFRIS, 2010).

29

Table 8: Chemical composition of horn and hoof (as percent of dry matter).

Type of DM CP CF Ash EE NFE Ca P meal Lamb hoof 38.6 69.5 0.0 15.8 14.7 0.0 2.10 8.75 meal Horn & 89.6 88.6 0.0 5.6 4.7 1.1 0.80 0.73 hoof meal

DM = Dry Matter: CP = Crude Protein; CF = Crude fibre; EE = Ether Extract; NFE = Nitrogen-Free Extract; Ca = Calcium;

P = Phosphorus

Source: Gohl (1981)

30

Animals have a variety of uses for horn including defending themselves from predators, fighting members of their own species for territory, dominance or mating priority, used to root in the soil or strip bark from trees. Some horned male animals ream the bark and branches of trees to impress the female and lure her into his territory

(Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009d). Some animals with true horn use them for cooling. The blood vessels in the bony core allow the horns to function as a radiator.

For humans, animal horns have variety of uses. These include being use as musical instruments, drinking vessels, carrying gunpowder, as tools, furniture and decoration as well as making of glue (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009d). Horns are also used for producing buttons, combs and nitrogenous fertilizer.

2. 9. 4. Limitations.

Horn and hooves meal are not palatable to most classes of livestock and literature is also limited on its use in animal nutrition.

2.10. Rumen content.

2.10.1. Description and production.

When ruminant animals are slaughtered, the contents of their rumen can become a valuable feed resource. It can be dried immediately. By drying the content in the sun, it can be used to replace bran in poultry feed and can constitute up to 10% of the total ration

{Williamson and Payne, 1978). It can also be ensiled, but it needs to be mixed with a readily fermentable source of carbohydrates in order to be ensiled properly. It can also be mixed with blood. Rumen content can serve as a good source of water-soluble vitamins, crude protein and dietary energy for herbivores (AFRIS, 2010). Only the content of the

31 first three (3) stomach are used for this purpose, while the content of the 4th stomach is a liquid is of low feeding value (Williamson and Payne, 1978).

2.10.2. Chemical composition.

The chemical composition of rumen content of various farm animals in percentages reported by various authors is presented in Table 9. The content from different types of animals (cattle, sheep and goat) vary dramatically in their composition. Thus, the rumen from goat tends to have highest dry matters and crude protein content.

2.10.3. Uses in animal nutrition and others.

The undigested feed in the rumen obviously has a feeding value. If used for feeding, it is important that the material is dried immediately. It has been used as a feed for cattle, pig and poultry and rabbits. Rumen content contains not only the vitamin in the feed ingested before slaughter but also B-vitamins from rumen flora (Gohl, 1981). Gohl (1981) also reported that dried rumen content has been used to replace up to 100g by weight of grain in pig diet without a decrease in weight gain or feed efficiency. Rumen content silage is palatable for pigs, which can consume up to 6.5kg per day once they have, became accustomed to it. It can also be mixed with blood for use in poultry diets. AFRIS (2010) reported that performance of broilers was not found to be depressed when 10 to 15% dried rumen contents were fed and the dried rumen contents replaced 25, 50, 75 and

100% of wheat bran in broilers diet without depression in the performance. AFRIS

(2010) also reported including dried rumen contents up to 9% in the diet of layers had

32 Table 9: Chemical Composition of Rumen content of various farm animals in percentage.

Species Dry Crude Crude Ether Ash Nitrogen- Source(s) of animals matter Protein fibre Extract Free

(DM) (CP) (CF) (EE) extract

1.Bovine 80-90 10-20 30.50 2-6 8-13 38- or less Antogiovanni et al. (1973}

2. Bovine 88.0 16.20 25.40 2.30 13.50 42.60 Gohl ( 1981}

3. Bovine 96.50 10.90 19.50 1.50 21.50 43.10 Mandung ( 1994)

4. Ovine 74.80 28.80 25.50 4.60 12.80 28.80 Gohl ( 1981 )

5.Caprine 99.97 27.25 28.33 4.33 11.50 28.59 Mohammed et al. ( 2005 )

6.Caprine 92.83 17.13 24.58 2.81 7.49 40.82 Gwayo et al. (2005)

33

effect on the yolk colour. Olumeyan et al., (1995) reported that graded levels ( 0, 8, 12,

18 and 20%) of dried rumen content fed to young rabbits, showed optimum performance and best economic return at 12% inclusion. Egege (1994) also conducted a seven-week feeding trial to evaluate the incorporation of 10, 20, 30 and 40% bovine rumen content in grower mesh and reported that up to 40% level of bovine rumen content can be tolerated by young rabbits without adverse effect on the performance. Mohammed et al., (2005) fed graded levels ( 0.10, 20, 30 and 40%) of dried caprine rumen to growing rabbits and reported that up to 40% dried caprine content could be included into the diet of growing rabbits without adverse effect on the performance.

