A Practical Guide Second Edition

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TOURISTS in SPACE A Practical Guide Second Edition

Erik Seedhouse Tourists in Space A Practical Guide Other Springer-Praxis books of related interest by Erik Seedhouse

Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide 2008 ISBN: 978-0-387-74643-2

Lunar Outpost: The Challenges of Establishing a Human Settlement on the Moon 2008 ISBN: 978-0-387-09746-6

Martian Outpost: The Challenges of Establishing a Human Settlement on Mars 2009 ISBN: 978-0-387-98190-1

The New Space Race: China vs. the United States 2009 ISBN: 978-1-4419-0879-7

Prepare for Launch: The Astronaut Training Process 2010 ISBN: 978-1-4419-1349-4

Ocean Outpost: The Future of Humans Living Underwater 2010 ISBN: 978-1-4419-6356-7

Trailblazing Medicine: Sustaining Explorers During Interplanetary Missions 2011 ISBN: 978-1-4419-7828-8

Interplanetary Outpost: The Human and Technological Challenges of Exploring the Outer Planets 2012 ISBN: 978-1-4419-9747-0

Astronauts for Hire: The Emergence of a Commercial Astronaut Corps 2012 ISBN: 978-1-4614-0519-1

Pulling G: Human Responses to High and Low Gravity 2013 ISBN: 978-1-4614-3029-2

SpaceX: Making Commercial Spaceﬂ ight a Reality 2013 ISBN: 978-1-4614-5513-4

Suborbital: Industry at the Edge of Space 2014 ISBN: 978-3-319-03484-3 Erik Seedhouse

Tourists in Space

A Practical Guide

Second Edition Dr. Erik Seedhouse, Ph.D., FBIS Sandefjord Norway

SPRINGER-PRAXIS BOOKS IN SPACE EXPLORATION

ISBN 978-3-319-05037-9 ISBN 978-3-319-05038-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014937810

1st edition: © Praxis Publishing Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2008 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifi cally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

Cover image: Artist’s rendering of Dassault’s spacecraft Courtesy (© Mourad Cherﬁ /Dassault Aviation, 2013). Cover design: Jim Wilkie Project copy editor: Christine Cressy

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Contents

Acknowledgments ...... ix About the author ...... xiii Acronyms ...... xv Preface ...... xix

1 Space Tourism: A Brief History ...... 1 Suborbital Flight: The Flight of N328KF ...... 1 What Happened Next ...... 5 Lessons Learned from SpaceShipOne ...... 6 Orbital Tourism ...... 7 Helen Sharman ...... 8 Dennis Tito and Mark Shuttleworth ...... 10 Gregory Olsen ...... 11 Anousheh Ansari ...... 11 Charles Simonyi and Richard Garriott ...... 13 Guy Laliberté ...... 15 Sarah Brightman ...... 16 The Future ...... 16

2 The Space Tourism Market ...... 19 Suborbital Tourism Market ...... 19 The 10-Year Forecast ...... 21 Reusable Suborbital Launch Vehicles ...... 21 Space Tourism Market Analysis ...... 21 Proﬁ les of Select Suborbital Celebrities ...... 23 Orbital Market and Beyond ...... 24

3 The Space Tourist’s Spaceport Guide ...... 27 Spaceport America ...... 28 Caribbean Spaceport ...... 32

v vi Contents

Spaceport Sweden ...... 35 Mojave Space Port ...... 39

4 Suborbital Operators ...... 43 Virgin Galactic ...... 43 XCOR ...... 48

5 Suborbital Vehicles...... 51 SpaceShipTwo: The Basics ...... 51 Lynx: The Basics ...... 53 Other Spacecraft ...... 55

6 The Ground School Manuals ...... 57 Orbital ...... 57 Suborbital ...... 57 Suborbital Ground School Manual ...... 58 ENV 100: Space Environment ...... 65 PER 100: Human Performance ...... 72 SLS 100: Spaceﬂ ight Life Support ...... 79 SST 100: Space Systems Theory ...... 88 SFE 100: Spaceﬂ ight Emergencies ...... 94 PST 100: Pressure Suit Theory ...... 101 CRM 100: Crew Resource Management ...... 105 HAI 100: High-Altitude Indoctrination ...... 111 ADC 100: Astronaut Diver Course© ...... 114

7 Space Tourism Trips ...... 123 Orbital Tourism ...... 123 Lunar Tourism ...... 128 Mars ...... 131 Beyond Mars ...... 135

8 Getting to Orbit and Beyond ...... 139 Dream Chaser ...... 139 Bigelow ...... 141 The Russian Option #1: Orbital Technologies ...... 143 The Russian Option #2: Excalibur Almaz ...... 143

9 Orbital Ground School Manual ...... 147 Guide to the Manual ...... 147 SFP 200: Space Physiology ...... 153 OME 200: Orbital Mechanics ...... 164 RSW 200: Radiation and Space Weather ...... 168 STR 200: Survival Training ...... 178 MTR 200: Medical Training ...... 206 Contents vii

GHA 200: G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory ...... 217 SMS 200: Space Motion Sickness ...... 231 SSO 200: Space Systems Orbital ...... 242 FEP 200: Flight and Emergency Procedures ...... 250

Appendix I: Space Tourism Service Providers ...... 265 Appendix II: Medical Standards for Space Tourists ...... 269 Appendix III: Answers to Sample Questions in Suborbital and Orbital Ground School Manuals ...... 275

Index ...... 277

Acknowledgments

In writing this book, the author has been fortunate to have had ﬁ ve reviewers who made such positive comments concerning the content of this publication. He is also grateful to Maury Solomon at Springer and to Clive Horwood and his team at Praxis for guiding this book through the publication process. The author also gratefully acknowledges all those who gave permission to use many of the images in this book, especially Mourad Cherﬁ / Dassault Aviation, for supplying the striking cover image. Many thanks Mourad! The author also expresses his deep appreciation to Christine Cressy, to Production Editor Hemalatha Gunasekaran, and to Project Manager Rekha, whose attention to detail and patience greatly facilitated the publication of this book, and to Jim Wilkie for creating yet another unique cover.

Tante Gun, Onkel Lasse, Gry, Lars-Christian, og Maria

About th e author

Erik Seedhouse is a Norwegian-Canadian suborbital astronaut whose life-long ambition is to work in space. After completing his fi rst degree in Sports Science at Northumbria University, the author joined the legendary 2nd Battalion the Parachute Regiment. During his time in the “Para’s”, Erik spent six months in Belize, where he trained in the art of jungle warfare. Later, he spent several months learning the intricacies of desert warfare in Cyprus. He made more than 30 jumps from a C130, performed more than 200 helicopter abseils, and fi red more anti-tank weapons than he cares to remember! Upon returning to the comparatively mundane world of academia, the author embarked upon a Master’s degree at Sheffi eld University. He supported his studies by winning prize money in 100-kilometer running races. After placing third in the World 100 km Championships in 1992 and setting the North American 100-kilometer record, the author turned to ultra-distance triathlon, winning the World Endurance Triathlon Championships in 1995 and 1996. For good measure, he also won the inaugural World Double Ironman Championships in 1995 and the Decatriathlon, a diabolical event requiring competitors to swim 38 kilometers, cycle 1,800 kilometers, and run 422 kilometers. Non-stop! Returning to academia in 1996, Erik pursued his Ph.D. at the German Space Agency’s Institute for Space Medicine. While conducting his studies, he found time to win Ultraman Hawai’i and the European Ultraman Championships as well as completing Race Across America. Due to his success as the world’s leading ultra-distance triathlete, Erik was featured in dozens of magazines and television interviews. In 1997, GQ magazine nominated him as the “Fittest Man in the World”. In 1999, Erik retired from being a professional triathlete and started post-doctoral studies at Simon Fraser University. In 2005, he worked as an astronaut training consultant for Bigelow Aerospace and wrote the fi rst edition of Tourists in Space . He is a Fellow of the British Interplanetary Society and a member of the Space Medical Association. In 2009, he was one of the fi nal 30 candidates in the Canadian Space Agency’s Astronaut Recruitment Campaign. Erik works as a corporate astronaut ( www.suborbitaltraining.com ), spacefl ight consultant, triathlon coach, and author. He is the Training Director for Astronauts for Hire ( www.astronauts4hire.org) and completed his suborbital astronaut training in May 2011. Between 2008 and 2013, he was director of Canada’s manned centrifuge operations.

xiii xiv About the author

In addition to being a suborbital astronaut, triathlete, centrifuge operator, pilot, and author, Erik is an avid mountaineer and is pursuing his goal of climbing the Seven Summits. The second edition of Tourists in Space is his 14th book. When not writing, he spends as much time as possible in Kona on the Big Island of Hawai’i and at his real home in Sandefjord, Norway. Erik and his wife, Doina, are owned by three rambunctious cats— Jasper, Mini-Mach, and Lava.

Acronyms

ACLS Advanced Cardiac Life Support ADS Air Data System AFT Autogenic Feedback Training AGSM Anti-G Straining Maneuver ALOC Almost Loss of Consciousness ARPC Atmospheric Revitalization Pressure Control ARS Acute Radiation Sickness ATCS Active Thermal Control System AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle BLS Basic Life Support BTLS Basic Trauma Life Support CLL Central Light Loss CME Coronal Mass Ejection CNS Central Nervous System CSP Caribbean Spaceport CVP Central Venous Pressure DAS Digital Airspeed DCS Decompression Sickness DEPTHX Deep Phreatic Thermal Explorer ECLSS Environmental Closed Life-Support System EEG Electroencephalogram EPT Effective Performance Time EVA Extravehicular Activity FAA Federal Aviation Administration FADEC Full Authority Digital Electronic Control FAI Fédération Aéronautique Internationale FOD Foreign Object Damage FoV Field of View GCR Galactic Cosmic Radiation GDSCC Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex G-LOC Gravity-Induced Loss of Consciousness

xv xvi Acronyms

GN&C Guidance Navigation & Control GOR Gradual Onset Run GPS Global Positioning System HAI High-Altitude Indoctrination HATV Hybrid Atmospheric Test Vehicle HMD Head Mounted Display HPS Human Performance Simulator HTO Horizontal Take-Off HTP High Test Peroxide HUD Heads-Up Display HZE High Energy Particle IMU Inertial Measurement Unit INS Inertial Navigation System ISS International Space Station IVA Intravehicular Activity LBNP Lower Body Negative Pressure LEO Low Earth Orbit LET Linear Energy Transfer LOV Loss of Vision MET Mission Elapsed Time NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics NASTAR National Aerospace Training and Research NCRP National Council for Radiation Protection NMSA New Mexico Spaceport Authority NSS National Space Society OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion PAF Pre-Flight Adaption Facility PLL Peripheral Light Loss PTND Plastic Nuclear Track Detector RBE Relative Biological Effectiveness RCS Reaction Control System ROR Rapid Onset Run RRV Reusable Return Vehicle SAR Search and Rescue SCR Solar Cosmic Radiation SFP Spaceﬂ ight Participant SIVAS Simulated Intravehicular System SMS Space Motion Sickness SNC Sierra Nevada Corporation SPE Solar Particle Event SS1 SpaceShipOne SS2 SpaceShipTwo SSB Single Strand Break TACAN Tactical Air Navigation TEPC Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter Acronyms xvii

TLD Thermoluminescence Detector TPS Thermal Protection System TUC Time of Useful Consciousness VEG Virtual Environment Generator VOC Volatile Organic Compound VRI Visual Reorientation Illusion VTHL Vertical Take-Off Horizontal Landing VTO Vertical Take-Off VTOL Vertical Take-Off and Landing WK1 WhiteKnight1 WK2 WhiteKnight2

Preface

ONE GIANT LEAP FOR TOURISM

Forget Hawai’i or the Mediterranean. Soon—very soon—you’ll be able to add a much more exotic stamp to add to your passport: space. How will you get there, what will the trip be like, and how much training will you need? All you need to know is right here in this manual. Here’s a sneak peek.

SOME TIME IN 2014/2015

It is 7 o’clock and it is time to begin the fi nal preparations for the fl ight of your life. You have already been awake for two hours in anticipation of this day and, since you slept in your spacesuit, you don’t have to worry about getting changed! You check yourself out in the mirror for the fi ftieth time, paying particular attention to the mission patch on the left arm of your suit that reminds you this time it is for real. You rummage through your personal fl ight case and check again you have everything. Camera? Check. Mission pins? Check. The ALF mascot your daughter wanted you to take up? Check. You’ve waited a long time, spent a lot (A LOT!) of money, and invested in a lot of training for this day to become reality, but today is the day that will change your life and your perception of Earth. You make your way with family and friends to the spaceport restaurant where, after a routine security briefi ng, you eat a breakfast together with the other space tourists. After a photo shoot and a fi nal check of your spacesuit, you say your goodbyes to family and friends. You give a fi nal wave and then board the spacecraft where, with the assistance of the technicians, you settle into the seats as you listen to the pilot brief you on the fl ight. The technicians give you a fi nal check, ensuring you have fastened your fi ve-point harness, and then, with a thumbs-up, they leave the vehicle. It is now just you, fi ve space tourists, and the pilot and co-pilot. After receiving taxi clearance from the spaceport traffi c control, the spacecraft taxis onto the runway and, with a kick of the jet engines, lifts its wheels off the runway, taking off just like a business jet that it closely resembles. After a leisurely 45-minute cruise, you reach an altitude of

xix xx Preface

12 kilometers and the pilot briefs you to prepare for rocket ignition. Moments later, with a fl ick of the pilot’s switch, the rocket engine is ignited and you feel like you’ve been punched in the back. As the G-forces build inexorably, you are pushed farther and farther back into your seat. Within seconds, the vehicle is climbing almost vertically as it accelerates through Mach 1. You look out of the window and you notice the blue sky becoming noticeably darker with each passing second. Less than a minute after rocket ignition, the pilot announces Mach 3 and there are less than 10 seconds before completion of engine burn. At 60,000 meters, you hear the pilot announce he is switching off the engines and, a moment later, the cabin falls silent. Your view through the window is nothing short of spectacular—a view that fewer than 1,000 before you have experienced. Ever. You slowly become aware of the sensations of microgravity, just like your ride in G-Force-One. The vehicle is now more than 100,000 meters above Earth and you have offi cially earned your spacefl ight participant wings and, in doing so, placed yourself in the select group of those humans who can say they have fl own in space. Inevitably, the four minutes of weightlessness pass too quickly as you hear the pilot request that you take your seat for the descent. You begin to appreciate your G-tolerance training as the G-forces build, once again pushing you into your seat during your roller coaster ride back to Earth. The friction in the atmosphere gradually slows the vehicle to subsonic speeds as it begins a gradual glide to the runway. You hear the familiar hum of the jet engines as the vehicle fl ies back to a perfect landing at the spaceport from which you took off less than two hours ago. As the vehicle taxis onto the apron, you can see family and friends waiting to hear about your experience. After greeting them with a big smile, you follow your crewmembers to the reception for the presentation of your civilian astronaut wings.

SOME TIME IN 2024?

After enjoying your suborbital space experience, you decided to save up for an orbital fl ight. Ten years later, you fi nd yourself fl oating around an infl atable habitat more than 300 kilometers above Earth. After a week in orbit, you’re spending some time engaging in your favorite pastime: Earth-gazing. It’s one of the few luxuries on board. No spas or gourmet meals on this habitat. A Norwegian scientist astronaut gently brushes your arm as she traverses the length of the habitat, en route to her work station. Lucky woman. Her US$5.2 million ticket was paid for by her employer. It’s 2024, and rockets are cheaper but far from reusable, so an orbital trip is still very (VERY!) expensive. So, while suborbital travel has, as predicted, increased signifi cantly since your fi rst fl ight 10 years ago, with more than 500 mostly tourist fl ights per year, the orbital market is dominated by research-minded corporate clients willing to pay millions for a week or two in space. Your time in space is running out. In three hours, you’ll be heading home in the Dream Chaser shuttle that’s scheduled to arrive in a few minutes. You’ve heard that the trip home is smoother than many suborbital fl ights, because the vehicle angles gradually into a 1.6-G re-entry rather than diving in a steep decline. You gaze through the window as the Dream Chaser glides into view, its Atlas booster long gone. It maneuvers elegantly towards the docking port as you notice the vast bulk of the Himalayas slide into view 300 kilometers below. It’s been a memorable fl ight. Preface xxi

SOME TIME IN 2034?

Twenty years after your fi rst fl ight, you’re making what will probably be your fi nal trip to space. But what a trip! You’re orbiting 300 kilometers above Earth, waiting to be launched to the Moon! The pilot fusses with the controls as he stands by for clearance from ground control. These lunar trips have been going on for years now, but it was only recently that the price dropped to a reasonable US$4 million, thanks to the Chinese offering seats on board their souped-up Soyuz shuttle used for ferrying workers to the helium-3 mines. Through your window, you can see three of the 17 habitats hurtling around the planet. Clearance is received and the rockets attached to the booster behind you light up. You’re on your way to the Moon. A couple of days later, the pilot points out major features as you fl y 100 kilometers above the lunar surface. You’re silent, watching craters fl ow by, as the pilot confi gures the vehicle for descent. Almost directly below, you can see the huge scars on the lunar surface, evidence of three years of aggressive lunar mining. A soft landing, a pressure check, and you clamber inside your habitat, your lunar home from home for the next 10 days. Wishful thinking? Perhaps. Despite being accessible for more than 20 years, the commercial space tourism industry is still in its infancy, and it would never have reached this stage without some over-the-horizon speculation. As we close in on the end of 2014, the commercial space industry is on the threshold of delivering on the fi rst of these predictions. Here’s a snapshot of the material in this manual via 20 Q & As.

xxii Preface

SPACE TOURISM Q & A

Q1. When will space tourism be available? It’s available now, but you have to buy your trip through Space Adventures and a ticket will cost you US$35 million or more. That buys you 10 days on the International Space Station. You can also reserve a ticket for a suborbital ride from XCOR Aerospace (US$95,000) or from Virgin Galactic (US$250,000). Q2. What kinds of space trips are available? Suborbital space tourism is available through XCOR Aerospace and Virgin Galactic. Orbital space tourism is available through Space Adventures: tickets are rare and expensive (see Q1). Q3. What is meant by suborbital and orbital? The threshold of space is 100 kilometers. If you buy a suborbital ticket, you will spend four or fi ve minutes fl oating around above this altitude. If you’re lucky—and rich—enough to buy an orbital ticket, you will spend your time at an altitude of 320 kilometers, where you will orbit Earth every 90 minutes. Pretty cool! Q4. How long can I stay up there? A suborbital fl ight will allow you to spend four or fi ve minutes in space. An orbital fl ight will normally last about 10 days. Q5. Is the trip dangerous? Let’s not pull any punches here. This is a risky business. Several astronauts and cosmonauts have lost their lives over the years, but lessons have been learned and these trips wouldn’t be available if it was deemed too risky. Expect to pay a hefty insurance premium though. Q6. How much training is needed? Not much if you’re a ticket-holder for a suborbital trip. Three days perhaps. Four at most. Orbital is a different kettle of fi sh. A ticket bought through Space Adventures will require six months of training. Plus, you have to learn Russian. But fret not, because plans are afoot to reduce this amount of training when new operators start offering tickets. Q7. Do I have to be really fi t to go into space? The fi tness standards for space tourists, especially for suborbital trips, are not as rigorous as for orbital fl ights. Put it this way: you won’t have to train like an Ironman triathlete. You will need to be medically screened though, but for suborbital fl ight this will be fairly routine. Q8. Where are the spaceports? The Russian orbital fl ights take off from Baikonur in Kazakhstan, and suborbital fl ights will take off from Spaceport America in New Mexico. There are also plans for spaceports in Curacao, Sweden, Denver, Houston, and Florida. Preface xxiii

Q9. What do I do when I get up there? Good question. In a suborbital fl ight, you will have a view extending 1,600 kilometers, so snapping pictures is an obvious activity. Aerobatics may be popular as well, as long as you don’t interfere with your fellow space tourists. For those enjoying an orbital fl ight, you’ll need to spend some time exercising (two hours a day or more), eating, sleeping, and enjoying the 16 sunrises and sunsets every day. Q10. Will there be space hotels? Yes, but you’ll probably have to wait a decade or longer before you can visit them. Prototypes are being built and tested. In fact, one of the prototypes—an infl atable habitat—will be test-fl own on the International Space Station in the near future. Q11. How do I eat/drink/go to the bathroom in space? That’s not something you have to think about during a suborbital trip—not unless you’re the really nervous type! As for orbital space tourists, the skill-sets needed to perform these activities will be covered in your training. Q12. What government regulations cover space tourism? Not as many as you might imagine. The government has taken a hands-off approach with the space tourism industry, choosing to provide guidelines rather than pages and pages of rules and regulations, although there is a regulatory framework for space tourism operations, including licenses and permits. Q13. What are the views like? Jaw-dropping. Spectacular. From the top of the trajectory of a suborbital spacefl ight, you’ll be able to see 1,600 kilometers across the horizon. From orbit at 320 kilometers, your horizon will extend to about 2,000 kilometers. Q14. Will I be uncomfortable? Well, these trips are not for claustrophobes: the cabin is cramped, especially if you’re fl y- ing on board the Lynx or the Soyuz. Also, if you don’t like roller coasters, then you probably won’t enjoy the ride to and from space. Q15. Can my kids go? Well, you have to be over 18, but there is no upper age restriction. Virgin Galactic’s founder, Sir Richard Branson, hopes to fl y his mother, Eve, on the fi rst revenue fl ight of SpaceShipTwo. Q16. What about people with disabilities? No problem. Weightlessness is a benign environment for people with disabilities. Take physicist Steven Hawking, for example. Hawking has the debilitating condition of motor neuron disease, but was able to enjoy a zero-G fl ight and he hopes to go into space when Virgin Galactic begins revenue fl ights. xxiv Preface

Q17. Will I have to wear a spacesuit? For orbital spacefl ight, you’ll be required to wear a pressure suit. For suborbital space travel, each operator is still evaluating its requirements. Q18. What was the X-Prize? In 2004, a competition was held to see who could build a spacecraft without government funding, capable of going into space twice within a two-week period carrying a pilot and the equivalent of two passengers. The US$10 million Ansari X-Prize was won by Burt Rutan’s SpaceShipOne and this became the model for the suborbital space tourism industry. Q19. Is there a market for space tourism? There appears to be. In 2012, the consulting fi rm Tauri Group produced demand forecasts in conjunction with Spaceport Florida. The forecasts suggest a strong industry. Q20. How can I sign up? If you have US$250,000 lying around, and you want to fl y with Virgin Galactic, just fi ll in your particulars on their website and a member of their Astronaut Relations team will get back to you within 24 hours. Alternatively, you can book through one of Virgin’s Accredited Space Agents who have been specially selected and trained to handle your reservation ( www.virgingalactic.com/booking/ ). If your budget is more limited, you can spend US$95,000 for a fl ight on the Lynx. To begin the reservation process, just fi ll out the contact form on their website and one of XCOR’s representatives will contact you within 24 hours to continue your ticketing process. Alternatively, you can contact Greg Claxton by phone at (941) 928-2535 ( http://xcor. com/fl ytospace/ ).

Space Tourism: A Brief History

“Today we have made history. Today we go to the stars. You have raised a tide that will bring billions of dollars into the industry and fund other teams to compete. We will begin a new era of spaceﬂ ight.” Peter Diamandis, shortly after SpaceShipOne landed

SUBORBITAL FLIGHT - THE FLIGHT OF N328KF

October 4th, 2004—a historic event is taking place at Mojave Airport, a sprawling civilian test center in the California high desert 150 kilometers from Los Angeles, where hundreds of rusting aircraft, their engines and undercarriages shrink-wrapped, sit parked in lonely rows. But, on this Monday morning, the motley collection of DC10s, 747s, DC9s, and 737s will bear witness to a truly extraordinary event. Here, at this desolate airport, a small, winged spacecraft built with lightweight composites and powered by a rocket motor using laughing gas and rubber will fl y to the edge of space and into the history books. Registered with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) only by the anonymous designation N328KF,1 but known to space enthusiasts as SpaceShipOne (SS1) and its carrier vehicle, WhiteKnight, this privately developed manned vehicle (Figure 1.1 ) will fi nally open the door for a much greater portion of humanity waiting to cross the threshold into space. The excitement began building the night before, as cars poured into the parking lot and continued to stream in almost until take-off, by which time crowd-control personnel had almost been overwhelmed. Rows of trucks with satellite dishes and glaring spot- lights greet the spectators as they stream into the airport. It is only 5:00 in the morning but a sense of expectancy already wafts through the air together with the smell of coffee and bagels. A huge X-Prize banner fl utters from the control tower, as thousands of space enthusiasts from around the world wait for the Sun and the appearance of WhiteKnight.

1 The “N” in the designation is the preﬁ x used by the FAA for US-registered aircraft and the 328KF stands for 328 kilo (‘K’) feet (the ‘F’ in the designation), which is the ofﬁ cial demarca- tion altitude for space.

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 1 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6_1, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 2 Space Tourism: A Brief History

1.1 Astronaut Mike Melvill after his spaceﬂ ight on September 29th, 2004. Courtesy: Wikimedia/Photo taken by RenegadeAven during Civil Air Patrol duties

Legends of the space program, such as Buzz Aldrin, mill around in the VIP area together with William Shatner and Burt Rutan, Mojave’s engineering genius. Only a few kilometers away at Edwards Air Force Base on August 22nd, 1963, test pilot Joe Walker reached the edge of space by fl ying an Air Force X-15 rocket plane to an altitude of 107,333 meters. The X-15 gave birth to the Space Shuttle, a semi-reusable vehicle embroiled in politics that became a symbol that the high frontier was the absolute dominion of governments and space agencies—a status quo perpetuated for more than three decades. Until now. More than 40 years after Walker’s fl ight, using a fl ight profi le similar to the X-15’s, SS1 will attempt to beat Walker’s record. Today, on the 47th anniversary of Sputnik, a privately developed spacecraft will attempt to demonstrate it is not necessary to spend US$20,000 to put one kilogram into orbit, or to have the technologies of space agencies to reach space. The world’s fi rst private spacecraft is an impressive feat of engineering marked by sim- plicity of design that, on closer inspection, doesn’t look like it should fl y into space. The interior (Figure 1.2 ) is spare and devoid of the myriad switches, dials, and toggles crowd- ing the Space Shuttle fl ight deck. There are a few low-tech levers, pedals, and buttons suggesting the vehicle is designed to fl y, but the austere design doesn’t exactly scream “space”. Clearly, SS1 (sidebar) is a very different spacecraft from all that have gone before. Suborbital Flight - The Flight of N328F 3

SpaceShipOne • Crew: 1 pilot • Capacity: 2 passengers • Length: 5 meters • Wingspan: 5 meters • Wing area: 15 meters2 • Empty weight: 1,200 kilograms • Loaded weight: 3,600 kilograms

• Powerplant: 1 × N20/HTPB SpaceDev Hybrid rocket motor, 7,500 kgf Isp • Burn time: 87 seconds • Aspect ratio: 1.6

Performance • Maximum speed: Mach 3.09 (3,518 km/h) • Range: 65 kilometers • Service ceiling: 112,000 meters • Rate of climb: 416.6 m/s • Wing loading: 240 kg/meters2 • Length: 5 meters • Wingspan: 5 meters

1.2 SpaceShipOne interior. Courtesy: Wikimedia 4 Space Tourism: A Brief History

“WhiteKnight is taxiing” crackles over the public address system—an announcement followed shortly after by the sound of high-pitched jet engines marking the arrival of the gleaming white carrier aircraft with SS1 slung tightly underneath. WhiteKnight and SS1 take off from Runway 30 at 06:47 local time, followed by two chase planes, an Extra 300 and a Beechcraft Starship, which will follow SS1 during its one-hour ride to separation altitude, giving spectators plenty of time to grab another bagel and a coffee. “Three minutes to separation”. Spectators scan the sky searching for the thin white line that is SS1. At 14,000 meters, SS1 is dropped like a bomb above Mojave Airport. Falling wings level, pilot and soon-to-be commercial astronaut, ex-Navy test pilot, Brian Binnie, 51, trims SS1’s control surfaces for a positive nose-up pitch and ﬁ res the rocket motor, boosting the spacecraft almost vertically. “It looks great,” says Binnie as he rockets upwards at Mach 3. Within seconds, SS1 is gone, trailing a white line of dissipating white smoke. SS1 accelerates for 84 seconds, subjecting Binnie to three times the force of gravity as it rockets upwards. The engines shut down and SS1 continues on its ballistic trajectory to an altitude of 114,421 meters. A loud cheer goes up from the spectators who are following the proceedings on a giant screen, each of them euphoric with the realization

1.3 Brian Binnie. Courtesy: Wordpress What Happened Next 5 that high above them is a privately developed spacecraft that may one day carry them into space. High in the sky, his spacecraft’s rear wings feathered to increase drag upon re-entry, Binnie prepares to bring SS1 back to Earth. The spectators wait, spellbound, straining to hear the double sonic boom announcing SS1’s return to the atmosphere. Seconds later, the unmistakable sound announces SS1 is on her way back from her historic mission, her signature shape descending in circles. Binnie guides SS1 gently back to Earth, gliding the spacecraft back to a perfect touchdown on the runway like any other aircraft. He has just become the 434th person to fl y into space (Figure 1.3 ). Welcoming him enthusiastically are 27,500 spectators, including Microsoft’s co-founder, Paul Allen, who helped fi nance the project; Burt Rutan, SS1’s designer; and Peter Diamandis, chairman of the X-Prize Foundation. Private spacefl ight has just become a reality. But this is just the beginning. “It’s a fantastic view, it’s a fantastic feeling. There is a freedom there and a sense of wonder that—I tell you what—you all need to experience.” Test pilot, Brian Binnie, describing his record-breaking trip

WHAT HAPPENED NEXT

SS1 was unveiled at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum on October 5th, 2005, in the Milestones of Flight Gallery and is now on display to the public in the main atrium between the Spirit of St. Louis and the Bell X-1. The project cost less than US$25 million, or about the same amount as NASA spends every day … before lunch! The price tag is one of the most important aspects of SS1’s fl ight because it fi nally demonstrated that passenger spacefl ight travel, contrary to what was widely believed, really can be achieved at low cost. Shortly after the celebrations, Richard Branson, chairman of Virgin Atlantic Airways, announced he will invest US$25 million in a new space venture to be called Virgin Galactic, a project that will license Rutan’s Scaled Composite’s SS1 technology for commercial suborbital fl ights starting at US$200,000. For Branson, this venture will be different from any other his Virgin group has been involved with. His travel business, cell phone company, and funky record business are all enterprises that have kept the champagne fl ow- ing and kept Branson in the headlines but, until the fl ights of SS1, no Virgin business has ever had the potential to change the world. Virgin Galactic will be the world’s fi rst off- planet private airline no less, fi elding a fl eet of fi ve spaceships by the end of the decade. The price tag for the whole venture is US$121.5 million, or about half the price of a single Airbus A340-600, of which Virgin recently ordered 26. “It may take decades. It may take 50 to 100 years. But it’s going to lead to a new industry.” Dennis Tito, Californian millionaire and the world’s fi rst paying space passenger Promises of space travel for the masses reached a euphoric pitch in 2004 when SS1 air- launched over the Mojave Desert and became the fi rst privately fi nanced, manned 6 Space Tourism: A Brief History spacecraft to dash into space. Hardly surprisingly, the fl ights were hailed by space enthusiasts as a leap towards opening the fi nal frontier to civilians. Virgin Galactic was just as eager to get the commercial passenger space industry rolling and began taking reservations long before a commercial version was even built. Back in 2004, Branson predicted the maiden passenger fl ight would take off in 2007. It was an optimistic date that has been revised many times. In fact, the delays in realizing the dream of space tourism tried the patience of more than one Virgin Galactic passenger.

Alan Walton is a venture capitalist who has trekked to the North Pole, climbed Mount Kilimanjaro and skydived over Mount Everest. Looking for the next big adventure, Walton signed up with Virgin Galactic but, after waiting seven years to ﬂ y, he gave up on the dream and asked for a US$200,000 ticket refund on his 75th birthday. He has since moved on to his latest adventure—investing in genome-mapping pioneer J. Craig Venter’s quest to create artiﬁ cial life.

While Walton was waiting for his chance to fl y, other private spaceship companies hunkered down in their hangars and designed vehicles to compete with Virgin Galactic. Progress has been rapid, but most still are in the testing stage. No launch dates … yet. Besides Virgin Galactic, other players include XCOR Aerospace headed by Jeff Greason, Armadillo Aerospace founded by computer game programmer John Carmack, and Blue Origin headed by Amazon chief executive Jeff Bezos. The companies are privately held and do not answer to shareholders, which means details about progress are hard to come by, although Scaled Composites, which designed SS1 and is building a passenger version for Virgin Galactic, posts results of test fl ights on its website. For space enthusiasts and those holding tickets to fl y, these delays are frustrating, but everything in aerospace always takes longer than people think. Always. For example, Scaled Composites, considered by many in the industry as the front-runner, suffered a setback in 2007 after a deadly explosion during testing to develop the propellant fl ow system for the hybrid rocket motor. The tragic incident, which claimed three lives, cost two years in development.

LESSONS LEARNED FROM SPACESHIPONE

The signifi cance of SS1’s triumph and its galvanizing effect upon the nascent space tourism industry illustrated important lessons that many who have been accustomed to the government-bankrolled ventures such as the International Space Station (ISS) may have forgotten. First, SS1 represented a paradigm shift. For far too long, the public associated space with government programs and assumed space travel was simply too expensive for the private sector. The reason for this common misperception was due to the government- sheltered monopoly that is NASA and its long tradition of suppressing vital private-sector innovation. Thanks to the successful SS1 fl ights, Burt Rutan and Paul Allen demonstrated not only that there can be a spacefl ight revolution by initiating entrepreneurial competition, but that there can also be a free-market frontier. Orbital Tourism 7

Secondly, the SS1 fl ights, in winning the US$10 million X-Prize, demonstrated clearly the motivational power of profi t, although it has to be said Scaled Composites was helped signifi cantly by Paul Allen’s deep pockets. But, although the cost of the SS1 venture was US$25 million and the prize was only US$10 million, the real profi t will be a long-term one when fare-paying passengers start to fl y. Historically, cash prizes have done much to fuel the development of civil aviation, and it’s a tradition that seems to be just as strong a motivator as it was when Charles Lindbergh won the US$25,000 Orteig prize in 1927 for becoming the fi rst pilot to fl y non-stop across the Atlantic. Thirdly, SS1 demonstrated the power of pride. Scaled Composite’s, and several other teams that were racing to win the prize, struggled with limited resources and meager funding to develop new, innovative, and often ingenious ways of fl ying into space. By the mani- festation of their creativity and despite great engineering and technical challenges, they took, and continue to take, great strides towards the reality of a space tourism business. Finally, SS1 reminds everyone of the power of competition. The 20 teams who com- peted against each other for the X-Prize generated the dynamism of free enterprise that simply doesn’t happen in government-funded endeavors. The competition to fl y into space demanded of the teams that they couldn’t just offer an adequate product, especially when the product their competitors offered might be an excellent one. With the third fl ight of Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo (SS2) in January 2014, we are closing in on the day when space tourism becomes a reality. This is not orbital tourism, of course, but the ability to fl y above 100 kilometers to the edge of space. These suborbital space voyages will change the dynamic of spacefaring in the world, no doubt, but it may also open the door for ever-increasing space activities that will ultimately open orbital space to such commercial ventures.

ORBITAL TOURISM

All that suborbital stuff sounds exciting, but there may be some who just won’t accept you were “in space” until you’ve been in orbit around Earth. Unlike suborbital ﬂ ight, there’s no single altitude for this but, due to atmospheric drag, it’s only practical above 350 kilometers. Commonly known as low Earth orbit (LEO), orbiting Earth is currently the exclusive domain of Russian Soyuz vessels, the occasional Chinese Shenzhou craft, SpaceX’s Dragon capsule, and the ISS. Thanks to Space Adventures, the ISS has played host to a number of orbital space tourists, but orbital space tourism goes back further than Eric Anderson’s space travel agency.

Space Adventures has organized a number of fl ights to the ISS, but its itinerary is an expensive one: US$35 million (the price may have increased by the time you read this!) will buy you six months’ basic training and a launch on a Soyuz. To be eligible, you must fulfi ll certain physical fi tness requirements. If, after paying for the ticket, you have a few million dollars spare, you may want to consider an extravehicular activity (EVA) upgrade, which adds 90 minutes of space-walking to your trip; this option requires a month of training and has additional fi tness qualifi cations. 8 Space Tourism: A Brief History

The business of launching wealthy tourists began after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Russian space agency was strapped for cash to pay its bills. To raise funds, it decided to send civilians to space in return for millions of dollars. First up was Toyohiro Akiyama, who was selected for cosmonaut training in August 1989 in a deal between the Tokyo Broadcasting System and the Soviet Union. Akiyama’s fl ight became the fi rst commercially organized spacefl ight. After completing a Research Cosmonaut training course at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, Akiyama launched aboard the Soyuz TM-11 mission to the Mir space station on December 2nd, 1990, along with mission commander Viktor Afanasyev and fl ight engineer Musa Manarov. During his time aboard Mir, Akiyama gave live reports documenting life aboard the station. He returned a week later aboard Soyuz TM-10 along with Gennadi Manakov and Gennady Strekalov on December 10th.

HELEN SHARMAN

The next commercial astronaut was Helen Sharman. After responding to a radio advertise- ment asking for applicants to be the fi rst British astronaut, Sharman was selected on November 25th, 1989, ahead of nearly 13,000 other applicants. The program was known as Project Juno and was a cooperative arrangement between the Soviet Union and a group of British companies. Sharman (Figure 1.4 ) spent 18 months in intensive fl ight training at Star City before her fl ight. Because the Project Juno consortium failed to raise the cash needed, Sharman’s fl ight was almost cancelled: in the interests of international relations, the fl ight was salvaged but less expensive experiments were substituted for those in the original plans. The Soyuz TM-12 mission, which included Soviet cosmonauts Anatoly Artsebarsky and Sergei Krikalev, launched on May 18th, 1991, and lasted eight days. Sharman landed aboard Soyuz TM-11 on May 26th, 1991, along with Viktor Afanasyev and Musa Manarov. At 27 years and 11 months old when she visited Mir, Sharman is the fi fth youngest of those lucky few who have fl own in space. Sharman hasn’t returned to space, although she was one of three British candidates in the 1992 European Space Agency astronaut selection campaign and was on the shortlist of 25 applicants in 1998. Following Sharman’s fl ight, almost 10 years went by before another commercial astronaut visited LEO. Part of the reason for the delay was the US. As the main contributor to the 16-nation consortium building the ISS, the US objected to tourist fl ights, arguing that persons fl ying without much training and lacking multilingual language skills would endanger the station. Russia, which controls the Soyuz transport fl ights, countered that tourists would train like real cosmonauts and would be prepared for spacefl ight. Eventually, the US gave up its argument and tourist fl ights began in 2001. Incidentally, NASA requires spacefl ight participants/tourists to sign a legal document pledging that they and their heirs will not sue the agency if anything goes wrong. Tourists also must agree to pay for anything they break! For a while, after NASA agreed to tourist fl ights, it looked like the next space tourist would be teen idol Lance Bass, a singer with the US boy band ’NSYNC. Bass had three Helen Sharman 9

1.4 Helen Sharman, Britain’s fi rst astronaut and space tourist. Courtesy: European Space Agency space ambitions: to be the third space tourist, the fi rst pop star in space, and the youngest person to fl y in orbit (the record is held by Soviet cosmonaut, Gherman Titov, who fl ew at the age of 26 in 1961). The wannabe astronaut had yearned for a trip to orbit since attending space camp as a child and hoped to be able to pay the US$20 million for the ticket in October 2002. He was selected by the Russians to make the trip, and passed the physical exam by fl ight surgeons at Russia’s Institute of Biomedical Problems at Moscow. He also passed the high-altitude and centrifuge tests, and started training at Star City, but it wasn’t to be: in August 2002, the Russians said Bass had not come up with the US$20 million and would not be on the eight-day ISS re-supply mission in October 2002 (Bass’s seat was subsequently fi lled with cargo). Another celebrity hoping to fl y was supermodel Cindy Crawford, who told reporters in Moscow in June 2002 she was considering a trip to space. Valery Korzun, ISS commander at the time, joked that his preference would be Cindy Crawford over Lance Bass. No comments were reported from Korzun’s ISS crewmates, Sergei Treshchyov and Peggy Whitson. At about the same time as Bass and Crawford were planning to fl y, former NASA associate administrator for policy planning Lori Garver was examined by fl ight doctors at Russia’s Institute of Biomedical Problems at Moscow. Garver, who was neither wealthy nor famous, was vice president for corporate space program development at DFI 10 Space Tourism: A Brief History

International, a defense and space consulting ﬁ rm in Washington, DC. She wanted to demonstrate that ordinary people could go to space and was hoping her US$20 million ticket would be paid by foundation gifts and corporate sponsorships. It didn’t happen.

