arts

Article The Screen in Fresco Paintings: A Study of the ‘Screen-Style Frescoes’ in the Temples of Gaoping County in

Wei Liu

School of Architectural and Artistic Design, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo 454000, China; [email protected]

Academic Editor: Annetta Alexandridis Received: 26 July 2017; Accepted: 2 September 2017; Published: 12 September 2017

Abstract: Screen-style frescoes, found in the temples of Gaoping County, Province, China, and originating mostly from the , present a unique painting form. Folk artists not only painted the screen, a common object in everyday life in ancient China, on the wall surfaces, but also created a variety of paintings inside the screen panels, whereby the viewer sees a painting within a painting. This article, based on multiple field trips, aims to analyze screen-style frescoes in terms of their locations, styles, and unique artistic characteristics such as subject matter, color usage, and brushwork. By studying the influence of literati paintings from the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the author also reveals the aesthetic transition from religious scenes to secular life as presented in the temple frescoes in ancient Gaoping County.

Keywords: screens in fresco paintings; screen-style frescoes; temples in Gaoping County; painting form; literati painting; secularization

1. Introduction The screen, as a common type of furniture and architectural element in ancient China, serves the multiple purposes of shielding from the wind; partitioning interior spaces, most often to create privacy; and functioning as both a painting medium and a decorative artwork (Wu 2009). Mural paintings of the screen have been primarily found in tomb chambers and grottoes dating back to the , , and the period of Northern and Southern dynasties in China. They have been mainly studied in the context of tomb frescoes, grotto frescoes, and as artifacts considered in terms of their images, symbolic meanings and styles. Attention has also been given to the sources of style, structural characteristics, and the subject matter of the paintings that decorate such screens. Little attention has been paid, however, to mural paintings depicting screens on temple walls (Qiu 2012). This article is the result of multiple field trips to Gaoping County, Shanxi Province, during 2013–2014 to study the mural paintings of screens on the region’s temple walls. Careful evaluation of these murals reveals that the area has a large number of high-quality, well preserved paintings of the screen characterized by a wide variety of painting styles and subject matter. A map of the temples in the region is given in Figure1. This article, based on a comprehensive study of these paintings, aims to unveil their content, philosophical background, and artistic characteristics and lay the foundation for future studies.

Arts 2017, 6, 13; doi:10.3390/arts6030013 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2017, 6, 13 2 of 11 Arts 2017, 6, 13 2 of 11

FigureFigure 1. 1.A A distribution distribution map map ofof thethe extant frescoes in in the the temples temples of of Gaoping Gaoping County. County.

TombTomb and and grotto grotto frescoes frescoes differ from from county county primarily primarily in intheir their object object of painting: of painting: they take they the take thescreen screen itself itself as astheir their depicted depicted object, object, and feature and feature realistic realistic depictions depictions of the entire of the screen entire on screen the walls, on the walls,including including its frame its frame and panel and paintings. panel paintings. Realistic Realistic treatments treatments of the screen’s of the panel screen’s structure panel and structure style, andpicture style, content picture on content screen on panels, screen spatial panels, position, spatial and position, perspectival and perspectival relations in relations combination in combination with the withspatial the arrangement spatial arrangement of actual oftemple actual statues—which temple statues—which are often found are oftenin front found of these in frontpaintings— of these present the viewer with the illusion that the mural paintings are real screens. For the purpose of this paintings—present the viewer with the illusion that the mural paintings are real screens. For the article, the author would like to group such paintings, located in the Gaoping area, under the name purpose of this article, the author would like to group such paintings, located in the Gaoping area, ‘screen‐style frescoes’. By delineating realistic paintings of the screen on wall surfaces and under the name ‘screen-style frescoes’. By delineating realistic paintings of the screen on wall incorporating its spatial relations to the temple architecture and statues, painters of such screen‐style surfaces and incorporating its spatial relations to the temple architecture and statues, painters of frescoes successfully create a unique painting form based on visual translation. such screen-style frescoes successfully create a unique painting form based on visual translation. 2. Current State of the Extant Screen‐Style Frescoes 2. Current State of the Extant Screen-Style Frescoes With the exception of two works identified as from the , almost all the frescoes date backWith to the Qing exception Dynasty. of two More works specifically, identified their as dates from of the origin Ming span Dynasty, from 1596 almost in the all thelate frescoesMing dateDynasty back to to the the Qing end of Dynasty. the Qing More Dynasty specifically, in 1911, with their the dates highest of origin amount span created from during 1596 in the the reigns late Ming of DynastyEmperors to the Qinlong end of (1735–1796) the Qing Dynasty and Daoguang in 1911, (1820–1850). with the highest amount created during the reigns of EmperorsThe Qinlong screen‐style (1735–1796) frescoes andare widely Daoguang found (1820–1850). in many Buddhist and Daoist temples in Gaoping County.The screen-style In large temples, frescoes they are appear widely in the found main in hall, many the Buddhistwings, and and the Daoistside hall, temples whereas in in Gaoping small County.temples In they large are temples, often seen they in appearonly the in main the hall. main hall, the wings, and the side hall, whereas in small temples they are often seen in only the main hall. Arts 2017, 6, 13 3 of 11