Large quantities of rumen content can efficiently be utilized if the liquid component is separated by pressing. The solid part is dried in a rotatory drier for feeding cattle and the liquid content can be precipitated or condensed and dried for use in pig diet. Rumen contents, once the liquid is pressed out, can be dried and used first as litter in poultry house and subsequently as feed for ruminants. Rumen content could also be used for fertilizer and biogas production.

2.10. 4. Limitations.

If rumen content are not efficiently utilized, it can cause a serious disposal or environmental problem.

2.11. Feather and Feather meal.

2.11.1. Description and production.

Feathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering or plumage of the birds. Unprocessed feathers are high in crude protein, but are highly

34 indigestible. The primary protein that is found associated with feather is keratin, which contains a high amount of cystine, approximately 10% (AFRIS, 2010). According to

AFRIS (2010), the cross-linking of cystine is the reason why the crude protein fraction of feathers is highly indigestible. AFRIS (2010) also reported that when feathers are processed or hydrolyzed by cooking at a high temperature under sufficient pressure the crude protein digestibility will be more then 75% and normally ranges from 80 to 85%.

Feathers can be processed either at low pressure at 130o C for two and half hours or under high pressure at 145o C for thirty minutes. If pressure cooker is not available, the feathers can be hydrolyzed with chemicals. The feathers are cooked in an open kettle with a solution of sodium sulphite in alcohol and water. After cooking or hydrolyzing with chemical the resultant meal is dried and ground. It has been observed that feather meal is unpalatable in some feeding applications. Molasses and fat can be added to increase the palatability.

2.11.2. Chemical Composition.

The chemical compositions of feather meal reported by various authors are presented in

Table 10. Feathers contain keratin, a protein which contains a high percentage of amino acid (cystine). Feather meal is deficient in lysine, methionine, histidine and tryptophan

(Olomu, 1995). The amino acid profile of feather meal is rather poorly balanced, and as such care should be taken when formulating rations using feather meal, to ensure that the ration contains the proper balance amount of amino acids.

2.11.3. Use in animal nutrition and others.

35 Table 10: Typical Analysis of feather meal (percent of dry matter).

S/N Type of ME DM% CP% Digestibility EE Ash CF Lysine Methionine Source(s) Feather Kcal/kg meal 1. Hydrolyze - 70.00 82.00 75 min 6.00 4.00 0.60 1.80 2.90 Chandler (2009)

2. ,, 2360 93.00 86.40 - 3.30 - 1.00 1.60 4.42 NRC (1984

3. ,, 2360 93.00 81.0 - 7.0 - 1.00 - - NRC (1994)

4. ,, 93.00 85.70 - 2.50 3.90 1.20 - - Olomu (1995)

5. ,, - 85.00 - 3.00 3.70 1.00 - - Parr (1988)

6. ,, 93.30 92.00 72.80 3.20 3.50 - 2.30 Amaral (2009)

7. ,, 92.00 85.00 63.00 3.00 - 3.00 - - Ingredient 101 .com (2009) 8. ,, 89.80 77.92 - 3.96 5.41 0.57 - - FAO (1981)

9. ,, 93.00 91.40 - 3.90 3.80 0.40 - - Gohl (1981)

ME = Metabolizable Energy; DM = Dry Matter; CP = Crude Protein; EE = Ether Extract; CF = Crude Fibre;

36 The use of feathers as hydrolyzed feather meal has attracted a lot of attention especially in the developed countries. The American Association of Feed Control Official (AAFCO) defined hydrolyzed poultry feathers as the product resulting from the treatment under pressure of clean, undecomposed feathers from slaughtered poultry, free of additives and accelerators (Chandler, 2009). Not less than 75% of its crude protein content must be digestible by pepsin digestibility method.

There are over one million tonnes of feathers produced each year in the U.S and as the consumption of poultry meat increases so will the production of this valuable material. Feathers have protein content of about 84% and do not suffer from the disadvantages of anti-nutritional factors such as tannin, glucosinolates, lectins and trypsin-inhibiting factor (Chandler, 2009). Chandler (2009) also reported that raw feathers are relatively insoluble, unpalatable and have a very low digestibility of about

5% due the high keratin content and the strong disulphide bonding of amino acids.