DENNIS TITO AND MARK SHUTTLEWORTH

Following NASA’s agreement, California millionaire investment fund manager and one- time NASA rocket scientist Dennis Tito (Figure 1.5 ), 60, was the fi rst private space tourist selected by Russian space offi cials for a visit to the ISS, paying US$20 million for the privilege. Next was South African Internet tycoon Mark Shuttleworth (Figure 1.6 ), 28, who made his fortune by starting an Internet security fi rm in his parents’ garage and selling it four years later for more than US$500 million. He was blasted off from Baikonur Cosmodrome in April 2002 to become the fi rst African in space. During his eight-day fl ight, Shuttleworth devoted time to AIDS and stem cell research and chatted with former South African president, the late Nelson Mandela (he also turned down a 14-year-old South African girl who asked if he would marry her). Following his fl ight, Shuttleworth bought his spacesuit and wanted to buy the Soyuz capsule—a deal that didn’t go through.

1.5 Dennis Tito (L). Courtesy: Wikimedia Anousheh Ansari 11

1.6 Mark Shuttleworth (L). Courtesy: Wikimedia

GREGORY OLSEN

After the Space Shuttle Columbia was destroyed on February 1st, 2003, the Russian government postponed plans to send more tourists into space while NASA investigated the disaster. In 2004, the Russians announced New Jersey businessman Gregory Olsen (Figure 1.7 ) would become the third space tourist in April 2005, but Russian physicians postponed Olsen’s trip due to health concerns. Olsen was ﬁ nally approved in July 2005 and launched in October 2005. With degrees in physics and materials science, it wasn’t surprising that Olsen spent some of his time conducting research—a trend that has been continued by subsequent space tourists. Actually, it’s worth noting that Tito and his fellow space tourists never liked the term “space tourists”, preferring to be known as spaceﬂ ight participants.

ANOUSHEH ANSARI

Following Olsen was Anousheh Ansari (Figure 1.8 ), who initially trained as a backup for Daisuke Enomoto. But, when Enomoto was medically disqualifi ed, Ansari was promoted to the prime crew. Ansari lifted off on the Soyuz TMA-9 mission with Commander Mikhail Tyurin and fl ight engineer Michael Lopez-Alegria on September 18th, 2006, and became the fourth (and fi rst female) spacefl ight participant. Ansari landed aboard Soyuz TMA-8 12 Space Tourism: A Brief History

1.7 Greg Olsen. Courtesy: Wikimedia

1.8 Anousheh Ansari. Courtesy: www.i.space.com Charles Simonyi and Richard Garriott 13 on September 29th with NASA astronaut Jeffrey Williams and Russian cosmonaut Pavel Vinogradov. During her eight-day mission, Ansari performed experiments on behalf of the European Space Agency, including researching the mechanisms behind anemia, how changes in muscles infl uence lower back pain, and the consequences of space radiation. She also became the fi rst person to publish a weblog from space. Asked what she hoped to achieve during her spacefl ight, Ansari said: “I hope to inspire everyone—especially young people, women, and young girls all over the world, and in Middle Eastern countries that do not provide women with the same opportunities as men—to not give up their dreams and to pursue them .... It may seem impossible to them at times. But I believe they can realize their dreams if they keep it in their hearts, nurture it, and look for opportunities and make those opportunities happen.”

CHARLES SIMONYI AND RICHARD GARRIOTT

Commercial spacefl ight’s fi fth spacefl ight participant was a Hungarian-American computer software executive, Charles Simonyi (Figure 1.9). As head of Microsoft’s application software group, Simonyi oversaw the creation of Microsoft Offi ce. In April 2007, on board Soyuz TMA-10, Simonyi became the second Hungarian in space and, in March 2009,

1.9 Charles Simonyi (L). Courtesy: Wikimedia 14 Space Tourism: A Brief History

1.10 Richard Garriott (R). Courtesy: Wikimedia/NASA

on board Soyuz TMA-14, he became the fi rst Hungarian to make two fl ights when he made a second trip to the ISS. The sixth spacefl ight participant also posted a fi rst of sorts, by becoming the fi rst American to be a second-generation space traveler. Richard Garriott (Figure 1.10 ), son of NASA astronaut Owen Garriott, is a video game developer known as his alter ego Lord British. Garriott had been on track to become the fi rst spacefl ight participant but, after the dot-com bubble burst in 2001, he suffered fi nancial setbacks and had to sell his seat to Dennis Tito. Fortunately, Garriott made most of his money back by designing more computer games and was able to buy another ticket, but his troubles weren’t over. During his medical examination, fl ight surgeons discovered a hemangioma on his liver, which could cause potentially fatal internal bleeding in the event of a rapid decompression. Once again, Garriott faced having to sell his ticket but instead chose to undergo risky surgery to correct the problem. I met Garriott at the Aerospace Medical Association conference a few years ago where he gave a presentation of his not insubstantial medical trials and tribulations. At the end of the presentation, he lifted his shirt to reveal a 45-centimeter scar across his stomach. The fi nal sting in the tail in Garriott’s odyssey to become the sixth spacefl ight participant was the increase in ticket prices—when he had made his original booking, the ticket price was just US$20 million but, in the intervening years, this had risen to US$30 million! Finally, on October 12th, 2008, Garriott launched on board Soyuz TMA-13 (his father was at Baikonur for the launch). During his 12-day fl ight, Garriott took part in Guy Laliberté 15 education outreach efforts, communicating with students using Amateur Radio. Garriott also transmitted photographs using the Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) slow-scan television system.

GUY LALIBERTÉ

Spacefl ight participant number seven (and the ninth Canadian in space) was Guy Laliberté (Figure 1.11 ), a Canadian entrepreneur, philanthropist, poker player, and co-founder of Cirque du Soleil. With an estimated net worth of US$2.6 billion (as of March 2012), Laliberté was ranked by Forbes as the 11th wealthiest Canadian and 459th wealthiest in the world. Laliberté, who founded the One Drop Foundation to fi ght poverty by providing access to water, used part of his 10-day trip to help raise awareness of the global drinking- water problem. Like Garriott, he faced a hike in the cost of his ticket, reportedly paying US$35 million. After Laliberté returned, there was a hiatus in blasting spacefl ight participants into space following the mothballing of the Shuttle fl eet: without the Shuttle, NASA had to rely on Soyuz spacecraft to ferry astronauts to and from the station. But, with such good money to be earned fl ying wealthy thrill-seekers to the orbiting outpost, it was inevitable that such an interruption would be short-lived, and so it proved when Space Adventures announced Sarah Brightman (Figure 1.12 ) would become the eighth spacefl ight participant.

1.11 Guy Laliberté. Courtesy: NASA 16 Space Tourism: A Brief History

1.12 Sarah Brightman. Courtesy: Wikimedia/Wordpress

SARAH BRIGHTMAN

In 2013, Sarah Brightman, 52, the world’s best-selling soprano (she’s sold more than 30 million records), forked out US$35 million to go where only one British woman has gone before. Brightman, who sang “I Lost My Heart to a Starship Trooper” in 1978 and is known for performing as Christine in The Phantom of the Opera musical, passed all the medical and psychological tests for her October 2015 trip, but still has much to do to prepare for her adventure. The classically trained singer is interested in participating in experiments that examine what happens in her body when she sings in space (she plans to create an international concert in which she joins in from the space station).

THE FUTURE

The concept of space tourism is not a new one. Following the Moon landings and the birth of the Shuttle program, many people assumed it was merely a matter of time before they would be able to buy a ticket into space. The problem was the cost, with an average Shuttle mission priced at more than US$400 million, which, divided between a nominal crew of seven, equates to a ticket price of almost US$60 million! With the loss of the Shuttle Challenger in 1986, the dream of space tourism was forgotten by many, until space entrepreneur Peter Diamandis revived it with the launch of the X-Prize, a race that attracted aircraft designers from around the world. Burt Rutan was the fi rst to sign up. Since the X-Prize was launched, a few people have already fl own into space as paying passengers on the Russian spacecraft Soyuz, but for them the fare was as steep as the ascent to orbit. But, thanks to the recent test fl ights of SS2, the pulse of public interest in fl ying high above Earth is being felt more and more. SS2 is gradually helping the personal spacefl ight The Future 17 industry turn a corner, although initially it will be a niche market catering to those with a strong interest in space coupled with a desire to be among the fi rst space tourists and a wallet deep enough to pay the ticket price. This niche market will sustain the industry until the next generation of space vehicles are developed that will help bring the cost down to below US$50,000, and eventually in the US$10,000 range. Beyond breaking the records and winning the X-Prize, the SS1 fl ights gave life to the concept that is at the heart of the pro-space tourism movement, namely that space is a place and not a program. By capturing the X-Prize, SS1 drove home the fact that space is open to all those who have the capabilities and drive to go there and, in demonstrating what a private space company with the right stuff can do, opened the door to a whole new industry that now has the chance to rise up and truly begin to open up the fi nal frontier. 2

The Space Tourism Market

As this book is being written, Sarah Brightman is preparing for her fl ight to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2015. If all goes well, she will become the eighth private citizen to have fl own an orbital fl ight in 14 years. That’s a pretty small market isn’t it? It also happens to be a rather elite one that is becoming ever more exclusive as ticket prices continue to increase. So, for those hoping to become a space tourist, what are your chances of fl y- ing? Well, to begin with, the chances of you fl ying an orbital trip are a little further over the horizon than fl ying a suborbital one, so let’s begin with the suborbital industry.

SUBORBITAL TOURISM MARKET

In November 2011, as suborbital operators Virgin Galactic and XCOR Aerospace ramped up development of their vehicles, Space Florida (the State of Florida’s spaceport authority and aerospace economic development agency) and the Federal Aviation Administration Offi ce of Commercial Space (FAA-AST) decided it would be a good time to assess the potential of the impending suborbital market. To do this, they partnered to commission a study prepared by the Tauri Group to forecast the 10-year demand for suborbital reusable launch vehicles (sRLVs). The analysis interviewed 120 potential users and providers, polled 60 researchers, assessed budgets, and surveyed more than 200 high-net-worth individuals. The results of the study—Suborbital Reusable Vehicles: A 10-Year Forecast of Market Demand—were made available to the public via the Space Florida and FAA websites and, since it’s the only study of its kind, much of what appears in this chapter is taken from the study. At the heart of the survey—and the space tourism industry—are the sRLVs (Figure 2.1 ): commercially developed vehicles capable of carrying you, your family, and friends. The companies developing these vehicles are ambitious and hope to fl y regularly and, by regularly , we’re not talking about once a month; these sRLVs may fl y several times a day . Given these lofty goals, it made sense to provide information to the industry of the potential of this breed of space vehicle, and that’s exactly what the Tauri Group did. By analyz- ing dynamics, trends, and areas of uncertainty in the space tourism market, the group came up with a projected demand, which we’ll discuss here.

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 19 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6_2, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 20 The Space Tourism Market

2.1 An sRLV. Courtesy: www.spoton-m.com

To generate as accurate a picture of space tourism market dynamics as possible, the Tauri Group forecast demand based on three scenarios: • Baseline scenario: sRLVs operate in a predictable political/economic environment. Existing trends generate demand for sRLVs. • Growth scenario: new dynamics emerge from marketing, branding, and research successes. Commercial human spacefl ight has a transformative effect on consumer behavior, and more customers buy fl ights. • Constrained scenario: sRLVs operate in an environment of dramatic reduction in spending, due, for example, to worsened global economy. Of course, as meticulous as the Tauri Group was in generating their forecast (which we’ll get to shortly), there is still uncertainty due to the dynamics of demand as it responds to future events. For example, demand may not always be steady because it could grow more rapidly than predicted based on the social dynamics following successful launch experiences. Equally, if a vehicle suffers a major malfunction with loss of life, demand would decline sharply and probably come to a standstill. The bottom line is that the forecast is presented as a relatively steady state in each scenario, refl ecting current levels of interest. In short, the Tauri Group concluded that at a minimum (constrained scenario), demand for suborbital fl ights will be sustained, and be suffi ciently robust to support multiple providers with a baseline demand over 10 years exceeding US$300 million in fl ight revenue. But, in the event of increased marketing, greater consumer uptake, and multiple fl ights per day, revenue could generate US$1.6 billion in the fi rst decade. That’s a fairly healthy industry. Space Tourism Market Analysis 21

THE 10-YEAR FORECAST

Before going into the details of the Tauri Group’s forecast, it’s worth reviewing the approach they used. The group used primary research and open-source materials to assess sRLV capabilities and reviewed government budgets to build as complete and objective a picture of sRLV market dynamics as possible. The group also interviewed potential sRLV users and surveyed more than 200 individuals with at least US$5 million in investable assets, in a randomized, scientiﬁ c analysis, to estimate demand for sRLV ﬂ ights among customers with assets consistent with sRLV prices. The group made the assumption that sRLV prices would remain at current levels and sRLVs would be operated safely. Based on the operators who had announced seat prices, an average ticket price was estimated at US$123,000.

REUSABLE SUBORBITAL LAUNCH VEHICLES

We’ll talk more about sRLVs later but, for the purposes of understanding the survey, it’s useful to have a brief overview of what these vehicles are and how they are operated. sRLVs are launched beyond the threshold of space which, according to the International Aeronautical Federation (FAI),1 is 100 kilometers. During their brief excursion into space, these vehicles offer up to fi ve minutes of microgravity before returning to Earth. Some vehicles launch and land vertically, others are slung under mother-ships and launched in mid-air, and some take off and land like regular aircraft. The vehicles, some of which can carry up to six passengers, have been in development for years and, as with so many aerospace ventures, development timelines have slipped and fl ight dates have been delayed. As this book is being written, Virgin Galactic CEO George Whitesides predicted Virgin Galactic revenue fl ights would start at the tail end of 2014. Many in the industry hope he’s right. With so much uncertainty surrounding revenue fl ights, it isn’t surprising operators have been reluctant to provide details on how rapidly they will increase fl ight rates, although most have targeted operational rates between once per week to multiple fl ights per day.

SPACE TOURISM MARKET ANALYSIS

As of November 6th, 2013, a total of 536 people from 38 countries have fl own in space and only a handful of these fl ew commercial. In fact, since 2001, just seven leisure travelers have purchased eight orbital fl ights (one passenger fl ew twice) for up to US$35 million per

1 The International Aeronautical Federation (FAI) is the world governing body for aeronautics and astronautics records, which includes man-carrying spacecraft Among the FAI’s responsibilities is the verifi cation of record-breaking fl ights. Some records are claimed even though the achieve- ments fail to meet FAI standards. For example, Yuri Gagarin earned recognition for the first manned spacefl ight, despite failing to meet FAI requirements because he didn’t land in his spacecraft(he ejected from it). 22 The Space Tourism Market

fl ight. For those of you who don’t have deep pockets, there is a whole industry offering space-related experiences that deliver key elements of the space experience, such as a view of the curvature of Earth against the blackness of space, zero-G fl ights, and MiG fi ghter jet fl ights. Then there is the experience of training for spacefl ight, which is offered by the National Aerospace Training and Research (NASTAR) Center and the American Astronautics Institute (http://astronauticsinstitute.com ). To wealthy individuals or for those willing to remortgage their house (we’ll get to that shortly), suborbital fl ights are attractive because they offer a combination of space experiences (weightlessness, view from space) combined with the bragging rights to say they’re an astronaut, all at a price signifi cantly lower than orbital fl ights. An added bonus is the training (three days in most cases) is much less than the six months required to train for an orbital fl ight. Plus, you don’t have to learn Russian! But what if you don’t have deep pockets? Well, don’t despair, because there are options, one of which is to enter a contest. That’s what thousands of people did in 2013 when Unilever bought 22 fl ights on board XCOR’s Lynx as part of Unilever’s space-themed AXE (brand of men’s cologne, and other personal care products) Apollo™ Campaign. The campaign included Apollo astronaut Buzz Aldrin and a 30-second Super Bowl ad. If you’re not the lucky type, there is always the more extreme option mentioned earlier in this paragraph—remortgaging your house (talk to your partner fi rst!). After all, it won’t just be rich people fl ying. Although there are few reliable data available to predict the purchasing behavior of space enthusiasts, there will be some individuals with lower net worth who will spend a large proportion of their assets (including their house) to purchase a fl ight. How many, we don’t know, but several sRLV providers reckon more individuals outside the US$5 million population than predicted by the Tauri Group will seek to fl y at current prices. Take Lina Borozdina-Birch for example.

Lina Borozdina-Birch, 38, chemist Lina Borozdina-Birch says she has had two dreams since she was a girl in the former Soviet Union; one was to visit Disneyland and the other to visit space. In 1991, Borozdina-Birch came to the US and sought asylum. It wasn’t long before she visited Disneyland and then, in 2004, the opportunity to realize her second dream came about following the launch of SpaceShipOne. Her husband, Jo, contacted Virgin and, after some deliberation, the couple decided to take out a second mortgage on their home so Lina could buy her ticket. How many space enthusiasts like Borozdina-Birch and how many affl uent individuals will fl y will depend largely on the myriad factors infl uencing the space tourism market. In the best-case growth scenario, potential customers’ interest in suborbital fl ight will grow thanks to increased marketing, publicity surrounding the start of human fl ights, and positive fl ight experiences. But, if the economy tanks, demand will fall. In terms of actual numbers, Tauri’s forecast projected demand for 3,600 seats over the 10 years of the baseline forecast, with about 95% of tickets being bought by high-net-worth individuals and the remaining 5% of tickets being bought by space enthusiasts. In 2014, there are a number of manned sRLVs in development, operated by companies that have booked close to Profi les of Select Suborbital Celebrities 23

1,000 reservations, with ticket prices ranging from US$95,000 to US$250,000. Confi rmed ticket holders include celebrities such as Ashton Kutcher, Tom Hanks, Brad Pitt, X-Men director Bryan Singer, Formula 1 racing legend Niki Lauda, Paris Hilton, and, of course, Sir Richard himself. According to recent announcements by Virgin Galactic, 35%–40% of deposits originate from the US, 15% from the UK, and 15% from the Asia-Pacifi c region. Incidentally, if you’re a frequent fl yer and would like to use those miles for a suborbital fl ight, it will cost you two million miles to redeem via Virgin!

PROFILES OF SELECT SUBORBITAL CELEBRITIES

Bryan Singer, fi lm and television director/producer You know him from such movies as The Usual Suspects and X-Men . Singer, a science-fi ction fan, who says From the Earth to the Moon is his favorite miniseries, met Sir Richard Branson at a hotel in Australia, where Branson described his plans to offer commercial spacefl ights. Singer signed up.

Edward Roski Jr., real estate developer, sports team co-owner Roski has trekked to Mount Everest base camp, biked across Mongolia, and gone scuba-diving in New Guinea. In 2000, he chartered a submersible to tour the wreck of the Titanic . Roski, who is co-owner of the Los Angeles Kings and the Los Angeles Lakers, ﬁ gured if he had gone down that far, it would be nice to go up on the other side to see what Earth looked like from up there. He snagged ticket #128.

Victoria Principal, actress Best known for her role as Pamela Ewing on the 1980s television show Dallas , Principal signed on within the ﬁ rst 24 hours of Virgin’s announcement. Another thrill- seeker who enjoys paragliding, bobsledding, and car racing, the Dallas star is so enthusiastic about the prospect of visiting space that she offered to join a test ﬂ ight.

James Lovelock, atmospheric scientist More than 40 years ago, Lovelock worked at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) where he marveled at images of Earth and Mars transmitted by satellites. The British scientist is best known for proposing Gaia theory, which suggests Earth is a living, self-regulating organism whose parts work together to sustain life. When he received a letter from Branson inviting him to go on a suborbital fl ight, he didn’t hesitate. Since there isn’t an inexhaustible supply of celebrities, the Tauri Group also forecast demand among other groups with the fi nancial wherewithal to afford a suborbital jaunt. Their assessment of demand for individuals included estimates among high-net-worth individuals (worth over US$5 million) and (poorer) space enthusiasts. To estimate demand for suborbital fl ights among high-net-worth individuals, the group conducted the Tauri 24 The Space Tourism Market

Table 2.1. Forecasts for the suborbital space tourism market.

Year Scenario 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Baseline 340 344 353 359 366 372 379 385 392 399 Growth 1,046 1,060 1,079 1,099 1,118 1,138 1,159 1,179 1,200 1,222 Constrained 187 188 191 195 198 202 205 209 213 216

Group 2012 Survey of High Net Worth Individuals, revealing a relatively robust market of those willing to purchase suborbital fl ights. Analysis suggests there are enough—about 8,000—high-net-worth individuals across the planet willing to pay current prices to constitute a sustained demand for suborbital fl ight. Tauri also estimated the interested population will grow at the same rate as the high-net-worth population (about 2% annually) and about 3,600 individuals will fl y within the 10-year forecast period, while the less affl uent “space enthusiasts” group will generate an additional 173 seats over 10 years, resulting in a baseline forecast of 335 seats in the fi rst year, growing to nearly 400 seats by year 10. But, in the growth scenario, the numbers are much healthier, with about 10,700 seeking to fl y in the 10-year time frame and an additional 535 space enthusiasts likely to purchase fl ights. This adds up to just over 1,000 passengers in the base year and grows to over 1,200 by year 10 (Table 2.1 ). The numbers in Table 2.1 look healthy, but you have to bear in mind there are many uncertainties and those numbers are based on assumptions. For one thing, it is impossible to predict the dynamics of demand as it responds to future events; demand may—and probably will—evolve in unpredictable ways. For example, demand may grow more rapidly than predicted based on “me too” effects, following exciting launch experiences. Equally, demand could decline if a large proportion of individuals report unpleasant fl ight experiences such as space motion sickness. Also, the forecast assumes individual passengers fl y once only, that only 40% of interested passengers will fl y within the next 10 years, and that most passengers have net assets exceeding US$5 million; relaxing any of these assumptions will increase demand signifi cantly. For example, if 80% of interested passengers fl y in the next 10 years, the forecast doubles!

ORBITAL MARKET AND BEYOND

Orbital space tourism is very much a niche industry, but the business could really change dramatically if prices drop signifi cantly to about US$500,000 per seat or so. That reduced rate could potentially lure thousands of customers for orbital tourist trips, generating rev- enues of billions of dollars per year. At least that’s the prediction of Ajay Kothari, president and CEO of the aerospace engineering fi rm Astrox Corporation. Kothari and his colleagues have mapped out a plan for reducing the cost of an orbital ticket to US$500,000 per seat or less by developing a fully reusable, two-stage-to-orbit spaceships. Kothari began by looking at the 2002 space tourism study published by consulting fi rm Futron, with help from the polling company Zogby. This report used interviews with 450 American Orbital Market and Beyond 25 millionaires to assess the market for orbital and suborbital space tourism. Although the Futron/Zogby report is more than a decade old, it remains one of the most in-depth assess- ments of space tourism’s potential customer base. The report found that 30% of the polled millionaires would be willing to spend US$1 million for a two-week orbital trip, but only 7% would go if the price was US$20 million per seat. Kothari and his team analyzed the Futron/Zogby results and performed their own analysis of the potential global tourist market for orbital spacefl ight. The research took into account factors such as the eagerness to go to space and physical fi tness. For example, the average age of American millionaires is 57, which means a fair proportion of potential customers might not meet the medical standards required for orbital spacefl ight. Kothari’s team made two assumptions: the fi rst assumed passengers would be willing to spend just 1.5% of their net worth on an orbital trip and the second, more optimistic scenario assumed a 5% net-worth threshold. After crunching the numbers, it was determined that the worldwide customer base at US$5 million per seat is only about 600 people at the 1.5% threshold, and about 1,500 folks in the 5% scenario. This means that, even if current prices drop by a factor of seven, it’s still not good enough to improve the business case for orbital tourism. If the price falls to US$1 million, the pool is about 9,000 people at the 1.5% threshold and 23,000 at 5%. Good, but not healthy enough to support a robust industry. But, if tickets are priced at US$500,000, the global customer base is 14,000 in the conservative case, but nearly 225,000 in the optimistic scenario. Of course, this is all hypo- thetical. After all, how do we drop the price of a ticket from US$35 million to just US$500,000? Well, the key is having the right spaceship and the right spaceship happens to be a fully reusable, two-stage-to-orbit vehicle. Kothari’s concept vehicle would have a payload capacity of about 9,000 kilograms and could carry 40 passengers. It would launch vertically and, at an altitude of about 23 kilometers, a booster would separate and glide back home to the launch pad, leaving ramjet/ scramjet engines to take over. These engines would propel the vehicle to about 30 kilometers and Mach 10, after which the engines would switch over to rocket mode, which would carry the craft the rest of the way to orbit. After completing its mission, the vehicle would land on a runway, just like the Shuttle used to do. Of course, this would cost money. Lots of it. But, while development costs for a new spacecraft would be high, Kothari reckons the vehicle’s owners would recoup their money over time as long as it fl ew often. So when will you be able to buy a ticket on this ramjet/scramjet two-stage-to-orbit wonder? In fi ve years? Ten? Well, actually, you’ll have to wait a little longer. You see, this ramjet/scramjet technology is rather exotic. That’s not to say it’s unfeasible, just that a lot of development and testing need to be done before such a vehicle can start ferrying tourists to orbit: providing the concept receives funding, it’s possible such a vehicle could become operational in a couple of decades. That’s a long wait, so what other vehicles are further along the development pipeline? Well, there are a number of companies developing orbital vehicles, and many of these companies have private spacefl ight as part of their business plan. For example, Space Adventures has signed a contract with Boeing to fl y people to orbital space on its CST-100 vehicle (Figure 2.2 ). And those trips could start relatively soon—perhaps as early as 2017. 26 The Space Tourism Market

2.2 CST-100. Courtesy: Boeing Company/NASA 3

The Space Tourist’s Spaceport Guide

So you’ve bought your ticket to space? Now all you need to do before strapping yourself in for the ride is check off the training. But where? After all, rocket-launch ranges have lots of wide-open space but little else. Fortunately, the companies offering spacefl ights have come up with an answer: spaceports. What is a spaceport? Well, it’s similar to a commercial airport or a cruise ship terminal. It’s a place where space tourists can feel relaxed and welcome and where their friends and family can feel vicariously involved. It’s a place where everyone can spend (lots of) money on accommodation, food, drinks, and souvenirs. And it’s a place where you, as a potential space tourist, can check off all that training you need to do: centrifuge training, high-altitude indoctrination, spatial disorientation training, emergency egress training. And, since some of this training will be stressful (Figure 3.1 ), it makes sense to co-locate medical facilities to check the health of the space tourists and certify them for spacefl ight. This will be especially true in the early stages of the industry, because wealthy individuals, who can afford the fl ights, tend to be older and less healthy than average. There will also need to be emergency facilities in case of accidents. After a hard day’s training, you and your friends will want to kick back and relax, so hotels will be built near, or attached to, the spaceports (Table 3.1). Staying with the relax- ation theme, it will make sense to co-locate entertainment facilities, so your family and friends can occupy themselves during the training. An IMAX theater perhaps? Or a space theme park, with rides and space simulations? If these entertainment facilities are well designed, they could be a destination in themselves, even when there are no launches taking place. For example, the idea of a space camp/academy is a great way to get kids involved and provide them with the opportunity to learn about the experience of being a space tourist. Public access to witness the launches will be needed: a place where members of the public can stroll in and out while launch preparation is taking place, and where they can watch the events unfold. And, in the event of any delays, there should be ample restaurant facilities and souvenir shops.

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 27 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6_3, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 28 The Space Tourist’s Spaceport Guide

3.1 The author climbing on board a Hawk for his unusual attitude ﬂ ight. Author’s own collection

SPACEPORT AMERICA

Contact details New Mexico Spaceport Authority, 901 E. University Ave., Suite 965L, Las Cruces, NM 88001, USA Phone: (575) 373-6110 Fax: (575) 373-6120 Website: www.spaceportamerica.com The fi rst spaceport built from the ground up is Spaceport America (Figure 3.2 ). Thanks to the fact it is home to Sir Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic, the world’s fi rst commercial spaceline, the US$209 million project has attracted worldwide attention. Designed, built, and operated by the New Mexico Spaceport Authority (NMSA), Spaceport America’s operational infrastructure includes an airfi eld, launch pads, a terminal/hangar facility, emergency response capabilities, utilities, and roadways. The site will be capable of accommodating the activities of vertical and horizontal take-off vehicles, serving as a base for astronaut training, and providing a tourism experience for families and friends of those with a ticket to ride. Spaceport America 29

Table 3.1. Spaceport features.

Class Feature description Local infrastructure Runway Railhead Road access Hotels, restaurants, and shops Qualiﬁ ed local workforce Pads for small, medium, and large vehicles Horizontal take-off/landing capability Fuel handling/solid Fuel handling/liquid Fuel handling/hybrid Chemical analysis facilities Ordnance facilities Vehicle checkout Processing–dynamic balance Spacecraft storage facilities Engineering/mission management ofﬁ ces Range radars, cameras Telemetry data retrieval Engine test stands Materials testing facilities Hazmat training Broadband access Emergency response teams Space training Medical facilities Training facilities Simulators Space academy Family facilities/residential Family facilities/entertainment

The route tomorrow’s space tourists will take begins at the Virgin Galactic Gateway to Space, a building whose sinuous steel surfaces stand in harsh contrast to the red–brown New Mexico desert. Meticulously designed by architects of Foster and Partners to fore- shadow the journey the new group of astronauts will make into space, the building features a concrete ramp that ascends gradually towards the center of the structure. Shortly after arriving for their scheduled fl ight of a lifetime, passengers will be issued magnetic tags that will trigger heavy steel doors that will open into a passageway and a catwalk with views of the cavernous hangar four levels below, housing the fl eet of spacecraft in which they will be launched into space. Walking along the catwalk, passengers will pass through the last set of doors, which will swing open into the astronaut lounge, a vast atrium fi lled with natural light from an elliptical wall of windows, offering a vista of the three-kilometer- long runway. 30 The Space Tourist’s Spaceport Guide

3.2 Spaceport America. Courtesy: Spaceport America

In 2014, the talk of spaceports is nothing new. After all, there are dozens of them popping up around the world and nine locations in the US alone. But Spaceport America is the only one built from scratch and designed to accommodate a regular passenger service. It was built from nothing in the middle of nowhere, 50 kilometers from the nearest town, and it wasn’t cheap; with a price tag of almost a quarter of a billion dollars and counting, the spaceport was paid for by the state of New Mexico, whose citizens voted for a sales tax designed to fi nance its construction. Spaceport America is ground zero for the beginning of the spaceline industry, the location from where daily suborbital passenger fl ights will kick-start a new era in space travel. For many, it’s a dream long overdue. For those who remember the opening scenes of Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey, released in 1968, you could be forgiven for thinking that trips to the Moon were just around the corner. Corporate pioneers, Pan American, certainly thought so, and began selling tickets to space, predicting trans-lunar services would begin no later than 2000; 98,000 people signed up. Sadly, the euphoria of 2001 and Apollo 11 didn’t last. NASA gutted its lunar program and Pan Am closed its waiting list (the airline went bankrupt in 1991). So began a three-decade-long drought in the annals of commercial spacefl ight, until the X-Prize resurrected interest with the pioneering suborbital fl ights of SpaceShipOne (SS1). If you’re interested in visiting, Spaceport America is located west of the US Army White Sands Missile Range in Sierra County, in New Mexico, or about 50 kilometers south-east of Truth or Consequences. The spaceport is easily accessible by county roads from Interstate-2 and it has been operational for a while; several fl ight tests have taken Spaceport America 31 place since 2006. Headquartered at the spaceport is Virgin Galactic, the anchor tenant, which holds a 20-year lease agreement with the NMSA on the Virgin Galactic Gateway to Space facility.

The Space Tourists Families Guide to Southern New Mexico The following is a suggested three-day itinerary, which families and friends of space tourists can follow while their loved one undergoes astronaut training.

Day #1. Carlsbad Caverns National Park and Living Desert Zoo This UNESCO World Heritage site has a diverse history dating back to prehistoric and Native American cultures. After touring the caverns, spend a pleasant afternoon at the Living Desert Zoo & Gardens State Park, a living museum featuring ﬂ ora and fauna of the Chihuahuan Desert. Address: 727 Carlsbad Cavern Hwy, Carlsbad, NM 88220, USA Phone: 1 575-785-2232 Website: www.nps.gov/cave

Day #2. Roswell and Fort Stanton World renowned for the “Roswell Incident” and its International UFO Museum and Research Center. Be sure to check out the recreation of Robert Goddard’s workshop and the planetarium at the Roswell Museum and Art Center. In the afternoon, head west and stop at the Hondo Iris Farm and the Peter Hurd Gallery to see works by the American artist. Complete your day’s sightseeing by visiting the Fort Stanton State Monument, historical home of Kit Carson, and the Buffalo Soldiers. Address: 114 N. Main St., Roswell, NM 88203, USA Phone: 1 800-822-3545 Website: www.roswellufomuseaum.com

Day #3. Alamogordo and White Sands National Monument Transfer to the high desert town of Alamogordo and visit the home of the New Mexico Museum of Space History. Exhibits include Robert Goddard’s early rocket experiments and a mock-up of the International Space Station. The museum is also home to New Mexico’s only IMAX theater. In the afternoon, visit the White Sands National Monument with its hundreds of square kilometers of white gypsum dunes (Figure 3.3 ). Address: 3198 State Route 2001, Alamogordo, NM 8831, USA Phone: 1 575-437-2840 Website: www.nmspacemuseaum.org 32 The Space Tourist’s Spaceport Guide

3.3 White Sands National Monument. Courtesy: Wikimedia

While Spaceport America may look like a futuristic airport, it’s not the sort of place where you can land your Citation jet because it is designated to operate as a prior- permission- required airport, which means there are no services for general or commercial aviation. Another downside is that there are no commercial airline ﬂ ights to Spaceport America so, when you’re planning your rocket ride, you will have to ﬂ y into either El Paso International Airport (ELP) or Albuquerque International Sunport (ABQ).

CARIBBEAN SPACEPORT

Contact details Caribbean Spaceport Sphinx Building Baron G.A. Tindalplein suite #185 1019TW Amsterdam The Netherlands E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +31-(0)6 123-66-000 or 31 (0)6-506-07-110 Fax: +31 (0)20-776-2775 Website: www.caribbeanspaceport.com For those who would like to combine their trip of a lifetime with another destination vacation, there’s probably no better place than the Netherlands Antilles island of Curaçao, home to the Caribbean Spaceport (CSP). Originally conceived in 2005 in cooperation with Caribbean Spaceport 33

3.4 Caribbean Spaceport. Courtesy: Caribbean Spaceport various spacefl ight and business professionals, the spaceport is now run by Spaceport Partners, who work closely with governmental, academic, and business institutions to research and assess the technological, legal, and economic feasibility of developing and operating the spaceport. We’ll get to latest developments shortly, but fi rst some history. Although the idea for the spaceport was dreamt up in 2005, it took a while to put together the necessary feasibility studies, requirements analyses, business planning, and architec- tural design that involved the TUDelft, the University of Leiden, the Dutch government, and DDOCK Design. In fact, the ball only really got rolling in August 2008, when the CSP venture spent two weeks on Curaçao to present its plans to government offi cials, local business people, and the general public. The idea received a warm welcome, prompting CSP founder and director Joost Wouters to invite Buzz Aldrin, a group of NASA astronauts, oceanographers, and business executives in the SeaSpace group for another presentation in October 2008. That presentation was followed by a February 2009 visit by Sir Richard Branson, who showed great enthusiasm for the CSP concept and requested a design bro- chure. In April 2009, Wouters presented a lecture about Commercial Spacefl ight and Spaceports during the TU Delft VSV International Entrepreneurial Spacefl ight Symposium “Ready to Launch” presentation, which included talks by Odyssey Moon CEO Bob Richards and XCOR COO Andrew Nelson. The rest of the year included meetings with Virgin Galactic CEO Will Whitehorn, who expressed Virgin’s positive position, and meetings with Bigelow Aerospace, SpaceX, Masten Aerospace, XCOR, and NASA. Word was getting around, and the media were gradually picking up on the CSP venture. Today, CSP (Figure 3.4 ) has concluded its feasibility studies, requirements analyses, and business planning, and is in the process of discussing investment options and acquiring funding. It is also in contact with various operators and spacecraft developers concerning future operations from its spaceport. If all goes well, the spaceport will be open for business in 2015. When complete, CSP will offer all the facilities necessary for training suborbital passengers, a SpaceExpo, entertainment, bars and restaurants, and a shopping mall for friends and family accompanying the space tourist. 34 The Space Tourist’s Spaceport Guide

The Space Tourist’s Family Guide to Curaçao The following is a suggested three-day itinerary, which families and friends of space tourists can follow while their loved one undergoes astronaut training.

Day #1. Jeep safari Spend a half-day off-road adventure traveling by Land Rover along the north shore. You will be picked up at your hotel and visit two beaches, including playa Porto Mari, famous for its beautiful snorkeling. You will stop for lunch at the E’Lanternu Restaurant at Fontijn, on the west part of the island. The safari includes a 4×4 excursion in the secluded San Nicolas Area, where you can experience Curaçao’s wild terrain. Finally, you will visit the secluded beach of Boca Hulu, one of the most beautiful beaches on Curaçao. Phone: 5999 462.62.62 Website: www.jeep-safaris.com/

Day #2. Ocean Encounters Ocean Encounters is known for being Curaçao’s best diving operator, showcasing some of the most amazing dive locations (Figure 3.5) in the entire Caribbean. Through their Animal Encounters, the company offers guests the opportunity to experience the beauty of underwater sea life through scuba and snorkel adventures: their programs are available for certiﬁ ed and non-certiﬁ ed divers, as no dive experience is needed (family members who don’t want to get wet can relax on board the company’s viewing boat and study the marine life through windows at the bottom, while their loved ones feed the sharks). Phone: 5999 461-8131 Website: www.oceanencounters.com/en/

Day #3. Tour of Willemstad The oldest part of Willemstad is Punda, situated in the east of St. Anna Bay. Punda, together with Otrabanda, situated on the west side of St. Anna Bay, forms the historical center of Willemstad. Punda is very diverse: together with old colonial archi- tectural buildings, you can see the inﬂ uences from earlier days such as Fort Amsterdam. In front of Fort Amsterdam, the Waterfort was built to protect the old city but, due to high costs, the original plans were never carried out. In 1955, the town decided to build a hotel in the courtyard of the Waterfort: the Plaza Hotel. The Plaza Hotel is a city hotel, featuring a restaurant situated in the Penthouse, from where you have a beautiful view over the city. For a shopping experience, Punda is also the best place to be, with most of the shopping concentrated in Breedestraat, Handelskade, Herenstraat, Madurostraat, and the Gomezplein. Website: www.downtownwillemstad.com/ Spaceport Sweden 35

3.5 Scuba-diving. Courtesy: Wordpress

Compared to many other spaceport locations, the CSP location offers a number of advantages, one of which is using the existing high-tech infrastructure of Hato International Airport of Curaçao. Hato’s 3.5-kilometer runway is the longest of the Caribbean and is more than long enough to deal with launches of the suborbital spacecraft in development. Secondly, unlike many other remotely located spaceports, Curaçao offers an attractive setting with a fully developed tourism infrastructure.