The position of the walls often determines the types of screens painted on their surfaces. While Arts 2017, 6, 13 3 of 11 the seatedArts 2017 screen, 6, 13 often appears on side walls, the folding screen and the hanging screen tend3 of to11 show up on the backThe position wall of of the the templewalls often halls. determines To be more the types specific, of screens the foldingpainted on screen their surfaces. shaped While like a the staple is paintedseated onThe the screen position back often wall, of appears the along walls on with often side one walls,determines to the two folding panelsthe types screen on of each screens and ofthe thepainted hanging side on wallsscreen their (Figure tendsurfaces. to show2 ).While The up the hanging on screen,seatedthe shaped back screen wall as often aof straight the appears temple line, onhalls. side is To found walls, be more onthe eitherfoldingspecific, thescreen the back folding and wall the screen hanging or in shaped an screen equal like tend a number staple to show is painted of up panels on on the back wall of the temple halls. To be more specific, the folding screen shaped like a staple is painted each ofon the the twoback sidewall, wallsalong with (Figure one 3to). two The panels folding on each screen of the is frequentlyside walls (Figure found 2). onThe the hanging back screen, wall in the onshaped the back as a wall,straight along line, with is found one to on two either panels the backon each wall of or the in side an equal walls number (Figure of2). panels The hanging on each screen, of the shape of a wave (Figure4). The seated screen is usually painted on either the back wall or the side shapedtwo side as walls a straight (Figure line, 3). is The found folding on either screen the is frequentlyback wall or found in an on equal the backnumber wall of in panels the shape on each of a ofwave the walls (Figuretwo(Figure side 4).5 walls). The (Figureseated screen3). The is folding usually screen painted is frequently on either the found back on wall the orback the wall side inwalls the shape(Figure of 5). a wave (Figure 4). The seated screen is usually painted on either the back wall or the side walls (Figure 5).

Figure 2. Part of 12‐panel folding screen, within the green dashed lines, in the Guandi Temple in Figure 2. Part of 12-panel folding screen, within the green dashed lines, in the Guandi Temple in Ducun FigureDucun 2.Village, Part of Hexi 12‐ panelTown folding(No. 64 screen,in Figure within 1). the green dashed lines, in the Guandi Temple in Village,Ducun Hexi Village, Town (No.Hexi Town 64 in Figure(No. 641 in). Figure 1).

Figure 3. Hanging screen depicting ladys in the Xiangu Temple in Shangdongfeng Village (No. 51 in Figure1). Arts 2017, 6, 13 4 of 11 Arts 2017, 6, 13 4 of 11 Arts 2017, 6, 13 4 of 11 Figure 3. Hanging screen depicting ladys in the Xiangu Temple in Shangdongfeng Village (No. 51 in Figure 1).3. Hanging screen depicting ladys in the Xiangu Temple in Shangdongfeng Village (No. 51 in Figure 1).

Figure 4. A folding screen painted on the back wall of the west wing of Xuanwu Temple in Xilimen Figure 4. A folding screen painted on the back wall of the west wing of Xuanwu Temple in Xilimen FigureVillage, 4. Hexi A folding Town screen(No. 67 painted in Figure on 1). the back wall of the west wing of Xuanwu Temple in Xilimen Village, Hexi Town (No. 67 in Figure1). Village, Hexi Town (No. 67 in Figure 1).