Fortunately, with the controlled technology available in the U. S. today, people are able to convert a relatively insoluble protein into a palatable and highly digestible protein source.

The most important factor affecting the quality of hydrolyzed poultry feather is the extent of hydrolyzation. If less than 75% of the crude protein content is digestible by pepsin digestibility method, then hydrolyzation was incomplete and protein quality is reduced (Ingredient 101.com, 2009).The protein in feather meal is degraded slowly in the rumen compared to most other protein sources. In a research at Purdue University, a combination of feather meal and urea produced average daily gains in growing beef cattle similar to that achieved with soya bean meal (Ingredient101.com, 2009).

37 Similarly, Geodeken et al., (1990) observed that feather meal is a digestible high escape protein source that is useful in the diet of growing ruminants. Studies at the University of

Florida using 3 to 6% hydrolyzed feather meal in corn silage-based total mixed ration resulted in milk production equal to that obtained using soya bean meal ration (Amaral,

2009). Feather meal is not very palatable and should be introduced into the ration gradually.

Feather meal is poorer in lysine and methionine but richer in cystine (Jackson and

Fulton, 2006). Jackson and Fulton (2006) further also showed that optimum efficiency of feed utilization is at 10% level of inclusion of broiler diet. Chandler (2009) also reported that starter and finisher diets could contain 6% and 4.1% feather meal respectively.

Hydrolyzed feather meal have supported growth in chicks equal to that of soyabeans, when the deficient amino acids were properly supplemented ( Olomu, 1995).

From monogastric studies, feather meal has high protein content with a reasonable degree of digestibility. The amino acid composition of feather meal protein does require supplementation to balance out low levels of lysine and methionine (Chandler, 2009).

Poultry feathers have a number of other uses; these include making of local fans, pillows, ornamentals, feather meals and granulated feather fertilizers. Granulated feather meal is granulated fertilizer that supplies nitrogen in protein form (Pacific Calcium Inc,

2009). Nitrogen is the building block of proteins, vitamins, enzymes and lipids in all plants. Granulated feather contains no free ammonia and nitrates.

2.11.4. Limitations.

38 Feather meal needs to be tested (pepsin digestibility) to ensure that it has been properly processed. Care needs to be taken to select other supplemental protein sources that will complement the poor amino acids profile of feather meal, when formulating rations.

2.12. Livestock and Poultry Manure.

2.12.1. Description and production.

Livestock manure refers to the excreta from farm animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits and poultry birds. They differ in their sizes and shapes when dry except in sheep and goats which cannot be easily distinguished. However, their colouration which is dark green are similar. They are normally obtained on livestock and poultry farms.

2.12.2. Chemical composition.

The chemical compositions of the various livestock and poultry manure reported by various authors are presented in Table 11. The table shows that poultry manure contains the highest crude protein of about 30%. Similarly, Muller (1980) reported that poultry exreta is more valuable source of digestible nutrients than ruminant faeces. Many trace elements, vitamin K2, most of the vitamins of B group and their vitamins or provitamins are found in fresh animals waste in large quantities than in the original feeds (Muller,

1968). In addition to vitamins, faecal waste contain many unidentified nutritive growth factors awaiting discovery and identification, as indicated by wealth of literate of which only examples can be quoted in the context of this presentation. Thus, Lamoreux and

Schumacher (1940) detected more riboflavin in chicken faeces than in their feeds.

Kennard et al. (1948) observed that the content of riboflavin in chicken faeces increased by 100% when the faeces were kept at room temperature for 24 hours and by 300% in a week, as a result of bacterial synthesis of the vitamins

39 Table11: Chemical composition of livestock and poultry manure (as percent of dry matter).

S/N Species CP CF EE NFE Ash Ca P Source(s)

1. Dried poultry waste 20.00 23.00 1.00 35.00 21.00 Tetengi (1991)

2. Broiler Deep litter 14.58 11.00 1.20 46.12 27.00 Tetengi (1991)

3. Poultry manure 27.26 18.30 - - 36.72 3.50 2.50 Adebowale (1985)

4. Poultry manure 25-29 14-20 1.5-2.5 - - - - Olomu(1995)

5. Swine manure 18.25 18.20 - - 17.50 2.00 0.90 Adebowale (1985)

6. Cattle manure 14.05 32.50 - - 9.89 0.45 0.50 Adebowale(1985)

CP = Crude Protein; EE = Ether Extract; CF = Crude Fibre; NFE = Nitrogen-Free Extract;

Ca = Calcium; P = Phosphorus.

40 2.12.3. Uses in animal nutrition and others.