SPACEPORT SWEDEN

Contact details E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +46 (0) 980 80 880. Mon–Fri 09:00–17:00 hrs CET Website: www.spaceportsweden.com Twitter: @SpaceportSweden Tropical weather and tequila not your style? No problem. Just ﬂ y to Stockholm and head north to Kiruna, home of the Spaceport at the Top of the World. Given its location, Kiruna may seem an unlikely place to build Europe’s ﬁ rst commercial spaceport. Its 67.86° latitude means it is 150 kilometers above the Arctic Circle and close to 900 kilometers north 36 The Space Tourist’s Spaceport Guide

3.6 Aurora Borealis. Courtesy: NASA

of Stockholm. In addition to its extreme grid reference, Kiruna has a number of other disadvantages; it is home to the world’s largest underground iron-ore mine, a vast expanse of forests, no sunlight for weeks at a time (from the fi rst week of December until the second week of January, Kiruna has zero hours of sunlight per day), and temperatures that are great for polar bears, but not so good for tourists (the average high in July is just 7°C). None of these shortcomings stopped the Swedish government though. In 2007, the government announced an “agreement of understanding” with Virgin Galactic to make Kiruna the company’s fi rst launch site outside the US. If all goes to plan, Branson could soon be fl ying space tourists through the Aurora Borealis (Figure 3.6 ). While Spaceport Sweden will be new to many tourists, Kiruna is not completely undiscovered. The town has been home to an array of aerospace activities since the Swedish government established a space research center there in 1964. The center, Esrange, includes a 5,600 km2 range for launching sounding rockets. While launching the odd satellite offers a little excitement for the locals, it’s the prospect of people fl ying into space from their snow-covered airfi eld that has Kiruna’s residents’ attention. With typical Virgin panache, the suborbital Kiruna fl ights are promoted as an Arctic adventure complete with a stay in a hotel made of ice (Figure 3.7 ) and snowmobile rides through the wilderness. Today, thanks to Kiruna’s talent for marketing, the idea of marrying tourism with space has the backing of just about everyone in the town, which isn’t surprising because the residents know they can’t just live on income from the mine. And, with a dwindling Spaceport Sweden 37

3.7 IceHotel. Courtesy: Wikimedia population, people realized they needed to have other businesses, so the town began investing in tourism, to attract visitors during Kiruna’s short summer. The investment paid off for six months of the year; white-water rafting, fl y-fi shing, survival training, and canoeing were big draws. But, for the other half of the year, the town’s hotels were empty. Then came the IceHotel (www.icehotel.com ), a hotel with rooms built out of snice (snow and ice!). Guests pay up to US$600 to spend a night bundled in sleeping bags on reindeer skins in a sub-zero room. Now, instead of empty hotel rooms in the dark months of December and January, this period is the town’s high season. Building a hotel out of snice and charging US$600 a night might have struck many to be too outrageous a business plan to succeed, but it did, which is probably why Kiruna is so supportive of Virgin Galactic’s equally outrageous plans; like the IceHotel, suborbital trips could mean another tourist boom in Kiruna. After all, let’s not forget the sort of tourist we’re talking about. Those rich enough to splash out US$250,000 on a ticket will likely want their nearest and dearest along to share the experience, which all adds up to lots of hotel rooms. And these people all need activities to occupy themselves while their soon-to-be astronaut trains for their spacefl ight. Space summer camps. Centrifuge runs. Reindeer watching. It’s all part of Spaceport Sweden’s marketing strategy. The IceHotel’s marketing department, recognizing a good business opportunity when they see it, is already working with Spaceport Sweden to come up with a plan to fuss over Virgin’s customers, from accommodations and entertainment to working with Virgin’s medical staff to produce just the right pre-fl ight menu for their four-star restaurant. 38 The Space Tourist’s Spaceport Guide

The Space Tourist’s Family Guide to Kiruna The following is a suggested three-day itinerary, which families and friends of space tourists can follow while their loved one undergoes astronaut training.

Day #1. Esrange Twenty-three kilometers from Kiruna is the space base Esrange (Figure 3.8 ), a facility where scientists research space as well as atmospheric phenomena such as the Northern Lights. Four-hour tours of the facility are offered to enthusiasts in summer, but must be arranged in advance. Note: there is no public transport—taxi fare is about Skr500. E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +46 (0)8 627 62 00 Website: www.sscspace.com/esrange-space-center-3

Day #2. Iron-ore mine A visit to the depths of the LKAB iron-ore mine, 540 meters underground. This is the largest and most modern underground iron-ore mine in the world. The mine has an annual production capacity of over 26 million tonnes of iron ore and has an ore body 4 kilometers long, 80–120 meters thick, and it reaches a depth of 2 kilometers. Since mining began at the site in 1898, the mine has produced over 950 million tonnes of ore. Tours depart from the tourist ofﬁ ce regularly from mid-June to mid- August; make bookings through the tourist ofﬁ ce on Lars Janssonsgatan. Website: www.lkab.com Day #3. Reindeer farming In Jukkasjärv, near the church is Gárdi, a reindeer yard you can tour with a Sami guide to learn about reindeer farming and Sami culture. Regular bus 501 runs between Kiruna and Jukkasjärvi.

Day #3. Winter option (beginning of December to mid-April): IceHotel At the IceHotel in Jukkasjärvi, you can try your hand at ice sculpting, or perhaps take a dog sled or reindeer sled ride. Address: Marknadsvägen 63 981 91 Jukkasjärvi Phone: +46 980 668 00 Website: www.icehotel.com

While it would appear Spaceport Sweden is almost open for business, there are still some issues that must be addressed, including regulatory approval from the US and Swedish authorities. But, once ﬂ ights start taking off from New Mexico, it may not be too long before we see spacecraft taking off from the Arctic. Mojave Space Port 39

3.8 Esrange. Courtesy: European Space Agency

MOJAVE SPACE PORT

Contact details Mojave Air and Space Port 1434 Flightline Mojave, CA 93501 USA E-mail: [email protected] Phone: (661) 824 2433 Here’s a trivia question for you: what do the following fi lms have in common: Die Hard 2 , Executive Decision , Flight Plan , The Stand , Thirteen Days , Tuskegee Airmen , and Waterworld? Answer: parts of them were fi lmed at KMHV, also known as Mojave Airport, a sort of ground zero for suborbital spacefl ight. Housed in dusty hangars and sheds are Scaled Composites, XCOR Aerospace, Masten, and The Spaceship Company. In short, Mojave Spaceport is a Mecca for aviation geeks; the Space Port offers tours to the public on weekdays so, if you fi nd yourself in the high desert with some extra time, pay a visit. Located a two-hour drive north of Los Angeles, Mojave Air and Space Port has become one of the most iconic locations in the suborbital industry. Home to 14 space companies, this vast expanse of fl at, scrubby desert has witnessed thousands of rocket tests, although the only vehicle that has fl own into space is SS1. Spoken of by some as the Silicon Valley for commercial spacefl ight, this is a place where test pilots still push the envelope of 40 The Space Tourist’s Spaceport Guide aerospace technology. And, if that sounds a little like The Right Stuff , it’s worth bearing in mind Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier in the X-1 rocket plane at nearby Edwards Air Force Base in 1947 (the fi rst Shuttle landed there too).

The Space Tourist’s Family Guide to Mojave The following is a suggested three-day itinerary, which families and friends of space tourists can follow while their loved one undergoes astronaut training.

Day #1. Goldstone Deep Space Tracking Network The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex (GDSCC), commonly called the Goldstone Observatory (Figure 3.9 ), is operated for the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Its main purpose is to track and communicate with space missions. It is named after Goldstone, California, a nearby gold-mining ghost town. The complex includes the Pioneer Deep Space Station, which is a US National Historic Landmark. E-mail: [email protected].nasa.gov Phone: Karla Warner at 760-255-8688 Website: deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsn/

Day #2. Mojave National Preserve Rose-colored sand dunes, volcanic cinder cones, Joshua tree forests, and mile-high mountains are all part of Mojave National Preserve. Located in the heart of the Mojave Desert, the Preserve encompasses 1.6 million acres of mountains, desert washes, and dry lakes. Plant and animal life varies by elevation. Desert tortoises burrow in creosote bush ﬂ ats, while the black and yellow Scott’s oriole nests in Joshua trees higher up the slopes. Mule deer and bighorn sheep roam among pinyon pine and juniper in the Preserve’s many mountain ranges. Phone: 760-255-8800

Day #3. Joshua Tree National Park Joshua Tree National Park protects two unique desert climates. In the eastern part of the park, the low-altitude Colorado Desert features natural gardens of creosote bush, cactus, and other plants. The higher, moister, and cooler Mojave Desert is the exclusive home of the Joshua tree, a unique desert plant with beautiful white spring blos- soms. In addition to desert ﬂ ora and fauna, the western part of Joshua Tree National Park includes some of the most interesting geologic displays in California. Address: 74485 National Park Drive, Twentynine Palms, CA 9227, USA Phone: 1 760-367-5500 Website: www.nps.gov/jotr/index.htm Mojave Space Port 41

3.9 Goldstone Deep Space Tracking. Courtesy: Wikimedia

While the Mojave Spaceport has led the way in the spaceport industry since it was the site of the fi rst privately funded spacefl ight in 2004, the new kid on the block, Spaceport America, has established the template for future commercial spaceports. As this guide is being written, Spaceport America is eagerly awaiting the completion of start-up operations by Virgin Galactic. When will this happen? Well, it depends on testing, and people in the commercial space industry hate to put dates on testing. But, when all the testing is complete—hopefully some time in late 2014—then the commercial spacefl ight revolution will really get off the ground, with Spaceport America as its focal point. 4

Suborbital Operators

Momentum is building in the commercial suborbital spacefl ight industry. By the time you read this, Virgin Galactic will be on the cusp of revenue fl ights with XCOR Aerospace not far behind. Also developing its own breed of suborbital vehicle is Blue Origin, which has maintained its secret-squirrel profi le since being founded by Amazon.com CEO Jeff Bezos. Then there is Masten Space Systems, also based on Mojave, which has fl own its XA-0.1B, or “Xombie”, reusable suborbital vehicle. Despite the delays these companies have faced, there is a sense of optimism about the state of commercial suborbital spacefl ight. While not all these companies will be successful, most involved in the industry are convinced that, in the next few years, we will see multiple companies fl ying suborbital human spacefl ights on a regular basis. With an eye towards that goal, this chapter looks at two companies leading the charge.

VIRGIN GALACTIC

On April 29th, 2013, SpaceShipTwo (SS2), the spaceship fi nanced by Sir Richard Branson, made its fi rst powered fl ight over Mojave, California. Although SS2 didn’t actually fl y in space, the fl ight marked a signifi cant milestone. During the fl ight, SS2, strapped beneath its mother ship, took off from a runway in the Mojave Desert. Once it had reached release altitude, the carrier vehicle released SS2, which ignited its engine for 16 seconds, before gliding to a safe landing. Although only 16 seconds of the vehicle’s 13-minute fl ight were powered, the test moved Virgin Galactic one signifi cant step closer towards its goal of fl ying passengers into space. Until the April 2013 fl ight, SS2 had only performed unpowered glide fl ights, but the fi rst powered fl ight was without doubt the company’s single most important test to date. Branson was in Mojave to witness the occasion and was happy with what he saw, predicting passenger fl ights would soon follow. Virgin Galactic’s founder had predicted commercial fl ights would begin in 2007, but a deadly explosion during ground testing and longer-than-expected test fl ights pushed that deadline back. But, with the pivotal powered test, revenue fl ights seem more tangible.

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 43 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6_4, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 44 Suborbital Operators

The story so far It didn’t take long after the SS1 fl ights before Branson decided to add another sideline to his daredevil brand-building and declare Virgin Galactic open for business. Branson, by then one of the world’s richest men and proprietor of his own airline, had long been a fan of manned spacefl ight and had even been offered a trip to space in the late 1980s. The offer came from the USSR ambassador in London, who asked the eccentric billionaire if he would like to become the fi rst tourist in space. It would require 18 months of training at Star City and cost US$50 million. Branson declined. It was a decision he later regretted, but the offer did spur him on to begin canvassing people about the idea. Then, in 1995, following a chat with Buzz Aldrin, Branson began exploring the potential for commercial- izing spacefl ight and started to search for a space vehicle. Shortly thereafter, in 1996, the X-Prize, which offered US$10 million to the fi rst team to put a reusable vehicle capable of carrying passengers twice over the threshold of space, kick-started an explosion in the number of private companies claiming they had the technology that could enable the future of space tourism. The leader in the competition was Burt Rutan, whose design reached back to the X-15 rocket planes in which test pilots broke the sound barrier, and eventually reached the boundary of space. The X-15 was based on a concept study for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) for a hypersonic research aircraft. Like many X-series aircraft, the X-15 was designed to be shackled beneath the wing of a B-52 bomber. Release took place at an altitude of 13.7 kilometers, a height that saved 50% of the fuel it would otherwise have needed if it had been ground-launched. The X-15 mission architecture is echoed by the one used to launch SS1 and the one SS2 used on its fi rst powered fl ight in April 2013. SS1 and its carrier WhiteKnightOne (WK1) was built thanks to more than US$20 million of funding from Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen. Despite the secret nature of Rutan’s work, word got out the eccentric aircraft designer was building a spaceship. Branson found out about the spaceship and a meeting with Rutan and Allen followed. Rutan and Allen, who had no interest in running a space tourism company, agreed to license the technology to Virgin and Virgin Galactic was born. On June 21st, 2004, 64-year-old test pilot Mike Melvill fl ew SS1 over the Karman Line for the fi rst time. A few weeks later, when Rutan’s rocket plane won the X-Prize, the Virgin Galactic logo was on the side of the diminutive spaceship. At a press conference before the fi rst X-Prize-qualifying fl ight, Branson announced his intention to launch a passenger service into space. Tickets would cost US200,000 and fl ights would begin in 2007. A Virgin Galactic website featured the company’s distinctive logo (Figure 4.1 ), footage of the X-Prize-winning fl ight, and an application form. Not long after the site went live, it crashed due to the volume of ticket requests. Seats on the fi rst 100 Virgin Galactic fl ights were reserved for the fi rst buyers, known as the Founders. This wealthy group would have privileged access to the program as it developed and, when the time came, their names would be entered into a draw to decide who would fl y fi rst. Now all that was needed was a spaceship. In Mojave, the Scaled Composites team began work on a vehicle that could meet the requirements of the space tourist experience. To begin with, engineers didn’t even know how big the spaceship should be. One that carried four passengers? Eight? Twenty-fi ve? One thing engineers agreed on was that Virgin couldn’t send its high rollers up in SS1. It was just too small. Virgin Galactic 45

4.1 Virgin Galactic logo. Courtesy: Virgin Galactic

There was also the business case to consider: to bring the seat price down relatively quickly would mean fl ying several customers on each fl ight. After canvassing its customers, spaceship designers got an idea of what space tourists expected for their investment. Getting out of their seats was a must, as was the ability to see Earth; neither of these would have been possible from the confi nes of SS1. In the end, SS2 was designed to have large windows and to carry two pilots and six passengers. By the summer of 2005, Virgin Galactic had banked US$10 million worth of deposits and the following year, at the US Wired NextFest, Branson unveiled a SS2 full-size mock- up: a sleek, futuristic white tube with a delta wing, reclining seats molded into soft curves, and a dozen windows. Attending the ceremony were Buzz Aldrin and Alan Watts, a Virgin Atlantic passenger who had saved enough frequent-fl yer miles to buy a ticket for space.

Cash in your air miles for a ticket to space That’s what Alan Watts did. Watts redeemed two million miles for the opportunity to be one of the fi rst space tourists. He had been a member of the Virgin Atlantic fl ying club for 10 years and also had a Virgin American Express credit card, which awarded him two miles for every pound he spend. The opportunity for him to fl y as a space tourist came about when Watts returned home one night and was informed by his daughter that Virgin Atlantic had called and had asked whether Watts wanted to go into space. Watts explained he planned to semi-retire within fi ve years and was saving the miles for holidays with his wife, but said he would think about it. A couple of days later, Watts called Virgin Atlantic and agreed. 46 Suborbital Operators

Key people Sir Richard Branson Sir Richard Branson, founder of Virgin Galactic, is an English business magnate and investor best known as the founder of the Virgin Group of more than 400 companies. He is the fourth richest citizen of the UK, according to the Forbes 2012 list of billionaires, with an estimated net worth of US$4.6 billion. On September 25th, 2004, Branson announced the signing of a deal under which a new space tourism company, Virgin Galactic (wholly owned by Virgin Group), will license the technology behind SS1 to take passengers into suborbital space. Branson is a Star Trek fan and named his new spaceship VSS Enterprise in honor of the famous Star Trek ship and, in 2006, reportedly offered actor William Shatner a ride on the inaugural space launch of Virgin Galactic. In an inter- view in Time magazine (August 10th, 2009), Shatner claimed Branson approached him asking how much he would pay for a ride on the spaceship. In response, Shatner asked: “How much would you pay me to do it?”

George Whitesides George Whitesides is Virgin Galactic’s CEO. He’s responsible for guiding all aspects of the company to commercial operation, including overseeing The Spaceship Company to manufacture a fl eet of WhiteKnightTwo (WK2) and SS2 vehicles. Prior to Virgin Galactic, Whitesides served as Chief of Staff for NASA, where he provided policy and staff support to the agency’s Administrator. On leaving NASA, he received the Distinguished Service Medal, the highest award the agency confers. Prior to working for NASA, Whitesides served as Executive Director of the National Space Society (NSS), a space policy and advocacy group founded by Apollo program leader Wernher von Braun and journalist Hugh Downs. He also served as Vice President of Marketing for Zero Gravity Corporation during its launch period, and Director of Marketing for Blastoff Corporation, a space experience company funded by fi lm and technology leaders. Whitesides has testifi ed on American space policy before the US Senate, the US House of Representatives, and the President’s Commission on Implementation of US Space Exploration Policy. He also happens to be a licensed private pilot and certifi ed parabolic fl ight coach.

Steve Isakowitz As President of Virgin Galactic, Steve Isakowitz has broad leadership responsibilities across a range of areas. Prior to joining Virgin Galactic, he held a variety of senior engineering, business, and management roles across the private and government sectors including NASA, where he served as Deputy Associate Administrator for the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate. At NASA, he helped set overall priorities, and guided development of innovative technologies and systems. For his work at NASA, he received the agency’s Outstanding Leadership Medal. He also served as Chief Financial Ofﬁ cer of the US Department of Energy through two presidential administrations and as a senior consultant in the commercial space division of Booz Allen Hamilton. He is the author of the well-known International Reference Guide to Space Launch Systems . Virgin Galactic 47

David Mackay David Mackay is Virgin Galactic’s chief pilot. He joined the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1979 and was selected for test pilot training in 1986. In 1988, he graduated from the French test pilots’ school through an exchange with the RAF’s Empire Test Pilot’s School and, in 1992, became Commanding Offi cer of the RAF’s Fast Jet Test Flight. He was awarded the Air Force Cross is 1992. He joined Virgin Atlantic in 1995, fl ying Boeing 747s as a Captain from 1999, and fi nished his fl ying career with over 11,000 hours of fl ying. He joined Virgin Galactic in 2009 as its test pilot. He will be the chief pilot when Virgin Galactic launches. Following the unveiling of the SS2 mock-up, Branson announced passenger fl ights would launch from New Mexico in 2009. It wasn’t to be. The business of designing and launching rockets into space is anything but routine; spaceships are not aircraft and, despite Virgin’s excellent safety record fl ying its passengers around the world and despite Rutan’s fl awless record designing radical aircraft, things do go awry. Just ask SS1 test pilot Mike Melvill, who experienced two failures he thought would kill him. Melvill happened to be on site on July 26th, 2007, when a cold-fl ow test of nitrous oxide went very wrong. There were 17 people observing the test, six of whom had taken cover at a mobile command post 130 meters away, where they planned to watch the test on closed-circuit TV. The rest watched from behind a fence, a dozen meters away, as the cold-fl ow test began. Seconds later, a sudden reaction caused a tank to rupture with such explosive force that the decom- pressing gas blew 15 centimeters of concrete off the pad beneath the test stand, scattering fragments of rock and carbon fi ber. The explosion killed three and injured three more. The California Occupational Safety and Health Administration investigated the accident, noting Scaled Composites had failed to provide adequate training about the hazards involved with the nitrous oxide rocket fuel the company used in its spacecraft prior to the accident. The investigation also noted Scaled Composites did not institute a written method or procedure to correct unsafe conditions while conducting the test of the propulsion equipment, nor did it monitor the test site during the time of the accident to ensure employees were not exposed to excess amounts of nitrous oxide. The California State investigation found Scaled guilty of failing to observe correct workplace practices, but was unable to explain what had happened; Scaled launched its own investigation into the accident, calling in experts from Lockheed, Northrop, and Boeing, but nobody could isolate a single cause of the accident. Rutan stopped work on SS2 and shortly thereafter stepped down from the head of the company he had founded after being hospitalized with heart problems. Work stopped on SS2 for a year and the company struggled to get back on track. Once again, Virgin Galactic had to revise its forecast for revenue fl ights from 2009 to 2011, and the estimated costs of the program, fi rst calculated at US$20 million, rose to between US$300 million and US$400 million—at least 15 times the initial estimate. The setback didn’t seem to deter potential passengers because tickets kept selling. At the beginning of 2012, Ashton Kutcher became the 500th person to sign up, joining Stephen Hawking, Philippe Starck, and Dallas star Victoria Principal on the passenger list. Scaled fi xed the problems and, in May 2012, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) granted the company an experimental launch permit for SS2. Now, with Virgin Galactic’s rocket ship ready for its next series of powered fl ights, the fi nal goal is in sight 48 Suborbital Operators and, if everything goes according to plan, by the time you’re reading this, the fi rst space tourists should have fl own. Whenever the fi rst suborbital fl ight fi nally happens, Branson says the day he climbs on board SS2 for its inaugural passenger fl ight will be the most exciting of his life. By launching hundreds and eventually thousands of passengers into space, he hopes to give birth to a new industry and, with that in mind, The Spaceship Company has already begun construction of the second spaceplane and mother ship.

XCOR

In the years since Branson’s Virgin Galactic brand fi rst entered the fl edgling business of blasting tourists to the edge of space, commercial spacefl ight—New Space—has become more and more crowded. And competitive. One of Virgin’s competitors is XCOR Aerospace, which will use its Lynx to ferry its passengers on their suborbital ride.

The story so far XCOR was founded in 1999 by Jeff Greason, Doug Jones, Dan DeLong, and Aleta Jackson. Located at the Mojave Air and Space Port, the company employs a staff of more than 50. Research and development funding has come from a variety of sources including private investors, revenue from consulting services, commercial development programs, and government research contracts. In 2001, XCOR created the EZ-Rocket, the fi rst rocket-powered aircraft built and fl own by a non-governmental entity. The EZ-Rocket was followed up in 2008 by the X-Racer, which completed seven fl ights in one day. In total, the company has completed nearly 4,000 engine fi rings and 500 minutes of run-time on its engines. For the past few years, XCOR has been working on the Lynx, which will carry a pilot and passenger to suborbital space—affordably, since tickets for the Lynx sell for US$95,000 each (nearly 200 tickets have been bought).

Key people Jeff Greason, President Greason has 20 years of experience between XCOR, Rotary Rocket Co., and Intel Corp. He’s a member of the Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Committee, holds 18 US patents, and is a graduate of the California Institute of Technology.

Dan DeLong, Vice President and Chief Engineer DeLong has been designing, testing, and fabricating systems for more than 35 years. At XCOR, he is the design lead for new hardware development. Earlier in his career, he worked for several companies, including Rotary Rocket Co., Teledyne Brown, and Boeing, where he worked on space station support hardware and development projects. XCOR 49

Andrew Nelson, Chief Operating Offi cer Nelson was hired in 2008, having worked previously with Morgan Stanley and the Lehman Brothers where he was an advisor to entrepreneurs and their companies. Before working on Wall Street, Nelson spent 15 years in the aerospace, aviation, and space industry. Since its founding in 1999, the small, Mojave, California-based company has built a solid reputation for steady and incremental progress. The company has successfully built rockets and rocket engines before and, in many ways, the Lynx is seen as another step on a technology path towards competing in the space-tourism marketplace. Nelson, as well as being a recognized leader in New Space, is the originator of the Space Vehicle Wet Lease concept that is at the core of XCOR’s market strategy. The concept allows sover- eign countries, corporate entities, and individuals the opportunity to experience the ben- efi t of their own manned spacefl ight program without the headaches of operating and maintaining a spaceship. An example of the application of the wet lease concept is XCOR’s Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for the wet lease (pending US government approvals) of a production version of the Lynx to be stationed on the island of Curaçao in the Netherlands Antilles. The MOU came about following the Curaçao government and airport authority announcement of their intentions of investigating and creating the conditions suitable for the formation of a commercial spacefl ight services industry. Space Expedition Corporation’s (SXC—XCOR’s General Sales Agent for space tourism) ambition is to create a major tourist attraction for the Caribbean, while offering a venue for international scientifi c space research. Its vehicle of choice is the Lynx, chosen thanks to the vehicle’s innovative but straightforward and robust design, as well as its enormous commercial potential and competitive viability. In addition to brokering wet lease agreements, Nelson has been responsible for the successful fundraising and business development program at XCOR that has resulted in signifi cant investment and revenue for the company. He has also led the company’s efforts in building the engine development and sales business at XCOR that has produced aerospace supplier clients such as United Launch Alliance. 5

Suborbital Vehicles

SPACESHIPTWO: THE BASICS

• Manufacturer: Scaled Composites • Size: 18.2 m long, 12.8 m wingspan • Seats: two crewmembers, six passengers • Propulsion: carried to 15,000 m by WhiteKnightTwo, then propelled to maximum altitude of 109 km by hybrid liquid/solid-fuel rocket • Launch plans: scheduled to begin ﬂ ights by late 2014 from Spaceport America Until the advent of New Space and companies such as Virgin Galactic and XCOR, the spaceﬂ ight experience wasn’t very user-friendly unless you happened to be a hardcore test pilot or professional astronaut. Fortunately, for you the space tourist, that has all changed.

The cabin The cabin (about half the size of a Cessna Citation X business jet) is more than three times as large as that of the X-Prize-winning SpaceShipOne (SS1), accommodating six passengers and two pilots, and allowing plenty of fl oat-around possibilities, even for those want- ing to perform acrobatics. In addition to the spacious interior, the fl ight will be a comfortable experience, thanks to ergonomic seats that will automatically recline to orient you in the best position to absorb those G-forces. Those of you who remember the SS1 fl ights will recall the high-G climb-out and the re-entry were extremely punishing for the pilots, but that won’t be the case with SpaceShipTwo (SS2). During your fl ight, your seat will be at a 60° angle for the ascent and will be reclined to a nearly horizontal attitude for the descent, with your legs comfortably bent to tolerate the high-G ride. Once back in the atmosphere, your seats will return to a 60° angle for the glide back to the spaceport. Incidentally, there will be no drinks service on board, despite the US$250,000 price tag! The fully pressurized cabin will have 15 windows, including several on the fl oor and ceiling, allowing you to view Earth from multiple angles during your free-fl oating period. And what a view! When you’re up there above the boundary of space, you’ll be able to see about 1,600 kilometers in any direction (Figure 5.1 ). But don’t forget to keep an eye on the

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 51 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6_5, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 52 Suborbital Vehicles

5.1 View from space. Courtesy: NASA time because you’ll need to be back in your seat in plenty of time before re-entry. Fortunately, large dials on the bulkhead will convey mission time, speed of the spaceship, altitude, and current G-forces being experienced.

The fl ight profi le The fl ight profi le you will follow during your trip will mimic that of SS1. The WhiteKnightTwo mother ship (Figure 5.2 ), which is larger wingspan than a 757, has a cabin identical to SS2, allowing it to be used as a training vehicle for the Virgin Galactic passengers. It will carry SS2 to 15 kilometers above sea level and release it. After a three- second drop, SS2’s hybrid motor will ignite, accelerating you and your fellow space tourists at 4 Gs to three times the speed of sound. For re-entry, SS2’s wings will pitch upward, feathering shuttlecock-like to automatically position the ship for descent. At 20 kilometers, the wings will return to a horizontal glide formation for the runway landing.

Flight profi le: key events • SS2 released from WhiteKnightTwo • At a safe distance, pilot ignites rocket motor • Mach 1 reached in 12 seconds • Mach 2 reached in 30 seconds • One minute into fl ight: SS2 traveling at 4,800 kilometers per hour • 80 seconds into fl ight: engine cut • End of zero-G, pilot positions the “feather” • Passengers’ seats fl at • 15-minute glide

Green fuel While you’re taking your ride into space, you may want to take a moment to consider Virgin Galactic’s commitment to environmental consciousness because the spaceship Lynx: The Basics 53

5.2 WhiteKnightTwo. Courtesy: Wikimedia you’ll be riding in is very much a green vehicle. Back in the old days, the amount of energy released in a typical Shuttle (remember the Shuttle?) launch could power New York City for a week. But, at Virgin Galactic, engineers have created a fuel that can launch eight people into space while expending the same amount of carbon dioxide as a single business- class seat on a New York to London ﬂ ight.

LYNX: THE BASICS

• Manufacturer: XCOR Aerospace • Size: 10.6 m long, 7.3 m wingspan • Seats: one pilot, one passenger • Propulsion: four liquid-oxygen-and-paraffi n rockets • Launch plans: fl ight testing of the Mark I will begin in the fourth quarter of 2014; revenue fl ights of Mark I in 2015

The cabin The experience of fl ying on board the Lynx (Figure 5.3) will be a little different than fl ying on SS2. For one thing, the confi nes are cozier: a lot cozier, which means fl ying around the 54 Suborbital Vehicles

5.3 Lynx. Courtesy: XCOR Aerospace/Mike Massee

cabin is a non-starter. For another, tourists won’t be allowed to unstrap after engine cut-off. You and your pilot will wear pressure suits (see Chapter 6) as a safety measure in case cabin pressure is lost. As the tourist, you will sit to the right and just aft of the pilot.

The fl ight profi le The Lynx will take off from a runway, just like an aircraft. Thanks to its low weight and high octane fuel, the sporty spaceship can get off the line quickly—its take-off speed is 190 knots and rotation is after just 400 meters of runway (the last fi ghter that took off at those speeds was the F104). After take-off, the diminutive Lynx will climb just as high as SS2, where you will be able to view Earth’s curvature and experience four minutes of weightlessness. The entire fl ight is expected to take about 25 minutes.

Fuel Powered by four kerosene and liquid oxygen engines, the Lynx’s all-liquid design is more effi cient than SS2’s hybrid propulsion, providing more thrust per pound of fuel; the all- liquid fuel should also give it faster turnaround between fl ights because all crews will need to do will be to top off the tanks and go again whereas SS2’s engine has to be replaced between fl ights. Thanks to this two-hour turnaround, XCOR reckons it can fl y four missions a day. Other Spacecraft 55

Lynx step by step Lynx has an all-composite airframe and a thermal protection system (TPS) on the nose and leading edges to deal with the heat of re-entry. The double-delta wing area is sized for landing at moderate touchdown speeds near 90 knots.

The Lynx Mark I The Lynx Mark I is a prototype vehicle that will be used to characterize and ﬂ ight test the vehicle’s sub-systems including life support, propulsion, tanks, structure, aeroshell, aerodynamics, and re-entry heating. Designed to reach an altitude of 61 kilometers, the vehicle will be used to train pilots and crew for the Lynx Mark II.

The Lynx Mark II The Mark II is the production version, designed to service the suborbital tourism market and other markets that make use of the vehicle’s payload volume. The Mark II, designed to reach an altitude of 100 kilometers, uses the same propulsion and avionics systems as the Lynx Mark I, but has a lower dry weight and hence higher performance.

The Lynx Mark III The Lynx Mark III is a modiﬁ ed version of the Lynx Mark II featuring an external dorsal pod capable of carrying a payload experiment or an upper stage capable of launching a small satellite into low Earth orbit (LEO). The Mark III features upgraded landing gear, aerodynamics, core structural enhancements, and a more powerful propulsion package than the Mark II.

The experience Well, like I said earlier, you’re going to get off the ground in a real hurry, after which you’ll pull up at a 70° to 75° climb angle and you continue under power for about three and a half minutes. As you ascend, watch the altimeter, which will be spinning just like the altimeters you see in Hollywood movies because you’re going fast—real fast! At about three and a half minutes, the engine will cut off and you will continue to coast upwards for about a minute. Then you will reach apogee. On re-entry, you will pull about 4.5 Gs, which isn’t bad at all—just remember that anti-G straining maneuver (AGSM)! Then you just turn around, coast back, and land.

OTHER SPACECRAFT

Other companies looking to break into the suborbital space tourism market include Blue Origin and Armadillo Aerospace. The highly secretive Blue Origin, founded by Amazon. com CEO Jeff Bezos, is developing a fully reusable suborbital vehicle called New Shepard, 56 Suborbital Vehicles which will be capable of fl ying three or more passengers on suborbital fl ights. Armadillo Aerospace, a Texas-based company founded by computer game entrepreneur John Carmack, is working on a vertically launched rocket ship to carry passengers to the edge of space. Armadillo Aerospace’s deal with Space Adventures will offer these suborbital fl ights for US$102,000 per passenger—almost half the going rate for a seat on one of Virgin Galactic’s joyrides. 6

The Ground School Manuals

This manual includes two ground school manuals: one for suborbital spaceflight and one for orbital spaceflight. Suborbital and orbital spaceflight are different. Very different. In fact, comparing a suborbital flight with an orbital flight is like comparing a drive in a Toyota Corolla with a drive in a Formula One car and it’s useful to understand the differences.

Orbital

To understand what orbital means, imagine throwing a ball. When throwing the ball, its trajectory is a curve called a parabola and, if the ball is thrown with a lot of force, the trajectory becomes flatter, which means it is less curved. If the ball is thrownreally fast, the curvature of the trajectory could become the same as the curvature of Earth. Now, if you threw the ball in the vacuum of space, the ball would keep flying along the curvature of Earth and never fall back. This is what happens to a spacecraft after it has been launched by a rocket into orbit. This is orbital spaceflight. The velocity required to remain in orbit is called orbital velocity and it depends on the altitude of the orbit. For example, for a 200-kilometer circular orbit, the orbital velocity is 7,780 meters per second (m/s), or 28,000 kilometers per hour. This is a very, very high speed which makes orbital flight technically so complex and expensive. We’ll revisit the definition of orbital spaceflight in the Orbital Ground School Manual.

Suborbital

A suborbital flight is any flight outside Earth’s atmosphere with a maximum flight speed below orbital velocity. If a rocket does not achieve orbital velocity, it falls back to Earth and re-enters the atmosphere within a few minutes after engine shutdown. A rocket that flies along a vertical trajectory at the moment of main engine shutdown will achieve the highest altitudes and, as soon as the rocket is out of the atmosphere and the rocket engines are shut off, passengers will experience weightlessness.

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 57 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6_6, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 58 The Ground School Manuals

Microgravity durations Microgravity ends when the rocket re-enters the atmosphere. The duration of microgravity is most of all a function of the maximum altitude reached during the flight. A few examples:

Maximum altitude (km) Microgravity duration 100 3 min 10 sec 200 5 min 45 sec 400 9 min 10 sec

The speed required to achieve 100-kilometer altitude during a suborbital flight (950 m/s or Mach 2.9) is about eight times smaller than the orbital velocity (7,780 m/s). It’s a huge difference in speed which has a significant impact on vehicle design and it is for this reason that suborbital vehicles are smaller in size and mass, technically simpler, and therefore cheaper in design and operation. More importantly for the new class of space tourists, these vehicles can be made safe and reusable.

Suborbital Ground School Manual

6.1 Artist’s rendering of Dassault’s spacecraft. Courtesy: © Mourad Cherfi/Dassault Aviation, 2013 Suborbital Ground School Manual 59

Introduction First, I want to be clear that no agency or organization requires that you have an understanding of the topics in this ground school manual: these modules do not constitute training requirements. That’s because, just as in the airline industry, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) does not have a legal mandate over the commercial space industry to regulate passenger health—only safety. As the commercial spaceflight industry gathered momentum, the aerospace medical community and the FAA published documents concerning medical guidelines for space tourists. These documents are based on general principles and are fairly broad in nature. The main purpose of these documents is to screen for medical conditions that could result in a medical contingency, or an event that could compromise the health and safety of other space tourists. The considerations stated in these documents are based on an understanding that the spaceflight environment may aggravate certain pre- existing medical conditions and echoes an approach that has been in place for screening professional astronauts. So, what is the purpose of this manual you may ask? Well, it is not to impose NASA-type astronaut requirements on space tourists. The purpose of this manual is to enhance your experience as a space tourist and provide you with a basic understanding of key theoretical subjects relating to your flight. In short, this ground school manual will not only provide you with a basic understanding of the theory of spaceflight, but also prepare you for the practical training you may perform in preparation for your flight. By reading this manual, you will minimize possible difficulties and maximize your flight enjoyment. As you make your way through the modules, I suggest you take notes and highlight areas of particular interest—there is a test at the end but this is optional. As with any new adventure, there are many things to learn and this manual is where you will be introduced to the language and science of spaceflight. For example, you will learn about the space environment and how human performance is affected by things like noise and vibration. Space tourists need to understand the principles of life support and the consequences of cabin depressurization: this manual tells you what you need to know. It is also helpful to know how that rocket you’re sitting in works, which is why there is a module dedicated to space systems.

Guide to the manual This manual has been designed by Suborbital Training (www.suborbitaltraining.com, Appendix I) to meet FAA regulatory Spaceflight Participant (SFP) training requirements. Chances are that your suborbital operator’s training schedule will include many of the subjects included in this manual, but perhaps not all. As a space tourist ticket-holder, you will definitely acquire a working knowledge of your operator’s suborbital vehicle’s systems, its nominal and emergency procedures, and an understanding of the physiological adaptation to accelerated G-forces and microgravity. But will your operator teach you the basics of survival? Perhaps. Perhaps not. Which is why there is this book! After reading this manual, you—the space tourist—should be knowledgeable of: • The elements of the space environment • Physiological issues associated with suborbital flight, including being able to perform a proficient anti-G straining maneuver 60 The Ground School Manuals

• Basic life-support systems • Basic space systems • Emergency egress procedures • Basic pressure suit theory • Basic crew resource management theory and practice • The effects of hypoxia and the dangers of decompression • How maneuver safely in a microgravity environment As you make your way through this manual, you will complete the following courses.