Figure 5. A single‐panel seated screen in the Guandi Temple in Hedong Village, Mishan Town (No. Figure84 in Figure 5. A single1). ‐panel seated screen in the Guandi Temple in Hedong Village, Mishan Town (No. Figure 5. A single-panel seated screen in the Guandi Temple in Hedong Village, Mishan Town (No. 84 84 in Figure 1). in FigureThe 1screen). ‐style frescoes account for 57.8% of all the mural paintings discovered in Gaoping so far. ThisThe screenratio is‐style between frescoes screen account‐style forfrescoes 57.8% and of all all the frescoes mural paintingsdiscovered discovered so far. As in the Gaoping ineligible so Thefar.screen This screen-style‐style ratio frescoes is between frescoes are not screen accountcounted,‐style forscreen frescoes 57.8%‐style and of frescoes all all the frescoes actually mural discovered paintings account for so discovered afar. larger As percentagethe inineligible Gaoping of so far. Thisscreenall frescoes. ratio‐style is frescoesThey between represent are screen-style not counted,almost all screen frescoes of the‐style styles and frescoes allof real frescoes actually screens discovered account originating for a so largerfrom far. thatpercentage As historical the ineligible of screen-styleallperiod, frescoes. including frescoes They the arerepresent seated not counted, screen,almost foldingall screen-style of the screen, styles and frescoes of hangingreal screens actually screen. originating account The number forfrom aof that larger screen historical percentagepanels period,among theincluding various the works seated are screen, 1, 4, 6, folding 8, 10, 12,screen, 14, and and 16. hanging Of all screen.the screen The‐style number frescoes, of screen the largestpanels of all frescoes. They represent almost all of the styles of real screens originating from that historical among the various works are 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16. Of all the screen‐style frescoes, the largest period, including the seated screen, folding screen, and hanging screen. The number of screen panels among the various works are 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16. Of all the screen-style frescoes, the largest group consists of the 12-panel folding screens, while the second largest group comprises even-numbered-panel folding and hanging screens. The number of seated screens is relatively small. Arts 2017, 6, 13 5 of 11 Arts 2017, 6, 13 5 of 11 Arts 2017, 6, 13 5 of 11

group consists of the 12‐panel folding screens, while the second largest group comprises even‐ Thegroup screen-style consists of the frescoes 12‐panel in folding Gaoping screens, temples while focus the second on the largest screen group as their comprises depicted even object.‐ numbered‐panel folding and hanging screens. The number of seated screens is relatively small. numbered‐panel folding and hanging screens. The number of seated screens is relatively small. The screen,The besides screen‐ beingstyle frescoes a piece in of Gaoping furniture, temples is itself focus a medium on the screen of painting as their by depicted providing object. the The painter The screen‐style frescoes in Gaoping temples focus on the screen as their depicted object. The withscreen, an ideal besides surface. being Moreover, a piece of furniture, the screen is itself has a also medium served of painting as a subject by providing of painting, the painter and with is in fact screen, besides being a piece of furniture, is itself a medium of painting by providing the painter with amongan theideal most surface. popular Moreover, images the presented screen has in also paintings served as since a subject the beginning of painting, of and the is Chinese in fact among art history. an ideal surface. Moreover, the screen has also served as a subject of painting, and is in fact among the most popular images presented in paintings since the beginning of the history. In In traditionalthe most popular Chinese images paintings presented that incorporate in paintings the since screen the beginning as part of of the the picture, Chinese artists art history. not only In vary traditional Chinese paintings that incorporate the screen as part of the picture, artists not only vary the screentraditional styles Chinese in accordance paintings that with incorporate the specific the spatial screen as environment part of the picture, in which artists their not charactersonly vary are the screen styles in accordance with the specific spatial environment in which their characters are found,the but screen also styles take thein accordance depicted screen with the itself specific as an spatial important environment painting in surface which their by portraying characters are subjects found, but also take the depicted screen itself as an important painting surface by portraying subjects that fitfound, in with but thealso whole take the picture. depicted A screen large itself quantity as an of important paintings surface featuring by portraying the screen subjects that came that fit in with the whole picture. A large quantity of Chinese paintings featuring the screen that came fromthat almost fit in everywith the dynasty whole picture. have survived A large quantity (Liu 2011 of Chinese) (Figures paintings6 and featuring7). In addition the screen to that its physicalcame from almost every dynasty have survived (Liu 2011) (Figures 6 and 7). In addition to its physical functionality,from almost the every screen dynasty in such have paintings survived constitutes (Liu 2011) (Figures both a medium6 and 7). In of addition painting to and its physical an object of functionality, the screen in such paintings constitutes both a medium of painting and an object of functionality, the screen in such paintings constitutes both a medium of painting and an object of representation.representation. The The image image of of the the screen screen featured featured inin the screen screen-style‐style frescoes frescoes in Gaoping in Gaoping temples temples serves serves representation. The image of the screen featured in the screen‐style frescoes in Gaoping temples serves the dualthe dual purpose purpose of beingof being both both the the object object and medium medium of of painting painting as well. as well. the dual purpose of being both the object and medium of painting as well.