Animal waste presents a vast reservoir of cheap nutrients, particularly for ruminants

(Muller, 1980). In most Countries, wastes particularly from poultry, is easily collected, as it is concentrated in small area, and its cost as a raw materials for feed, is generally the cost of transport alone. The only expensive item may be processing, but this is relatively small and is recoverable from the profit arising from the low original cost. Muller (1980) further revealed that feed cost for dairy or beef cattle usually represents 50 ! 80% of the total production cost; this can be reduced to 20 ! 40% by utilizing these raw feed resources as donor of protein, minerals and other nutrients.

Recycling of animal wastes has always existed in nature between the same or among diverse species. Rabbits, rats, poultry and pigs are the most typical examples because in specific situations, they consume substantial quantities of their excreta to meet their requirements of nutrients, missing from the diets. Eden (1940) found that rabbits produce two types of faeces: the familiar dry pellets during the day and a soft, mucous type rarely observed because animals collect them directly from the anus and swallow them again at night. A rabbit may eat from 54 to 82% of its own faecal production.

Southern (1940) opined that rabbits by eating their faeces have the ability to nourish themselves in feed scarcity, cold or danger for several days. This practice known as

Coprophagy, is the feeding on or eating of dungs or excrement and that is a normal behaviour among many insects, birds and other animals (Muller, 1980).

Livestock and poultry manure are used as fertilizer and for the control of soil erosion. For example, Saskatchewan Soil Conservation Association (2009) revealed that the application of cattle manure to farmland is an economical and environmentally

41 sustainable mechanism for increase crop production. The nutrients in cattle manure can replace the commercial fertilizer. However, the value of manure is more than the accumulated value of individual nutrients. Saskatchewan Soil Conservation Association

(2009) also revealed that cattle manure is an excellent soil amendment capable of increasing soil quality (soil structure and water infiltration). Similarly, the manure can increase crop yields by providing large inputs of nutrients and organic materials. The benefit of the nutrients and organic material may not be immediately evident. Therefore, the value of the manure can best be thought as the overall crop yield and quality response over several years. Similar to the above, Mitchell (2009) reported that cattle manure is used for fertilizer, land reclamation in oil mining areas which requires fibrous materials, biogas and electricity production and animal feeds. Poultry manure is also used for the production of fertilizer, biogas and electricity (Harper, 2007; The Earth times, 2008).

Goat and sheep manure are also priced as garden manure in some parts of Asia and India. Indeed in some areas of southern India, this may be a primary reason for keeping goats and sheep (Devendra and Mcleroy, 1982).

Several authors have reported on the use of livestock/poultry waste (manure and litter) as feed with encouraging results. Muller (1980) reported on the effect of feeding broiler litters on the performance of finisher steers and the result is summarized and presented in Table 12. Similarly, Muller and Dfevjany (1968), Muller (1967) and Muftic et al. (1970) showed increase in milk yield per head per day in dairy cattle as a result of incorporation of broiler litters in their ration (see Table 13). In another study Saleh et al.

(2010) reported daily body gain was higher in lambs fed on ration containing poultry waste than the control. Saleh et al., (2010) further explained that the use of poultry waste

42

Table 12: The effect of feeding broiler litters on the performance of finishing steers.

S/N Broiler Critical nutrients in complete ration Performance over 154 litter in (%) days. ration( %DM) Crude TDN Ash Crude Average Feed/gain protein fibre LWG/day(kg) 1. 0 15.0 66 10.3 21.0 1.12 n.a 2. 30 15.0 76 7.8 10.0 1.20 7.8 3. 40 15.0 74 7.9 11.3 1.22 8.1 4. 50 15.0 73 7.9 12.6 1.21 9.7 5. 60 15.5 71 8.7 13.7 1.08 9.8 6. 70 17.3 65 9.7 15.1 0.83 10.2

Source: Muller and Dfevjany (1968).

Table13: The effect of feeding broiler litters to dairy cows.

S/N Nature of Litter quantity Milk yield Remark Reference broiler per litre bedding head per (crude day protein) 1. Pine sawdust 5 kg/head/day 12.8 Increase over Muller and 27.3% 33% of DM control:n3% (not Dfevjany requirement statistically (1968) significant) 2. Pine sawdust 3 kg/head/day 15.3 No different Muller 27.3% 20% of DM over control in (1967) requirement. milk yield and quality 3. Sawdust Concentrate 15 4% butter fat Muftic et 70% + maize al., (1960) meal + 2kg hay/day

43 as a dietary supplement in ruminant ration could have considerable affect on reducing cost, insufficiency of protein in the diet and solving disposal problem.