Spaceflight Environment (ENV 100) You will receive instruction on the suborbital flight environment. Topics include: • Earth’s atmospheric structure • The Sun • Earth’s magnetic fields • Characteristics of microgravity • Radiation • Characteristics of a vacuum

Spaceflight Human Performance (PER 100) You will receive instruction on basic human physiology. Topics include: • Cardiovascular system • Effects on the neurovestibular system and space motion sickness • Effects of acceleration on the body • Effects of noise and vibration on the body • Demonstration and practice of anti-G straining maneuver

6.2 From your suborbital vantage pint you will be able to see 1600 kilometers in every direction. Courtesy: NASA Suborbital Ground School Manual 61

6.3 Not all flights will be tourist flights. Courtesy: Astronauts for Hire

6.4 As a space tourist you won’t be required to have an engineer’s knowledge of spacecraft systems, but it’s helpful to know the basics. Courtesy: NASA

Spaceflight Life Support (SLS 100) You will receive instruction on basic spaceflight life support. Topics include: • Cabin pressure, humidity, and temperature • Oxygen concentration • Carbon dioxide concentration • Concentration of hazardous gases and particulate contaminants • Ventilation of air circulation 62 The Ground School Manuals

Space Systems Theory (SST 100) You will receive instruction on basic space systems. Topics include: • Spacecraft structure • Spacecraft power • Thermal • Communications and data handling • Propulsion systems • Attitude stabilization and control • Environmental subsystem • Landing subsystem

Spaceflight Emergencies (SFE 100) You will receive instruction on various aspects of spaceflight emergencies. Topics include: • Emergency egress: take-off modes • Depressurization • Decompression sickness • Ditching

6.5 Courtesy: Wikimedia/Scaled Composites

6.6 Emergency egress training should be an integral part of your training. Courtesy: NASA Suborbital Ground School Manual 63

6.7 Pressure suits are complex garments, so it pays to know how they function. Courtesy: Astronauts for Hire

Pressure Suit Theory (PST 100) The Pressure Suit Theory module will familiarize you with the operation of the pressure suit. Topics include: • Pressure suit • Pressure suit orientation

Crew Resource Management (CRM 100) This module will introduce you to the concept of crew resource management. Topics covered include: • Conflict management and situation awareness • Human factors issues during your flight • Interpersonal communication principles • Conflict and stress management, situational awareness, decision making

High-Altitude Indoctrination Theory and Practical (HAI 100) This module will introduce you to the physiological effects created by reduced oxygen environments. You will receive theoretical instruction on hypoxia symptoms and practical training using the GO/2 system. Topics include: • Physiological effects of reduced oxygen • Effective performance time • Decompression 64 The Ground School Manuals

6.8 The fun part of your $250,000 ride. Courtesy: Virgin Galactic

6.9 The author about to run through his annual high altitude indoctrination ride in the hypobaric chamber. Courtesy: Chris Kelly

Astronaut Diver Course® (ADC 100) This course will familiarize you with the microgravity skills, hazards, and in-flight procedures required to maximize your once-in-a-lifetime spaceflight adventure. Topics include: • Basic microgravity locomotion techniques • Upset/recovery techniques • Manipulation techniques Good luck and enjoy your ground school manual! ENV 100: Space Environment 65

6.10 No need for a Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory to practice your zero-G skills: a swimming pool will do. Courtesy: NASA

ENV 100: Space Environment

Module objectives • Explain the properties of the space environment, including the characteristics of vacuum, microgravity, and radiation • Explain the effects of microgravity • Describe the properties of the magnetosphere, ionosphere, and solar wind • Explain the different types and sources of radiation • Describe the thermal control of spacecraft and re-entry “Space is big. Really big. You just won’t believe how vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly big it is. I mean, you may think it’s a long way down the road to the chemist, but that’s just peanuts to space.” Douglas Adams, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, 1979 Space is often incorrectly thought of as a vast, empty vacuum that begins at the outer reaches of Earth’s atmosphere and extends throughout the universe. In reality, space is a dynamic place filled with energetic particles, radiation, and innumerable objects large and small. Compared to the environments we’re used to on Earth, the space environment is a place of extremes. As The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy noted, distances are huge. Mind-bogglingly so. Then there are velocities that can range from zero to the speed of light. Temperatures on the sunny side of an object can be very high but extremely low on the shady side, just a short distance away. Charged particles continually bombard exposed surfaces. Magnetic fields can be intense. In short, the space environment is constantly changing. 66 The Ground School Manuals

6.11 Courtesy: NASA

There is no formal definition of where space begins. International law defines the lower boundary of space as the lowest perigee attainable by an orbiting space vehicle, although no altitude is mentioned. By international law standards, aircraft, missiles, and rockets flying over a country are considered to be in its national airspace, regardless of altitude, while orbiting spacecraft are considered to be in space, regardless of altitude.

Earth’s atmosphere Earth’s atmosphere is divided into regions (Figure 6.12) which have different characteristics. Some regions overlap and others are made up of sub-regions. Definitions are compli- cated by the fact that some of these regions are defined using pressure or temperature. As you can see in the diagram, the troposphere is the lowest region of the atmosphere, starting at Earth’s surface and extending to the tropopause, the upper boundary of the ENV 100: Space Environment 67

6.12 Earth’s atmosphere divisions. Courtesy: NASA 68 The Ground School Manuals troposphere. Almost all clouds and weather occur in the troposphere, which contains about 99% of the atmosphere’s water vapor and 90% of the air. Above an altitude of eight kilometers, a person not acclimatized requires supplemental oxygen or a pressurized environment. The temperature generally drops with increased altitude at about 10°C per kilometer until the tropopause is reached, the point at which the atmospheric temperature begins to rise with altitude. Normally, gases expand with increased temperature but, in the troposphere, the air temperature is higher near the surface yet the air density is higher due to gravity. The altitude of the tropopause varies from 15 to 20 kilometers at the equator to about 10 kilometers in polar areas. The layer above the troposphere is the stratosphere. It extends from the tropopause to the stratopause, the upper boundary at 48–53 kilometers’ altitude. The temperature of the stratosphere increases slightly with altitude and air flow is mostly horizontal. The point at which the temperature maximum of 0°C is reached is called the stratopause. Approximately 99% of the atmosphere is in the stratosphere and troposphere. This region is characterized by the near absence of water vapor and clouds. At altitudes above 14 kilometers—the Armstrong Line—breathing supplemental oxygen through a mask is no longer effective because pressure inside the body equals the outside atmospheric pressure, so the blood can no longer absorb oxygen. Above this altitude, bubbles of water vapor and nitrogen appear in the body fluids, and blood starts to “boil”—an extremely painful condition known as the bends. To avoid the bends, pressurization by means of a pressurized cabin or a pressure suit (Figure 6.13) is required. Above an altitude of 24 kilometers, compressing outside air into the cabin generates too much heat, so everything required to sustain life must be carried on board. Ozone is present in the ozone layer, which varies from 20 to 32 kilometers above Earth. The ozone layer is important because it absorbs a large part of harmful (to humans at least) ultraviolet radiation. The mesosphere extends from the stratopause at the lower boundary to the mesopause, the upper boundary at about 80 kilometers’ altitude. The temperature of the atmosphere in the mesosphere decreases as the altitude increases. Above about 48 kilometers’ altitude, fuel and oxidizer must be carried for a rocket engine to provide thrust. The thermosphere extends from an altitude of 80 kilometers (US astronaut wings have been awarded to test pilots who flew above 80-kilometer altitude) to between 320 and 600 kilometers. The temperature increases with altitude to the thermopause, where the maximum temperature occurs (about 1,475°C during the day). At an altitude above 100 kilometers, wings and other lift and control surfaces no longer work because the atmosphere is too thin to generate lift. This altitude is the most commonly accepted definition of where space begins. Above the thermosphere is the exosphere—a region in which the density of atoms and molecules is very low.

The Sun The Sun (Figure 6.14) constantly emits particles (solar protons and electrons), which form the solar wind and, by the time the solar wind reaches Earth’s orbit, it is traveling at 300–700 kilometers per second. In addition, there are solar flares—explosive ejections of particles accompanied by sporadic emissions of electromagnetic radiation. The Sun has a rotation period of 28 days, which exposes Earth to the Sun’s surface features such as 6.13 A pilot gets suited up in his pressure suit for a flight in the U-2. Courtesy: USAF

6.14 Solar flare activity can have a significant impact on spaceflight operations. Courtesy: NASA 70 The Ground School Manuals

6.15 Microgravity during a parabolic flight. Courtesy: ESA sunspots, characterized by an 11-year cycle; the higher the number of sunspots, the more solar flares there are. Of most concern to suborbital passengers are high-speed solar protons emitted by a solar flare, since these are the most potent radiation hazard. There is also radiation caused by cosmic rays but these have the most impact on polar and geosynchro- nous orbits.

Earth’s magnetic field and VanA llen belts Earth has a magnetic field which emanates from its south magnetic pole, extends into space, and comes back to its north magnetic pole, forming a magnetosphere. As the solar wind expands from the Sun, it encounters Earth’s magnetic field. On the sunward side of Earth, the solar wind compresses the magnetic field in towards Earth, increasing the magnetic field strength in the compressed areas. On the opposite side of Earth, the solar wind stretches out the magnetic field, giving it a teardrop shape.

Microgravity Microgravity (Figure 6.15) is a unique feature of the space environment that induces several physical effects, including the redistribution of body fluids, altering blood pressure, and causing an upset of perception. Microgravity is also called weightlessness or zero gravity but there are always forces sustaining residual gravity, so the environment on board a spacecraft is usually referred to as microgravity. ENV 100: Space Environment 71

Radiation When we talk about harmful radiation in space, we generally talk about ionizing radiation. This type of radiation consists of subatomic particles that can interact with biological tissues, causing genetic damage that can in turn lead to dangerous mutations. The sources of ionizing radiation in space are galactic cosmic radiation (GCR), solar radiation, solar flares, and the trapped radiation from the Van Allen belts. GCR originates outside of the Solar System and consists of hydrogen nuclei protons (87%), helium nuclei alpha particles (12%), and damaging high-energy heavy nuclei such as iron (1%), while solar cosmic radiation (SCR) comprises proton–electron plasma ejected from the surface of the Sun. Completing the radiation cocktail are solar flares, magnetic disturbances on the Sun’s surface generating electromagnetic radiation—the Van Allen belts, which contain trapped protons, heavy ions, and electrons. As a space tourist, you don’t have to worry about this because radiation levels at a suborbital flight altitude are similar to high-altitude Concorde flights.

Vacuum The space environment is the closest natural approximation to a perfect vacuum but it is not devoid of matter, as it contains a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter; by comparison, the air we breathe contains about 1025 molecules per cubic meter. Humans exposed to vacuum will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes, but the symptoms are not nearly as graphic as commonly depicted in science-fiction movies! But, although your blood won’t boil, the formation of gas bubbles in your bodily fluids at reduced pressures (known as ebullism) would be cause for concern. If the spaceship you were traveling in suffered a major malfunction and you were exposed to the vacuum of space, here is what would happen: you would probably lose consciousness after 15 seconds because your lungs would be exchanging oxygen out of your blood. But, contrary to the scenes of exploding bodies depicted in science-fiction (Outland, for example) movies, your body would not explode! The reason you wouldn’t explode is because your skin happens to be quite strong. Take the analogy of the scuba-diving cylinder: these cylinders may be hundreds of times the pressure of the air outside but the strength of the steel prevents the cylinder from breaking. Although our skin is not steel, it is still strong enough to keep you from bursting in space.

Sample questions1 1. By the time the solar wind reaches Earth’s orbit, it is traveling at: a. 300–700 kilometers per second. b. 30–70 kilometers per second. c. 300–700 meters per second. d. 3000–7000 meters per second.

1 The answers to all sample questions can be found in Appendix III. 72 The Ground School Manuals

2. The layer above the troposphere is the: a. stratosphere. b. tropopause. c. heliopause. d. magnetosphere. 3. Above the thermosphere is the: a. mesosphere, a region in which the density of atoms and molecules is very low. b. mesosphere, a region in which the density of atoms and molecules is very high. c. exosphere, a region in which the density of atoms and molecules is very high. d. exosphere, a region in which the density of atoms and molecules is very low.

PER 100: Human Performance

Module objectives • Explain the effects of spaceflight on the cardiovascular system • Describe the effects of spaceflight on the fluid regulating system

6.16 Astronaut for Hire Flight Members perform sea survival drills. Courtesy: Astronauts for Hire PER 100: Human Performance 73

• Describe the effects of spaceflight on the neurovestibular system • Explain the space motion sickness syndrome • Explain the effects of noise • Explain the effects of vibration

Effects on the cardiovascular system A common cardiovascular effect observed in Shuttle astronauts while they were lying down awaiting launch was an increase in central venous pressure, or CVP. This was followed by a decrease in CVP to below normal levels almost as soon as the astronauts reached space. Part of the reason for the increase in CVP was because the astronauts lay in a slightly head-down pre-launch position and also because the astronauts were usually dehydrated during the pre-launch period. The decrease in CVP when the astronauts reached orbit was due to the absence of gravity, which resulted in body fluids rushing to their heads, giving astronauts a sensation of head fullness, which felt a little like having the flu. Most of these effects won’t be a problem during suborbital flight because the physiological changes take time to develop in microgravity. For example, when you take your suborbital flight, you won’t be spending much time (the Shuttle astronauts spent hours lying down) in a pre-launch horizontal position, so your body fluids won’t shift very much.

Effects of spaceflight on the neurovestibular system In common with fluid shifts, neurovestibular effects won’t be a significant factor for most suborbital passengers because these effects take time to manifest themselves. After orbital flight, astronauts often suffered an altered ability to sense tilt and roll, defects in postural stability, impaired gaze control, and changes in sensory integration; they were discom- bobulated! While suborbital passengers won’t be affected to the degree Shuttle astronauts were, simply because the changes are dependent on the duration of weightlessness, there have been neurovestibular alterations observed in even short zero-G exposures in susceptible individuals. For example, illusions were reported on several X-15 flights. Now, you may think why not test this in a simulator, but the problem is that the flight profile of rapid launch acceleration followed by zero-G followed by re-entry deceleration can’t be tested in continuity.

Space motion sickness More than 70% of first-time astronauts flying orbital spaceflights suffer from space motion sickness (SMS). The syndrome, thought to be due to a sensory conflict between visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive stimuli, has been a problem for as long as there have been astronauts. As well as being uncomfortable, SMS is major headache for commercial space operators because it’s impossible to predict who will be affected or when they will be affected. Symptoms typically occur within the first 24 hours, but some astronauts have reported symptoms—dizziness, pallor, sweating, severe nausea, and vomiting are the most common—immediately after main engine cut-off. Vomiting, which can be especially messy in zero-G, can crescendo suddenly without warning symptoms. In a multi-passenger 74 The Ground School Manuals vehicle, just one passenger becoming nauseated can potentially trigger nausea in the other vehicle occupants—just imagine trying to take photos of Earth while barfing into a vomit bag. Or avoiding a ball of vomit, for that matter! Anti-motion sickness medications could be used, but then performance would be affected (Shuttle pilots were not allowed to take SMS medications for precisely this reason). The risk of nausea in zero-G gravity can be reduced if provocative head motions are avoided because head movements generate conflicts between the semicircular canals and the otoliths, with pitch movements being the most provocative. Unfortunately, there is no way to protect you against being sick. Parabolic flight adaptation and experience in high-performance jet aircraft don’t work. Neither do rotating chairs nor centrifuge training. The only pre-flight training that has shown to be effective is the use of training aids that duplicate the sensory conflict that occurs in parabolic flight; this type of pre-flight adaptation training helps passengers become “dual-adapted”. An example of the training aids used in this effort to duplicate sensory conflict is the device for orientation and motion environment (DOME) which is a spherical virtual reality simulator.

Effect of acceleration on the human body Seen through the eyes of your flight surgeon, the most worrying aspects of a suborbital flight profile are the launch acceleration and entry deceleration, especially when the acceleration exposure is in the head-to-foot (“eyeballs down” or +Gz) direction. That’s because Gz acceleration can cause all sorts of neurovestibular, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal problems. Exposure to Gz (Figure 6.17) can also have an impact on pulmonary function proportional to its applied force magnitude—at the lower end of the G-scale, say 2–3 Gs, you might experience difficulty breathing while, at the other end of the G-load spectrum, say 5–6 Gs, you may suffer airway closure. To avoid these problems, spacecraft designers try to limit the launch and re-entry acceleration forces by ensuring most of the acceleration is in the +Gx direction (“eyeballs in”). That’s because people are more tolerant to +Gx acceleration and, with the heart and brain located at approximately the same level within the acceleration field, there is less risk for gravity-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC) or almost loss of consciousness (A-LOC). Acceleration stress is one of the issues that most worry the flight surgeon because it is dysrhythmogenic, which means the heart’s rate, rhythm, and conduction can be affected. In fact, high G-forces or particularly long exposures to acceleration could potentially increase the frequency of a heart problem known as a dysrhythmia. It is for this reason that spaceflight accelerations have mostly been designed to be in the +Gx axis—until the Shuttle came along. In the early days of manned spaceflight, the direction of acceleration was even more important than it is today because of the sheer magnitude of the acceleration. For example, the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo flights had launch accelerations of 4.5–6.5 +Gx for six minutes and anywhere from 6 to 11 +Gx during entry (which was why astronauts received 45 hours of +Gx centrifuge training, with some runs going up to 18 +Gx!). By comparison, the now-retired Shuttle had a maximum of 3 +Gx during the 8.5-minute launch and 1.2 +Gz (briefly 2 +Gz during turns) for 17 minutes during entry. Fortunately for spaceflight participants, the acceleration forces imposed by most of the current crop of space vehicles should be reasonably comfortable for most people, although there will be some who will do better than others. PER 100: Human Performance 75

6.17 The author ready to experience some Gs. Author’s own collection

This is because your tolerance to +Gz acceleration is dependent on your height and weight, certain physiological characteristics, and the type of acceleration profile; physical conditioning, hydration, previous and recent exposure to +Gz forces, and recent centrifuge training also affect your response. This is important because the maximum +Gz level, exposure duration, and the rate of onset of the +Gz determine the risk of injury to your heart and musculoskeletal system. The most problematic type of acceleration is rapid-onset rate (ROR), defined as increases greater than 0.33 Gs per second. ROR tolerance limits are approximately 1 +Gz lower than gradual-onset rate (GOR) tolerances because they exceed the ability of the cardiovascular system to fully respond to preserve adequate central nervous system (CNS) blood flow; basically, if your brain doesn’t get enough blood, it will shut down. RORs can also result in the dreaded G-LOC without any of the usual visual warning symptoms such as tunnel vision, gray-out, or black-out. To prevent this happening when they’re performing aerobatic maneuvers, fighter pilots wear anti-G-suits which increase their G-tolerance to +Gz by up to 1.5 +Gz. Another way fighter pilots increase their G-tolerance is through practice of the anti-G straining maneuver (AGSM), which can increase tolerance to +Gz by as much as 3 +Gz. However, performing the AGSM is tiring and is generally used only for a short period of time. Over the years, centrifuge data have allowed scientists to develop a model of +Gz tolerance limits which incorporate +Gz magnitude, duration, and rate of onset: generally, with no protection, most healthy people can tolerate up to 4 +Gz acceleration for ROR profiles and up to +4.5 Gz with GOR profiles. 76 The Ground School Manuals

Okay, so we’ve talked about +Gz tolerance, but what about –Gz and the transition from one type of G to another? Well, this is where most of the problems occur because transition to +Gz can cause a profound drop in cerebral blood pressure and that’s bad news for the cardiovascular system because it can take a while before the body compensates. In fact, when there is prior exposure to –Gz, a transition to +Gz—the “push–pull effect”—can be deadly. Usually, this “push–pull effect” occurs in combat engagements and has been implicated in several training fatalities (it’s also been identified as a possible cause of 30% of G-LOC events). Even now, with a wealth of G-data available, there exists a knowledge gap in the complete understanding of this issue and no known countermeasures have been developed. It’s unclear whether a “push–pull effect” will occur in transition from microgravity to entry deceleration, but it has been described in parabolic flight and there are some who are concerned that it could occur in suborbital flights. That’s because the “push– pull effect” is prolonged by increasing the duration of the prior –Gz exposure. Normally, the –Gz exposure is only several seconds in combat flight whereas in parabolic flight profiles the exposure is 20–30 seconds. But what about after four minutes of suborbital flight? The truth is we don’t know whether microgravity will provoke the same response or a further deterioration in the +Gz tolerance. If you’re planning to fly as a passenger on board one of the new crop of space vehicles and you’re worried about how you might be affected by G, you should know that the acceleration envelope recommended by the Institute of Avionics and Aeronautics (IAA) for commercial aerospace vehicles should not exceed +3 Gz (–2 Gz), ±6 Gx, and ±1 Gy. These levels, if experienced as GORs, should be well tolerated by unprotected, healthy individuals. Let’s take Virgin Galactic’s vehicle as an example. During SpaceShipTwo (SS2)’s rocket engine boost, acceleration may be as high as +3.8 Gx followed by a brief spike up to +4 Gz as the vehicle rotates to a nose-high attitude. On re-entry, 6 Gs will be felt mainly in the +Gz axis by the pilots but, thanks to SS2’s tilt-back seating, most of the acceleration during entry will be in the Gx axis for the passengers. Duration of these G-forces is expected to be about 70 seconds during launch and about 30 seconds during re-entry. Although SS2’s acceleration onset rate has yet to be defined, it isn’t expected to be an ROR.

What will this acceleration feel like? During launch, your more dense tissues will be driven downwards. As a result, your liver will sink deeper into your abdomen, and your heart and large vessels will descend in your chest. The net effect of this is to displace your diaphragm downward, which makes breathing progressively more difficult as + Gz acceleration increases. In addition, any useful activities performed by the arms, such as reaching for switches, etc., becomes progressively more difficult. At +2 Gz, you will experience a distinct feeling of heaviness and, by +3 to +4 Gz, you will notice a marked dragging sensation in your chest and abdomen, and it will require great effort to move. By +6 Gz, it will be extremely difficult to reach over- head and, depending on your physical condition and stature, consciousness is generally lost at between +3 and +5 Gz in a sitting position. Another interesting effect of acceleration is degradation of visual acuity because the acceleration forces will distort the globe of your eye and reduce acuity. PER 100: Human Performance 77

6.18 The AGSM trainer. Courtesy: AMST

Anti-G straining maneuver (AGSM) In this sub-module, you will learn that there are two components to the AGSM: 1. A continuous and maximum contraction of the big muscle groups including the arms, legs, chest, and abdominal muscles. Tensing these muscles reduces blood in the G-dependent areas of the body and assists in returning the blood to the chest, the heart, and the brain. 2. The respiratory element of the AGSM is repeated at 2.5–3-second intervals. The purpose of the respiratory element is to counter the G-force by increasing chest pressure by expanding the lungs. This increased pressure forces blood to flow from the heart to the brain. The respiratory tract can be completely closed off at several different points, the most effective point being the glottis. Closing the glottis (located behind the Adam’s Apple) results in the greatest increase in chest pressure. Note: The exhalation and inhalation phases should last no longer than 0.5–1 second. You will also learn to anticipate the G-exposure whenever possible thanks to spending time in the AGSM trainer (Figure 6.18), a state-of-the-art system proven to increase G-tolerance. The AGSM trainer is a device that helps you learn via bio-feedback technology: • how to perform appropriate breathing technique in combination with straining; • how to perform positive pressure breathing technique (PPB) under simulated +Gz using an anti-G-suit with reduced pressure via a software-controlled anti-G-valve; • how to communicate under PPB. 78 The Ground School Manuals

To help you understand the effects of the AGSM, you will be hooked up to a bioinstrumentation unit that measures your electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse, EMG, pressure (Thorax), and blood flow. Once you’re wired up, you will sit in the trainer, a generic fighter cockpit including a generic seat, a spring-loaded center stick, a throttle, and a generic instrument panel with a display. Sensors are installed in the rudder panel and on the center stick to measure forces and also in the trousers and vest to monitor pressure in those locations.

Noise Launching a vehicle into suborbital space requires powerful thrust which happens to be noisy. Very noisy. This noise is transmitted through the whole spacecraft and, because the vehicle is an enclosed space, the noise is reflected multiple times off the walls, bulkheads, floor, and ceiling. Although the noise levels are relatively short, the magnitude can be quite intense—so intense that physiological effects such as reduced visual acuity, vertigo, nausea, disorientation, and ear pain may be experienced. Loud noise can also interfere with normal speech, making it difficult to communicate. Noise levels in the crew compartment during a Shuttle launch reached almost 120 dB (equivalent to an amplified rock concert in front of the speakers). Because of this assault on your hearing, auditory protection will definitely be required during a suborbital launch.

Vibration As well as all that noise, the power being unleashed to launch the vehicle will also generate awful vibration (check out the in-cabin videos of the SpaceShipOne flights during both ascent and entry and you’ll see what I mean); think about the vibration you feel when an aircraft takes off and multiply that by about 10 orders of magnitude and you have some idea of what to expect. While vibration won’t be more than a temporary inconvenience for the tourists, for commercial astronauts tasked with flying payloads, it could be a problem. That’s because vibration can cause manual tracking errors and can interfere with your ability to visually track displays; this might be a problem for someone tasked with keeping an eye on an experiment from launch through to re-entry.

Sample questions 1. Space motion sickness: a. is thought to be due to a sensory conflict between vestibular and proprioceptive stimuli. b. is thought to be due to a sensory conflict between visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive stimuli. c. only affects those who suffer from terrestrial motion sickness. d. affects less than 20% of first-time astronauts. SLS 100: SpaceflightL ife Support 79

2. +Gx direction is often referred to as: a. eyeballs-in acceleration. b. eyeballs-down acceleration. c. eyeballs-up acceleration. d. eyeballs-in deceleration. 3. A properly performed AGSM can increase tolerance to +Gz by: a. more than 5 +Gz. b. as much as 1 +Gz. c. as much as 3 +Gz. d. less than 0.5 +Gz.

SLS 100: Spaceflight Life Support

Module objectives • Explain the factors affecting cabin pressure • Describe the factors affecting cabin temperature • Explain how low and high humidity affects performance • Explain the consequences of high and low oxygen concentrations • Describe the consequences of high and low carbon dioxide levels

6.19 Knowing the basics of spaceflight life support may save your life. Courtesy: NASA 80 The Ground School Manuals

• Describe the effects of hazardous gases on health • Explain how particulate contaminants are controlled in the cabin • Explain how ventilation is controlled in the cabin In this module, we take a look at the factors affecting the monitoring and control of atmospheric conditions inside a suborbital vehicle. Monitoring is important because it provides the crew with an idea of the atmospheric conditions inside the cabin so adjustments can be made to maintain conditions to sustain life. The measured values can be continuously refreshed or periodically updated, depending on the hazard that an unmoni- tored atmospheric condition would present to the passengers. Monitoring may be the responsibility of the crew, an on-board computer system, or a ground-based remote operator who can alert the on-board crew of an unsafe condition. When the engineers were designing your spacecraft’s life-support system, they were interested in the following requirements: 1. What is the danger for passengers if the cabin’s atmospheric condition is uncontrolled during normal or emergency operating conditions within the vehicle? 2. Does the uncontrolled atmospheric condition create a physiologic effect upon the crew at the onset of exposure under plausible flight conditions, such that a crew could identify a flight hazard at the onset of exposure before flight safety is compromised? 3. Is the uncontrolled atmospheric condition unlikely to change rapidly or in large magnitude, such that a crew could identify a hazard at the onset of exposure before flight safety is compromised? 4. Following the onset of exposure to uncontrolled atmospheric conditions stemming from a failed component, what corrective actions are possible? 5. What is the maximum time between onset of exposure to the uncontrolled atmospheric condition and the completion of corrective actions? For each of these parameters, cabin conditions will be described with regard to hazards and the potential for rapid changes or for each atmospheric condition.

Cabin pressure Although the probability may be low during suborbital flight, a puncture of the vehicle’s pressure shell by micrometeoroids or failure in the pressure shell could result in a loss of cabin air. An uncontrolled decrease in cabin total pressure could be rapid, depending upon the volume of the cabin and the size of the breach in the shell. In the event of total cabin pressure loss, the pressure would decay below levels necessary to sustain human life. Operationally, cabin depressurization can be one of the most rapidly developing, human performance-compromising emergency conditions faced by a crew and passengers. It was the cause of the deaths of three cosmonauts during the re-entry of Soyuz 11 and rapid decompression has also been a cause or contributing factor of numerous fatalities aboard commercial aircraft, notably Qantas Flight 30 on July 25th, 2008 (Figure 6.20). SLS 100: SpaceflightL ife Support 81

6.20 The result of a rapid decompression. Courtesy: Wikimedia

July 25th, 2008: Qantas 747-400 Flight 30. Near Manila, Philippines. The aircraft, carrying 346 passengers and 19 crewmembers, suffered an explosive decompression over the South China Sea while cruising at 29,000 feet on a flight from Hong Kong, to Melbourne, Australia. The event occurred 55 minutes into the flight while the aircraft was over the Pacific Ocean, 200 miles from Manila. The crew descended to 10,000 feet and diverted to Manila. None of the passengers or crew was injured. A portion of the fuselage just forward of the wing root was found missing after landing. Damage included a rupture in the lower right side of the fuselage, just in front of the area where the right wing joins the fuselage. One cylinder associated with the emergency oxygen system had sustained a sudden failure and forceful discharge of its pressurized contents, rupturing the fuselage and propelling the cylinder upward, puncturing the cabin floor and entering the cabin adjacent to the second main cabin door.

As you can see in the photo, rapid decompression is a serious business and the reaction time of the crew or automated system is critical. While commercial aircraft such as the Qantas 747-400 are able to descend to lower altitudes in the event of depressurization, most suborbital vehicles are committed to a ballistic trajectory after a rocket burn is terminated, with little or no recourse for shortening the time to return to lower altitudes. 82 The Ground School Manuals

6.21 Lyndsey is helped into a Final Frontier Design pressure suit by Ted Southern. Courtesy: FFD

In addition to the systems designed to replenish lost atmospheric gases within the vehicle, the design of the cabin pressure containment components is also a relevant consideration of the cabin pressurization system. Dual pressure containment components (i.e. dual-pane windows, dual seals at mated surfaces, dual hull shells, or isolation bulkheads) may decrease hazards associated with depressurization events in exchange for a small increase in the mass and complexity of the vehicle, depending on vehicle design. Another danger is the fact that depressurization of small cabins occurs much more quickly than for large cabins with equal puncture size, equal make-up air input, and pressure difference between the cabin and the exterior. Rapid decompression may be accompanied by a sudden drop in cabin temperature, fogging in the cabin, windblast, and noise. In addition to the threat of hypoxia, these factors may lead to confusion, impairment of situational awareness, and increased response times. Unless the environmental control system can compensate for the decreased temperature, passengers could suffer frostbite and other cold-related problems. Now you might think that one way to reduce the danger would be to design cabins with lower total pressure because this would reduce the leak rate. The problem with this approach is you need a higher partial pressure of oxygen, thereby increasing the risk of cabin fire. So an alternative is to use pressure suits (Figure 6.21). After all, if total loss of cabin pressure occurs above 40,000-feet altitude without the protection of a pressure suit, the outcome will be fatal. Wearing a pressure suit means the cabin pressure can be reduced, but it doesn’t solve all the problems because there is still the issue of decompression sickness to consider. A survey of more than 400 U-2 pilots found that 75% reported in-flight symptoms of decompression sickness throughout their careers that resolved upon descent to lower altitudes, and about 13% of them reported that they altered or aborted their missions as a SLS 100: Spaceflight Life Support 83 result. These statistics don’t bode well for a spacecraft operator and its passengers. But what can be done? Should everyone wear pressure suits? Perhaps. The problem is that the use of pressure suits is compounded by the need to maintain and service the suits. Then there is the problem that these suits may adversely affect the ability of flight crew to perform certain safety-critical functions by limiting range of motion, response time, communications, visibility, reach, tactile sensitivity, or hand–eye coordination. Another problem is heat dissipation: these suits are bulky and heavy and you sweat when you wear them. To reduce the risks associated with the cabin environment, chances are your spacecraft will be fitted with pressure-monitoring devices such as a warning signal that is triggered in the event of rapidly decaying pressure so the crew can take corrective action. The vehicle may also be fitted with an autonomous, compressed gas release system that activates when pressure drops below a nominal pressure value. Check with your operator!

Cabin temperature Although humans can survive in a relatively wide range of temperatures, your spaceflight will be more enjoyable if cabin temperature is properly controlled. For its spacecraft, NASA developed a comfort box, which is bounded by 25–70% relative humidity and by 18–27°C temperature. Maintaining this cabin temperature is important because there are so many sources of heat. First there is the heat generated by avionics and other electrical equipment located in the habitable areas of the vehicle. Then there are the temperature changes that occur during the various phases of the flight: space is cold, which means heat needs to be added to the cabin but, when you’re taxiing on the ground, there is an addition of thermal energy which means heat must be removed from the cabin—this is because there are so many vehicle systems interfaced with the cabin such as the life-support system and temperature-management systems. As with cabin pressure, maintaining a comfortable cabin temperature is achieved thanks to monitoring devices and control devices. Typically, temperature control is achieved by removing heat from the circulating cabin air, with forced continuous circulation of the cabin air through one or more heat exchangers. Chilled water, ethylene glycol/water, or Freon serves as the coolant in these heat exchangers.

Cabin humidity Excessive humidity or a lack of humidity isn’t as serious as loss of cabin pressure but high humidity and very low humidity can impact your physical comfort. High temperature and high humidity decrease your body’s natural body temperature-regulation processes (sweating) and low humidity has a “drying effect” on your body and is quickly noticed in the eyes, lips, nose, and mouth, causing discomfort. Thus, humidity may be interrelated with a flight crew’s ability to successfully perform safety-critical functions. Spacecraft cabin air receives moisture as exhaled water vapor and evaporated perspiration from the humans on board. The average metabolic rate (normal activity) is 2.77 kilograms of respiration and perspiration water generated per person per day (0.1 kilograms per hour). Chances are you will be producing a lot more water than 0.1 kilograms per hour when you take your ride into space because stressed or excited individuals produce water vapor at higher-than- average rates: you will also be performing zero-G acrobatics, which will increase your 84 The Ground School Manuals production of water vapor. Relative humidity in commercial aircraft cabins is typically below 20% because air is continuously compressed from the engine, conditioned by the air-cycle machine for the cabin, and then dumped overboard via the outflow valves, thus preventing any significant accumulation of humidity in the cabin. To make sure your cabin stays within the comfort box of 25–70% relative humidity, the vehicle will probably use silica gel, activated alumina, or molecular sieve materials. This approach may be combined by removing heat from the circulating cabin air with forced continuous circulation of the cabin air through condensing heat exchanger(s) (chilled water, ethylene glycol/ water, or Freon serves as the coolant in these condensing heat exchangers).

Oxygen concentration “Hypoxia is the greatest single threat to anyone who flies.” Richard M. Harding and F. John Mills, British Medical Journal, April 30th, 1983 Very low oxygen partial pressure constitutes a severe hazard because it results in impaired judgment, ability to concentrate, shortness of breath, and fatigue. In short, you don’t function well without oxygen! Rapid decreases in oxygen partial pressure, which may be experienced during a rapid decompression event, result in loss of consciousness within a few seconds. The effects of gradually falling oxygen partial pressure (a slow decompression event) are insidious, as it dulls the brain and prevents realization of danger. The total atmospheric pressure and the duration of exposure affect the minimum allowable oxygen partial pressure, as some detrimental effects of hypoxia are time-dependent.

Ghost Plane: Flight N47BA A ghost aircraft flying across country with a crew disabled or dead. It reads like a script for a Hollywood disaster movie, but this actually happened. Payne Stewart’s ill-fated Learjet took off on October 25th, 1999. Captain Michael Kling was flying the airplane and co-pilot Stephanie Bellegarrigue was handling the radios and coor- dinating the ascent. Accompanying them was their famous passenger, golfer Payne Stewart, and his agents Van Ardan and Robert Fraley and Bruce Borland, a golf course designer. It was a clear and sunny Monday in Orlando, with light winds. Bellegarrigue turned around in the cockpit to face the passengers seated behind her to give them the safety briefing. She instructed them on the proper use of the drop- down oxygen masks, used in case of a loss of cabin pressure. Most air travelers ignore these safety briefings because they can’t imagine the inhospitable environment outside an airplane in flight. Yet, just a few kilometers above even the warmest places on Earth, the temperature is way below zero. The cabin pressure in the Lear was not like being on the ground in Florida, because cabin pressure was maintained at 2,440 meters. When the pilots program their planned cruise level and interior altitude into the cockpit controls, everything is accomplished automatically.

(continued) SLS 100: Spaceflight Life Support 85

(continued) If something goes wrong, display lights or illuminated messages alert the crew. If the cabin altitude exceeds 4,260 meters (the altitude at which people can quickly become affected by a lack of oxygen), a loud horn sounds and oxygen masks drop to give passengers an emergency supply of air. Flight N47BA received permission to ascend to 12,000 meters and began its climb. During the climb, it made a 6° change to the north—a turn so slight that at first it was not even noticeable to the controllers. But, with each kilometer, the plane was flying farther from its destination. Traffic control radioed N47BA but received no response. The jet was flying fast and still climbing and, with enough fuel for four and a half hours of flight, no one could say where it might come down. Captain Christopher Hamilton, an Air Force F-16 fighter pilot, was dispatched at the request of the FAA, and was the first person to get a glimpse of the runaway Learjet. “I expected just to look in and make eye contact with the pilot and get a thumbs-up that everything was okay,” he said. “I figured it was just a radio malfunction or something.” But what he saw as he maneuvered around the Learjet was spectral: a windscreen dense with frost, a dark cockpit beyond, and no sign that the airplane was under a pilot’s control. Hamilton flew around the plane for 18 minutes, his fighter jet closer than any pilot ever wants to be to a passenger plane. On autopilot and at 13,700 meters, the Lear was 420 meters above the manufacturer’s recommended maximum altitude and it seemed to be flying fine. But there’s no pushing the design limits on the human body. As the plane ascended, the volume of air in the passengers’ lungs, ears, and sinuses would have expanded by about 30%. In the decompression, air would have raced out as if in a vacuum. With loss of the pressurization system, there would be no heat in the airplane. So the temperature in the small cabin dropped quickly as the arctic air seeped in. In the cockpit, the pilots’ color vision would have been reduced, adding to their initial difficulty seeing through the decompression fog. If they had tried to put on their emergency oxygen masks, they would have had to feel their way to them and do it before they became too uncoordinated by the spasmodic contraction of the arms that typifies severe hypoxia. Restrained by lap and shoulder harnesses, the captain and first officer may have had some control over their malfunctioning bodies. But the passengers could have been thrown free of their seats as the convulsions in their extremities increased. At 1:13 p.m., the Lear finally ran out of fuel and plunged into a grassy field near Aberdeen, South Dakota. Hitting the ground at 640 kilometers per hour, the plane pulverized completely. Little was identifiable beyond the wings, a fuel tank, and a bag of golf clubs.

Just as low oxygen partial pressures can be lethal, high oxygen partial pressures are also a hazard because they can cause lung irritation and oxygen toxicity (hyperoxia). High oxygen concentration also increases material flammability hazards. To ensure oxygen levels are maintained within normal levels, oxygen is added to the habitable atmosphere from a stored gas (pure oxygen or compressed air), chemical, or liquid oxygen supply. 86 The Ground School Manuals

Carbon dioxide concentration The carbon dioxide concentration in the standard sea-level atmosphere is 0.039%. Once this concentration rises by 3% or more, crewmembers will typically begin to exhibit symptoms that may affect their ability to perform safety-critical functions, such as fatigue, impaired concentration, dizziness, faintness, flushing and sweating of the face, visual disturbances, and headache. Exposure to 10% or greater concentrations at 1 atm can cause nausea, vomiting, chills, visual and auditory hallucinations, burning of the eyes, extreme dyspnea, and loss of consciousness. To ensure carbon dioxide levels are maintained, your spacecraft will probably be fitted with continuous monitoring equipment, such as non- dispersive infrared photometers that use light-emitting diodes as the infrared sources.

Such instruments have acceptable accuracy for CO2 concentrations of 100–50,000 parts per million (ppm) (0.01–5% by volume).

Concentration of hazardous gases or vapors In the enclosed space of a suborbital vehicle, most materials have the potential to produce gas or vapor contaminants, which could create hazardous environmental conditions. Materials entering the cabin could be the result of leaks of fluids or vapors from internal vehicle systems. For example, carbon monoxide concentrations from 120 to 180 ppm can result in a headache and breathlessness, while loss of consciousness results from concentrations above 300 ppm. Another example is the decomposition of fire suppressants during a cabin fire, which may produce significant quantities of hazardous contaminants. For example, Halon is one of the most effective fire suppression agents in use and, even though it is considered to have low toxicity, safety and health problems can occur from its release in confined spaces comparable to those expected on suborbital vehicles. Decomposition of halogenated agents occurs upon exposure to flame or surface temperatures above approximately 900°F, and may include hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen chloride, bromine, or chlorine. A suborbital spacecraft also contains all sorts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), some of which may have short- and long-term adverse health effects, including eye, nose, and throat irritation, headaches, loss of coordination, nausea, liver damage, and CNS damage. Typical signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include nose and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea (labored breathing), nausea, emesis (vomiting), epistaxis (nosebleed), fatigue, and dizziness. Chances are, your operator will provide you with VOC countermeasures such as goggles or face masks which will be incorporated into emergency procedures. You should be aware that if you’re wearing goggles and you need to effect an egress then your egress procedures may be affected by reduced sight.