Figure 6. Zhou Wenju (Five Dynasties) Playing Chess beside Double Screen. Ink and colors on . (70.5 FigureFigure 6. Zhou 6. Zhou Wenju Wenju (Five (Five Dynasties)Dynasties) PlayingPlaying Chess Chess beside beside Double Double Screen Screen. Ink and. Ink colors and on colorssilk. (70.5 on silk. × 40.3 cm) Palace Museum Collection, . (70.5×× 40.340.3 cm) cm) Palace Palace Museum Museum Collection, Collection, Beijing. Beijing.

Figure 7. Ding Guanpeng (Qing Dyansty). Emperor Qianlong Appreciating Antiques in front of His Own Portrait. Ink and colors on silk. (76.5 × 147.2 cm). Palace Museum Collection, Beijing. Arts 2017, 6, 13 6 of 11

Figure 7. Ding Guanpeng (Qing Dyansty). Emperor Qianlong Appreciating Antiques in front of His Own Arts 2017, 6, 13 6 of 11 Portrait. Ink and colors on silk. (76.5 × 147.2 cm). Palace Museum Collection, Beijing.

AsAs the primary object portrayed in these frescoes, the screen alludes to the wall, which functions asas thethe medium medium of of mural mural paintings, paintings, in that in that both both the wall the and wall the and screen the functionscreen function as not only as anot utilitarian only a architecturalutilitarian architectural element but element also a but medium also a of medium painting. of painting. That is to That say, is in to these say, screen-style in these screen frescoes,‐style thefrescoes, screen, the as screen, the depicted as the depicted object, serves object, as serves a mirror as a imagemirror or image metaphor or metaphor of the wall,of the which wall, which is the mediumis the medium on which on thewhich screen the isscreen represented. is represented. In its role In asits therole medium as the medium of painting of painting in these frescoes,in these thefrescoes, screen, the with screen, the pictures with the painted pictures on painted its panel(s), on its refers panel(s), to the refers statue to placedthe statue in front placed of in it tofront present of it theto present viewer the with viewer meanings with reflecting meanings their reflecting thoughts their and thoughts emotions, and as emotions, the paintings as the on paintings the screen on itself the arescreen often itself purposefully are often purposefully created to associate created to with associate the statue. with Given the statue. that theGiven religious that the statue religious is itself statue an integralis itself partan integral of a Buddhist part of or Daoista Buddhist temple or structure, Daoist temple the architectural structure, relationship the architectural between relationship the screen andbetween the statue the screen amounts and tothe a statue third aspect amounts of the to a spatiality third aspect of the of screen the spatiality painted of in the these screen frescoes, painted aside in fromthese being frescoes, an architectural aside from being element an architectural itself and its element relationship itself with and the its relationship wall. with the wall.

3.3. The Method of Painting InIn terms of of the the subject subject matter, matter, these these screen screen-style‐style frescoes frescoes abandoned abandoned the the traditional traditional Buddhist Buddhist and andDaoist Daoist religious religious themes, themes, and embraced and embraced secular secular subject subject matter mattercharacterized characterized by imagery by intendedimagery to intended convey tomeaning, convey and meaning, meaning and intended meaning to intendedbe of good to fortune be of good. By fortuneadopting. By a wide adopting range a of wide secular range symbolisms, of secular symbolisms,metaphors, and metaphors, puns, these and puns,frescoes these present frescoes the present viewer thewith viewer lively, with bright, lively, and bright, beloved and belovedpictures picturesrepresenting representing secular life secular and folk life traditions. and folk Their traditions. subject Theirmatter subject includes matter three includesmain categories. three main The categories.first category The focuses first category on portrait focuses painting, on portrait featuring painting, people featuring with different people occupations with different (the occupations fisherman, (thethe woodcutter, fisherman, the the woodcutter, farmer, and the the farmer, scholar), and literati the scholar), in gatherings, literati and in gatherings, mythological and characters. mythological The characters.second category The secondis flower category‐and‐bird is paintings, flower-and-bird which paintings,feature the which ‘Three feature Friends the of ‘ThreeWinter’ Friends (the pine, of Winter’bamboo, (the and pine, plum) bamboo, and flowers and plum) from andthe four flowers seasons. from In the this four category, seasons. auspiciousIn this category, patterns auspicious are also patternsoften seen, are such also as often two seen,magpies such perched as two on magpies a plum perched tree and on bamboo a plum branches, tree and or bamboo a couple branches, of mandarin or a coupleducks swimming of mandarin around ducks lotus swimming flowers, around or a phoenix lotus flowers, bird playing or a phoenix among bird peony playing flowers, among and peonyegrets flowers,alighted and on lotus egrets flowers. alighted Last on but lotus not flowers. the least, Last mountains but not the and least, water mountains paintings and often water feature paintings landscapes often featurefrom the landscapes four seasons from and the hermits four seasons dwelling and among hermits mountains dwelling among and rivers mountains (Figure and 8). rivers (Figure8).