2.12.4. Limitations.

Manure from infected livestock or poultry could be a source of infection to other stocks.

It is therefore, always recommended that manure intended for feeding livestock should be properly sterilized.

2.13. Egg shell and other Hatchery by-product meal.

2.13.1. Description and production.

This is the waste associated with a hatchery which includes egg shells, shells of hatched eggs, infertile eggs and dead chick. They can be processed into a supplemental protein and mineral sources by cooking, drying and grinding the material into meal.

2.13.2. Chemical composition.

Chemical Composition of egg shells and other hatchery by-product meals are presented in Table 14. Approximately 84% of egg shell is ash, which is mostly calcium carbonate.

Where sources of calcium are unavailable, egg shells can be sterilized, ground and used as a source of calcium. Hatchery by product meal consists of about 26.8 to 37.2% crude protein, 35% ash and 10.6 ! 21.7% ether extract.

2.13.3. Uses in animal nutrition and others. Ground egg shells could be used as source of calcium, especially for layers, while the hatchery by-products could serve as a source of both protein and minerals. There is limited information on their levels of inclusion for both monogastric and ruminant animals. Decomposed egg shell and hatchery by- products in soils could serve as a source of fertilizer for plants.

44 Table 14: The chemical composition of egg shell and hatchery by-product meal (on dry matters basis).

By-product DM CP CF ASH EE NFE Ca P Sources

Egg shell 98.4 7.6 - 86.4 2.9 - 32.2 0.17 AFRIS(2010)

Hatchery by 93.7 37.2 0.0 36.0 21.7 5.1 22.0 0.52 ,, product meal Hatchery by 96.4 26.8 3.1 35.3 10.6 20.6 21.6 0.65 ,, product meal

DM = Dry Matter; CP = Crude Protein; EE = Ether Extract; CF = Crude Fibre; NFE = Nitrogen-Free Extract;

Ca = Calcium; P = Phosphorus.

45 2.13.4. Limitations.

There is need for proper heat treatment during processing to ensure that all pathogenic organisms are destroyed. Raw eggs contain avidin (a protein) which ties up biotin making it unavailable to the animals, thus resulting in biotin deficiency. Heat will destroy the avidin.

2.14. Mohair and Tail hair.

2.14.1. Description and production.

Mohair usually refers to a silk-like fabric or yarn made from hair of Angora goat

(Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia, 2009e). The word # Mohair$ was adapted into

English before 1570 from Arabic Mukhayyar, a type of haircloth, literally # chosen$

from Khayyara # he chose$ . Mohair fibre is approximately 25 ! 42 microns in diameter.

It is both durable and resilient. It is notable for its high luster and sheen and is often

used in fibre blends to add these qualities to a textile. Mohair also takes dye

exceptionally well. Mohair is also warm as it has great insulating properties. It is

durable, moisture wicking, stretch and flame resistant and crease resistant.

Mohair is shorn from the goats without harming the animals. Shearing is done

twice a year. One goat produces about 5.0 to 7.70 kg a year. Wikipedia, the free

encyclopedia, (2009e) also revealed that the shearing is done on a clean swept floor

with extra care to keep the hair clean and free of debris. The hair is then processed to

remove natural grease, dirt and vegetable matter. Tail hair mostly refers to the tail of

the farm animals like cattle, which are cut when the animals are slaughtered.

The Angora goat is thought to originate from the mountains of Tibet making their

way to Turkey in the 16th Century. However, fabric made of mohair was known in

46 England as early as the 8th Century (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2001). Raw mohair was

first exported from Turkey to England around 1820, which became the leading

manufacturer of mohair.

Until 1849 the Turkish province of Ankara was the sole producer of Angora

goats. Charles V is believed to be the first to bring Angora goat to Europe. Wikipedia ,

the free encyclopedia, (2009e) further revealed that due to the great demand for mohair

fibre, through out the 1800 there was a great deal of crossbreeding between Angora

goat and common goats. The growing demand for mohair further resulted in attempts to

introduce the goat into South Africa on a commercial scale (where it was crossed with

the native goat) in 1838, the United State in 1849, Australia from 1856 ! 1875, and

later New Zealand (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2001). In 1849 Angora goat made their

way to America as a gift from Turkey.

Today South Africa is the largest mohair producer in the world, with the majority of South African mohair being produced in Eastern Cape. The United State is the second largest mohair producer, with majority of American mohair being produced in Texas. In

December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed the year 2009 to be the international year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of mohair and other natural fibres.