Particulate contaminants Airborne particulates such as dust may contain minerals, metals, textile, paper and insulation fibers, non-volatile organics, and various materials of biological origin such as hair, skin flakes, dander, vomitus, and bacteria. Contaminants such as dense smoke can impair situational awareness by obscuring vision, or causing intense bouts of coughing, SLS 100: Spaceflight Life Support 87 choking, and extreme eye irritation. In a microgravity environment, metal or plastic shavings from machining of the on-board materials can become ingested or cause significant eye injury after becoming dislodged during launch. Fine particles (less than 2.5 micrometers) are of health concern because they easily reach the deepest recesses of the lungs, and have been linked to a series of significant health problems, including aggravated asthma, acute respiratory symptoms, aggravated coughing and difficult or painful breathing, chronic bronchitis, and decreased lung function that can be experienced as shortness of breath. One way your operator will monitor for particulates is by using a nephelometer (a continuous monitor of light scattered by suspended fine particles) to monitor cabin air for particulates during recirculation. Your operator will also employ various control techniques to minimize particulates floating around the cabin. Some of these control techniques will include vacuuming the cabin pre-flight, periodic ground checks, material selection, and flight suit cleanliness. Preventative measures may include a Foreign Object Damage (FOD) program designed to prevent the circumstances that place foreign objects within functioning systems or occupied areas. Another preventative measure will likely be the use of high-efficiency particulate absorption (HEPA) filters for the cabin air return duct inlets—HEPA filters remove 0.3-micron particles with a minimal efficiency of 99.97%.

Ventilation and air circulation In microgravity, convection is reduced or non-existent, which means air stagnancy can be a risk. NASA has determined that the minimum linear air velocity for maintaining crew comfort is 10–15 feet per minute, and it is likely your operator has adopted similar flow rates, accomplished using flow meters or through direct monitoring of fan speed.

Sample questions 1. Exposure to: a. 5% or lower concentrations of carbon dioxide at 1 atm can cause nausea, vomiting, chills, visual and auditory hallucinations, burning of the eyes, extreme dyspnea, and loss of consciousness. b. 10% or greater concentrations of carbon dioxide at 1 atm can cause nausea, vomiting, chills, visual and auditory hallucinations, burning of the eyes, extreme heat loss, and loss of consciousness. c. 10% or greater concentrations of carbon dioxide at 1 atm can cause nausea, vomiting, chills, visual and auditory hallucinations, burning of the eyes, extreme dyspnea, and loss of consciousness. d. 10% or greater concentrations of carbon dioxide at 1 atm can cause nausea, vomiting, chills, visual hallucinations, permanent blindness, extreme dyspnea, and loss of consciousness. 88 The Ground School Manuals

2. Typical signs or symptoms associated with exposure to volatile organic compounds include: a. nose and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea, nausea, emesis, epistaxis, fatigue, dizziness. b. nose and throat discomfort, chills, hyperoxia, nausea, emesis, epistaxis, fatigue, dizziness. c. nose and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, hyperoxia, nausea, emesis, epistaxis, fatigue. d. headache, hyperoxia, nausea, emesis, epistaxis, fatigue, dizziness. 3. Very low partial pressure results in: a. impaired judgment, shortness of breath, allergic skin reaction. b. emesis, shortness of breath, fatigue. c. impaired judgment, shortness of breath, fatigue. d. impaired judgment, auditory hallucinations, fatigue.

SST 100: Space Systems Theory

Module objectives • Explain how fuel cells work • Describe the function of telemetry • Explain the function of fault protection

6.22 Courtesy: NASA SST 100: Space Systems Theory 89

• Describe what the attitude stabilization system does • Explain how passive cooling works • Describe three landing subsystems This module deals with spacecraft subsystems. The number of types of subsystems in a vehicle as complex as a spacecraft is considerable, which is why this module focuses only on the primary elements.

Spacecraft structure The structure of the spacecraft must support instruments and propellant tanks, and accommodate spacecraft systems and subsystems over the lifecycle of the spacecraft. The structure must also be strong enough to survive the high acceleration forces of launch and the deceleration of re-entry while still being light enough to conserve spacecraft mass. Traditionally, combinations of aluminum alloy honeycomb, carbon fiber, and titanium are used to produce a stiff spacecraft skeleton.

Power Power supply systems produce electricity for use by other on-board systems. The type of power system used on a spacecraft depends on factors such as mission duration and the location in which the spacecraft must operate. A spacecraft’s electrical components can be switched on or off by command using relays connecting or disconnecting the component from the common distribution circuit, called a main bus. On some spacecraft, it is necessary to power off some components before switching others on to keep the electrical load within the limits of the supply. Typical sources of power include: • Batteries: devices with two or more connected cells that produce a direct current by converting chemical energy into electrical energy. Due to their short lifetime, batteries are only used when a very short operating life is required. • Fuel cells: cells in which chemical reaction is used directly to produce electricity. The reactants are typically hydrogen and oxygen, which results in water as a by- product. The water can then be used for cooling and human consumption. Fuel cells are generally used on manned spacecraft.

Thermal The spacecraft must maintain a reasonable thermal environment for the operation of instruments and systems. A network of heaters, heat transfer pipes, and radiators dissipate surplus heat to space. Silvered Kapton heat shielding protects Sun-facing equipment. The cooling system is usually passive (except for sensitive detectors). Heaters with temperature sensors control the local environment at strategic points around the spacecraft, ensuring electronics and mechanics are maintained within fixed temperature ranges. 90 The Ground School Manuals

Communications and data handling Critical to any spacecraft, the communication and data handling system relays instrument and housekeeping data back to ground stations and receives commands and instructions in return. On board the spacecraft, a computer with an extended communications bus collects and distributes system information between system modules including the communications module. Typical means of communication include: • Low-gain antenna: an omnidirectional spacecraft antenna that provides relatively low data rates at close range—several astronomical units for example. Many spacecraft include a low-gain antenna and a high-gain antenna. • Medium-gain antenna: a spacecraft antenna that provides greater data rates than a low-gain antenna, with wider angles of coverage than a high-gain antenna—about 20–30º. • Transmitter: an electronic device that generates and amplifies a tone at a single designated radio frequency, called a carrier wave. The carrier wave can be sent from the spacecraft to Earth as it is, or it can be modulated with a data-carrying subcarrier. The transmitter radiates the resulting signal, called downlink, from an antenna. • Receiver: an electronic device that receives incoming radio signals, called uplink. The uplink is stripped of its command-data-carrying subcarrier which is converted into binary code, which is then typically passed to the spacecraft’s command and data subsystem. Frequently, transmitters and receivers are combined into one electronic device called a transponder.

Data handling The computer responsible for overall management of a spacecraft’s activity is generally the same one that maintains timing, interprets commands from Earth, collects, processes and formats the telemetry data to be returned to Earth, and manages high-level fault protection and safing routines. This computer is sometimes referred to as the command and data subsystem, which accomplishes the following tasks: • Spacecraft clock: a counter maintained by the command and data subsystem. It meters the passing of time during the life of the spacecraft, and regulates nearly all activity within the spacecraft systems. • Telemetry: the system for radioing information from a spacecraft to the ground. Telemetry is typically spacecraft engineering or health data. Engineering or health data are composed of a wide range of measurements, from switch positions and subsystem states to voltages, temperatures, and pressures. Telemetry may be transmitted in real time, or it may be written to a data storage device until transmission is feasible. • Tape recorder: a mechanical device for recording digital information on magnetic tape and for playing back the recorded material. The stored data can be played back for downlink when receiving station resources are available. • RAM: random access memory, the solid-state equivalent of a tape recorder. Banks of RAM can store large quantities of digital information. SST 100: Space Systems Theory 91

6.23 A cluster of F-1 engines that powered the Saturn V rocket so many, many years ago. Courtesy: NASA

• Fault protection: algorithms, which normally reside in more than one of a spacecraft’s subsystems, that ensure the ability of the spacecraft to prevent a mishap and to reestablish contact with Earth if a mishap occurs and contact is interrupted.

Propulsion system To maintain or restore three-axis stability, to control spin, to execute maneuvers, and to make minor adjustments in trajectory, spacecraft are provided with sets of propulsive devices. The elements of the spacecraft’s propulsion system (Figure 6.23) include: • Engines: the larger of a spacecraft’s propulsive devices, perhaps producing a force of several hundred newtons, used to provide the large torques necessary to maintain stability during a solid rocket motor burn, or they may be the rockets used for orbit insertion. • Thrusters: a set of small propulsive devices, used for trajectory correction maneuvers, orbit trim maneuvers, or routine three-axis stabilization or spin control. A network of thrusters are distributed about the spacecraft to allow all combinations of forces and torques to be applied to any face or about any axis. A larger single-axis thruster is included to allow gross changes in spacecraft translational position. 92 The Ground School Manuals

• Propellant: the fuel and oxidizer burned to produce thrust in a rocket engine. Propellant subsystems include propellant tanks, plumbing, valves, and helium tanks to supply pressurization for the propellant tanks. The storage and distribution of fuel have significant implications for other spacecraft systems. Propellant systems are complex and feature an extensive network of pipes and valves to ensure redundancy in the event of valve failure. The structure of the spacecraft must be capable of supporting large fuel tanks during launch. Most fuels and oxi- dizers are highly corrosive and explosive, causing particular problems when fuel- ing the spacecraft prior to launch. After launch, significant depletion of fuel tanks allows the fuel movement, sloshing around in the tanks—a major, unpredictable disturbance to the spacecraft. Tanks often include diaphragms or baffles to try to minimize the effect. When the fuel is burned and evacuated to space, the exhaust plumes must be directed away from sensitive instruments and optics to minimize interference or damage. Systems must be carefully designed to account for all these factors.

Attitude stabilization and control An attitude stabilization system for an inertially stabilized spacecraft maintains the spacecraft’s constant orientation in space. Determination of attitude is carried out by sensors that sense relative orientation with respect to other bodies including the Sun, Earth, stars, and planets. Rate and acceleration sensors are also employed to sense motion. Control and adjustment of attitude are achieved by a network of actuators. Gross changes in attitude are brought about by the propulsion system—firing thrusters, burning propellant to provide impulse. Such coarse adjustments are rarely employed during normal operation because they use fuel, inject vibrations into the structure, and produce an imprecise impulse.

Environmental subsystems Environmental subsystems are those designed to protect spacecraft components from extreme thermal variations, micrometeoroid bombardment, and other space hazards. Typical subsystems include: • Passive cooling: the use of painting, shading, reflectors, and other techniques to cool a spacecraft. Internal components are typically painted black to radiate heat more efficiently. White thermal blankets are used to reflect infrared radiation, helping to protect a spacecraft from excess solar heating. Critical components are generally shaded using gold or optical solar reflectors. Mechanical louvers are frequently used to control thermal radiation from within parts of a spacecraft. • Active heating: the use of resistive electric heaters or radioisotope heaters to keep spacecraft components above their minimum allowable temperatures. Electric heaters can be controlled either autonomously or via command, while radioisotope heaters are used where it is necessary to provide components with a permanent supply of heat. SST 100: Space Systems Theory 93

6.24 Heat shields are important on the return to Earth. Courtesy: NASA

• Micrometeoroid protection: shielding used to protect spacecraft components from micrometeoroid impacts. Interplanetary spacecraft typically use tough blankets of Kevlar or other strong fabrics to absorb the energy from high-velocity particles. • Life support: the subsystems aboard a manned spacecraft or space station responsible for maintaining a livable environment within a pressurized crew compartment. Included are subsystems for providing oxygen, drinking water, waste processing,

temperature control, ventilation, and CO2 removal.

Landing subsystems A spacecraft must be provided with subsystems to slow its descent and guide it to a soft landing. The craft may be equipped with propulsion for making a powered descent, or a parachute to retard free fall. A spacecraft, such as the Lynx, may be equipped with wings for a glided landing. If the craft is to pass through an atmosphere, it must be equipped with shielding to protect it from the high temperatures generated during atmospheric entry. Typical landing subsystems include: • Heat shield: a device (Figure 6.24) that protects crew and equipment from heat, such as an ablative shield in front of a re-entry capsule or atmospheric probe; • Parachute: apparatus used to retard free fall, consisting of a light, usually hemi- spherical canopy attached by cords and stored folded until deployed in descent; • Drogue: a small parachute used to slow and stabilize a spacecraft, usually preceding deployment of a main landing parachute; • Descent engine: the rocket used to power a spacecraft as it makes a controlled landing on the surface. 94 The Ground School Manuals

Sample questions 1. An inertially stabilized spacecraft maintains its constant orientation in space by means of: a. a telemetry system. b. an attitude stabilization system. c. a navigation system. d. a heat shield. 2. Determination of attitude is carried out by: a. sensors that sense relative orientation with respect to other bodies including the Sun, Earth, stars, and other planets. b. inputs into the telemetry system. c. inputs into the rate of acceleration sensors. d. sensors that sense relative orientation with respect to the International Space Station. 3. The small propulsive devices, used for trajectory correction maneuvers, orbit trim maneuvers, or routine three-axis stabilization or spin control, are termed: a. engines. b. thrusters. c. gyroscopes. d. fuel cells.

SFE 100: Spaceflight Emergencies

Module objectives • Explain why ejection seats are of little value between Mach 0.9 and 3.7 speeds • Describe symptoms of altitude decompression sickness • Explain different modes of take-off

Overview One-third of all manned spaceflights have suffered major problems that have threatened completion of the mission and the life of the astronauts. Five crews—2% of all manned missions—have perished in their spacecraft. In short, spaceflight is anything but routine, which means emergency egress is probably the most important skill you will learn en route to becoming a certified suborbital astronaut. This module provides an insight into the history of spacecraft emergency egress systems before describing current egress scenarios and procedures and how operators may deal with what are euphemistically termed “anom- alous situations”. SFE 100: Spaceflight Emergencies 95

SOYUZ TMA EMERGENCY ABORT PROFILE

4 3 5 2 LEGEND 1 ESCAPE TOWER (SAS) ACTIVATION AND SHROUD SEPARATION

2 ESCAPE TOWER TAKES A SAFE 1 TRAJECTORY 3 REENTRY MODULE JETTISON 6 4 REENTRY MODULE BALLISTIC PATH 5 PILOT PARACHUTE OPENING 6 EMERGENCY PARACHUTE OPENING AND HEATSHIELD JETTISON 7 RETROROCKETS BURN & LANDING

Q DE CHIARA - MARS CENTER/2002

6.25 Courtesy: NASA

In the early days of the manned space program, there were many unknowns. Sending astronauts into space was made dangerous by the hazards not only of space itself, but also of the technology being developed to send them there. The rocket engines were not per- fected and the propellants were just as apt to expend themselves in a large fireball at the pad as in the atmosphere en route to orbit. While teams of engineers worked feverishly to make the rockets man-rated, other engineers worked on safely recovering the astronauts. Recovering the astronauts included the normal recovery from space and any abnormal termination of the flight. 96 The Ground School Manuals

Emergency egress: take-off modes Before describing emergency egress techniques, it’s useful to be familiar with different modes of take-off. For example, some commercial suborbital vehicles will be launched vertically (vertical take-off, VTO), while others take off horizontally (horizontal take-off, HTO) like an aircraft. If a motor fails or is shut down during the first few seconds of flight in a VTO vehicle, the spacecraft will be lost, but a HTO vehicle with motor shutdown during the first few seconds of flight may be able to initiate a runway abort or effect a go- around procedure. Also, if a VTO vehicle uses a cluster of motors, engine-out capability may exist in the absence of a catastrophic failure. The probability of a motor failure for a multiengine cluster is greater than for a single motor of similar reliability. For example, if a single motor is 99.9% reliable for a given flight profile, the probability of a motor failure in a single mission is 0.1%. For a five-motor cluster, the odds of a failure involving at least one motor is 1–0.999, or about 0.5%. To increase odds of vehicle survival in a clustered VTO vehicle, designing in various motor shutdown scenarios to avoid catastrophic failures may be desirable—at least the passengers will probably think so!

Emergency egress considerations Let’s imagine you’ve booked a ticket on a VTO vehicle: what are some emergency egress considerations for this type of spacecraft? First, don’t look for the ejection seats when you ingress the vehicle, since these are basically deadweight during a very-low-altitude abort because the vehicle will be lost and the crew and passengers must be transported clear of the almost fully fueled vehicle’s potential fireball. What this means is that, if an abort capability is desired during this part of the flight envelope, some type of rocket-powered escape capsule must be used: those of you old enough to remember will recall that the Apollo system had an escape tower attached to the command module and the tower was ejected after the vehicle was outside its useful operating envelope. Incidentally, the only manned experience with an escape capsule during a launch abort occurred on September 26th, 1983, with an abort of Soyuz T-10-1 as a result of a pre-launch booster fire (the 20-Gs escape of the capsule saved the crew). In general, ejection seats are of limited value above about Mach 0.9 at sea level to perhaps Mach 3.7 at 20,000 meters because of high dynamic pressures and/or stagnation temperatures. Above 20,000 meters, high stagnation temperatures are problematic for survival without a capsule above speeds of about Mach 2.5–3.7. But ejection seats (Figure 6.26) have been designed for zero–zero ejections (zero altitude, zero speed). These seats could be potential lifesavers for a HTO vehicle emergency during the early phases of a flight, through climb-out, and through the intermediate portions of the near-vertical portions of the propulsion burn. It’s unlikely a catastrophic failure would occur after the propulsion burn and before the recovery phase of the flight. Failure of the cabin environmental system is probably not going to occur catastrophically unless associated with a propulsion system failure. After the propulsion burn, even if prematurely terminated, a suborbital vehicle (RLV) is committed to a ballistic trajectory for up to several minutes depending on how close the burn was to completion at termination. In this case, staying with the vehicle is most likely a favored survival strategy even if cabin pressure is lost, since the cabin provides some protection against the high stagnation temperatures encountered during the return to denser atmosphere. One scenario leading to cabin pressure loss near the end of the propulsion burn would involve a motor explosion with fragments penetrating the cabin. SFE 100: Spaceflight Emergencies 97

6.26 You probably won’t find an ejection seat in your spacecraft. Courtesy: USAF

Provision of blast shielding around the motor(s) can abate this risk as can use of stored make-up gas to compensate for cabin leaks. If you happen to be flying in a spacecraft in which cabin depressurization is a significant risk, chances are your operator will be equip- ping you with either a partial or a full pressure suit.

Depressurization On the subject of cabin depressurization, we’re all familiar with the potential use of supplemental oxygen with cabin depressurization in aircraft, but what about spacecraft depressurization? If you’re wearing shirtsleeves, you’d better hope that the depressurization can be reversed quickly. Very quickly! But what if you decided to fly with an operator that requires you to wear a full pressure suit? Well, first of all, you’ll find your mobility restricted because these suits are bulky. You’ll also have to spend some time pre-breathing because pressure suit designers prefer to keep the pressure differential between the inside and the outside of the suit as small as possible and the only way around that is to use oxygen: the Shuttle suit was pressurized to about 222 mmHg, but it was purged with oxygen before use and the suit occupant had to breathe oxygen for a period before using the suit to reduce the chances of developing decompression sickness (DCS). On the subject DCS, remember the U-2 pilots? A survey found that many reported symptoms of DCS during their careers, 98 The Ground School Manuals and more than 10% reported that they altered or aborted their missions as a result. Risk factors for developing DCS include the effective exposure altitude, the rate of change of pressure to the exposure altitude, and fatigue, dehydration, and obesity. Incomplete washout of nitrogen during the pre-flight period of breathing oxygen is also a risk factor. Risks of DCS in the general population—including prospective space tourists—have not been well characterized, so you may want to ask your operator about DCS risks.

Signs and symptoms of altitude decompression sickness DCS Type Bubble Location Signs & Symptoms (Clinical Manifestations) Bends Mostly affects large joints of the body (elbows, shoulders, hip, wrists, knees, ankles) • Localized deep pain: mild to excruciating. Sometimes a dull ache, but rarely a sharp pain • Active and passive motion of the joint aggravates the pain • Pain can occur at altitude, during the descent, or many hours later Neurologic • Confusion or memory loss • Headache • Spots in visual field (scotoma), tunnel vision, double vision, or blurry vision • Unexplained extreme fatigue or behavior changes • Seizures, dizziness, vertigo, nausea, vomiting, and unconsciousness • Burning, stinging, and tingling around the lower chest and back • Ascending weakness or paralysis • Girdling abdominal or chest pain • Urinary and rectal incontinence • Abnormal sensations, such as numbness, burning, stinging, and tingling (paresthesia) • Muscle weakness or twitching Chokes • Burning deep chest pain (under the sternum) • Pain is aggravated by breathing • Shortness of breath (dyspnea) • Dry constant cough Skin bends • Itching usually around the ears, face, neck arms, and upper torso • Sensation of tiny insects crawling over the skin • Mottled or marbled skin usually around the shoulders, upper chest, and abdomen, accompanied by itching • Swelling of the skin, accompanied by tiny scar-like skin depressions (pitting edema) SFE 100: Spaceflight Emergencies 99

6.27 Hopefully you will land on the runway, but things go wrong, which is why it’s a good idea to prepare for everything, including ditching. Courtesy: Survival Systems

Today’s commercial aircraft require a backup system in the event of cabin depressurization (supplemental oxygen) so it’s reasonable to assume that the vehicle you fly will be required to provide for some type of backup. Bear in mind that commercial aircraft can reach survivable atmospheric air pressure in a very short time in case of emergency whereas a suborbital spacecraft can’t. That’s because a suborbital vehicle is committed to the ballistic part of its trajectory from the end of the rocket motor burn until it gets back down to breathable air—this process can take many minutes in the event of cabin depressurization during the burn and, depending on when depressurization occurs, is well beyond the ability of a passenger to survive without a pressure suit.

Ditching If everything goes to plan, you will land on the same runway that you took off from. But there is always the chance you may land off course and there is even the possibility that your pilot may be forced to ditch (Figure 6.27). To ensure you survive such an event, you should probably know the answers to the following questions before boarding the spacecraft: 1. Does your spacecraft carry life jackets? 2. How do you identify the front of the life jacket so you can put it on correctly? 3. Do you know how to open the emergency exit? 4. If the spacecraft flips over, would you be able to find the emergency exit in the dark? 100 The Ground School Manuals

5. Your spacecraft has ditched in the Gulf of Mexico, the emergency exit is open, and the water is coming in quickly. The spacecraft is sinking. Fast! At what point do you take and hold a breath? 6. The emergency exit lighting will illuminate the direction to the emergency exits. Where is the lighting located? 7. Spacecraft slides can detach from the exits to form a life raft but both crewmembers are incapacitated. How will the slides detach if there is no crewmember to perform that procedure? Have you been trained to do it? Hopefully your spacecraft will carry life jackets. Assuming they do, there is no front or back to an airline supplied life jacket, so don’t waste time: just put it on and DO NOT inflate the vest inside because, when the water comes in, you will be stuck on top in your inflated vest. Dead. Imagine your fellow passengers are screaming for you to open the spacecraft emergency exit hatch beside you after the ditching. Can you open it? More importantly, can you open it when you are hanging upside down in a spacecraft that has turned over? Staying with the upturned spacecraft, some people who practice ditching think that being upside down places the exit on the opposite side. It doesn’t: it’s in the same place—it’s just that you are upside down! Now think about what you are going to do before releasing that belt. Take a breath when the water hits your legs. Whatever you do, don’t do what people in the movies do and wait: in reality, these people are often surprised when the water shoots up into their face and all of a sudden they are under without a breath. Lighting is not always on the floor: it could be located on the seat. Be sure you know where it is. Slides and slide/rafts usually have a deployment procedures described on handy placards. Deployment usually involves a two- or three-step procedure that you should familiarize yourself with.

Sample questions 1. Symptoms of neurologic decompression sickness include: a. mottled skin, stinging, and tingling around the lower chest and back, ascending weakness or paralysis, girdling abdominal or chest pain, urinary and rectal incontinence, and burning deep chest pain. b. hyperoxia, stinging, and tingling around the lower chest and back, ascending weakness or paralysis, girdling abdominal or chest pain, and urinary and rectal incontinence. c. anoxia, stinging, and tingling around the lower chest and back, ascending weakness or paralysis, girdling abdominal or chest pain, urinary and rectal incontinence, and mottled skin. d. burning, stinging, and tingling around the lower chest and back, ascending weakness or paralysis, girdling abdominal or chest pain, urinary and rectal incontinence, and acute joint pain in the elbows. 2. Symptoms of skin bends include: a. mottled or marbled skin usually around the shoulders, upper chest, and abdomen, accompanied by itching. PST 100: Pressure Suit Theory 101

b. mottled or marbled skin usually around the shoulders, upper chest, and abdomen, accompanied by shortness of breath. c. mottled or marbled skin usually around the shoulders, upper chest, and abdomen, accompanied by chest pain. d. mottled or marbled skin usually around the shoulders, upper chest, and abdomen, accompanied by paralysis. 3. Shortness of breath is termed: a. hypoxia. b. anoxia. c. dyspnea. d. hypocapnia.

PST 100: Pressure Suit Theory

Module objectives • Describe three symptoms of hypoxia • Explain the significance of the Armstrong Line • Identify three high-altitude hazards that your pressure suit protects you from • Describe the donning of the pressure suit helmet In the event of a decompression event, your pressure suit will stand between life and death, so it’s worth being intimately familiar with this “life vest” of the sky. To ensure passenger safety, your operator will inspect every screw, bolt, nut, seam, thread, and system of your pressure suit before you don it prior to vehicle ingress—such meticulous inspection is necessary because this item of physiological support equipment may be the only thing protecting you from the myriad dangers encountered when exposed to high altitude.

The pressure suit cocoon To begin with, your pressure suit (Figure 6.29) provides you with 100% oxygen at all times—even during an emergency egress—thereby preventing hypoxia that would be present if you had to bail out at any altitude above 3,000 meters. Hypoxia is caused by a lack of oxygen reaching the tissues. The symptoms of hypoxia include blurred or tunnel vision, dizziness, slow reaction time, as well as poor muscle coordination: in the event of a decompression event, without your pressure suit to provide supplemental oxygen, you would have 30–60 seconds before being incapacitated. In addition to preventing hypoxia, the 100% oxygen provided to you decreases the probability of suffering from DCS by eliminating most of the nitrogen from your body. DCS occurs when bubbles of nitrogen develop in your blood and tissues: this happens following a rapid reduction in pressure, and symptoms include pain in the joints, and has the potential of being fatal. The next threat your pressure suit protects you from is the Armstrong Line. Water boils at a higher 102 The Ground School Manuals

6.28 Courtesy: Final Frontier Design temperature at sea level than it does at 63,000 feet (Flight Level 630, or FL630). At FL630, without a pressure suit to protect you, the water in your body would escape as a gas thereby causing damage to tissues and blocking blood flow. Finally, your pressure suit also protects you from extreme cold. Above 15,000 meters, the air temperature is 70ºC below zero: if the vehicle suffered a decompression above this altitude, those not wearing a pressure suit would suffer hypothermia and frostbite. Your eyeballs would freeze too!

Suit orientation A typical pressure suit is shown in Figure 6.29. Chances are your pressure suit will feature most if not all the features we’ll describe here. Starting at the top, we have the neck ring that has a latch that secures the helmet to the suit. Sliding the latch halves together will move latch-dogs to secure the helmet on the neck ring, while sliding them apart will retract the dogs, allowing the helmet to be removed from the neck ring (Figure 6.30). Next, we have independently operating polycarbonate and acrylic visors that provide you with a clear pressure visor and a dark sunshield. You can close and lock the pressure visor PST 100: Pressure Suit Theory 103

6.29 A pressure suit that might be worn by space tourists in the near future. Courtesy: Orbital Outfitters

(Figure 6.31) by pulling the visor and the bailer bar down into the locked position. To open the pressure visor, you have to push down on a latch on the bailer bar lock and press two buttons on either side of the lock. This allows the bailer bar to unlock, after which you can open the visor. Another key feature is the dual earphones and a flexible boom-mounted microphone that are worn under the helmet. The communications cable passes through the side of the helmet and connects to a headset interface unit, which in turn connects to the vehicle’s comm system. The suit itself comprises four layers: a comfort layer, a gas membrane, a restraining mesh, and a fire-retardant/thermal insulating outer layer (this layer will provide three hours of protection in 4°C water. It is possible your suit may also feature bladders—one for altitude protection and one for acceleration protection. The suit also includes counter- pressure sleeves and standard partial-pressure gloves. Over your shoulder is your oxygen supply hose and on your side, just above your waist, is your main parachute handle. On your right mid-waist is a pressure control system. Located on your lower leg is a pouch containing survival essentials. LIP SEAL

SEAL LATCH (8) LATCH PIN (8) COMPRESSION SPRING (8)

COMPRESSION SPRING (3) (SEE DETAILS B)

SOCKET HEAD CAP SCREW (4) FILLISTER HEAD VENT PORT SCREW (2) HOUSING

RELEASE (2)

RETAINER (3) SCREW (6) SEE DETAILS “A”

COVER HOUSING PLUNGER SPRING PLUNGER (2)

LOCKING RING LOCK STOP SOCKET HEAD CAP SCREW (2)

COMPRESSION SPRING

LOCK PIN 7069 7069 B DETAIL B

SPIROL PIN DETAIL A 6.30 Components of the neck ring of a pressure suit. Courtesy: NASA

6.31 Luca Parmitano gives a thumbs-up after being sealed into his pressure suit. Courtesy: ESA CRM 100: Crew Resource Management 105

Sample questions 1. A lack of oxygen reaching the tissues causes a condition known as: a. hyperoxia. b. hypoxia. c. anoxia. d. hypocapnia. 2. The Armstrong Line is at: a. 70,000 feet. b. 63,000 feet. c. 10,000 feet. d. 25,000 feet. 3. Your pressure suit comprises: a. a comfort layer, an integrated anti-G-suit, a restraining mesh, and a fire-retardant/ thermal insulating outer layer. b. a comfort layer, a gas membrane, a restraining mesh, and a fire-retardant/thermal insulating outer layer. c. an integrated anti-G-suit, a gas membrane, a restraining mesh, and a fire-retardant/thermal insulating outer layer. d. a compression membrane, a gas membrane, a restraining mesh, and a fire-retardant/thermal insulating outer layer.

CRM 100: Crew Resource Management

Module objectives • Explain crew resource management • Describe what is meant by situational awareness • Explain what is meant by attentional narrowing Investigations into the causes of aircraft accidents have shown human error is a contributing factor in 60–80% of all incidents and research has shown these events share common characteristics. Many problems you may encounter during your flight will have very little to do with the technical aspects of flying the spacecraft, but you will be interacting with other passengers, which requires that you understand some aspects of CRM such as situational awareness (SA). Experience has shown that lasting behavior changes in complex environments (Figure 6.33) such as a spacecraft require awareness, practice, feedback, and continuing reinforcement, hence the need for this module. Let’s start with SA. 106 The Ground School Manuals

6.32 Courtesy: A4H

6.33 The view from space. Courtesy: NASA CRM 100: Crew Resource Management 107

6.34 Team work will make your flight go much more smoothly. Flight members of Astronauts for Hire team training in the dunker tank. Courtesy: A4H

Situational awareness SA is “knowing what is going on around you” and is fundamental to correct decision making and action, whether this is positioning yourself at a window to take a photo or effecting an emergency egress. SA is more than just perception—it is understanding the meaning of what you perceive, how it might change in the future, and the implications. Decision making is based on situation awareness; therefore, if you have poor SA, you are likely to make poor decisions, which is a bad thing if you are trying to egress from a malfunctioning spacecraft! SA has sometimes been referred to as “perception of reality” and it is possible for your fellow passengers to have different perceptions of reality. The aim of SA training is ensure you develop good SA and a correct perception of the state of the spacecraft and the environment. This can be achieved by good teamwork (Figure 6.34) and communication. The basic theory of SA has its roots in cognitive psychology, particularly attention, perception, information processing, memory, and decision making. In the context of spaceflight operations, SA can be broken down into specific elements, which the crew— that includes you!—need to be aware of during the flight. For instance, your pilot needs very good SA about abort criteria but for you this information is almost redundant. Having said that, you still need good information-processing skills—a key element of SA. Humans have a limited information-processing capability and cannot attend to all sources of information all the time, so it is necessary to switch attention from one source to another, often 108 The Ground School Manuals in fairly rapid succession, and store the information in memory. Appropriate training can help you develop and practice good “attention sampling” strategies, to ensure that one or more sources of information do not get neglected.

Attentional narrowing Chances are this is your first spaceflight, in which case it will be stressful, especially the launch and re-entry, although the microgravity part in between will be fun. Stress can have an effect on SA, sometimes positive, but more usually negative. Stress can be physical, such as the noise and vibration of launch (Figure 6.35), or psychological, such as fear and anxiety over what might happen if an engine fails. Often, stress results in reduced SA because it competes with SA for your limited attention capacity, and may result in attentional narrowing. Fortunately, your training will help you avoid a reduction in SA by exposing you to experiences such as the dunker trainer (Figure 6.36) and practicing emergency egresses.

Communication Even though you’re there for the ride, good communication is vital because a breakdown in communication is often cited as a contributor in many aviation incidents. We are communicating almost constantly, whether consciously or otherwise. For example, during your flight, you may need to communicate information such as asking a fellow space tourist to get out of the way as you travel from one bulkhead to another. As the sender of a message, you will typically expect some kind of response from the person you are communicating with (the recipient), which could range from a simple acknowledgement that your message has been received (and hopefully understood) to a considered and detailed reply. The response constitutes feedback. In addition to verbal communication, you may use non-verbal communication to get your point across. Non-verbal communication can accompany verbal communication, such as a smile during a chat. It may constitute acknowledgement or feedback (a nod of the head). It can also be used when verbal communication is impossible, such as a thumbs- up in a noisy environment. Body language can be very subtle, but often quite powerful. For example, the message “No” accompanied by a smile will be interpreted quite differently from the same word said whilst the sender scowls. There are two ways in which communication can cause problems. These are lack of communication and poor communication. An example of the former is an experienced IT-literate pilot programming the spacecraft’s flight management system who doesn’t explain to the new less-IT-literate co-pilot what he is doing. An example of the latter is a pilot advising the passengers that there will be an emergency landing, but failing to tell them not to evacuate the cabin! Both problems can lead to human error. Communication also goes wrong when one of the parties involved makes some kind of assumption. The sender of a message may assume the receiver understands the terms he has used. The receiver of a message may assume the message means one thing when in fact he has mis- interpreted it. CRM 100: Crew Resource Management 109

6.35 Chances are your launch won’t be as violent as a Saturn V, but there will be lots of noise and vibration, so be prepared. Courtesy: NASA 110 The Ground School Manuals

6.36 Dunker training. Courtesy: Survival Systems

There are several hazards which reduce the quality of communications: • failure during the transmitting process; • difficulty caused by medium of transmission (e.g. background noises); • physical problem listening or speaking (e.g. wearing an oxygen mask).

Teams If you’re flying in a multi-passenger cabin, it is possible you will buddy up like divers do for safety reasons in the event of an emergency—this is the recommendation of Suborbital Training. Since your training will be only three or four days, that doesn’t give you much time to get to know your other team member/buddy. It is important, therefore, to have a common understanding among team members as to how they will all be expected to work together, not only during the fun microgravity portion of the flight, but also in a contingency event. Bear in mind there may be a large difference in age and experience between the tourists on your flight, with a younger, less experienced tourist being reluctant to challenge or query an older passenger’s action. So, it is important to ensure that communication between all passengers is encouraged from the outset, even if that information often turns out to be non-relevant. HAI 100: High-Altitude Indoctrination 111

Passenger coordination Passenger coordination is achieved through teamwork and is key to increasing safety. The basic variables determining the extent of coordination are the attitudes, motivation, and training of the passengers. Especially under stress (physical, emotional), there is a high risk that passenger coordination will break down, resulting in a decrease in communication (marginal or no exchange of information), an increase in errors (wrong decisions), and a lower probability of correcting deviations either from standard operating procedures. It’s another reason why you do the dunker training.

Sample questions 1. The basic theory of SA has its roots in cognitive psychology, in particular: a. attention, perception, information processing, memory, and coordination. b. perception, information processing, memory, repeated stress exposure, and decision making. c. attention, perception, information processing, memory, and decision making. d. repeated stress exposure, perception, information processing, memory, and decision making. 2. Stress results in reduced SA because it competes with SA for your limited attention capacity, and may result in: a. enhanced perception. b. attentional narrowing. c. faster information processing. d. better coordination. 3. Under stress there is a high risk that passenger coordination will break down, resulting in: a. a decrease in communication, a decrease in errors, and a higher probability of correcting deviations from standard operating procedures. b. an increase in communication, an increase in errors, and a higher probability of correcting deviations from standard operating procedures. c. a decrease in communication, a decrease in errors, and a lower probability of correcting deviations from standard operating procedures. d. a decrease in communication, an increase in errors, and a lower probability of correcting deviations from standard operating procedures.

HAI 100: High-Altitude Indoctrination

Module objectives • Describe the symptoms of hypoxia • Explain Boyle’s Law 112 The Ground School Manuals

6.37 Courtesy: Red Bull

We touched on the topic of decompression in SLS 100. In this module, we review what is meant by high altitude before progressing to the practical phase which exposes you to hypoxia. This is important because if your vehicle suffers a rapid decompression you will be instantly exposed to a lower air density and consequent hypoxia. Before we examine some other effects of reduced pressure, it’s worth reviewing an important gas law. If you remember your physics classes you may recall that, as pressure falls, a given amount of gas will expand as long as temperature and mass remain constant. This is Boyle’s Law. Boyle’s Law can cause all sorts of problems if you happen to be a space tourist exposed to a dramatic reduction in pressure. For example, there are a number of gas cavities in your body and, if you are exposed to high altitude suddenly, these cavities will expand. This expansion will cause problems such as trapping air in a cavity such as a tooth, which will cause an excruciating condition known as barodontalgia. Other gas-containing cavities include the lungs, the air passages, the stomach, and the middle-ear cavity. The latter separates the middle-ear cavity from the outside which, if subjected to a sudden drop in outside pressure, may rupture or perforate, which can be quite a disabling occurrence. Another problem caused by falling pressure is hypoxia. If not treated, hypoxia may rapidly progress to anoxia, which is an absence of oxygen. If your vehicle suffers a rapid decompression, you will experience the signs and symptoms of hypoxia that include increased respiration, cyanosis, mental confusion, hallucination, memory loss, poor HAI 100: High-Altitude Indoctrination 113 judgment, blurred vision, tingling, myclonic jerks, and eventually unconsciousness. The time an individual can perform useful activity in such an event is known as time of useful consciousness (TUC) and is a measure of the time from the exposure to an oxygen-poor environment to the time when useful function is lost. In the event of a rapid decompression in which oxygen is sucked out of the cabin, TUC becomes very short and it is therefore important that passengers be able to recognize the symptoms of oxygen deprivation.

Hypobaric practical Although hypoxia awareness/HAI training has traditionally been conducted in a hypobaric chamber at a pressure altitude of 7,600 meters, there are many training facilities that offer this training using normobaric gas-mix and combined altitude/depleted-oxygen (CADO) techniques. The system Suborbital Training recommends is the GO2Altitude® flight simulator integrated hypoxia recognition system. During your training session, you will be given a special type oxygen mask, connected to the GO2Altitude® hypoxicator. As you experience hypoxia, correcting actions are expected. After the training, physiological parameters, video, and printed report are automatically generated.