Figure 8. A folding screen depicting human figures, mountains and rivers, and flower and bird in the Yandi Temple in Jiaohe Village, Hexi Town (No. 60 in Figure1). Arts 2017, 6, 13 7 of 11

Arts 2017, 6, 13 7 of 11 Painters of these frescoes displayed mastery of the brush and ink. Through variation in their approaches,Figure both 8. A free-style folding screen paintings depicting with human broad figures, strokes mountains and and realistic rivers, and paintings flower and with bird thein the fine brush were created.Yandi These Temple fresco in Jiaohe paintings Village, Hexi also Town bespeak (No. 60 a in pervasive Figure 1). influence by literati paintings in terms of line arrangements and brush stroke techniques, including horizontal coloring, different methods of Painters of these frescoes displayed mastery of the brush and ink. Through variation in their applying washes, the texturing technique, dotting, and the non-outline method. The brushes were approaches, both free‐style paintings with broad strokes and realistic paintings with the fine brush executedwere in created. a brisk These and free fresco manner. paintings A combinationalso bespeak a of pervasive straight influence and curved by literati lines was paintings used. Forin terms example, humanof line figures arrangements are effectively and brush presented stroke withtechniques, vivid featuresincluding and horizontal distinct coloring, manners different fitting methods their stories and personalities:of applying washes, they the appear texturing in domestic technique, settings dotting, with and the a table non‐outline or a curio method. shelf The in brushes the background, were or inexecuted outdoor surroundingsin a brisk and free such manner. as a building A combination or natural of scenery.straight and The curved frescoes lines also was demonstrate used. For the painters’example, attention human to figures detail, are with effectively subtle parts presented of the with figures vivid or features primary and subjects distinct meticulously manners fitting treated, for instance,their stories the foldsand personalities: of clothes on they a human appear figurein domestic are deftly settings handled with a to table show or a layers. curio shelf With in respect the to the compositionbackground, ofor thein outdoor paintings, surroundings the frescoes such also as display a building influence or natural from scenery. the literati The frescoes paintings also in the use ofdemonstrate blank space, the poetry painters’ lines, attention and ink to stamps detail, towith imitate subtle the parts latter’s of the integration figures or ofprimary poetry, subjects calligraphy, meticulously treated, for instance, the folds of clothes on a human figure are deftly handled to show painting, and stamps within a work of painting. layers. With respect to the composition of the paintings, the frescoes also display influence from the Inliterati the aspectpaintings of in color, the use colors of blank derived space, from poetry natural lines, mineral and ink pigments stamps to were imitate used, the suchlatter’s as ink black,integration azurite blue, of poetry, mineral calligraphy, green, painting, ocher, and and burntstamps sienna. within a work Ink and of painting. wash were mostly used in painting landscapes,In the aspect whereas of color, colors the color derived scheme from of natural blue andmineral green pigments were employed were used, insuch the as frescoes’ ink black, frame decoration.azurite blue, The frescoesmineral green, are framed ocher, onand their burnt four sienna. sides Ink with and morewash curlywere mostly grass patternsused in painting than flower clusters.landscapes, Through whereas the use the of geometricalcolor scheme shapes, of blue well-trimmedand green were decoration employed patterns, in the frescoes’ and bright frame colors, the framedecoration. design The of thefrescoes frescoes are framed resembles on their that offour religious sides with paintings more curly while grass differing patterns greatly than flower from royal frescoesclusters. created Through by court the use painters of geometrical (Zhu 2014 shapes,). well‐trimmed decoration patterns, and bright colors, Thethe frame painters design of the of Gaopingthe frescoes temple resembles frescoes that varied of religious in their paintings painting while skills. differing While greatly the high-quality from royal frescoes created by court painters (Zhu 2014). paintings are comparable to court-style or un-outlined ink-and-wash paintings, the low-quality The painters of the Gaoping temple frescoes varied in their painting skills. While the high‐quality paintingspaintings betray are underdevelopedcomparable to court skills‐style andor un hasty‐outlined work, ink‐ reflectingand‐wash paintings, a kind of the casualness low‐quality often characteristicpaintings ofbetray works underdeveloped done by folk painters.skills and Nevertheless,hasty work, reflecting the very a lack kind of of deliberate casualness elaboration, often a traitcharacteristic observed of of these works frescoes done by in folk general, painters. leaves Nevertheless, these paintings the very withlack of the deliberate artistic meritelaboration, of excelling a in naturaltrait observed beauty, of which these frescoes is an aesthetic in general, ideal leaves in these traditional paintings Chinese with the art.artistic As merit exemplified of excelling by in lotus flowersnatural in one beauty, Chinese which poem: is an aesthetic growing ideal out in of traditional clear water Chinese and art. rid As of exemplified any decoration, by lotus the flowers lotus in flower stunsone with Chinese its natural poem: growing form (Peng out of 1986 clear, water p. 400). and Suchrid of any rough-hewn decoration, beauty the lotus displayed flower stuns by with the its fresco paintings,natural resembling form (Quan that Tang achieved Shi 1986, onp. 400). Xuan Such paper, rough a‐ kindhewn of beauty rice paper displayed traditionally by the fresco used paintings, in Chinese resembling that achieved on Xuan paper, a kind of rice paper traditionally used in Chinese art, further art, further demonstrates the impact of literati paintings that were widely practiced during Ming and demonstrates the impact of literati paintings that were widely practiced during Ming and Qing Qing Dynasties (Figure9). Dynasties (Figure 9).