2.14.2. Chemical composition.

Mohair/ tail hair is composed mostly of keratin, a protein found in the hair

wool, horns and skin of all mammals. Mohair is more difficult to hydrolyze than

poultry feathers. It is also deficient in methionine, lysine and trytophan. Mohair

increases its diameter with the age of the goat, growing along with the animal. This

47 means fine hair from younger animals is used for finer applications such as clothing,

and the thicker hair from older animals is more often used for carpet and heavy fabrics

intended for outerwear.

2.14.3. Uses in animal nutrition and others.

Even though mohair contains keratin protein, it is not commonly used for animal

feeding because, it is more valuable to be used producing in scarves, suits, sweaters,

coats, socks and home furnishing. Mohair fibre is also found in carpets, wall fabrics,

craft yarn and many other fabrics, and may be used as a substitute for fur. Due to the

fact that its texture resembles fine human hair, mohair is often used in making high

grade doll wigs or in rooting customized dolls. The tail hair of cattle, in particular, is

used in making wedding gowns, local brush, upholstery and wig for women.

2.14.4. Limitations.

Angora goats which produce mohair are mostly found in temperate climates and not in tropical climates like Nigeria. Mohair is basically used for textiles and nothing more else.

2.15 Milk by-products.

2. 15.1 Description and production.

Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the mammary gland of mammals. It provides the primary source of nutrition for young mammals before they are able to digest other types of food (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2010e). Gohl (1981) categorized milk by-products into skimmed milk, butter milk and whey.

(a) Skimmed milk (separated milk). This is milk from which most of the fat has been

removed but in which all proteins remains. It is rich in vitamin B but deficient in

vitamins A and D.

48 (b) Butter milk: - this is the residue from churned whole milk. It contains somewhat

more fat than skimmed milk.

(c) Whey: - this is the residue from the manufacture of cheese during which most of

the protein and fat are removed and consist mostly of sugar milk and minerals.

2.15.2 Chemical composition.

The chemical composition of various milk by-products are presented in Table 15. They are mostly high in crude protein, ash and nitrogen free extracts. They are deficient in iron, copper and vitamins A and D.

2.15.3. Uses in animal nutrition and other uses.

Milk contains all nutrients required by animals. Although milk products are excellent feeds, their high cost prevent its extensive use for all animals except young animals.

Fresh skimmed milk is commonly used in feeding calves as a replacement in of whole milk. From the 5th day of the calf" s life, skimmed milk gradually substitutes, for whole milk, until it is fully replaced on the 45th day. As skimmed milk is deficient in fat soluble vitamins, it is advisable to mix it with a vitamin concentrate or cod- liver oil (30g per calf per day). For young pigs skimmed milk can be given ad libitum from 3 weeks of age up to weaning and should also have access to concentrate and vitamins A and D. Matured pigs can be fed skimmed milk with corresponding reduction of protein in ration.

Skimmed milk can be given to poultry to drink ad libitum or can be used in the preparation of wet mashes. Butter milk is used the same way as skimmed milk for pigs and poultry but it has a laxative effect on young calves.

A simple method of feeding whey to pigs is to provide at ad libitum with daily supplement of 1kg of concentrate per pig until the pig weighs 50kg, after which the

49 Table15: The Chemical composition of various milk by-products.

S/N By-product DM As % of dry matter

CP CF Ash EE NFE Ca P

1. Fresh whole milk, Uganda 15.0 24.0 0.0 5.3 41.3 29.4 0.80 0.67

2. Fresh skim milk, Trinidad 9.6 37.5 0.0 8.3 1.6 52.6 - -

3. Skim milk powder, Uganda 90.0 36.4 0.0 8.3 1.7 53.6 0.93 0.73

4. Fresh butter milk, UK 10.0 33.0 0.0 8.0 12.0 47.0 0.80 0.67

5. Fresh whey, Cyprus 5.3 10.8 0.0 9.2 0.4 79.6 0.75 0.64

Source: Gohl (1981).

50 concentrate would be changed to 1kg of barley or low protein concentrate. Liquid whey can be fed ad libitum to cows, if they have free access to water. The average consumption will then be 60 litres of whey and 30 litres of water, although the individual variation is considerable .Large amount of whey tend to lower milk production and at the same time increase the butter fat content (Gohl, 1981).

2.15.4. Limitations.

The by-products of milk are bulky to handle and deteriorate rapidly. They are also deficient in iron, copper and vitamins A and D.

The summary of the various livestock and poultry by-products, their uses, processing methods and limitations are presented in Table 16.