Sample questions 1. As pressure falls, a given amount of gas will expand as long as temperature and mass remain constant. This is: a. Dalton’s Law. b. Charles’s Law. c. Boyle’s Law. d. Avogadro’s Law. 2. An absence of oxygen results in: a. hyperoxia. b. anoxia. c. hypercapnia. d. hypocapnia. 3. Signs and symptoms of hypoxia include: a. increased respiration, cyanosis, mental confusion, hallucination, memory loss, poor judgment, blurred vision, tingling, myclonic jerks, and eventually unconsciousness. b. decreased respiration, cyanosis, mental confusion, hallucination, memory loss, poor judgment, blurred vision, tingling, myclonic jerks, and eventually uncon sciousness. c. increased respiration, cyanosis, mental confusion, hallucination, memory loss, poor judgment, blurred vision, tingling, mottled skin, and eventually unconsciousness. d. decreased respiration, cyanosis, mental confusion, hallucination, memory loss, poor judgment, blurred vision, tingling, itching in the shoulders, and eventually unconsciousness. 114 The Ground School Manuals

ADC 100: Astronaut Diver Course©

Module objectives • Explain how to maneuver in microgravity • Perform movements fluidly and precisely • Perform self-correction strategies The ADC has been designed by Suborbital Training (see Appendix I). It will familiarize you with the microgravity skills, hazards, and in-flight procedures required to maximize your once-in-a-lifetime spaceflight adventure. This course is intended to serve as a safe and supervised introduction to the tasks required during a typical flight, and will present and evaluate core knowledge and skills needed for you to become a safe, confident, and capable space tourist. The purpose of Suborbital Training’s ADC is to learn the best way to maneuver and complete tasks in the microgravity environment. While performing tasks in microgravity

6.38 Courtesy: A4H ADC 100: Astronaut Diver Course© 115 may sound easy, they take practice because not only is everything weightless, but your body and senses function differently in space and this can be disorienting. Working and performing simple tasks such as taking a picture requires a very specialized set of skills which is one of the reasons for this course. Also, if you have paid US$250,000 for a ticket to space, then every second is worth more than US$500—this course will ensure that you maximize that time. The goals of Suborbital Training’s ADC are: • To help you develop the necessary skills, knowledge and techniques to safely participate in a suborbital spaceflight • To develop your knowledge of maneuvering in microgravity • To develop your manipulation skills in microgravity • To develop your SA skills in microgravity • To develop your microgravity skill sets and acquaint you with the problems you may encounter during your flight

Course standards This course standards and prerequisites for conducting Suborbital Training’s ADC are as follows:

Prerequisites PADI Open Water Diver or equivalent Minimum Age 15 years Ratios open water 4:1 Depth Recommended: 10 Hours Recommended: 10 Minimum confined water dives 4

The following materials and equipment will be provided by your instructor: 1. Astronaut diver cue cards 2. Extra weights in small increments—for student trim 3. Wrist-mounted astronaut diver “generic mission checklists” 4. Head-mounted underwater camera with view screen for feedback on mission tasks

Student diver prerequisites By the start of the course, you must be: 1. Certified as a PADI Open Water Diver or have a qualifying certification from another training organization. In this case, a qualifying certification is defined as proof of entry-level scuba certification with a minimum of four open water training dives. 2. Be at least 15 years old. 116 The Ground School Manuals

Assessment standards You must demonstrate accurate and adequate knowledge during the confined water dives and must perform all skills (procedures and motor skills) fluidly, with little difficulty, in a manner that demonstrates minimal or no stress.

Certification requirements and procedures By the completion of the course, you must complete all performance requirements for ADC Dives One and Two.

Knowledge development introduction Ever wondered how you simulate microgravity? Well, there are two ways. First, you can recreate it by flying parabolas in a plane. This works, but only for 25 seconds at a time. NASA uses parabolic flights to train astronauts and, if you have US$4,500 lying around, you can buy a ticket on a zero-G flight and experience the fun that microgravity has to offer. Zero-G flights are fun, but they’re limited—and expensive—when it comes to rehearsing for a four-minute suborbital flight in which every second counts. So, another— cheaper—way of simulating microgravity is water. Water is dense so you can simulate microgravity by putting an astronaut into a diving suit and adjusting the suit’s weight so it neither sinks or floats, making it neutrally buoyant. This is why NASA uses the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory (NBL) to train its astronauts. The NBL (Figure 6.39) consists of a large indoor pool of water, in which astronauts perform simulated mission tasks. The principle of neutral buoyancy is used to simulate the weightless environment of space. That, essentially, is the core of the ADC. As a space tourist, your time is very, VERY valuable, so you want to make sure you get the most out of your four minutes of microgravity (which, incidentally, works out to be US$31,250 a minute, or US$520 a second!). The ADC can ensure you don’t waste a second of your time. Like most courses, it starts with a briefing and a PowerPoint presentation which gives you an overview of the course. In the briefing, the instructor will explain the

6.39 Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory. Courtesy: NASA ADC 100: Astronaut Diver Course© 117 planning behind a suborbital flight, how training procedures are created for specific flights, and how astronauts are guided through the steps needed to become proficient in their tasks—think of this as underwater choreography.

Knowledge development learning objectives By the end of knowledge development, you will be able to explain: 1. The theory of movement in microgravity 2. How to adapt motor control strategies to microgravity 3. The most effective (standard) locomotion strategies to perform intravehicular activities (IVAs) 4. Most and least effective way of reorienting after losing contact with a reference point 5. Differences in accuracy between single and multiple push-offs 6. Most effective movement strategies for reacting to emergencies 7. Difference between fine control movement and explosive motion control 8. Effect of low-force and high-force levels in motor control 9. Most and least effective self-correction strategies 10. Awareness of the position and orientation of generic cabin fixtures, components 11. Identification of hazardous systems in the cabin 12. Movements that constitute hazardous operations in the cabin 13. Immediate action drills for dealing with a toxic off-gassing material, mercury/mercury compound spills, or with an organic/microbiological (pathogenic) contamination source(s) 14. Potential ignition sources (electrical, chemical, mechanical) in cabin 15. The planning, organization, and procedures of mission tasks

Knowledge development teaching outline A. Course introduction Staff and student diver introductions 1. Course goals: a. Develop your practical knowledge of the movement skills required for flight b. Enhance your diving maneuvering and spatial disorientation skills c. Enable you to deal with loss of SA, adaptation and recovery, upset a. Recovery, and master skills needed to maneuver in extreme conditions d. Develop learning transfer from diving environment to microgravity environment e. Enable you to plan, organize, and execute suborbital tasks 2. Course overview a. Classroom presentations b. Confined water session. There will be at least one confined water session where the skills necessary to the ADC will be demonstrated and practiced by the student divers to gain confidence and mastery before the other confined water training dives c. Confined water dives. There will be three confined water dives 118 The Ground School Manuals

3. Certification a. Upon successfully completing the course, you will receive the Suborbital Training ADC certification 4. Class requirements a. Complete paperwork b. Equipment needs c. Schedule and attendance

B. Course content: sample questions To give you an idea of the course content, a series of sample questions have been provided below. 1. Microgravity locomotion is primarily performed using: a. very large forces. b. very small forces. c. a force greater than or equal to our bodyweight. 2. If the force applied to move is less than one-third of your bodyweight, this motion is classified as: a. a fine control strategy. b. an explosive strategy. c. a translational movement. 3. If the force applied to move is more than one-third of your bodyweight, this motion is classified as: a. a fine control strategy. b. an explosive strategy. c. a translational movement. 4. Fine control motions result in: a. less precise maneuvers. b. more precise maneuvers. c. translational motions. 5. Translational motions resulting from large push-off forces in microgravity will be: a. more controlled and have lower velocities. b. less controlled and have higher velocities. c. more controlled and have higher velocities. 6. If excessive force is used to move yourself: a. a larger amount of force is required to stop. b. an equal amount of force is required to stop. c. a lesser amount of force is required to stop. ADC 100: Astronaut Diver Course© 119

7. The three rotational axes are: a. x (roll), y (pitch), xy (yaw). b. x (roll), yx (pitch), z (yaw). c. x (roll), y (pitch), z (yaw). 8. Forward pedaling in microgravity will: a. cause the body to pitch forward. b. cause the body to pitch backwards. c. have no effect on body orientation. 9. Kicking motions in microgravity will cause: a. small off-axis rotations. b. large off-axis rotations. c. no effect. 10. In microgravity, a target will be seen: a. below its true position, a phenomenon known as the “elevator illusion”. b. above its true position, a phenomenon known as the “elevator illusion”. c. at its usual position.

C. Introductory confined water dive Conduct Student divers must complete this confined water dive prior to continuing on to confined Dive 1. This confined water dive provides time to eliminate potential equipment problems and allow student divers to practice basic skills. Performance requirements By the end of the introductory confined water training session, you will be able to: 1. Perform: flying to and touching a target and returning to point of origin You will be neutrally buoyant at a depth of three meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will push off from the wall and “fly” across the pool to a target positioned five meters away, touch the target, and return to your starting point. You will have three attempts. 2. Perform: flying to and touching a target/pushing off target and flying away You will be neutrally buoyant at a depth of three meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will push off from the wall and “fly” across the pool to a target positioned five meters away, touch the target, and “fly” away. You will have three attempts. 3. Perform: vertical reorientation following unstable upset You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically. You will have three attempts. 4. Perform: horizontal reorientation following unstable upset You will be neutrally buoyant and vertical at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself horizontally. You will have three attempts. 120 The Ground School Manuals

D. Specific skill confined water dives The ADC requires you to complete four dives, including the introductory dive. Before each dive, your instructor will: 1. Review objectives and sequence of skills 2. Coach you through your gear assembly 3. Evaluate your equipment for adequacy 4. Identify potential problems and offer suggestions After this, you will enter the pool and conduct the necessary pre-dive procedures, which will include a pre-dive briefing, assigning of buddy teams according to ability (weak with strong), a check-in/check-out procedure, and a review of emergency protocols. The sequence of each dive will follow the format below: 1. Review of task evaluation 2. Familiarization with targets and sensors 3. Entry technique to be used 4. Exit technique to be used 5. Ending tank pressure—when to terminate the dive 6. Sequence of training dive—review Dive 1 skills a. Pre-dive safety check b. Buoyancy check at the surface c. Skills: i. vertical and horizontal reorientation ii. flexing limbs while using sensor iii. interception techniques d. Ascent 7. Pre-dive procedures 8. Descent 9. Dive 1 skills review (use astronaut diver cue cards) 10. Post-dive procedures, debriefing, and signing ADC logbook Performance requirements: Dive 1 By the end of Dive 1 (Basic Microgravity Locomotion Techniques), you will be able to: 1. Perform: vertical reorienting from prone position and “flying” to a target You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically and “fly” to a designated target five meters away. You will have three attempts. 2. Perform: horizontal reorienting from vertical position and “flying” to a target You will be neutrally buoyant and vertical at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself face down and “fly” to a designated target. You will have three attempts. 3. Perform: flexing/extending a limb to a target box You will be neutrally buoyant at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will flex and extend your dominant arm and grab a target box ADC 100: Astronaut Diver Course© 121

4. Perform: basic interception task You will be neutrally buoyant at a depth of five meters. The instructor will direct a neutrally buoyant target across your field of view. Once you see it, you are to intercept it. Performance requirements: Dive 2 By the end of Dive 2 (Intermediate Microgravity Locomotion Techniques), you will be able to: 1. Perform: extending a limb while positioning a camera You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically and extend your right arm while holding a camera and aim at a target. You will have three attempts. 2. Perform: using two limbs for support You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically and reposition yourself two meters laterally using only two limbs for support. You will have three attempts. 3. Perform: using one limb for support You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically and reposition yourself two meters laterally using only one limb for support. You will have three attempts. 4. Perform: complex dual interception task You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically and intercept two objects within 30 seconds. You will have three attempts. Performance requirements: Dive 3 By the end of Dive 3 (Advanced Microgravity Locomotion Techniques), you will be able to: 1. Perform: multiple grasping tasks You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically and grasp a free-floating camera, grasp a bulkhead, and grasp your buddy by the leg. You will have three attempts. 2. Perform: interception of ball with variable dynamic properties You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically and intercept a slow-moving and fast-moving ball within 30 seconds. You will have three attempts. 3. Perform: use foot restraint while performing grasping tasks You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically and position yourself vertically using the foot restraints. You will then grasp a free-floating ball and camera. You will have three attempts. 4. Perform: twisting the body while flying to a target You will be neutrally buoyant and face down at a depth of five meters. On the instructor’s signal, you will orient yourself vertically and fly from one bulkhead to another, twisting from face down to face-up while moving. You will have three attempts. 7

Space Tourism Trips

• A lunar fl yby • A hike across the lunar surface • A week’s vacation on board an orbital colony • Climbing Olympus Mons, the Solar System’s highest mountain These are just some of the more adventurous space tourism possibilities that have been suggested over the years. In fact, one of the trips listed is close to being realized because Space Adventures has sold one of its two tickets to the Moon—an odyssey that will have the historic signifi cance of being the fi rst privately fi nanced voyage to the Moon, as long as the company can sell the other ticket (ticket price is US$150 million) that is. Space Adventures happens to be the fi rst (and so far the only) company to send tourists to space. Their latest, and perhaps most famous client, is sopranonaut Sarah Brightman, who will make a fl ight to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2015. The 2013 announcement that an international recording superstar will be fl ying to the ISS was a far cry from 2001, when Dennis Tito, a largely unknown former NASA-engineer-turned-investment-manager, climbed aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for an eight-day trip to the orbiting outpost.

ORBITAL TOURISM

The Brightman effect The Brightman announcement came at a time when the excitement over the prospects of a ridiculously wealthy person paying huge sums of money to fl oat around in space had largely faded. So, to put Brightman’s celebrity status in some perspective, it’s worth looking at the space tourists who preceded her: mostly white males from predominantly English-speaking nations, fi ve of whom are American. All but one of them, Guy Laliberté (a Canadian), has a professional background in technology and most of them were not very well known before their spacefl ights—certainly, none of them had the international name recognition and following Brightman has. So, it is likely her fl ight will attract more global interest than the previous fl ights, which may in turn focus people’s attention on future space tourism possibilities. Of course, there is always the possibility that, with all

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 123 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6_7, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 124 Space Tourism Trips the other celebritynaut fl ights taking place around the same time (SpaceShipTwo fl ights carrying Leonardo DiCaprio, Paris Hilton, et al.) as Brightman’s fl ight the public might begin to get bored with the space tourism business, but let’s be optimistic and predict that interest will increase: after suborbital and Brightman’s trip, what next?

Orbital tourists Even after Brightman’s fl ight, it may be a while before orbital space tourism becomes as accessible as suborbital trips simply because the orbital space tourism experience is much more diffi cult to provide. Not only is it more diffi cult technically because of the higher kinetic energy trajectories that must be fl own, it is more diffi cult commercially, because fewer travelers have the fi nancial wherewithal to afford the astronomical prices for such missions, which are expected to be at least US$5 million per trip. Also, don’t forget that the only orbital tourists to date have had to travel to orbit using Russian governmental Soyuz spacecraft. But let’s assume the suborbital industry goes from strength to strength and an orbital industry follows. What sort of person will buy the tickets? Well, the potential orbital space tourist will probably be male, in his mid-fi fties, and be worth around US$200 million. Chances are, he comes from the US, Europe, or Asia. This elite group understands risk, but their time is valuable and they rarely if ever spend several months on vacation (this will be important when designing the training schedule), which means it will be necessary to design the orbital space tourism experience within specifi c parameters: basically, the preparation for the fl ight should not exceed a month or so.

Buying your ticket So, if you happen to have a few million dollars lying around, where do you start? Chances are you will buy your ticket from a specialist space travel agency, just like Virgin Galactic passengers do today. By the time orbital fl ights are more common, you may have a choice of the sort of orbital experience you want to experience, so what might the options be? One of the fi rst decisions may be to choose whether you want to fl y on a Russian, European, Chinese, or American vehicle. Once that decision has been made, you can deliberate on the type of mission architecture you prefer. Perhaps you’re the type who likes vertical take-off and landing, or perhaps you’re more inclined to opt for fl ying in vehicles that land horizontally. It all depends. Then there’s the mission profi le: different profi les will mean different price points. For example, a simple orbital fl ight that takes you around Earth a few times will most likely be cheaper than a fl ight requiring a rendezvous and docking at a TransHab (Figure 7.1 ). Another decision that may infl uence your choice is the location and type of spaceport: How easy is it to get to? What specially developed space tourist facilities does the spaceport have? Can you complete your training on location? Decisions, decisions! Let’s imagine you’ve selected the vehicle you’d like to fl y in and you’re thinking about the fl ight itself. Do you want to just fl y a few orbits around Earth or do you fancy a few days on board one those spacious TransHabs? Your space tourism travel agent will be able to advise you, but it’s helpful if you understand the options. Let’s take orbital inclination, for example. You really don’t want to opt for an equatorial orbit because it provides the Orbital Tourism 125

7.1 An infl atable habitat—a TransHab. Courtesy: NASA worst Earth coverage (mostly ocean, with a repeat of the same views every 90 minutes). Then again, if you really, really like the sea .... At the other extreme is a polar orbit, which provides maximum Earth coverage. Can’t decide? How about asking for an orbital inclination similar to the ISS, which is a good intermediate choice that will allow you to see a range of terrestrial features. Next on your options list is over-fl ight targets: are there any specifi c sights you would like to see from your orbital vantage point? Mount Everest perhaps? The Grand Canyon? Manhattan at night? Note: you might have to pay extra for this service because mission planners will have to calculate the times and orbits when your sighting opportunities arrive and arrange for on-board indications of the events for you. Next on your options list is choice of meals. In the fi rst spacefl ights in the 1960s and 1970s, the food choices left a lot to be desired, consisting of a small selection of liquids and pastes. But today, astronauts on board the ISS have hundreds of dishes to choose from: soups served in tubes, canned meat and fi sh, juices, coffee, tea, etc. Some of the space food 126 Space Tourism Trips is sublimated (dehydrated in a special way) but when water is added its original properties are restored. Also, the use of cargo spacecraft such as SpaceX’s Dragon has made it possible to add variety to the diet, with fresh fruit and vegetables being especially popular. If you happen to be fl ying with a purpose other than just sightseeing, perhaps you’ll be taking a product with you, or perhaps you’ll be performing some research. No problem: your space tourist agent will help you check that whatever you take up to orbit poses no risk to safety and has no mass impacts. Your space agent will also advise you on the sensitive subject of medical requirements (Appendix II). Given the average age of the population group who can afford such a trip, there is a chance some may have problems meeting the medical requirements.

The fl ight You have three main phases to consider when it comes to the subject of mission architecture: launch , on-orbit , and recovery operations. In common with the recovery phase, you have a choice of options when deciding what sort of launch experience you prefer. Perhaps the biggest decision is whether you prefer a launch that takes off horizontally, under an aircraft, or vertically on a rocket stack, as with Soyuz. Another consideration is the size of the spacecraft and the number of crew and space tourists. In Soyuz, there is a very confi ned space with room for only three persons whereas on board the Dragon there will be room for as many as seven. If you’re inclined to experience the traditional rocket launch on board the Soyuz, bear in mind the G-forces are considerable. After you’ve chosen your launch experience, you should spend some time mulling over what to do while you’re on orbit because this time will be expensive (a US$5 million seven-day fl ight will cost you about US$500 a minute!). For example, do you prefer to rendezvous and dock with your orbiting habitat/hotel (“orbitel”) as soon as possible, or would you like to orbit Earth a few times to take in the sights? Then, once you’ve docked, what do you plan doing? Conduct experiments? Lounge around and soak up the scenery? Promote your company? Whatever you decide to do, it’s important you let your space agent know, so mission parameters can be adjusted accordingly. You will also need to pay attention to the more routine matters such as food and drink preparation, use of toilet and shower facilities, and the laundry arrangements. If you’re bringing your signifi cant other, chances are you’ll be interested in joining the 200-mile club at some point, in which case you may want to bring some Velcro!

Hitting the Zero-G Spot–or Not This is a sensitive topic: so sensitive that, a few years ago, one author who wrote on the subject was kicked off a space tourism discussion panel because the seminar sponsor, a conservative Californian space organization, didn’t like her book. But, as orbital space tourism ﬂ ights become more common, the subject will come to the fore, so hopefully you’ll ﬁ nd this section helpful.

(continued) Orbital Tourism 127

(continued) How enjoyable or diffi cult will it be? I hate to be a passion-killer, but chances are the fantasy may exceed the reality, because space sex carries complications. First of all, sex in space will likely be hotter and wetter than on Earth because, in weightlessness, there is no natural convection to carry away body heat. Also, because of the physics of weightlessness, chances are you will fi nd even the simplest “maneuver” much more demanding: to connect and stay connected, one or both of you will have to be anchored to a bulkhead. Specially designed lingerie with strategically positioned Velcro strips may help—a challenge for Victoria’s Secret perhaps? When it comes to the question of whether size matters, the answer will most likely be “yes”. You see, in space, a sizeable proportion of your blood makes its way to your head (a cephalothoracic fl uid shift in physiological terms). So, less blood pressure in the lower extremities will cause … well, you can fi gure it out! Another restriction may be a “no sex” policy during the fi rst three days on orbit because this is when you’re most likely to suffer from space motion sickness. But, once you’re sure you won’t get sick, how about the act of getting it on? Well, it will be messy. Remember your physics lesson about equal and opposite reactions? Exactly! Suffi ce to say, sex in space will probably have to be choreographed, otherwise you’ll both end up just fl ailing around, bumping from one bulkhead to the next. Assuming you’re successful in joining the 200-mile-plus club, what then? Ominously, animal studies conducted on orbit suggest the absence of gravity loading will cause problems for fetal development. Not only that, but immune functions are affected and the formation of neural connections is impeded. That’s bad news for baby. On top of that, you have to worry about the effect of all that radiation: that’s an unknown, but we can safely assume it will not be healthy for the fetus. Of course, all this is assuming it is possible to become pregnant in the fi rst place because the sperm, when fertilizing, will have no sense of where to swim due to the lack of gravity! And, on the subject of becoming pregnant—or avoiding it in this case—there is no proof that oral contraceptives are effective in space because tests on astronauts on orbit indicate some drugs aren’t absorbed as well in zero gravity. Having said all that, while sex in space will probably take some practice and be hard work at fi rst, people are creative … especially when it comes to this subject!

In addition to leisure activities, you will need to budget time for exercise so you don’t suffer from too much deconditioning. One or two hours per day should suffi ce. Then, at the end of your stay, it will be time to prepare for the return to Earth. At this stage, you will don your re-entry suit, check your suit is sealed, fasten yourself into your seat, and wait while the crew confi gure the spacecraft for re-entry. As you begin the return trajectory, you will begin to experience the buildup of G-forces. After a couple of weeks of zero gravity, this may be distressing, although you can help reduce the effects by keeping up that exercise program during your time on orbit. As re-entry continues, you will notice the ionization glow out of the window. Then, a few minutes before touch-down, you’ll feel a tug as 128 Space Tourism Trips the mains deploy. Finally, the spacecraft will hit the water and your spacefl ight is over. The crew will assist your exit and you will clamber on board the recovery vessel for your journey back to terra fi rma.

Post fl ight When you return to the spaceport, you’ll no doubt be looking forward to reuniting with your family, but there is still the routine post-fl ight medical check to be taken care of: this will be needed for insurance reasons and to provide data for the regulators and operators as the industry develops. You may experience some backache, dizziness, and discombobu- lation for a couple of days, but your assigned fl ight surgeon will look after you. After the post-fl ight medical, it will be on to the awarding of wings ceremony, where you will receive your astronaut wings and a champagne celebration with your family and friends. Before leaving the spaceport, you will be provided with a recording of your mission together with your fl ight suit, a model of the spacecraft, and a few other mementos.

LUNAR TOURISM

After you’ve recovered from your orbital trip and wondering what can possibly trump two weeks on orbit, how about considering a lunar vacation? That’s if you’re still fi nancially solvent! The Moon is likely to be one of the most exotic and expensive tourist destinations of the latter half of the 21st century. You may be thinking that lunar vacations may be too far in the future to realistically consider, but you may be wrong—especially if Golden Spike is successful. The Golden Spike company is a private enterprise planning to fl y crews to the Moon and back for US$1.5 billion per fl ight by 2020. Golden Spike, whose board includes former NASA engineers and spacefl ight experts, has already developed their mission architecture, and plans to sell tickets to governments rather than space tourists. Still, it’s a good fi rst step towards eventual space tourist fl ights—after all, this is a private sector company setting out to accomplish something that, until now, only the US government has been able to do. Of course, it remains to be seen exactly when and how cheaply Golden Spike will deliver their product—after all, other commercial space businesses, like Virgin Galactic, have seen constant delays and broken promises with their fl ight hardware. So, until Golden Spike begins producing results, there will be many in the spacefl ight community skeptical of its plans. But let’s hope for the best and predict that, some time in the fi rst half of the 21st century, lunar space tourism becomes a reality. What can you—the prospective lunar tourist—expect? For those embarking on a lunar trip, your transfer fl ight will probably begin from an orbiting habitat, which may be familiar to you. From your orbiting habitat, you will take a lunar transit vehicle to lunar orbit. On arrival in lunar orbit, you will be transferred to another orbiting module where you will be briefed by a tour guide and issued with the equipment necessary for your stay. Alternatively, you may choose to remain in the module and observe the Moon from orbit, in which case you will need to become familiar with your home for the next few days. Lunar Tourism 129

7.2 The Apollo 11 landing site may one day be a popular destination for lunar tourists. Courtesy: NASA

7.3 Getting around the lunar surface will probably be by rover. No doubt this will cost extra! Courtesy: NASA

Lunar itinerary Days 1 and 2: Tranquility base/world heritage site On your ﬁ rst day on the lunar surface, you wake up in your lunar module and clamber into the airlock to suit up in your pressure suit in preparation for the short rover ride to the historic Apollo 11 landing site (Figure 7.2 ). On arrival, you egress the rover (Figure 7.3 ) for your ﬁ rst lunar extravehicular activity (EVA).

Day 3: Chinese helium-3 mines After the excitement of your ﬁ rst day on the lunar surface, you can look forward to your second excursion to the Chinese helium-3 mines of Mare Serenitatis. After clearing 130 Space Tourism Trips

7.4 Another destination of interest may be the (Chinese) strip-mining operation. Courtesy: NASA security, a Chinese taikonaut guides you along the mining site—all 4,000 square kilometers of it. You witness robotic machines strip-mining (Figure 7.4) the lunar regolith and the separation of the helium-3 from the lunar soil.

Days 4 through 6: South Pole habitat The attraction of the habitat at the South Pole is that it’s located in an area of eternal sunlight, so it’s a great place to spend time planet-viewing. Incidentally, our planet will appear four times as big as the Moon looks from Earth.

Days 7 through 9: Russian observatory on the far side Shortly after China established its helium-3 mining facilities, the Russians decided it would also set up shop on the Moon by building an observatory. The Russian facility is located on the Moon’s far side, sometimes referred to as the dark side. The reason the far side of the Moon is often referred to as the dark side has nothing to do with lack of sunlight, as the far side gets the same amount of sunlight as the nearside does within a lunar month. But, since the nearside of the Moon always faces Earth, if a spacecraft goes behind the Moon, it goes into communications blackout as there is no capability for direct line-of- sight transmission, thus the far side of the Moon is referred to as dark due to the lack of radio signals from Earth. This is why the middle of the far side was selected by the Russians for their observatory site, as it is the quietest area for a radio telescope. Mars 131

During today’s tour, a Russian guide shows you how researchers perform lunar and stellar astrometry, and how they study lunar impacts by meteors, asteroid eclipses of stars, and the monitoring of special regions of the Moon.

Days 10 and 11: Visit the infl atable moon base Not long after the Chinese and Russians laid claim to lunar real estate, Robert Bigelow landed his infl atable modules and set up a lunar base for up to 18 astronauts. On this trip, you walk through the Surface Endoskeletal Infl atable Module units and talk to astronauts from fi ve countries as they perform research.

Day 12: Return ﬂ ight After one ﬁ nal early-morning EVA, it’s time to head home. Be prepared for the take-off, which will impose 3 Gs, which is the same load that will be imposed during Earth injection. Then, after a couple of days’ cruising, you’ll need to brace yourself for the heaviest G-loads, experienced during the aerobraking maneuver upon return to Earth: this is when you can expect up to 6 Gs. Finally, during the last phase, you will experience another 2 Gs during landing on Earth.

MARS

Light winds from the southeast in the early evening, becoming light winds from the east shortly after midnight. Maximum winds approximately 30 kilometers per hour. High temperature will reach –35ºC and an overnight low of –86ºC. Pressure will remain steady at 7.6 millibars. Radiation exposure assessed at moderate. Be sure to wear your shades. So you’ve climbed K2, taken a suborbital jaunt, and you’ve trekked across the Mare Spumans. Now get ready for Mars! Surprisingly, plans for a tourist trip to Mars are already underway thanks to efforts of the world’s fi rst space tourist, multimillionaire Dennis Tito. Mr. Tito, who has set a target launch date for January 2018, announced in 2013 that a husband-and-wife astronaut team will fl y within 160 kilometers of Mars before sling- shotting back to Earth. Backers of the trip haven’t designated a rocket or capsule for the pioneering mission, nor do they have the fi nancing for what industry experts suggest could be north of US$1 billion. Dubbed “A Mission for America”, the expedition intends to choose existing space transportation systems developed by corporate and government entities. Mr. Tito, who may be willing to invest as much as US$100 million of his personal fortune, hopes a non-profi t organization, called the Inspiration Mars Foundation, can raise the funds to fi nance the mission. If he’s successful, the 501-day fl ight would pioneer technology to shield humans from strong radiation and demonstrate that astronauts can live and exercise for long durations in cramped quarters. A long shot? Perhaps, but buzz is building about the mission, which may launch the fi rst humans towards the Red Planet. And, if it’s successful, it may just lay the groundwork for future Martian tourist trips. So what can the budding Mars tourist expect? 132 Space Tourism Trips

Mars by the numbers First of all, Mars is freezing cold, with temperatures falling to –130ºC at the poles. Its atmosphere, with a ground-level pressure less than one-hundredth of Earth’s, consists predominantly of carbon dioxide and little oxygen, and is not dense enough to trap much of the Sun’s warmth or to shield the planet from ultraviolet radiation. However, these hostile conditions are tempered by some similarities with Earth. For example, a Martian day is only 37 minutes longer than a day on Earth, although a year on Mars lasts 687 days and there are 24 months, each of them 28 days long. Also, since Mars is tilted on its axis by 24º, it experiences seasons similar to Earth.

Getting there Outbound tourist trafﬁ c between Earth and Mars will be a series of two-year peaks and troughs dictated by the proximity of the planets and the constraints imposed by minimum- energy launch windows, which occur at 780-day intervals. Like the outbound launch windows, inbound launch windows will also occur at intervals of 780 days. As you can see in the sidebar, this sort of trip is not without its hazards.

Hazards of Interplanetary Travel First of all, there is the trip through space, which is full of interplanetary fl otsam and jetsam, including chunks of rock, pieces of spacecraft, and dust-sized micrometeorites. Although this hazard is most acute in Earth’s atmosphere, where there are as many as 100,000 pieces larger than a centimeter across, dangers still exist for those embarking on interplanetary ventures to Mars and beyond (the Pioneer spacecraft recorded 55 micrometeorite impacts between Mars and Jupiter). There is also the “solar wind” to contend with—a stream of electrically charged subatomic particles that fl ood outwards from the Sun at speed of up to 400 kilometers per second. Occasionally, there are violent outbursts of such particles, known as solar fl ares, which pose a serious threat to interplanetary passengers. In addition to dodging micrometeorites and praying a solar fl are doesn’t erupt, interplanetary space tourists will also have to deal with some serious medical problems. During your transit to Mars, your bones will shed calcium at an alarming rate (regardless of how much exercise you perform) as the replenishment of calcium cannot keep pace with the rate of loss. The longer your fl ight time, the more brittle your bones will become and the more susceptible you will be to injury once you arrive at your destination. The insidious process of osteoporosis is only one of a myriad of problems you will face: the calcium your body will be shedding every day will circulate in the bloodstream and accumulate elsewhere, eventually manifesting itself as a kidney stone. Despite your three-to-four-hour daily exercise regime, your muscles will slowly atrophy and your blood cell production within your bone

(continued) Mars 133

(continued) marrow will reduce, leading to anemia and an eventual weakening of the immune system. Your heart will also atrophy as it becomes accustomed to a reduced pumping load—a condition which may have serious consequences upon return to Earth when the load requirement is increased. Because of all these problems, interplanetary tourists will almost certainly be considered as a fl ying laboratory in their own right and will be used as human speci- mens during and following their fl ight. Perhaps in return for a reduction in the cost of their ticket, these tourists will provide blood samples, wear sensors, log their food and drink, store their waste, and submit themselves to all kinds of tests in the name of spacefl ight medical science. If you think the medical challenges are bad, wait until you spend some time living on your interplanetary spacecraft. First of all, spacecraft are noisy places—a fact that will be especially true during the fi rst interplanetary missions for which equipment will be designed to be functional rather than comfortable. Firstly, there is the brute power required for the dozens of electric fans required to move air around the cabin: the intakes and outlets you will see scattered around the cabins will result in drafts chilling your back and drying your mouth. Big noisy boxes called “scrubbers” will recycle old air and remove carbon dioxide using lithium hydroxide fi lters, ensuring as little oxygen as possible is wasted. Fungal accumulation in the scrubber vents will be another problem interplanetary tourists will need to take care of on a weekly basis, to say nothing of the inconvenience of the problems associated with the vagaries of the urine recycling system. The odors, noise, and unusual color schemes of a spacecraft can each be tolerated for extended periods as long as you have friendly company. Unfortunately, you cannot choose your fellow tourists and long-duration space missions have suffered more than one case of a nervous breakdown. You will therefore have to expect occasional tensions, frustrations, and bickering between crewmembers as well as the inevitable cultural and psychological isolation that may occur as a result of your fellow crewmembers not speaking your language. In the trapped environment of a spacecraft, something as simple as food may be enough to cause you to become slightly unhinged. For example, if the smell of a certain nation’s cuisine wafting through the cabin annoyed you on the fi rst day of the fl ight, imagine how annoying it will be on Flight Day 23 or Flight Day 451? For those tourists venturing into interplanetary space, the fi rst few days of disconnection from Earth will be tolerable, but a few weeks or months of it will inevitably lead to strain.

What to see Traveling around Mars will be relatively easy due to the planet’s gravity being only one- third of Earth’s, which means trekking should be popular! 134 Space Tourism Trips

7.5 The Valles Marineris, a potential destination for Mars-bound tourists. Courtesy: NASA

Sample itinerary Days 1 through 3: Acclimatization These days will be spent acclimatizing to the one-third Martian gravity. You will familiarize yourself with the base and take a short walk outside on the third day.

Days 4 through 7: Ares Fjord Take a Mars tour to Ares Fjord, the landing site of Pathﬁ nder and Sojourner. Just sit back and relax on the pressurized tour bus and, when you arrive, don your pressure suit and explore the site.

Days 8 through 11: Crater tour This tour takes you deep into the heart of the Hellas Impact Basin—2,100 kilometers wide and 9 kilometers deep. Your tour bus takes you to the basin where you change into your pressure suit and explore together with your tour guide. Because of the crater’s huge size and striking coloring, you’ll no doubt ﬁ nd the views awe-inspiring.

Days 12 through 15: Canyon tour South of the Martian equator, you’ll ﬁ nd the jaw-dropping Valles Marineris (Figure 7.5 ). Seven times deeper than the Grand Canyon and as long as the US, this is as stunning a geological wonder as it gets in this corner of the Solar System. Your tour guide takes you along a short section of the canyon, allowing you to see it from the top before going deep into the canyon itself to experience its twists and turns up close. Beyond Mars 135

Days 16 through 20: Olympus Mons You can’t visit Mars without stopping by to see this, the largest volcano in the Solar System. Mind-bendingly big, Olympus Mons rises up from the Martian landscape like something in a Michael Bay movie. Your tour will take you around the base of the volcano, giving you a 360º view of this impressive Martian icon.

Days 21 through 23: Mars One site visit Remember the reality television show that planned to send groups of astronauts on a one- way trip to Mars? Ever wondered what happened? This tour gives you an opportunity to discover for yourself as you make you way to Mars One, now comprising more than a dozen separate habitats.

Days 24 through 26: Excursion to Phobos outpost Phobos is a potato-shaped rock measuring just 20 kilometers by 28 kilometers. It’s nearly as dark as coal and dominated by a 10-kilometer-wide crater called Stickney—evidence of a collision that nearly shattered the puny satellite. Its proximity to Mars has made it an attractive staging post for human explorers, which is why the Chinese established an outpost there in the late 2020s, long before other governments landed on the Red Planet. After checking in with the Chinese, your tour guide shows you the sights of Stickney, after which you snap some shots of Mars from orbit.

Days 27 through 30: Preparation for return This will involve exercise, EVAs in the local area, and perhaps communicating with family and friends back on Earth, depending on the cost of the WiFi!

BEYOND MARS

Europa Yes, I know we’re a long way from manned mission to the outer planets, so this is pure indulgence. First of all, since planets such as Saturn and Jupiter are gas giants, they have no solid surface, so it won’t be possible to land on them. Of more interest to interplanetary space tourists will be the many moons orbiting the gas giants such as Io, Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, which orbit Jupiter, and Titan, which orbits Saturn. Of these, perhaps Europa will be the most popular destination.

Europan introduction Europa (Figure 7.6 ) orbits 665,920 kilometers from Jupiter, whereas the Moon orbits 381,600 kilometers from Earth. The Jovian moon is 3,126 kilometers in diameter and its ice crust surface is 18.9 million square kilometers in area, which is about the same size as 136 Space Tourism Trips

7.6 Europa. Courtesy: NASA

Africa. Europa’s day/night cycle is 3.55 standard Earth days, or 85.2 hours long, which is the same as its orbital period around Jupiter with which it is rotationally locked. Europa receives only 1/25 as much light and heat from the Sun as Earth and, because of its great distance from the Sun, its surface temperature at noon is a rather cool –140ºC!

Sample itinerary In addition to it being a future tourist attraction, Europa will be a moon of particular interest due to its potential for extraterrestrial life and also as a place for observing Jupiter, the largest gas giant in the Solar System. By the time tourist trips to Europa become a reality, it is possible life will already have been discovered below its icy surface, probably close to hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.

Days 1 to 3: Acclimatization You will spend the ﬁ rst days recovering from the long journey, or perhaps recovering from the effects of a lengthy hibernation. It really depends whether a fast propulsion system is developed before human hibernation.

Day 4: Ice hockey Since the surface of Europa is mostly water ice, tour operators have used a large Zamboni to smooth the ice for the purpose of playing interplanetary ice hockey. Those not interesting in the sport opt for skiing along the moon’s innumerable pressure ridges and ice fault scarps that are a classic feature of Europan terrain. Beyond Mars 137

Day 5: Jupiter gazing One of the tourist attractions is a resort-styled Europan Jovian System Observatory offering a view of Jupiter “hanging” over the horizon. Although Europa orbits Jupiter at a distance 75% more than the Moon’s distance from Earth, Jupiter is 11 times the diameter of Earth so, to anyone standing on the surface of Europa, it appears six times as wide as Earth would from the Moon. This means Jupiter observers see the gas giant as a brilliant multi- hued ball in the sky ﬁ lling 550 times more sky than a Full Moon seen from Earth.

Days 6 to 8: Ocean exploration One popular activity is the exploration of the Europan oceans—a feat made possible by a descendant of a prototype autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV): the Deep Phreatic Thermal Explorer (DEPTHX). This AUV is capable of submerging to a depth of 1,000 meters and uses computers linked to sonar information to create 3D images that are over- laid in the computer memory to build a progressive geometrical map. Unique extraterrestrial underwater maps prove a popular memento for those venturing under Europa’s 10-kilometer-thick ocean.

How It Works The manned equivalent of DEPTHX is stored on the ice crust surface in a simple modular hangar and descends into the Europan Ocean using a heated bow cap that thermally melts the ice. To prevent the ice behind the sub refreezing, the shaft the sub creates as it descends downwards is percolated. As the sub descends, it reels out a tethered communications cable until it is below the lowest downward protrusions of the ice crust, at which point an antenna is ﬁ xed to the cable, and the cable is cut. The sub then continues on its intra-oceanic excursion under the Europan ice while maintaining communications with the surface base via sonar to the antenna suspended below the descent shaft.