Figure 9. An ink-and-wash seated screen in the East Temple in the Dongjinzhai Village, Shimo Town (No. 36 in Figure1). Arts 2017, 6, 13 8 of 11

4. Historical Factors in the Production of the Screen-Style Frescoes in Gaoping Temples By the Qing Dynasty, mural paintings had already fallen into decline. A large number of folk painters took over the task of producing mural paintings on the Buddhist and Daoist temple walls in remote towns and villages. Mostly from the lower class, some of these painters showed insufficient cultural education. For example, wrong characters appear in the ink inscriptions of some frescoes, like the lines “Li Bai loves goose; Yu Boya searches for (plays) the peptachord; Su Dongpo likes copper (the phoenix tree); Wu Daozi paints the dragon” inscribed on one fresco (Words in italics here stand for the wrong characters used, whereas words in parentheses are the correct ones that should have been used). Anyone with a rudimentary education would not write household names like Li Bai and Wu Daozi incorrectly: wrong homonyms were used in their names. However, such errors did not hold back the painters from delivering works of art. Grounded at lower social levels, the folk artists differed from court painters as well as literati painters. Court painters, tasked with presenting the grand achievements and luxurious life styles of the emperor and his renowned generals and ministers, had to submit their individual personality and aesthetic interest to the constraints of their job, which was serving a fixed group of audience. By employing the most finely made art supplies and elaborating on every detail in a careful and neat manner, court painters tended to create works possessed with strong visual effect, often characterized by resplendence. Folk painters, at the other end of the spectrum, were more concerned with expressing the ordinary people’s thoughts and feelings. By borrowing their subject matter from popular literature, folk traditions, historical events, local customs and practices, and integrating techniques of traditional folk art—such as wood engravings, paper cutting, and shadow play—folk painters proved to be more versatile and flexible in terms of the content and style of their artistic representation. As a result, their paintings are more closely related to secular life. The influence of wide-spread literati paintings during Ming and Qing Dynasties, on the other hand, refined the folk painters’ aesthetic sensibility and equipped them with more means of artistic expression, and, consequently, the mural paintings at the latter’s hands are enriched with literary allusions, aesthetic theories, and modes of representation characteristic of literati paintings. Literati painters during the Qing Dynasty depicted a wide range of subject matter, and their works—whether portraying human figures, landscapes, flowers and birds, or folk traditions—display ingenious conception and flexible use of the brush and ink. Moreover, their paintings often present a fresh and bright style and appealed to by both the high- and lowbrows (Brown 2014). Among literati painters, the ‘’ of early Qing Dynasty (four painters named Shimin, , , and ) were highly esteemed by the ruling class. Their style of painting exerted strong impact on popular arts as well, and pushed folk painters to switch to new subject matter and ways of representation. In addition, the influence of literati paintings on screen-style frescoes also comes from the fact that some lower-level literati painters, when in financial strains, took on jobs of painting such frescoes themselves to supplement their income earned from selling paper or silk paintings. As the general economic boom during the early Qing Dynasty created a high consumer demand for paintings, these literati painters often worked with haste on fresco paintings. However, their highly-skilled techniques and stereotypical styles set a higher standard for folk painters and helped improve the overall quality of fresco paintings (Cahill 2012). As a result, folk artists broke away from the previous mainstream of producing religion-related fresco paintings restrained by rigid modes of