51 Table 16: Various Livestock and Poultry by-products, their uses, processing methods and limitations.

S/N BY PRODUCTS USES PROCESSING LIMITATIONS REFERENCES METHODS A Livestock by- Products:

1. Bone. - Plastic surgery. Shaping & sizing of High skill technology is Liu (2009). cartilage. required.

High cost of - Gelatin production. Boiling under steam equipment. pressure. Preservation - Flavouring of soup. Extraction with boiled difficulties. water.

-Source of anthrax, 2. Bone meal. - Sources of Ca & P. Piled on metal (frame), botulism or mad cow Answers. Com sterilization by burning disease, if not properly (2009). & pulverized. sterilized. Wikipedia, the -Not palatable free - Recommended levels encyclopedia (2-3% in poultry, 2-4% (2009a). in pig & 5% in cattle).

Lime in nature.

-Fertilizer. Direct application of Expensive & source of ground bones on the soil infection, if not

52 3. Meat meal. Source of protein for animal/ Boiling /sterilization, properly sterilized. Williamson & poultry feeds. reduce moisture by Payne (1978). press, drying and milling Could be source of infection from infected 4. Meat extract. - flavourant in soup. Extracting fresh meat animals, if not properly Liu (2009). with boiling water, boiled. removal of fat and concentrating liquid by evaporation. Rancidity due to fats

5. Meat & bone Meal. - Source protein, Ca & P. Same as meat meal only Miles & Jacob more bones are added. -Source of anthrax, (2003) botulism or mad cow 6. Blood. - Edible product for humans disease, if not properly Liu (2009). (e.g. blood biscuit & sterilized bread) - Foaming agent in baking -Poor keep quality. industries and fire extinguisher. - Emulsifier and Stabilizer - Colour additive - Tissue culture in Lab - Industrial use as adhesive, paper, plastic and glue - Shoes polish - Leather - Pigment colour in cloth - New blood constituent hemopure ( Transgensic -Source of anthrax,

53 animals) botulism or mad cow 7. Blood meal. - Boiling at 100o disease, if not properly Williamson & - Poultry feeds. C for 15mins. sterilized Payne (1978). - Lime treatment Gohl (1981). Coagulation, - Unpalatable. pressing, drying & grinding. - Absorption in cereals by- products. Too much application can burn plants because - Boiling or lime of high nitrogen Wikipedia, the - Fertilizer. treatment content free encyclopedia Religious & cultural (2009b) restrictions. 8. Organ and Glands. Extractions, grinding & Liu (2009). - Pharmaceuticals -anti- other processes.. inflammatory agent for shocks. - Stimulate heart action. - Adrenal cortex stimulating hormones ACSH from pituitary is used for rheumatism, arthritis, eye inflammation. - Ingredient of bile use in medicine. - Liver extracts from pigs use as source of vitamin B & treatment of anemia.

54 - Anticoagulant. - Progesterone & Oestrogen from pig" s ovaries are used for reproductive problem in women. - Glucagons extract (insulin) use to increase/decrease blood USDA (1993). sugar. - Hog heart valve are used replaced defective valve in human heart (over 30,000) Now replaced by heart value have been polythene products. 9. Animal guts implanted. Varies. Wikipedia, the (intestines). free - Musical instruments encyclopedia - In racquets for sports ( 2009c). - Sausage Chromium poisoning & - Condom. poor amino acid 10. Hides & Skins. Tannery processing. profile. Liu (2009) AFRIS(2010). - Shelter - Leather shoes - Athletic equipment - Sausage High cost of - Gelatins equipment. 11 Gelatin. - Glue Boiling under steam Liu(2009) pressure. Gohl (1981). - Food gellies. - Outer covering of High cholesterol level - capsules. heart problem.

55 12. Tallow and Lards. Dry & Wet rendering. NRC (1976) Gandhi(2009) CRESTOR - Foods. (2010). - Cosmetics - Lipstick - Soap - Keratin not - Lubricant easily 13. Horns & Hooves. - Deodorum and Immersion in hot water digestible. Wikipedia, free - Creams. and beating with - Unpalatable. encyclopedia hammer. (2009d). - Musical instruments Williamson and - Drinking vessels Payne (1978). - Furniture, handles Disposal & - Glue, buttons environmental 14. Rumen Content. - Fertilizer Augmented by mixing- problems. Gohl (1981) - Medicine. dried rumen content Mohammed with liquid blood/ et al., (2005) - Poultry/rabbits feeds. supplements. AFRIS(2010) Serious disposal & environmental 15. Livestock dung" s Direct application. problems. Harper(2007) (manure). ,, ,, The Earthtimes As protein supplement, (2008). - Fertilizer Use of chambers. - Soil conditioner - Feeds (poultry & fish). Requires temperate - Biogas climate. 16. Mohair. - Electricity. Shearing on clean floor, Wikipedia, the remove dirt and made free into fabrics. encyclopedia