Your stay on Europa Spending a couple of nights on Europa requires engineering ingenuity that takes the form of pressurized chambers located on the underside of the moon’s ice crust and Lexan ther- mopaned geodesic domes and vaults located on the surface. Energy for Europan tourists’ habitats is derived from a process called Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)—a means of tapping energy from the heat differences between Europan surface industry waste-heated water reservoirs and cold ocean waters. 8

Getting to Orbit and Beyond

All the talk of space projects such as Excalibur, Dream Chaser, Bigelow’s Space Complex Alpha, and Russian Orbital Technologies has created increasing interest in space tourism in low Earth orbit and beyond. But, other than paying US$35 million or more for a Soyuz fl ight to the International Space Station (ISS), what other orbital options are there? Will Virgin Galactic be offering orbital trips? And what about those infl atable habitats Bigelow Aerospace is planning on fl ying? This section explains what choices you may have. We’ll start with Virgin Galactic. While Virgin Galactic’s goal is set on offering suborbital tourist treks on its SpaceShipTwo (SS2) spaceships, the company is already quietly eyeing the next logical step: orbital space tourism. Virgin Galactic founder and president Sir Richard Branson publicly admitted the company has orbital aims at the dedication of the Spaceport America facility, but he and other Virgin executives aren’t saying much about when and how. Perhaps you can’t blame them. After all, it’s taken the company much longer than planned to develop their SS2 suborbital vehicle, so perhaps it’s understandable for the company to wait until they have suborbital under their belts before starting to advertise orbital fl ights. After all, let’s not forget that getting a suborbital vehicle ready for revenue fl ights has been anything but a cakewalk, and achieving orbital space travel will be much, much more diffi cult. For one thing, staying in space for a full orbit requires a signifi cant velocity boost above that required for suborbital trips. Such an increase in speed requires a corresponding increase in energy, meaning the vehicle must carry a lot more fuel, which means a heavier spacecraft, which in turn means even more thrust is required to get off the ground. And that’s just getting into orbit: getting back to Earth is another can of worms. The higher up a spacecraft starts its descent from, the more it will accelerate as it travels back to Earth. And when a fast-moving spaceship plunges through our planet’s atmosphere, it creates incredible friction and heat, which means strong heat shields are needed.

DREAM CHASER

One possible orbital space tourism vehicle is the Dream Chaser, a reusable spaceplane currently under development by Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC). With the retirement of the Shuttle Program, SNC’s goal is to deliver a low-cost, safe alternative for transporting

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 139 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6_8, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 140 Getting to Orbit and Beyond

8.1 The Dream Chaser spacecraft undergoing drop tests in 2013. Courtesy: NASA astronauts and cargo to the ISS and possibly to transport space tourists to orbital destinations. The vertical take-off horizontal landing (VTHL) spaceplane (Figure 8.1 ) is designed to carry up to seven passengers, and can ﬂ y autonomously if necessary. Because the Dream Chaser glides back to Earth, it is a much more comfortable option than the Soyuz: if you land in a Soyuz, you will be pounded by more than 4 Gs, whereas the elegant Dream Chaser experiences less than 1.5 Gs on re-entry. The design is based on NASA’s HL-20 Space Taxi concept developed by the Langley Research Center in the 1980s and 1990s. Designed to be launched into space on the nose of a rocket, Dream Chaser will be sent to orbit in 2016, sitting on top of a powerful Atlas V rocket. After detachment from the rocket, the spaceplane will use hybrid motors to adjust its orbit or dock with the ISS. But the ISS isn’t the only destination SNC has in mind because the company is also eyeing potential income from space tourism. Will it offer a return on investment? That’s uncharted business territory.

Dream Chaser • Manufacturer: Sierra Nevada Space Systems • Size: 13.7 meters long, 7.2-meter wingspan • Seats: One to two pilots, ﬁ ve to six passengers • Launch mode: Launches vertically on a multi-stage rocket; lands like the Shuttle

(continued) Bigelow 141

(continued) • Built-in crew escape system • Thermal protection system (TPS): Heat-resistant tiles; these can be replaced en masse after several ﬂ ights rather than tile by tile after each ﬂ ight • Propulsion system: Two hybrid rocket engines running on powdered rubber and nitrous oxide (aka laughing gas); Dream Chaser’s hybrid fuel system allows the engine to stop and start repeatedly

BIGELOW

Bigelow Aerospace, located in north Las Vegas, is a unique business enterprise. Here, just 20 minutes from The Strip, behind two rows of razor-topped fence, high-tech, low-cost inﬂ atable space stations are being built. The technology may sound wild, but it is very real. Bigelow’s prototypes (Figure 8.2 ) have been orbiting Earth since 2006, and there are plans to orbit more—many more, such as the BA330, a habitat with 330 cubic meters’ volume, which is nearly as much as the entire ISS.

8.2 Artist’s concept of a Bigelow inﬂ atable habitat attached to the International Space Station, where it is due to be tested in 2015. Courtesy: NASA 142 Getting to Orbit and Beyond

By 2016, Bigelow anticipates having a station in orbit and to begin charging rent. Prices start at US$28,750,000 per astronaut for a 30-day tour. That’s a lot of money, but it’s a whole lot less than Sarah Brightman’s US$35 million ticket, which buys her just 10 days on the orbiting outpost. But why infl atables? Well, blow-up spacecraft were fi rst developed by NASA back in the 1960s. In those days, the prototypes consisted of Mylar balloons, although later versions used rubber bladders surrounded by Kevlar. When funding to the program was killed by Congress in 2000, Bigelow licensed the patents and began modifying them for commercial development. Ask any engineer and they will tell you that Bigelow’s expandable systems are much tougher than traditional hard-sided metal habitats. To test the toughness of the infl atables, researchers have shot projectiles at the habitat’s shield at seven kilometers a second—a test the shield defeated much better than the ISS habitats. In January 2013, Bigelow scored a US$17.8 million contract to develop and build an infl atable expansion for the ISS. Shortly after attaching a habitat to the ISS, Bigelow plans to launch a multi-module station, probably some time in 2016. A two-astronaut three- month lease on the stations will cost US$97.5 million, while a top-of-the-line, 12-astronaut, four-year lease on a larger BA330 station is priced at US$440 million a year. Included in the price are the assistance and support of a Bigelow crew, station maintenance, living supplies, communications, and astronaut-training programs. At those prices, it’s really only governments who will be able to afford trips, but space hotels will almost certainly follow—operated by Virgin Galactic perhaps?

Robert T. Bigelow There are some who label Robert Bigelow an eccentric. After all, this is the guy who once gave an estimated US$10 million to fund the UFO-hunting National Institute for Discovery Science. He also bought a 480-acre Utah cattle ranch that some believe is the site of an inter-dimensional doorway used by alien shape-shifters. Eccentric or not, what can’t be denied is that the guy is rich. Very rich. Forbes estimates his real estate empire is worth US$700 million, thanks to the Budget Suites chain of residential hotels and more than 14,000 apartment and offi ce units he owns across the Southwest. The property magnates’ interest in space can be traced to a tale the young Bigelow heard of his grandparents witnessing a glowing UFO approach their car in Las Vegas in 1947. Upon hearing the story, Bigelow decided he wanted to explore space. But on his own terms. He fi gured he’d need money. A lot of it. So he turned to real estate and, by 1970, he owned about 100 apartments in Las Vegas and had begun work on his fi rst new construction, a 40-unit apartment building. He was only 26. In 1988, he founded Budget Suites of America, a chain of extended-stay hotels—a business model that worked so well it generated enough money for Bigelow to found Bigelow Aerospace. Just like his hotels, Bigelow reckoned he would make space stations that were cheap and available for monthly lease. To do that, he turned to off-the-shelf technology— expandable space habitats called TransHabs—and bought the patents. Bigelow’s idea was to launch a compactly folded structure made of high-strength but fl exible materials such as Kevlar. Once in space, the structure would expand using air from the life-support system. After buying the patents, Bigelow hired NASA engineers and, 13 years later, he’s selling NASA technology back to the agency! The Russian Option #2: Excalibur Almaz 143

THE RUSSIAN OPTION #1: ORBITAL TECHNOLOGIES

Chances are, it may be a few years before space tourists can buy tickets for a stay on an inﬂ atable Bigelow hotel, so perhaps you may want to consider a smaller, and cheaper, Russian option. If all goes to plan, Orbital Technologies hopes to offer US$1 million seats to their space station (Figure 8.3 ) before the end of the decade. The promotional material explains that your ride will be on board a Soyuz, so I’m not sure how they ﬁ gure the costs of the ticket will only be US$1 million when the Russians are charging US$63 million a ticket for NASA astronauts. Perhaps that’s the registration fee? Whatever the price, your stay on board will be one of luxury. Nothing but the best here. Gourmet meals, a sealed shower, and vodka. Well, maybe not the vodka!

THE RUSSIAN OPTION #2: EXCALIBUR ALMAZ

Not interested in just zipping around in low Earth orbit? How about a trip to the Moon? The only downside is the trip will be on board an old Russian spacecraft, but it will have been retroﬁ tted. Excalibur Almaz reckons it can sell about 30 Moon-bound seats between 2015 and 2025, for US$150 million each, on board a Salyut-class space station driven by

8.3 The interior of Orbital Technologies space station. Courtesy: Orbital Technologies 144 Getting to Orbit and Beyond electric hall-effect thrusters. Those predictions, in case you were wondering, came from a market study entitled “Market analysis of commercial human orbital and circumlunar spacefl ight” carried out for Excalibur Almaz by the management consultancy Futron. To realize their lunar marketing ambitions, the company bought four 1970s-era Soviet Almaz three-crew capsules and two Russian Salyut-class space station pressure vessels. The mission architecture uses a Soviet Almaz Reusable Return Vehicle (RRV), which can carry three space tourists, launched by a Soyuz-FG rocket. The lunar fl ight also uses a Salyut- class space station launched by a Proton rocket. Once in orbit, the station and RRV will dock and the station’s propulsion system (the aforementioned electric hall-effect thrusters) propels the stack to the Moon. For those with a taste for nostalgia, fl ying a lunar trip on board a Salyut vehicle will be appealing. Such a prospect will also interest those who prefer to travel on a proven system, which is certainly the case with the venerable Salyut. The vehicle’s emergency escape system has operated nine times, including one actual failure, and it worked every time. The life-support system is pretty rugged too, having been tried and tested in orbit for up to 175 days, and the heat shield is designed to cope with the greater heat experienced from a Moon-return trajectory. According to their Russian manufacturer, the RRV capsules can be reused up to 15 times each, which is good news for Excalibur, who hope to sell as many fl ights as possible. And they want to sell fl ights because the last thing the Russians want is to be left behind in the space tourism race.

Fortress in Space The military space station project Almaz was conceived in 1964. The plan was for a 20-ton spacecraft to be placed in orbit to take photographic and reconnaissance images. A special supply transport spacecraft, the TKS, would arrive at the spacecraft with cargo and cosmonauts, and its reusable crew capsules would be used up to 10 times. Delays to the TKS meant a version of the Soyuz 7K-T delivered crews to Almaz. By 1970, eight ground test articles and two fl ight-rated Almaz (OPS) space- frames had been manufactured. Almaz was envisaged as a fortress in space, and many reports suggested the stations were equipped with weapons, such as 23-milli- meter cannons. The basic space station block was shaped like a cylinder, 11 meters in length. A docking unit was mounted at the rear along the axis of the station. Two solar panels were also mounted at the rear of station, and two orbit correction engines were mounted on each side of the docking unit. A sizeable telescope, the Agat-1, was mounted in the station’s “fl oor”. The fi rst Almaz launched was Salyut-2 on April 3rd, 1973, but, while the crew was preparing to launch, telemetry indicated the pressure had dropped to half inside the station. Soviet tracking data also showed a slight increase in the orbital period. Then the rate of decay suddenly increased, indicating the spacecraft had started to tumble. The station eventually decayed from orbit on May 28th, 1973. Salyut-3,

(continued) The Russian Option #2: Excalibur Almaz 145

(continued) another Almaz, was launched on June 24th, 1974, and the Soyuz-14 ferry with cosmonauts Popovich and Artyukhin was launched on July 3rd, when the space station had set up on orbit. They spent 14 days on board the station. Salyut-5 was launched on June 22nd, 1976. Once it had maneuvered into orbit, Soyuz-21 was launched, carrying cosmonauts Volynov and Zholobov, who stayed until August 24th, 1976 (there have been reports the ﬂ ight ended early due to psychological problems—interpersonal issues). Soyuz-23 launched on October 14th, 1976, with Zudov and Rozdestvensky, but the docking failed and the crew landed two days later. Soyuz-24 was launched on February 7th, 1977, with Gorbatko and Glazkov, for 18 days. Salyut-5, the last Almaz space station, burned up in Earth’s atmosphere on August 8th, 1977.

Will the fortress-turned-hotel be fl ying any time soon? It’s diffi cult to say. Foreign space offi cials and experts have expressed doubts that Russian fi rms will be able to replace the 40-year-old Soyuz, much less launch a space platform, any time in the next 5–10 years. Some experts have suggested part of the publicity blitz and talk of orbiting hotels was designed to help the Russian space agency Roskosmos fi nd foreign funding for new boosters, and manned spacecraft. There could be some truth in that. After all, Russia depends on an increasingly aging workforce saddled with mostly obsolete ground equipment and a few old reliable designs with little prospects for upgrade. It would seem that the chances of eating caviar and vodka are unlikely anytime soon. So, if you happen to be a space tourist with your sights set on an orbital experience, I would follow the development of the Dream Chaser. 9

Orbital Ground School Manual

Once again, I just want to be very clear that no agency or organization requires you to have an understanding of the topics in this manual. These modules do not constitute training requirements and the schedules are suggested timelines for future orbital space tourists who don’t have the time to spend six months in Star City, which has been the template for orbital space tourists since 2001. The intent of this training is not to impose NASA-type astronaut requirements to space tourists: it is designed to enhance your experience as an orbital space tourist and provide you with a basic understanding of key theoretical subjects that relate to your flight. In short, this ground school manual provides you with an understanding of and insight into the theory of operational spaceflight beyond that described in the Suborbital Ground School Manual. It also prepares you for practical training you may perform in preparation for your flight. By reading this manual, you will minimize possible difficulties and maximize your flight enjoyment. As you make your way through the manual, I suggest you take notes and highlight areas of particular interest—as with the suborbital manual, there is a test at the end but this is optional. As you will learn in this manual, orbital spaceflight is by several orders of magnitude more complex and challenging than suborbital flight. Note: a prerequisite for this course is reading the Suborbital Ground School Manual.

Guide to the Manual

This manual has been designed by Suborbital Training (www.suborbitaltraining.com, Appendix I). Chances are that your operator’s training schedule will include many of the subjects included in this manual, but perhaps not all. As a space tourist ticket-holder, you will definitely acquire a working knowledge your operator’s vehicle’s systems, its nominal and emergency procedures, and an understanding of the physiological adaptation to accelerated G-forces and microgravity. This manual consists of spaceflight physiology, the theory of flight dynamics, microgravity adaptation, and vehicle procedures training. On completion of this training, the space tourist—you!—should be knowledgeable of: • The basics of space physiology • The basics of orbital mechanics

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 147 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6_9, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 148 Orbital Ground School Manual

• Radiation and space weather • The theory of survival training • The basics of medical training • High-altitude theory • The effects of space motion sickness • Basic space systems • Emergency procedures In making your way through this manual, you will complete the following courses.

9.1 Exercise will be an important feature of your stay on orbit. Courtesy: ESA

Spaceflight Physiology (SFP 200) This module introduces you to aspects of spaceflight physiology specifically related to orbital flight. Topics include: • Cardiovascular system • Orthostatic hypotension • Muscle structure and function Guide to the Manual 149

Orbital Mechanics (OME 200) Topics include: • Orbital velocity • Low Earth orbit • Orbital decay

9.2 A basic knowledge of orbital mechanics will help you enjoy your stay on board the habitat. Courtesy: NASA

Radiation and Space Weather (RSW 200) Topics include: • Galactic cosmic radiation • Solar particle events • Radiation sickness

Survival Training (STR 200) Topics include: • Cold weather survival • Desert survival • Sea survival • Tropical survival

Medical Training (MTR 200) Topics include: • Advanced life support • In-flight health procedures • Radiation monitoring 150 Orbital Ground School Manual

9.3 One of the greatest hazards during your stay on orbit is space weather. Courtesy: NASA

9.4 Survival training is an opportunity to not only learn essential survival skills but also to get to know your fellow crewmembers under stressful conditions. Courtesy: NASA

G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory (GHA 200) This module will introduce you to the basics of G-physiology and altitude physiology. Topics include: • Respiratory physiology • Altitude decompression sickness • G-tolerance theory Guide to the Manual 151

9.5 Telemedicine is one of the essential skills you will learn during your medical training. Courtesy: Dr. Scott Dulchavsky/NSBRI

9.6 One of your practical sessions will be a ride on the centrifuge to develop your anti-G straining maneuver. Courtesy: NASA

Space Motion Sickness (SMS 200) This module introduces you to the syndrome of space motion sickness (SMS) and the challenges of dealing with it. Topics covered include: • Symptoms • Neurovestibular system • Autogenic feedback training 152 Orbital Ground School Manual

9.7 Virtual reality is a useful training tool that is used for everything from motion sickness desensitization to habitat orientation. Courtesy: NASA

Space Systems Orbital (SSO 200) This module will introduce you to space systems. Topics include: • Environmental closed life-support system • Guidance, navigation, and control • Vehicle orientation

Emergency Procedures (EMP 200) This course will familiarize you with contingency events and procedures. Topics include: • Flight procedures • Pre-flight emergencies • Launch • On-orbit emergencies Good luck and enjoy this ground school manual! SFP 200: Space Physiology 153

9.8 Rockets make a lot of noise and cause a lot of vibration, and it’s important you understand how this affects your body during your ride to orbit. Courtesy: NASA

9.9 Hopefully it won’t happen, but if things go pear-shaped during the launch, it will be important to know your emergency egress drills. Courtesy: NASA

SFP 200: Space Physiology

Module objectives • Describe the control of blood flow and blood pressure • Explain what is meant by orthostatic hypotension • Describe some of the countermeasures to muscle atrophy 154 Orbital Ground School Manual

9.10 Parabolic flights will give an opportunity to practice many of the skills you will require on orbit. Courtesy: ESA

This section introduces you to the physiological consequences of exposure to microgravity and to the countermeasures required to maintain physiological conditioning and reduce orthostatic intolerance upon landing. 1. Introduction 2. Cardiovascular system 3. Orthostatic hypotension 4. Muscle structure and function 5. Countermeasure strategies 6. Operational countermeasure procedures

1. Introduction The human body has, thanks to its terrestrial development, adopted potent physiological mechanisms that enable man’s upright posture to be compatible with Earth’s 1-G environment. Microgravity adversely affects many of these mechanisms, the most seriously affected being those associated with the cardiovascular and the musculoskeletal systems. SFP 200: Space Physiology 155

9.11 Structure of the heart. Courtesy: Wikimedia & Ties van Brussel

Since the effects upon these physiological systems may compromise your performance as a crewmember returning from orbit, it’s important to be familiar with the fundamentals of space physiology.

2. Cardiovascular system The cardiovascular system consists of a heart that functions as a pump and blood vessels that function as a high and low-pressure distribution circuit. The heart can be divided into two pumps (Figure 9.11): the chambers on the right side receive blood returning from the body and pumps blood to the lungs for aeration, and the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps blood into the aorta for distribution throughout the body. The low-pressure system—the pulmonary circulation—is the pathway of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left atrium. The high-pressure system, also termed the systemic circulation, is the pathway of blood from the left ventricle to the capillaries and back to the right atrium. To prevent the backflow of blood, atrioventricular valves provide a one-way flow of blood from the right atrium to the right ventricle. Similarly, the semilunar valves prevent backflow into the heart between contractions.

Blood pressure When your left ventricle contracts, blood is forced through the aorta, creating pressure throughout the arterial system and causing a pressure wave, or pulse, to travel down the 156 Orbital Ground School Manual aorta and throughout the arterial tree. The highest pressure generated by your heart is termed systolic blood pressure. Between beats, your heart pauses to allow the atria to refill with blood for the next contraction—a period of lower pressure termed diastolic blood pressure. The difference between systolic and diastolic pressure is termed pulse pressure (PP). Normally, blood pressure is expressed as Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP), calculated as MAP = DP + 1/3 PP.

Blood volume You cardiovascular system contains 7% of the body’s water in the form of plasma (about three liters for a 70-kilogram male) and serves as a major fluid transportation system—a function that has implications discussed later for all astronauts before, during, and following orbital flight. What is important to understand at this stage is that blood volume changes may occur due to changes in the water content of blood plasma—a process caused by the dynamic interaction with body tissues and blood. Blood is not passively trapped within the circulatory system because there is a constant exchange of fluid between blood plasma in the capillaries and the fluid between cells of the tissues. This exchange is governed by physical forces and physiological laws that explain why areas of the body can undergo dehydration or swell with excess fluid—a state termed “edema”. Edema may occur due to an increase in blood pressure, which results in a concomitant rise in capillary pressure, which in turn causes fluid to filter out of the capillary and edema of the tissues.

Control of blood flow and blood pressure Pressure drop, fluid flow, and resistance to that flow are the principle components of fluid mechanics. For those mathematically inclined, the control of blood flow can be described by the following equation, which describes the flow of blood through a given tissue bed as being directly proportional to the pressure gradient flow across the bed and inversely proportional to the resistance encountered during transit:

FP= AP− VR/ ()

RL= 84ηπ/,r where F = flow, PA = arterial resistance, PV = venous pressure, R = resistance to flow, η = viscosity, L = length of tube, and r = radius of tube. Now that you understand how blood flow is regulated, it is important to also understand how blood pressure is controlled. Before putting all this together, it is necessary to understand a little more about the systemic circulation. Firstly, the central force for driving blood around the systemic circulation and through the capillaries of the organs of the body SFP 200: Space Physiology 157 is MAP. Secondly, the total flow through the systemic circulation is equal to the cardiac output (CO), and, thirdly, the total vascular resistance to flow is the sum resistance offered by the entire systemic circulation, which is referred to as total peripheral resistance (TPR). Thus:

MAPC=×OTPR. Once again, for those of you who like equations, this relationship can be expressed as:

4 Resistance = 8lrη /. Basically, resistance in any vessel will be dependent on the length of the vessel (l), the viscosity of the blood as it flows η( ), and the radius to the fourth power of the vessel (r4). The importance of this relationship is that the ability to control blood-vessel radius is a very powerful tool for the body to divert flow from one area to another and vary blood pressure. As we shall see later, this process is useful when dealing with the effects of microgravity.

Feedback control and hydrostatic pressure Blood pressure regulation is achieved by a feedback control system consisting of baroreceptors located in the arterial and venous side of the circulation. These pressure receptors provide information about blood pressure to the cardiovascular control center in the brain, which integrates the information and initiates actions to ensure blood pressure doesn’t deviate too far from normal. However, as you will experience in microgravity, the response of the baroreceptors to pressure changes is not immediate. For example, upon orbital insertion, due to the lack of gravity, your blood will pool in the cephalothoracic region, leaving you with thin legs and a stuffy head. When you return to Earth this blood will translocate from the cephalothoracic region into your legs, leaving you with a light-headed feeling that physiologist’s term orthostatic hypotension (OH). Fortunately, your body can counteract this translocation up to a point by increasing heart contractility and heart rate. The reason these mechanisms are compromised upon return to Earth is because there is less blood volume and, as we shall see, blood volume regulation is an important aspect of cardiovascular function in microgravity.

Blood volume regulation One of the problems of being in microgravity is losing blood volume. This is because sensors in the body detect an excess blood volume due to the translocation of blood to the cephalothoracic region and, because of this, hormones are released, resulting in an excre- tion of urine, thereby reducing blood volume. 158 Orbital Ground School Manual

What happens in spaceflight? Pre launch When you are lying in your seat waiting for the countdown, you will experience the first effects that microgravity will impose upon your body, even though you haven’t left the ground! Since you may be in the reclined position for several hours (depending on which vehicle is ferrying you to orbit), gravity will cause fluids to shift from your legs and settle in the cephalothoracic region, resulting in a reflexive increase in kidney output and urine volume in the bladder. This is the reason Shuttle astronauts used to wear undergarments to absorb urine in case the urge to urinate became excessive! You may reason that purposefully dehydrating yourself prior to launch may solve the problem but this is a tactic that has been tried by astronauts and, although it is sometimes successful, the disadvantage is that these astronauts were often severely dehydrated on orbit. “Chicken leg” syndrome You will experience the more pronounced effects of cephalothoracic fluid shift immediately on arrival on orbit as blood that was normally pooled in your legs moves to the point of least resistance—the large vessels in the chest. Because sensors located in your chest perceive the circulation is “overfilled”, the body reacts by adjusting arterial pressure and gets rid of the “extra” fluid by the kidneys in the form of urine—a process termeddiuresis . In addition to losing blood volume and becoming dehydrated, you will also experience sensations of sinus congestion and headache. Looking in a mirror, you will see more visible signs such a puffy faces and “bird legs” caused by more than a liter of fluid translocat- ing from your legs to your chest. The cardiovascular changes you can expect during your orbital vacation are summarized in Table 9.1. Note: Except for occasional HR irregularities, the changes in Table 9.1 are adaptive mechanisms to microgravity, and are not usually associated with any ill effects. Usually. One of the ways your body adapts to the perceived extra blood is to decrease anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) secretion, which in turn causes less thirst, which means you will drink less in space and, after a while, some of the excess fluid will disappear. After a few days, however, you will also become dehydrated so that, after three days in orbit, your total body water will have decreased by 3%.

Fluid changes on re-entry During re-entry, much of the fluid in your cephalothoracic region will translocate to your legs, resulting in you recovering most of your leg volume. However, you may experience a slight swelling in your legs, since there is tendency for leg fluid content to be slightly greater than pre-flight values as fluid pools more easily in veins which have become more compliant during spaceflight.

3. Orthostatic hypotension If you have spent a week in orbit, you need to be prepared for the phenomenon of orthostatic hypotension—a condition in which a person is unable to maintain blood pressure SFP 200: Space Physiology 159

Table 9.1. Cardiovascular changes associated with short-duration spaceflight.

Physiologic measure Change in microgravity Resting heart rate Increased after flight; peaks during launch and re-entry Resting blood pressure Normal during flight but decreased after flight Orthostatic tolerance Decreased after flights longer than five hours; exaggerated cardiovascular response to Tilt Test, Stand Test, and LBNP after flight; RPB 3–14 days Total peripheral resistance Decreased in flight; no increase following landing despite drop in stroke volume and increase in HR Cardiac size Normal or slightly decreased C/T ratio post flight Stroke volume Increased in flight by as much as 60% but compensated by a decreased HR Cardiac output Elevated 30–40%; reduced immediately post flight Central venous pressure Elevated above resting supine level pre launch; transient increase followed by levels below pre-flight upon attaining orbit Cardiac electrical activity Moderate rightward shift in QRS (which represents the simulta- (ECG/VCG) neous activation of the right and left ventricles) and T waves post flight Arrhythmia Usually PABs and PVBs; isolated cases of nodal tachycardia, ectopic beats, and supraventricular bigeminy in flight Exercise capacity No change or decreased ≤12% post flight; increased HR for same VO2; no change in efficiency; RPB 3–8 days RPB, return to pre-flight baseline; LBNP, lower-body negative pressure; PAB, premature atrial beat; PVB, premature ventricular beat; C/T, cardiothoracic; ECG, electrocardiogram; VCG, vectorcardiograph; HR, heart rate. on standing. Orthostatic hypotension is experienced by all returning astronauts, and usually leaves most feeling light-headed and dizzy—some actually pass out! Orthostatic hypotension is due to the cardiovascular deconditioning that has occurred during your flight. The deconditioning means that, once the body is exposed to a gravitational force, the blood that was in the cephalothoracic region is translocated to the lower body, resulting in a relative decrease in blood pressure in the upper body. Unfortunately, this decrease (hypotension) usually exceeds the ability of the baroreceptor responses to maintain pressure to the brain, which is why you will feel dizzy upon landing. Your situation will be compounded by the fact that, due to the deconditioning of your leg muscles, the ability of the muscle pump is reduced and therefore it cannot effectively aid in forcing blood from your legs to the heart and the brain. Since orthostatic hypotension occurs despite astronauts taking countermeasures, such a problem has the potential to be life-threatening if an emergency egress is required.

What causes orthostatic hypotension? We know one of the reasons astronauts become orthostatically hypotensive is due to the reduced plasma volume but what hasn’t been explained is the effect this has upon other 160 Orbital Ground School Manual

Table 9.2. Musculoskeletal changes associated with short-duration spaceflight.

Physiologic measure Change in microgravity Stature Slight increase during first week (~ 1.3 cm) Body mass Post-flight weight losses average 3.4%—two-thirds due to water loss, the remainder due to loss of lean body mass and fat Body composition Fat replacing muscle towards end of short-duration mission Total body volume Decreased post flight Limb volume In-flight leg volume decreases exponentially during first flight day; thereafter, rate declines and plateaus within 3–5 days; post-flight decrements in leg volume up to 3%; rapid increase immediately post flight Muscle strength Decreased during and post flight Reflexes Reflex duration decreased post flight Bone density Os calcis density decreased post flight; radius and ulna show variable changes Calcium balance Increasing negative calcium balance in flight

cardiovascular variables. Decreased plasma volume will also cause an increase in heart rate, a decreased venous return, and a reduction in stroke volume observed when standing post flight. There are other mechanisms that compound the problem but a discussion of these is beyond the scope of this manual. What is important to understand is how the effect can be reduced and what countermeasures can be used to decrease the incidence of orthostatic hypotension. Unsurprisingly, both the US and Russian space programs have used countermeasures to mitigate the effects of orthostatic hypotension. Often, these countermeasures involve the form of a saline loading protocol, G-suit inflation, and in-flight exercise during the mission but, before discussing these, it is necessary to understand the musculoskeletal system, since it is directly implicated in these countermeasures.

4. Muscle structure and function There are three types of muscle in the body. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart, smooth muscle is found in the organs, and skeletal muscle comprises the working muscles. The first two are under autonomic (automatic) control, whereas the latter is under conscious control. The characteristics of skeletal muscle fibers allow them to adapt to the under-loading that occurs in microgravity, but unfortunately the process of this adaptation is also associated with the process of atrophy that occurs within a few days on orbit (Table 9.2). One of the results of this atrophy is that muscles having an antigravity function, such as the calf and quadriceps, hip, back, and neck, all rapidly shrink! Since there is no “biological need” to activate large parts of the musculoskeletal system in microgravity, you will need to work against the adaptation process otherwise the loss of muscle mass may compromise your performance in the event of an emergency egress. SFP 200: Space Physiology 161

Table 9.3. Efficacy of countermeasures on cardiovascular functions.

Fluid Maximal Microgravity loading Florinef Midodrine exercise ITD Cardiac baroreflex ? function Blood volume Stroke volume Cardiac output Orthostatic response Aerobic capacity ? ? ?

5. Countermeasure strategies Countermeasures are designed to systematically neutralize spaceflight’s potentially harmful deconditioning effects on crew physiologic function, performance, and overall health. In this section, we look at the countermeasure strategies you will be expected to perform.

Pharmacological and exercise countermeasures Table 9.3 summarizes the effects of six typical pharmacological countermeasures employed by astronauts to alleviate the effects of orthostatic hypotension, the least effective of which is saline loading, although this method does have the advantage over other pharmacological interventions, since there are no side effects. Current procedure among NASA astronauts is to consume a maximum of eight one-gram salt tablets with approximately 900 milliliters of fluid two hours prior to re-entry in an effort to restore blood volume. For missions of seven days or less this procedure tends to work well. Pharmacological intervention such as Fludrocortisone has demonstrated some promise in ground studies, but alterations in dose implementation for operational use in space missions have shown few positive effects. Perhaps the most promising pharmacological agent is Midodrine, which has been successful in improving orthostatic hypotension in ground experiments and in application to spaceflight. Although pharmacological intervention offers an alternative to treatment of post-flight OH, the most effective means of reducing OH symptoms is exercise.

Exercise countermeasures Maintaining an exercise regime during spaceflight has been proven to be an effective countermeasure to the mechanisms contributing to OH and also to counteracting the atro- phying forces of microgravity. But, exercising in space differs from exercising on Earth, since any work you perform will be less effective due to the absence of the resistive force of gravity. 162 Orbital Ground School Manual

Since your mission will be several days in length, your operator will require you to perform in-flight exercise to protect your emergency egress abilities. To be prepared for the exercise regime during your flight, you should start an exercise-training program a few weeks prior to launch.

Treadmill When you run on the treadmill (Figure 9.12), you will need to tether yourself using a subject load device to restrain you on the treadmill surface and also a subject position device to keep you in an area of the treadmill where a pitch oscillation of the treadmill cannot be initiated.

6. Operational countermeasure procedures In addition to the procedures described, your operator may implement a program to protect you against OH. A typical program may involve the following: 1. Five weeks prior to launch, you undergo a drug tolerance test for Midodrine. 2. Five weeks prior to launch, you start an exercise-training regime. 3. 10–15 days prior to launch, you perform a 10-minute stand test, preceded by six minutes of supine rest. During this test, your heart rate and blood pressure will be

9.12 You will be spending plenty of time on this on orbit. Courtesy: NASA SFP 200: Space Physiology 163

monitored. This test will be repeated post flight to evaluate the efficacy of in-flight countermeasures and will follow the protocol similar to the one outlined below: Stand test protocol a. Crewmember supine for 30 minutes. b. Crewmember assisted to freestanding position with feet 15 cm apart. c. Crewmember remains in freestanding position for 10 minutes or until signs or symptoms of presyncope appear. d. Presyncope defined by any of the following: • sudden drop in systolic BP (SBP) > 25 mmHg/min; • sudden drop in diastolic BP (DBP) > 15 mmHg; • sudden drop in HR > 15 bpm; • an absolute SBP < 70 mmHg; • dizziness, light-headedness, or nausea. e. Heart rate recorded from three-lead electrocardiogram during last 15 seconds of each minute. f. Systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure measured by ausculta- tory method during last 30 seconds of each minute. g. Heart rhythm and change in blood pressure in the finger monitored continuously for signs of presyncope. 2. 10 days prior to launch, you conduct a tilt test. 3. Each mission day: 30 minutes of resistive and 30 minutes of dynamic aerobic exercise at intensity ≥ 70% of age-predicted maximum heart rate to prevent muscle atrophy and maintain reflexes associated with autonomic regulation of blood pressure. Every other mission day: 20 minutes of exercise within the LBNP device to maintain orthostatic function. 4. Each mission day, you ingest pharmacological countermeasures to enhance autonomic responses to orthostatic challenge post flight. 5. Each second day: cardiac rate and rhythm monitoring will be down-linked for evaluation by the flight surgeon. 6. Three hours pre-entry, you ingest 10-milligram dose of Midodrine. 7. Two hours pre-entry, you consume 15 milliliters per kilogram of pre-flight body mass of an isotonic fluid or potassium citrate. 8. One hour pre-entry, you don a Liquid Cooling Garment. This suit, worn under your landing and re-entry suit, contains a network of tubing that circulates water across the body surface, thereby minimizing water loss and reducing the severity of orthostatic symptoms upon landing. 9. During re-entry, you inflate your anti-G-suit to 1 psi. 10. During transport from landing to the medical clinic, you consume fluid, the amount of which you report to medical personnel conducting the stand test. 11. Two hours post landing, you perform the 10-minute stand test, preceded by 6 minutes of supine rest. During this test, your heart rate and blood pressure are monitored. 164 Orbital Ground School Manual

12. One to three days post landing, a post-flight medical evaluation is conducted at your operator’s training center. Post-flight tests include the following: a. cardiovascular assessment to determine fluid loss, electrolyte changes, electrical activity disturbances, and neuro-reflex adjustments; b. musculoskeletal assessment to determine muscle mass loss, muscle strength, and electromyography (EMG) analysis.

Sample questions 1. The condition in which a person is unable to maintain blood pressure on standing is termed: a. orthostatic anoxia. b. orthostatic hypotension. c. orthostatic amnesia. d. orthostatic reflex. 2. Stroke volume is: a. increased in flight by as much as 60% but compensated by a decreased heart rate. b. decreased in flight by as much as 40% but compensated by a decreased heart rate. c. increased in flight by as much as 10% but compensated by an increased heart rate. d. increased in flight by as much as 80% but compensated by a decreased heart rate. 3. Edema may occur due to: a. an decrease in blood pressure, which results in a concomitant rise in capillary pressure, which in turn causes fluid to filter out of the capillary and edema of the tissues. b. an increase in blood pressure, which results in a concomitant fall in capillary pressure, which in turn causes fluid to filter out of the capillary and edema of the tissues. c. an increase in blood pressure, which results in a concomitant rise in capillary pressure, which in turn causes fluid to filter out of the capillary and edema of the tissues. d. a decrease in blood pressure, which results in a concomitant fall in capillary pressure, which in turn causes fluid to filter into the capillary and edema of the tissues.

OME 200: Orbital Mechanics

Module objectives • Describe what is meant by orbital velocity • Explain orbital decay and orbital perturbations • Describe the sequence of re-entry OME 200: Orbital Mechanics 165

9.13 You won’t be required to conduct docking operations, but you will be required to have a good knowledge of mission events. Courtesy: NASA

A detailed description of orbital, launch, and trajectory mechanics is beyond the scope of this manual but, for those venturing into orbit, a basic understanding of these principles will help make sense of how the actions of the pilot and flight engineer tie in with what is happening to the vehicle during the flight phases. What follows is a brief explanation of the primary phases of flight, an understanding of which will better prepare you for the flight instruction modules in the simulator and during the flight itself.

Orbital velocity For the vehicle to reach orbit it must be launched to an altitude above the atmosphere and accelerated to orbital velocity. Most orbital vehicles are launched into a direct low- inclination orbit, since this represents the most energy efficient orbit requiring the least amount of propellant. A low-inclination orbit is achieved by launching in an eastward direction from a site close to the equator, thereby utilizing the rotational velocity of Earth, which contributes to the vehicle’s orbital velocity. For example, the Shuttle launched from Cape Canaveral, located at latitude 28.5ºN, and launched eastward—a direction that provided a “free” 1,471 kilometers per hour to the orbital velocity. The velocity needed to orbit Earth was calculated using a formula developed by Johannes Kepler in the early 1600s, which states:

Vg=√ 0×+Re2 /R()e,h () 166 Orbital Ground School Manual where V is the velocity for a circular orbit, g0 is the surface gravitational constant of Earth (9.81 meters per second squared), Re is the mean radius of Earth, and h is the height of the orbit in miles.

Low Earth orbit The orbit you reach is termed low Earth orbit (LEO) and is an altitude between 200 and 2,000 kilometers above Earth. During your orbits, your spacecraft will travel at 27,880 kilometers per hour (8 kilometers per second), making one complete revolution of the planet every 90 minutes, for a total of 16 orbits per day. This means you will spend half your time in darkness and half in daylight, and have the opportunity to witness a sunrise and sunset every 45 minutes. In a 10 day-mission, you will travel more than six and a half million kilometers—a distance equivalent to six round trips to the Moon. If your operator offers space miles, be sure to get them credited to your account! Although an orbital altitude of 250 kilometers is safe from the effects of the Van Allen radiation belt, other hazards exist in the form of space debris, which has caused a growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities have the potential to be highly damaging (watch the filmGravity to get an idea of the danger).

Orbital decay and orbit perturbations The habitat you travel to will orbit in the thermosphere, a tenuous layer of our atmosphere about a million times less dense than the atmosphere at sea level, although this is still sufficient to affect the orbit of any spacecraft—an effect termed orbital decay. Orbital decay is simply the process of a prolonged reduction in the height of the spacecraft’s orbit. One of the reasons the orbits of spacecraft decay is due to the effects of solar heating, which makes the thermosphere swell out as denser layers from lower altitudes expand upward. The result of this expansion is an increase in the density of the thermosphere with a com- mensurate increase in atmospheric drag upon spacecraft and orbiting habitats. One of the problems orbital planners and pilots have once in orbit is correcting for the forces acting upon the vehicle. These forces perturb the vehicle away from the nominal orbit and inevitably require adjustments, the calculation of which requires the use of complex equations. For example, the perturbations caused by the gravitational forces of the Sun and the Moon result in periodic variations of a vehicle’s orbit, but these variations are relatively small when compared to the perturbations caused by atmospheric drag—an effect which, if left unchecked, will result in the vehicle spiraling into the atmosphere.