painting, exclusive use of bright colors, and narrow choices of subject matter, and turned to creating paintings more varied in content and style. That is to say, following the changed tide of the mass aesthetic interest, folk artists accomplished their artistic transition from the astringency of the craftsman to the free-hand style of literati painters. Another factor contributing to the stylistic features of the screen-style frescoes lies in the mimicry of the physical screen and the format. The screen-style frescoes were painted on temple walls in imitation of the real screen in terms of the location, number of panels, frame measurements and style, and decorative paintings on screen panels. Screen-style frescoes offer an effective solution to Arts 2017, 6, 13 9 of 11 style, and decorative paintings on screen panels. Screen‐style frescoes offer an effective solution to the the problems that come with real screens, such as vulnerability to fire and physical damage, high cost, problems that come with real screens, such as vulnerability to fire and physical damage, high cost, and and the use of space. Moreover, those placed in front of the religious altars and statues create an illusion the use of space. Moreover, those placed in front of the religious altars and statues create an illusion of of the real screen by replacing the latter’s place as a decorative or explanatory background scene. the real screen by replacing the latter’s place as a decorative or explanatory background scene. There are many other examples of the trompe l’oeil effect, which is more common in mural There are many other examples of the trompe l’oeil effect, which is more common in mural paintings in the West than in China, achieved by these screen-style frescoes. For instance, paintings of paintings in the West than in China, achieved by these screen‐style frescoes. For instance, paintings of four- or six-panel folding screens simulate the perspectival relationships of those real screens when four‐ or six‐panel folding screens simulate the perspectival relationships of those real screens when partially folded (Figure 10). Paintings of the staple-shaped screen utilize the two side walls, which are partially folded (Figure 10). Paintings of the staple‐shaped screen utilize the two side walls, which are vertical to the main wall and each painted with a single panel or a set of screen, to add the physical vertical to the main wall and each painted with a single panel or a set of screen, to add the physical third dimension and thereby the semblance of the real screen. The exactness of the frescoes’ replication third dimension and thereby the semblance of the real screen. The exactness of the frescoes’ replication of real screens is corroborated by artifacts of the latter, such as the two 12-panel antique screens located of real screens is corroborated by artifacts of the latter, such as the two 12‐panel antique screens located in the front- and backyard playhouses of the Chengtang Temple in the Kangying Village of the town of in the front‐ and backyard playhouses of the Chengtang Temple in the Kangying Village of the town of Macun. Those two screens share the same measurements and ratio, spatial arrangement, and painting Macun. Those two screens share the same measurements and ratio, spatial arrangement, and painting techniques as paintings of such screens on temple walls (Figure 11). Another example that illustrates techniques as paintings of such screens on temple walls (Figure 11). Another example that illustrates the painters’ meticulous effort to reproduce a real screen is the deliberate portrayal of the hooks on top the painters’ meticulous effort to reproduce a real screen is the deliberate portrayal of the hooks on top of hanging scrolls and the hinges of folding screens on the frescoes. of hanging scrolls and the hinges of folding screens on the frescoes.

Figure 10. A 6‐screen folding screen in Guandi Temple in the Nanyang Village, Yechuan Town (No. Figure 10. A 6-screen folding screen in Guandi Temple in the Nanyang Village, Yechuan Town (No. 44 44 in Figure 1). in Figure1). Arts 2017, 6, 13 10 of 11 Arts 2017, 6, 13 10 of 11