56 - Textile (2009e ). - Fabrics Not suitable as feed - Carpets because of high keratin. 17. Tail hair. - Sweater Local processing. - Coats -High cost - Local brush -Poor keeping quality. - Upholstery -Deficient in iron, 18. Milk by-product - Wig for women Processed into skim, copper and Vit A & D. Gohl (1981). (skim, butter & - Wedding dress buttermilk and whey. whey ). Excellent feed especially for young animals. B. Poultry by- Products. - 1. Bone. Extraction of flavour by boiling with water. Liu (2009).

- Flavourants in noodles Proper sterilization. (e.g chicken flavour in 2. Feaces. indomine). -Direct application - ,, ,, Harper(2007). -Anaerobic The Earthtimes - Fertilizer fermentation in chamber (2008). - Litter Supplement. - Biogas ,, -Poor amino acid ,, profile. - Feeds(layers (10%), (broilers (5%), -Keratin protein is not (ensilage 15 ! 30%) easily digestible, except

57 3. Feather. ( fish) . Hydrolyzation & other when hydrolyzed. Olomu(1995) processes. -unpalatable. Chandler(2009) Jackson & - Feather meals. By heat treatment, Fulton (2006). - Bedding. avidin in eggs can - Ornamentals make biotin - Sporting (Shuttle ). unavailable. - Chemicals. - Paint ! brush. 4. Rotten egg, dead - Foaming agents. Cooking, drying & AFRIS(2010). Chicks & Chicken. grinding.

- Feeds & Fertilizer.

58 3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

Although there are no data available on the quantities/estimates of animal and poultry by ! products produced in Nigeria, there is no doubt that so many tonnes of these by-products are produced from abattoirs, livestock and poultry farms across the Country annually. These by-products include bone meal, blood meal, hides and skin and manure to mention but a few. If these by-products are properly processed and evaluated, it will amount to millions of Naira. Liu (2009) estimated that about 11.4% of the gross income from beef and 7.5% of income from pork comes from the by-products. However, greater portion of these by products from abattoir, livestock and poultry farms in Nigeria are not effectively utilized and are wasted for various reasons. These reasons include lack of awareness on uses and processing of some of these by products, religious and cultural taboos and lack of facilities to process them into useful materials. The waste from these by- products causes enormous economic losses which could be in million of Naira.

Furthermore, poorer disposal of some of these by! products causes serious environmental problems.

In order to maximize the utilization of these by-products in Nigeria the following are hereby recommended.

(1) There is the need for public enlightenment on the uses and processing of these by-

products especially among the students of agriculture and related courses,

livestock and poultry farmers, abattoir staff, butchers and policy makers.

(2) The Private sectors and Government should be encouraged to set ! up factories

for the processing of these by-products into useful materials. This would not only

59 generate employment, but would also contribute to stabilization of attractive

prices to the producer and the lowest possible prices to consumer.

(3) Universities and Research Institutes should focus their research on the uses and

processing of livestock and poultry by-products. For example there is the need to

explore the possibilities of using feather meal or rumen content for livestock

feeding in developing countries like Nigeria.

(4) By-products should always be properly sterilized before use to avoid the spread of

diseases from infected by-products.

(5) Livestock and poultry manure are natural fertilizer and their use on the farm

should be encouraged instead of chemical fertilizer. Use of these manures for the

production of biogas, fish and poultry feeds should also be encouraged.

(6) There is need to explore local and international markets for some of the livestock

by-products such as horns, hooves and bone meal.

(7) Blood for processing into blood meal should be processed as soon as possible

after collection to ensure that it does not deteriorate to a level that it will affect the

quality of the meal.

(8) It is advisable that livestock by-products such as bone and meat meal and others

that have fat content should not be stored for a long period because of the fear of

rancidity.

(9) Excessive use of animal fats is of health concern because of the danger of high

cholesterol level. There are also some religious and cultural taboos against the use

of lard in some areas. Therefore, lard could be used in areas where it is available

and there are no religious and cultural restrictions.

60 (10) Milk by-product is not only expensive, but also not readily available in most developing countries like Nigeria. Therefore, it is only recommended for young animals.

(11) In developing countries like Nigeria the majority of the population cannot meet up the daily 65g of protein recommended by FAO because of poverty. Therefore, only meats that are not suitable for human consumption e.g. condemned carcasses could be converted in to meat meal and be fed to livestock/poultry after they are well sterilized.

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