Figure 11. A screen relic in the backyard playhouse of the Chengtang Temple in the Kangying Village, Figure 11. A screen relic in the backyard playhouse of the Chengtang Temple in the Kangying Village, Macun Town (No. 55 in Figure 1). Macun Town (No. 55 in Figure1). 5. Conclusions 5. Conclusions Screen‐style frescoes in the temples of Gaoping County epitomize the secularization of Qing‐ DynastyScreen-style mural paintings frescoes due in to the its templeslarge quantity, of Gaoping pervasive County presence, epitomize good artistic the secularization value, as well as of Qing-Dynastythe variety of its mural subject paintings matter and due modes to its large of representation. quantity, pervasive The screen presence,‐style frescoes good artistic in Gaoping value, astemples well as achieve the variety the trompe of its l’oeil subject effect matter by creating and modes paintings of representation. (those depicted The on screen screen-style panels) frescoes within ina painting Gaoping (the temples overall achieve screen the structure). trompe l’oeil However, effect by they creating differ paintings from traditional (those depicted Western on screenmural panels)paintings within in the a painting painting techniques (the overall used. screen Western structure). mural However, paintings they accomplished differ from traditional the optical Western illusion muralof real paintingsobjects or scenes in the paintingby strictly techniques adhering to used. perspective Western drawing mural paintings methods accomplished and utilizing color, the optical light, illusionand shadow of real gradients objects (Duvernoy or scenes by and strictly Mele adhering2017). For to example, perspective in Leonardo drawing da methods Vinci’s famous and utilizing mural color,painting, light, The and Last shadow Supper, gradients the principles (Duvernoy of perspective and Mele drawing 2017). Forwere example, utilized into Leonardoposition Jesus’ da Vinci’s head famousat the painting’s mural painting, focal point,The Last which Supper is further, the principles extended of to perspective what lies beyond drawing the were window utilized behind to position Jesus. Jesus’The use head of atlight the and painting’s shadow focal gradients point, whichleads the is further viewer extended to both totake what in liesthe beyondsupper scene the window at the behindforeground Jesus. and The dwell use on of lightthe distant. and shadow Such painting gradients methods leads the create viewer in tothe both viewer take the in thevisual supper and scenepsychological at the foreground illusion that and he dwellor she on is partaking the distant. of Suchthe supper painting together methods with create Jesus inand the his viewer disciples. the visualThe screen and‐ psychologicalstyle frescoes illusionin Gaoping that temples, he or she however, is partaking do not of the rely supper heavily together on perspectival with Jesus relations, and his disciples.as every screen The screen-style panel in the frescoes frescoes in presents Gaoping an temples, individual however, picture; do notmoreover, rely heavily colors on were perspectival applied relations,evenly, with as every no use screen of light panel and in shadow the frescoes gradients. presents The an screen individual featured picture; in the moreover,frescoes look colors like were real appliedscreens evenly,in terms with of nopositions, use of light panel and number, shadow measurements, gradients. The screenstyles, featuredand decoration. in the frescoes Under look the likeinfluence real screens of literati in termspaintings, of positions, folk painters panel found number, freedom measurements, in searching styles, for secular and decoration. content and Under forms theto express influence their of individual literati paintings, aesthetic folk values. painters The foundimitation freedom of artworks in searching like scrolled for secular paintings content and andreal formsscreens, to commonly express their seen individual in everyday aesthetic life, registers values. Thethe architectural imitation of artworksand aesthetic like scrolledfeatures paintingsof village andtemples real in screens, the southeastern commonly part seen of in Shanxin everyday Province life, registers during the Qing architectural Dynasty. The and screen aesthetic‐style features frescoes of villagemade in temples that period in the played southeastern the role of part conveying of Shanxin various Province aspects during of the Qing secular Dynasty. life—including The screen-style trends frescoesof social made thoughts, in that arts, period and played folk thecustoms—rather role of conveying than various functioning aspects as of thea channel secular life—includingfor delivering trendsreligious of messages. social thoughts, arts, and folk customs—rather than functioning as a channel for delivering religious messages. Acknowledgments: Participants in the field trip in December, 2013, included Gu Dongfang, Guo Liang, and Liu Wei, whereas those who went on the trip in July, 2014 were Gu Dongfang, Lv Shuwei, and Liu Wei. Special thanks are extended to the municipal administration of Gaoping City (formerly Gaoping County), Shanxi Province.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Arts 2017, 6, 13 11 of 11

Acknowledgments: Participants in the field trip in December, 2013, included Gu Dongfang, Guo Liang, and Liu Wei, whereas those who went on the trip in July, 2014 were Gu Dongfang, Lv Shuwei, and Liu Wei. Special thanks are extended to the municipal administration of Gaoping City (formerly Gaoping County), Shanxi Province. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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