Orbital maintenance Maintaining orbit, or station-keeping, is a matter of providing sufficient orbital boost to counteract orbital decay—a procedure achieved by using separate sets of engines comprising the orbital maneuvering system and another set of engines comprising the reaction control system (RCS). The orbital maneuvering system is used to achieve the vehicle’s final orbital speed and to increase and decrease altitude as well as slowing down the vehicle for re-entry. OME 200: Orbital Mechanics 167

Orbital rendezvous When a vehicle makes a rendezvous with an orbiting habitat, the interceptor (vehicle) and the target (habitat) must arrive at the rendezvous point at the same time. The precision required to execute such a maneuver demands a phasing orbit, which is any orbit resulting in the interceptor achieving the desired geometry relative to the target. This procedure is performed using the RCS.

On-orbit checkout De-orbit flight control software calculates the maneuvers required to position the vehicle in the de-orbit ignition attitude, which is necessary prior to the pilot performing a retrograde burn that configures the vehicle for re-entry into the atmosphere. This is performed by retro-firing the orbital maneuvering system at the appropriate point in the vehicle’s trajectory.

Re-entry Once retrofire has been performed, the vehicle begins its pre-entry phase, which occurs at an altitude of 121,000 meters. In this phase, the pilot configures the vehicle for the prede- termined angle of attack. To position the vehicle, the pilot continues to use the RCS until a specific dynamic pressure is detected, at which point the RCS is deactivated and the rest of the descent is conducted using the cluster of rocket engines. Much of the descent is conducted in automatic mode, the vehicle essentially acting like a missile as it penetrates the atmosphere. At an altitude of 80,000 meters, the vehicle enters a communications blackout, which lasts until the vehicle reaches an altitude of 49,000 meters. Between these altitudes, radio signals between the vehicle and Mission Control cannot penetrate the sheath of ionized particles generated as the vehicle enters the atmosphere. Throughout the descent, the pilot monitors the flight instruments to verify the vehicle is following the correct descent trajectory and, if at any time the vehicle diverges from its planned re-entry plan, the pilot can switch to manual. At an altitude of about 3,000 meters, the pilot has radar altimeter data available—information that feeds in automatically to Mission Control. During this final phase of descent, the pilot’s horizontal situation indicators display a pictorial view of the vehicle’s location relative to various navigation points, thereby ensuring pinpoint precision. In addition to watching this display, the pilot is watching the vertical velocity indicator closely. As the vehicle approaches the landing area, the pilot activates the speed brakes, all the time watching for any deviations from optimum pitch and yaw rates.

Sample questions 1. Any orbit resulting in the interceptor achieving the desired geometry relative to the target is termed: a. a phasing orbit. b. a circumlunar orbit. 168 Orbital Ground School Manual

c. a retrograde orbit. d. a terminal orbit. 2. The pre-entry phase begins at an altitude of: a. 50,000 meters. b. 400,000 meters. c. 121,000 meters. d. 101,000 meters. 3. At an altitude of 80,000 meters, the vehicle enters a communications blackout, which lasts until the vehicle reaches an altitude of: a. 149,000 meters. b. 49,000 meters. c. 59,000 meters. d. 69,000 meters.

RSW 200: Radiation and Space Weather

9.14 Space weather not only affects your habitat but is also responsible for many of the atmospheric phenomena you will witness during your stay. Courtesy: NASA RSW 200: Radiation and Space Weather 169

Module objectives

• Describe the types of radiation • Describe the biological effects of radiation • Explain how radiation is measured 1. Introduction 2. Measuring radiation 3. Low Earth orbit environment 4. Risks and symptoms of radiation exposure 5. Radiation countermeasures

1. Introduction The LEO environment is filled with hazards that can harm or kill you. Large meteorites can annihilate an orbiting habitat, micrometeoroids and man-made debris can severely damage spacecraft, and exposure to microgravity causes physiological changes ranging from bone decalcification to negative psychological effects. But perhaps the most serious risk is the one posed by exposure to space radiation, which may cause irreversible damage in the form of genetic changes and increased cancer risk. Radiation may be defined as energy in transit in the form of high-speed particles and electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic radiation is very common in the form of visible light, radio, and television waves. Radiation is divided into two categories—ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation, such as gamma rays, protons, and neutrons, is radiation with sufficient energy to remove electrons from the orbits of atoms resulting in charged particles: this type of radiation is assessed for radiation protection. Non-ionizing radiation, such as microwaves and radio waves, is radiation without sufficient energy to remove electrons from their orbits. Space radiation consists primarily of ionizing radiation which exists in the form of high-energy, charged particles. There are three naturally occurring sources of space radiation: trapped radiation, galactic cosmic radiation (GCR), and solar particle events (SPEs).

Trapped radiation Rotation of Earth’s iron core creates electric currents that produce magnetic field lines around our planet similar to those of an ordinary magnet. This magnetic field extends thousands of kilometers from Earth’s surface. The Sun produces a steady stream of particles (mainly protons and electrons) which travel through space at more than a million kilometers per hour. This stream of particles—the solar wind—varies in intensity with the surface activity on the Sun. The interaction of the particles and the magnetic field forms a shock front around which the particles are deflected. The solar wind compresses and confines the magnetic field on the side toward the Sun and stretches it out into a long tail on the night side. The cavity formed by this is called the “magnetosphere”, and it is this that shelters Earth from constant bombardment by charged particles. 170 Orbital Ground School Manual

Not all the particles are deflected by the magnetosphere. Some become trapped in Earth’s magnetic field. The particles are contained in one of two doughnut-shaped magnetic rings surrounding Earth called the Van Allen belts. The inner belt contains protons and the outer belt contains mainly electrons. The charged particles which compose the belts circulate along Earth’s magnetic lines of force, which extend from the area above the equator to the North Pole, to the South Pole, and then back to the equator. Your mission will most likely stay well below the altitude of the Van Allen belts, but that doesn’t mean you’re completely safe from radiation. That’s because a part of the inner Van Allen belt dips down to about 200 kilometers into the upper region of the atmosphere over the southern Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Brazil—the South Atlantic Anomaly. The dip results from the magnetic axis of Earth being tilted 11° from the spin axis, and the center of the magnetic field is offset from the geographical center of Earth by 450 kilometers. The largest fraction of the radiation exposure received during your mission will be during your passage through the South Atlantic Anomaly: typically low-inclination flights traverse a portion of the South Atlantic Anomaly six or seven times a day.

Galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) Galactic cosmic radiation (GCR), which consists of ionized atoms, originates outside the Solar System. The rate of flow of these particles is very low but, because they travel very close to the speed of light, and because some are composed of very heavy elements such as iron, they produce intense ionization as they pass through matter. Fortunately, for the most part, Earth’s magnetic field provides shielding for spacecraft from GCR.

Solar particle events (SPEs) Solar particle events (SPEs) are injections of energetic electrons, protons, alpha particles, and heavier particles into interplanetary space. These particles are accelerated to near-light speed by shock waves preceding fast coronal mass ejections which exist in the vicinity of solar flare sites. The most energetic particles arrive at Earth within tens of minutes of the event. The Sun’s activity is characterized by an 11-year cycle divided into four inactive years (solar minimum) and seven active years (solar maximum). Events such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, which increase during solar maximum, give rise to SPEs and geomagnetic storms. Some of the most dramatic space weather occurs in association with coronal mass ejections (CMEs). These are huge bubbles of plasma threaded with magnetic field lines that are ejected from the Sun’s corona (outer atmosphere). A large CME can contain a billion tons of matter that can be accelerated to several million kilometers per hour. Near solar maximum, the Sun produces about three CMEs per day, whereas, near solar minimum, it produces about one every five days. Another aspect of radiation is the mechanism by which energy is transferred from one place to another. Radiation is energy in transit; high-energy particles (HZE) travel very fast and low-energy particles travel slowly. Another term used to assess radiation is “flux”, RSW 200: Radiation and Space Weather 171 which describes particle density: if many particles pass by a certain point in a given time, then the flux is high and, if few particles pass, the flux is low.

2. Measuring radiation Radiation produced from radioactive atoms is emitted in several forms, most commonly alpha and beta particles, and gamma rays. 1. Alpha particles: these have the shortest range and can be stopped by a sheet of paper or the outer layer of skin. Alpha particles are harmful only if the radioactive source is swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed into a wound. 2. Beta particles: these can pass through a sheet of paper. A thin sheet of aluminum foil or glass can stop them. 3. Gamma rays: gamma rays are electromagnetic energy with significant penetration power, requiring shielding. The absorbed dose of radiation is the amount of energy deposited by radiation per unit mass of material. It is measured in units of radiation-absorbed dose (rad) or in the international unit of Grays (1 Gray = 1 Gy = 1 joule of energy per kilogram of material = 100 rad). The milliGray (mGy) is usually used to measure how much radiation the body absorbs. Because different types of radiation deposit energy in unique ways, an equivalent biological dose is used to estimate the effects of different types of radiation; this is measured in milliSieverts (mSv). The biological effects of fast charged particles depend on the nature of the particle (its charge and velocity) and on the biological end point such as mutation, tumor induction, or cell killing. The Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) is taken as the ratio of the dose of gamma rays required to produce a specific effect to the dose of particle radiation required to produce the same level of effect. The RBE depends on the type of particle and the biological effect and may vary with the magnitude of the biological effect. More importantly, RBE varies greatly with the linear energy transfer (LET) of the particle—a quantity describing the amount of energy transferred to the penetrated material per unit length. For example, high-energy protons may have an RBE value approaching 1.0, whereas high-energy iron nuclei may have an RBE value approaching 40, which means 40 times more damage is inflicted upon biological tissue. Another way of expressing radiation damage is to use the radiation equivalent in man (rem), defined as:

Dosein rem +×doseinrad RBE.

3. Low Earth orbit environment LEO is an orbit with a maximum altitude of 2,000 kilometers and an orbital period of about 90 minutes. An example of a spacecraft in LEO is the International Space Station (ISS), which orbits at an altitude of 370 kilometers with an inclination of 51.6º and an orbital period of 93 minutes. For orbits in this altitude, astronauts receive approximately 10 millirads per day. The effects of radiation upon humans and spacecraft systems in LEO are summarized in Table 9.4. 172 Orbital Ground School Manual

Table 9.4. Low Earth orbit radiation environment.

Solar radiation Biological effects Satellite operations Other systems Extreme High radiation hazard Total loss of some No high-frequency for extravehicular satellites, permanent communications possible activity (EVA) damage to solar panels in polar regions astronauts and memory device problems may cause loss of control Severe Radiation hazard Memory device problems, Blackout of high- for EVA astronauts noise on imaging systems, frequency communication interference with start and increased navigation trackers may cause errors orientation problems Strong Radiation hazard Likely single-event Degraded high-frequency avoidance required problems and permanent radio throughout polar caps by EVA astronauts damage to exposed and some navigation errors components and detectors Moderate None Infrequent, isolated Small effects on high- problems frequency radio transmissions and navigation signals in polar regions Minor None None Minor impacts on high-frequency radio transmissions in polar regions

Geomagnetic storms Power grids Spacecraft operations Other systems Extreme Grid system Extensive surface High-frequency radio propaga- collapse and charging, orientation tion impossible in many areas transformer damage problems, uplink and for 1–2 days. Low-frequency downlink problems, and radio navigation disabled loss of tracking satellites Severe Voltage stability Surface charging and Sporadic high-frequency radio problems. Portions tracking problems and propagation. Satellite navigation of grids may orientation problems degraded collapse Strong Voltage Surface charging on Intermittent satellite navigation corrections satellite components. and low-frequency radio required Increased drag on navigation problems satellites. Orientation problems Rsw 200: Radiation and Space Weather 173

Geomagnetic storms Power grids Spacecraft operations Other systems Moderate High-latitude power Corrective actions required High-frequency radio propaga- system problems by ground control. tion fades at higher latitudes Changes in drag affect orbit predictions Minor Weak power grid Minor impact on satellite Aurora seen at high latitudes fluctuations operations (60º)

Factors determining the amount of radiation astronauts receive There are three factors determining how much radiation you will receive during your orbital stay: 1. Altitude: at higher altitudes, Earth’s magnetic field is weaker, so there is less protection against ionizing particles, and spacecraft pass through the trapped radiation belts more often. 2. Solar cycle: at the peak of the Sun’s 11-year cycle, there is a dramatic increase in the number and intensity of solar flares, especially during periods when there are numerous sunspots. 3. Individual susceptibility: some people are more susceptible to the effects of space radiation than others. Scientists don’t know why.

Radiation exposure limits The organ and exposure limits are determined by your age and gender. The average dose for a person is about 3.6 mSv per year, but international standards allow exposure to as much as 50 mSv per year for those working in proximity to radioactive material. For example, NASA’s limit for radiation exposure in LEO is 50 mSv per year. The career depth equivalent dose limit is based upon a maximum 3% lifetime excess risk of cancer mortality.

4. Risks and symptoms of radiation exposure The biological effects of acute and chronic radiation exposure vary with the dose. An average background radiation dose of 3 mSv received over a period of one year won’t cause you much harm. But an exposure of 1 Sv in just one hour can result in radiation poisoning. For those who like statistics, consider this: someone exposed to 100 mSv has a 1 in 200 chance of developing cancer later in life, while a 1,000-mSv dose will cause cancer in 1 in 20 people. Receiving 3,000–5,000 mSv in a matter of minutes results in death in 50% of cases, and a person exposed to a 10,000-mSv dose will probably die in a matter of days or weeks. In addition to causing tissue and organ damage, radiation also destroys DNA. 174 Orbital Ground School Manual

DNA DNA is stored in the cells of every organism: it contains the code for all the information required for the protein synthesis, cell reproduction, and for the organization of tissues and organs. The information in the DNA is arranged in genes. Gene codes are read by the cell’s manufacturing system to make proteins, which are the building blocks for biological structures, so it’s important that the structure (Figure 9.15) of DNA remains intact. A DNA molecule has the shape of a double helix ladder which is made of individual units called nucleotides. The information in DNA is coded in paired nucleotides along a very long molecule. A nucleotide contains three different types of molecules: a phosphate, a ribose sugar, and a base. The backbone of the helix is made of alternating phosphate and ribose sugar molecules, while the rungs of the ladder are base pairs. Each ribose of the backbone has a base attached, which pairs with a base that extends from the opposite backbone. There are four types of bases in DNA: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. DNA is arranged into 23 chromosomes in human cells and is a long molecule that stores large amounts of information vital for a cell to function normally. When a DNA molecule is broken, the long chain of information is fragmented and the message to produce specific proteins is lost. When DNA is broken on one strand of the double helix, it is called a single strand break (SSB). If both strands of the DNA double helix are severed within 10–20 base pairs of each other, the break is called a double strand break. In many cases, cells are able to fix such breaks, but the remaining damage sites can cause assembly of proteins to be stopped or started prematurely. Also, if DNA replication occurs before the repair system finds the damage, there is a chance mutation can occur, which in turn can cause cellular or tissue abnormality. In some cases, the effects of radiation-induced DNA damage may not be readily observable: while some damage may not be severe enough to cause death to a cell or organism, its effects can become apparent several generations later.

Because of their high ionization density, heavy ions and HZE particles can cause clusters of damage where many molecular bonds are broken along their trajectory through the tissue. The cell’s ability to repair DNA damage becomes impaired as the severity of cluster- ing increases. These particles can also create damage along a long column of cells in tissue. In other words, cells will be damaged in streaks along the path of an HZE particle. The bad news is that scientists have learned that mutations, chromosomal aberrations, development disturbances, and malformations in small animal embryos have resulted from the traverse of a single HZE particle. Your repair system? Well, your repair system is constantly monitoring your DNA to make sure it stays intact, but it can only do so much: ionizing radiation alters DNA such that cell repair processes, cell cycle, or cell division are affected, which can result in loss of repair mechanisms, or loss or reduction of cell division results in tissue degeneration. This can occur in almost all tissues, including the nervous system, which can have serious consequences, especially if it occurs in the brain, because damage to the nervous system is not repairable. RSW 200: Radiation and Space Weather 175

9.15 Structure of DNA. Courtesy: Wikimedia & Roland 1952

Stochastic effects Stochastic effects are due to radiation-induced changes randomly distributed in the DNA of single cells that may lead to cancer or genetically transmissible effects, depending on the target cells. These effects are the most important consideration in setting protection limits for human populations exposed to radiation at low doses.

Deterministic/non-stochastic effects Deterministic effects occur only after exposure to relatively high doses and affect cell populations to the detriment of specific organs or whole organisms. These effects can range from acute radiation sickness to hair loss or nausea. In contrast to stochastic effects, deterministic effects are dose-dependent in both frequency and severity. Deterministic effects may occur early, in a matter of hours or days, or late, after many months.

Early systemic effects: prodromal radiation sickness Early prodromal effects of radiation occur within a few hours of acute exposure and are characterized primarily by nausea and vomiting. The whole-body dose at which vomiting 176 Orbital Ground School Manual occurs in approximately 50% of individuals is 1.5–2.0 Gy for acute exposures. Nausea and perhaps vomiting may occur in a few individuals exposed to radiation at doses of 0.5–1.0 Gy, but such symptoms would likely be mild and occur only 12 hours or longer after irradiation. In the event of individuals receiving a dose of 2.5–3.0 Gy, nausea and vomiting would be experienced by all, with symptom severity increasing with dose. These prodromal effects of radiation, which occur within one to two days following exposure and then subside, can be minimized by use of anti-nausea medications.

Acute radiation syndrome An acute radiation dose is defined as a large dose (≥10 rad) delivered during a short period of time (a few days). Such a dose can cause a pattern of clearly identifiable symptoms/ syndromes referred to as acute radiation sickness (ARS). The clinical effects of acute, whole-body exposure to radiation vary according to the system affected.

Blood-forming organ syndrome This occurs with exposures to greater than 100 rad and is characterized by damage to cells that divide at the most rapid rate such as bone marrow, the spleen, and lymphatic tissue. Symptoms include internal bleeding, fatigue, bacterial infections, and fever.

Gastrointestinal tract syndrome This syndrome occurs following exposures to greater than 1,000 rad and is characterized by damage to cells that divide less rapidly such as the linings of the stomach and intestines. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, dehydration, electrolytic imbalance, and bleeding.

Central nervous system syndrome Central nervous system syndrome (CNS) syndrome occurs following exposure to greater than 5,000 rad and is characterized by damage to cells that do not reproduce such as nerve cells. Symptoms include loss of coordination, confusion, coma, and the symptoms of the blood-forming organ and gastrointestinal tract syndromes.

Fertility Two primary consequences of gonadal irradiation are reduced fertility or transient sterility, which may last from several months to several years, and permanent sterility. The nature of these effects and the doses required to produce them vary in males and females. For the male, the doses required to cause temporary sterility generally fall in the range of 0.5– 4.0 Gy for single acute exposures to low-LET radiation, although a single acute dose as low as 0.15 Gy may produce a decrease in sperm count in some males. The duration of temporary sterility is dose-dependent and may last from 8 to 10 months up to several RSW 200: Radiation and Space Weather 177

9.16 Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter. Courtesy: NASA

years. Permanent sterility has been reported following doses in the range of 2.5–4.0 Gy. Doses of radiation necessary to sterilize most females fall in the range of 6.0–20 Gy, although temporary sterility may occur at doses as low as 1.25 Gy. Doses of 2–6.5 Gy are required to sterilize 5% of women for more than five years.

5. Radiation countermeasures An important part of your mission will be radiation dosimetry, the process of monitoring, characterizing, and quantifying the radiation environment (Figure 9.16). To measure your accumulated radiation exposure, you will wear a dosimeter and, post flight, you will provide a blood sample to measure radiation damage to your chromosomes. In addition to this countermeasure, there are structures designed to shield you from radiation. Depending on your location on board your habitat, the radiation shielding requirements will vary because of exposure to different types and levels of radiation. For example, the use of hydrogen-rich shielding such as polyethylene will be used in the most frequently occupied locations, such as the sleeping quarters and the galley. That isn’t to say you will be safe in these locations, because problems arise when radiation particles interact with the atoms of the radiation shield. These interactions lead to production of nuclear by-products called secondaries and, if the shield isn’t thick enough to contain them, the secondaries entering the spacecraft can be worse for your health than the primary space radiation. By now, you may be wondering what you can do to reduce the effect of all this radiation, but there is some good news: diet and drugs. Certain nutrients can 178 Orbital Ground School Manual prevent radiation damage. For example, antioxidants like Vitamins C and A may help by soaking up radiation-produced free-radicals before they can do any harm. Research suggests pectin fiber from fruits and vegetables, and omega-3-rich fish oils may be also be beneficial in reducing the damage from long-term radiation exposure. Other studies have shown that diets rich in strawberries and blueberries prevent neurological damage due to radiation. Then there are the drugs: Radiogardase (also known as Prussian blue) is designed to increase the rate at which radioactive substances like cesium-137 or thallium are eliminated from the body.

Sample questions

1. An acute radiation dose is defined as a large dose:

a. (≥1 rad) delivered during a short period of time (a few days). b. (≥10 rad) delivered during a short period of time (a few days). c. (≥10 millirem) delivered during a short period of time (a few days). d. (≥10 sieverts) delivered during a short period of time (a few days). 2. There are four types of bases in DNA: a. adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytonine. b. adenine, thiamine, guanine, and cytosine. c. adenine, thymine, guanisine, and cytosine. d. adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. 3. These following particles can pass through a sheet of paper; a thin sheet of aluminum foil or glass can stop them: a. Beta particles. b. Gamma particles. c. Alpha particles. d. Neutron particles.

STR 200: Survival Training

Module objectives • Describe the characteristics of a cold weather environment • Describe the wildlife encountered in a desert environment • Explain the weather characteristics of a tropical environment An important component of your training is learning how to survive in different environments. In addition to providing an excellent opportunity for everyone to examine their own style of leadership, teamwork, and self-management under duress, the survival training modules also provide an excellent analog to spaceflight and the stresses it imposes on all aspects of living in space. Str 200: Survival Training 179

9.17 In 1965, the crew of Voskhod 2 couldn’t keep to their re-entry schedule and landed 386 km off course in deep forest. They had to spend a night in their capsule surrounded by wolves. Survival training will help you survive such an event. Courtesy: NASA

The techniques utilized by your operator will probably be those adapted from a combination of army, air force, naval, and special-forces survival training. The concepts introduced to you during each module will be coping skills related to the particular environment and the physical stresses associated with surviving in that environment. The practical exercises will require you to spend time in the field and to perform both menial and complex tasks while operating in a harsh and sometimes unforgiving environment. For example, during the Arctic and high-altitude component, you may be required to spend 24 hours in the field, most of which will be spent isolated from your fellow crewmembers. To survive, you will need to become familiar with personal protective equipment, become proficient in the basic functions and skills of eating and moving in the wild, and learn how to cope with mounting stress levels. To prepare you for the practical requirements of your training, the information provided in this section consists of the “static” training in the subjects of cold weather, desert, sea, and tropical survival that will be taught to you during the first couple of weeks of training.

Cold weather survival 1. Cold weather environments 2. Wind chill 3. Essential principles of cold weather survival 4. Medical aspects 180 Orbital Ground School Manual

5. Shelters, fire, water, and food 6. Travel

1. Cold weather environments The type of cold weather environment (Figure 9.18) you land in following your emergency descent from orbit will have a direct impact upon the planning and execution of your survival skills. It is important therefore that you understand the difference between the two types of cold weather environments. If you land in a Wet Cold Weather Environment, you will be faced with conditions in which the average temperature in a 24-hour period is –10ºC or above. Features of this condition are freezing during the night hours and thawing during the day. If you land in a Dry Cold Weather Environment, you will be faced with conditions in which the average temperature remains below –10ºC and is characterized by no freezing or thawing—if you live in Ontario, Canada, you will be used to this!

2. Wind chill Wind chill is the effect of moving air on exposed flesh. Table 9.5 provides the wind-chill factors for various temperatures and wind speeds.

9.18 The author and his wife on the summit of Kilimanjaro. Author’s own collection Str 200: Survival Training 181

Table 9.5. Wind-chill chart.

Actual ambient temperatures (ºC) Beaufort Scale Wind speed (knots) 5 0 –5 –10 –15 –20 –25 –30 Calm <3.5 5 0 –5 –10 –15 –20 –25 –30 Light breeze 5 3 0.5 –7 –12 –17 –23 –29 –33 Gentle breeze 10 –2 –9 –14 –20 –26 –32 –38 –45 Moderate breeze 15 –5 –11 –18 –23 –32 –39 –45 –51 Fresh breeze 20 –8 –16 –23 –28 –37 –44 –49 –57 Strong breeze 28 –10 –18 –26 –31 –40 –47 –56 –62 Half gale 35 –12 –20 –27 –34 –42 –49 –57 –64 Gale 43 –13 –21 –30 –35 –43 –50 –58 –65

3. Essential principles of cold weather survival The four fundamental principles to follow to keep warm are easily remembered by remem- bering the acronym C-O-L-D: C Keep clothing CLEAN, as clothes matted with dirt quickly lose insulation value. O Avoid OVERHEATING, as clothes absorb moisture when you sweat, which in turn affects your body’s ability to stay warm because your clothing insulation is reduced. To avoid this, adjust/replace clothing so your body doesn’t sweat and change into lighter headgear when appropriate. L Wear clothing loose and in LAYERS, since wearing tight clothing restricts blood circulation and increases the chance of cold injury. Tight clothing also reduces the insulating value by reducing the volume of air in the clothes. D Keep clothing DRY, as inner clothing layers may become wet from sweat and outer layers may become wet from snow melted from body heat. To ensure dry clothing, you should wear water-repellent outer clothing and, before entering a heated shelter, make sure you brush off snow and frost. Before moving, you should be familiar with the items in your survival kit: • Knife • Waterproof and windproof matches • Magnetic compass and world maps stored in capsules computer • Waterproof ground cloth and cover • Flashlight and batteries • Binoculars and glacier goggles • Emergency freeze-dried foods (15 meals) and food gathering equipment • Signaling items—flares (five), mirror, electronic beacon. In addition, the personal survival gear stowed within the flight suit contains: • Utility knife • Magnetic compass • PDA containing topographic world maps 182 Orbital Ground School Manual

• Emergency freeze-dried foods for 24 hours • AviatorTM flashlight and four lithium batteries • Two parachute flares.

4. Medical aspects Hygiene Washing may be impractical and will almost certainly be uncomfortable, but it is a task that must be performed regularly to prevent skin rashes that may develop into more serious problems. To avoid rashes, you will need to wash your feet and change your socks daily. In appropriate environmental conditions, you should take a snow bath and wipe your body dry. You should change underwear at least once a week and, if you are unable to wash underwear, you should at least remove it and air it. If you shave, do so before going to bed, as this will give the skin a chance to recover before exposure to the cold weather.

Heat and cold regulation Under nominal environmental conditions, the body’s inner core temperature remains at 37ºC. The body’s thermoregulatory system allows it to react to extremes of temperature and still maintain a temperature balance but, when the body is faced with extreme cold, the temperature inevitably drops, causing hypothermia—a condition caused by a lowering of the body temperature at a rate faster than the body can produce heat. Shivering will occur at a body temperature of 35.5ºC—a symptom that will progress to uncontrollable shivering when body temperature reaches <35.5ºC. Sluggish thinking, irra- tional reasoning, and a false feeling of warmth are indicative of a body temperature between 32ºC and 35ºC. Progressive symptoms manifest themselves as muscle rigidity and barely detectable signs of life will occur when body temperature is between 30ºC and 32ºC. Finally, death is almost certain when body temperature falls below 25ºC. If you suspect a crewmember is suffering from hypothermia, you should re-warm the body by immersing the trunk area only in warm water between 37.7ºC and 43.3ºC. A note of caution: re-warming should only be performed in a medical environment due to the increased risk of cardiac arrest and shock. You should then attempt to heat the body’s core by administering warm water enemas but, if this is not possible, the crewmember should be placed naked in a warmed sleeping bag with another naked crewmember who is also warm. You should exercise care when conducting this procedure, as the assisting crewmember may also become a victim if he/ she remains inside the bag too long. When administering assistance, be aware of the dangers of treating a hypothermia victim. If you re-warm too rapidly, the victim may experience circulatory failure and ultimately heart failure. You must also be aware of “after drop”, which occurs when the victim is removed from warm water—a procedure which may cause previously stagnant limb blood to relocate to the inner core. STR 200: Survival Training 183

Frostbite Frostbite is the result of frozen tissue. Mild frostbite affects only the skin which appears dull and whitish, whereas deep frostbite affects the skin and underlying tissues which become solid and immovable. Loss of feeling in the extremities is a signature sign of frostbite, although, if loss of sensation is only for a short time, the frostbite is considered mild. If loss of sensation persists and the skin becomes discolored, it will be necessary to re- warm the extremities by placing them next to another crewmember’s stomach. A waxy discoloration of the skin indicates severe frostbite—a condition in which the affected body part should remain frozen, as thawing will cause more damage. To avoid frostbite, you should maintain circulation in your extremities, such as by periodically wrinkling facial skin and periodically warming your face with your hand, by wiggling your ears, and by moving your hands inside your gloves.

Immersion foot If you have been exposed to several days of wet conditions at a temperature just above freezing, you may suffer immersion foot—a condition that in its mildest form is characterized by pins and needles, tingling, numbness, and pain. In its moderate form, your skin will become red then bluish and finally black, and your feet will become cold and swollen. At this point, you will find it difficult and painful to walk. Finally, in the advanced stage, your muscle and nerve tissue will necrotize and amputation will become necessary.

Dehydration The material of your flight suit absorbs moisture that evaporates in the air which means it is essential that you hydrate. To determine hydration levels, check the color of your urine on the snow. If it is dark, you are dehydrated, whereas, if your urine is a light yellow color, you are optimally hydrated.

Snow blindness Ultraviolet radiation glare from the snow may cause snow blindness, the symptoms of which include a sensation of grit in the eyes and pain in and over the eyes. Treatment requires you to bandage both eyes until symptoms disappear. To avoid this condition, make sure you wear glacier glasses or cut slits in appropriate material to reduce glare and slow the onset of symptoms.

5. Shelters, fire, water, and food Shelters Regardless of which type of shelter is built, certain basic principles apply. Always venti- late enclosed shelters, always block a shelter’s entrance to keep wind and snow out, never sleep directly on the ground, and never sleep without extinguishing the stove. 184 Orbital Ground School Manual

Fire Your ability to make fire will largely be determined by whether you landed within or outside the tree line. If fortunate enough to land in a sub-Arctic or Arctic region, you will be able to use driftwood, willow, and alder as fuel sources, whereas, if you land within the tree line, you will also be able to use the tamarack tree—a useful tree to burn since it makes a lot of smoke. Regardless of where you land, you will need to leave the fuel in the tanks for storage, bearing in mind not to expose flesh to petroleum or oil in extremely cold temperatures, as contact may cause frostbite. If building a snow shelter, be wary of excessive heat, as this will melt the insulating layer of snow and any fire inside a shelter lacking adequate ventilation may result in carbon monoxide poisoning.

Water Although Arctic and sub-Arctic water sources are generally more sanitary than other regions, always purify water prior to drinking. Before ingesting, be sure to completely melt snow and ice, since melting either in the mouth may cause internal injuries and will also cause loss of body heat. If pack ice is available, it is possible to use sea ice to melt for water, as this loses its salinity over time. Body heat may also be used to melt snow by placing snow in a water bag and placing the bag between layers of clothing. When both ice and snow are available, melt ice rather than snow, as the water yield from a fixed volume of ice is greater than for the same volume of snow.

Food Your emergency ration pack is designed to provide 2,000 calories per 24-hour period for three days. If, after this time, you have not been recovered, you will need to seek alternative food sources which will be determined by your location and time of year. If you land near the coast, then supplementary food sources may include kelp and seaweed and her- ring eggs. If you have landed in the far north, you should be wary of the black mollusk which may be poisonous due to toxins produced in the mussel’s tissue.

Arctic and sub-Arctic wildlife In the Arctic coastal region, you may be unlucky enough to encounter polar bears (Figure 9.19). Ideally, you should avoid polar bears but, if it is necessary to kill one for food or self-defense, the point of aim should be the brain. Always cook polar bear meat before eating and never eat polar bear liver due to toxic concentrations of Vitamin A. In this area, you may also encounter seals, which in spring make good targets, as they spend much of their time basking on the ice beside their breathing holes that also serve as their means of escape if they happen to encounter their primary enemy, the polar bear, or you! Approach a seal downwind while it sleeps and, if it moves, imitate its movements. Approach should be made with your body sideways to the seal and your arms close to your body so you look as much like a seal as possible. When within 20–30 meters of the seal, kill it instantly, and recover the seal quickly before it slides into the breathing hole. Str 200: Survival Training 185

9.19 Avoid these unless you’re really hungry. Courtesy: Wikimedia

If you are fortunate to have landed south of the tree line, you may be able to catch owls, ptarmigans, jays, grouse, or ravens. Rock ptarmigans normally travel in pairs and can be easily approached, whereas willow ptarmigans gather in large flocks and can be easily snared. Also be aware that the Arctic and sub-Arctic support a variety of fauna in the form of edible plants during the warmer months such as shrubs and reindeer moss.

6. Travel If, after a couple of days you have not been rescued, or if you need to reach a place to be rescued, there are some basic principles you should follow: • Always travel in the early morning when temperatures are coldest if you are in an area prone to avalanches. This time of day is also the best time to cross streams, as they are most likely to be still frozen. • Other weather factors that may affect your progress include any weather that may reduce your ability to see, so avoid travelling in white-out or blizzard conditions. • Inevitably, sooner or later, you may encounter crevasses and snow-bridges. The former you should try to avoid and the latter you should cross at right angles to the obstacle it crosses.

Desert survival 1. The desert environment 2. Weather 3. Wildlife 186 Orbital Ground School Manual

4. Survival equipment 5. Medical problems 6. Navigation 7. Water

1. The desert environment A desert is any environment that receives an annual rainfall of less than 25 centimeters, an evaporation rate that exceeds precipitation, and a high average temperature. There are 50 major deserts in the world meeting this definition but, despite the conventional images of sand dunes, deserts are not necessarily oceans of sand. Much of the Sahara and the Kalahari, for example, consists of rocky plateaus (hammadas), whereas large wastelands (takyrs) make up the deserts of Soviet Asia. It is important you are familiar with the characteristics and nature of the terrain in which you have landed, since this will be essential in determining the best course of action you take to stay alive.

2. Weather Temperature Although you can expect very high temperatures during the day, which may approach 55ºC in the shade, also be prepared for the very low temperatures during the night, which may in deserts such as the Northern Gobi fall to –40ºC.

Precipitation Some deserts such as the Atacama have had no rainfall for over 200 years whereas some mountainous deserts may receive as much as 20 centimeters of annual rainfall. Rain, when it does fall, can be hazardous, since it often falls in the form of cloud bursts that drop huge amounts of water onto a baked Earth, resulting in flash floods strong enough to carry people away.

Winds A typical desert is often characterized by vast expanses devoid of prominent geological formations. Winds moving across such a topography acquire strong speeds and steady direction that routinely reconfigure the landscape, making it difficult to navigate. The winds are often blisteringly hot, causing overheating, and will also interfere with radio communication.

3. Wildlife Depending on which type of desert you land in, you can expect to encounter snakes, spiders, lizards, and/or scorpions. Some of these creatures are harmless whereas others such as the Mojave Rattlesnake, the Black Widow Spider and the Bark Scorpion should be avoided. Str 200: Survival Training 187

4. Survival equipment Desert survival equipment contains the following: • Short machete and Gerber knife • Waterproof and windproof matches • BruntonTM 8099 Eclipse magnetic mirror sight compass • World maps stored in capsules computer • Waterproof ground cloth and cover • 50 meters of paracord • SurefireTM flashlight and batteries • Binoculars • Glare goggles • MioxTM Disinfection Pen and batteries • Emergency meals ready to eat (MREs) (15 meals) • Food gathering equipment • Signaling items—flares, mirror, electronic beacon, xenon strobe • Magellan Handheld GPS unit • EsbitTM Stove and hexamine fuel tablets • Kaffiyeh • Sunscreen, 30 SPF Personal survival gear stowed within your flight suit contains a utility knife, a lensatic compass, a PDA containing topographic world maps, an emergency MRE for 24 hours, a flashlight and four lithium batteries, two parachute flares, and a Steripen. The use of these and the other items of equipment will be explained to you by your instructors.

5. Medical problems Heat exhaustion If exposed to the heat for too long, you may suffer profuse sweating and an increase in pulse and respiration rate. These are the initial symptoms of heat exhaustion and, if you remain exposed to the heat, you can expect to feel weakness, dizziness, and muscle cramps, followed shortly thereafter by nausea and vomiting. Since heat exhaustion is a severe heat injury and is often the prelude to heatstroke, you must seek shade immediately and consume lightly salted fluids before resting and avoiding any further activity for at least 24 hours.

Heatstroke If you remain exposed to excessive heat, you may experience weakness and dizziness followed shortly thereafter by hot, dry, and flushed skin. Eventually, symptoms will become more severe and you will experience disorientation and reduced motor skills. Heatstroke is the most severe heat injury and initial symptoms may quickly become life-threatening as you become increasingly disoriented. Eventually, if not treated, heatstroke may rapidly progress to a fatal endpoint. 188 Orbital Ground School Manual

If treating a crewmember suffering from heatstroke: 1. Place the individual in shade and removing clothing. 2. Pour water on victim’s arms and legs. 3. Do whatever you can do to increase evaporation. 4. If there is sufficient cool water, partially immerse the victim. 5. Once you have lowered the core body temperature of the victim, massage their arms and legs vigorously to force blood back into the body core. 6. When body temperature falls to 39ºC, reduce your cooling efforts. 7. Once body temperature falls to 38ºC, dry the victim and wrap them in blankets, administer warm fluids if the victim is able to tolerate fluid intake. 8. Never administer cold water to someone who has suffered heatstroke.

Hyponatremia Prolonged exposure to excessive heat may cause profuse sweating which results in the body leaching out essential minerals such as sodium. The body then becomes unable to process water and the result is water intoxication, or hyponatremia—a condition usually accompanied by dizziness, nausea, and unconsciousness. A crewmember experiencing these symptoms should stop exercising immediately and be administered electrolytes or slightly salted water.

Anaphylactic shock A severe and systemic allergic reaction to a foreign substance may cause anaphylactic shock—a condition usually caused by a sting or bite. A crewmember who has suffered a sting or bite should be monitored in case they display symptoms signaling potential anaphylactic shock. Symptoms may include: • Swelling of the tongue • Severe cardiovascular and respiratory effects ranging from cardiac arrest to shallow breathing • Swelling of the facial tissue • Shock and unconsciousness. Since anaphylactic shock may, if untreated, lead to death, it is important the victim be administered epinephrine and laid on the ground with the head to one side to ensure an open airway. They should be treated in accordance with the algorithm for anaphylactic shock. After immediate reactions subside, the victim may be administered Benadryl in accordance with the algorithm.

6. Navigation Sandstorms, strong winds, and seasonal monsoons often radically alter the desert landscape. The shape of dunes may change, desert washes may be diverted, and visibility may be reduced to nil. However, even if visibility is reduced to zero, you will still be able to Str 200: Survival Training 189 navigate as long as you are proficient in the use of the GPS unit. During the theoretical component of desert survival training, you will be taught the skills of how to read topographic maps, how to navigate with pinpoint precision using GPS, compass, and astro- navigation. These skills will be tested during the practical phase when you conduct an assessed navigation exercise, which will provide you with an ideal opportunity to practice the following skills your instructors will have taught you.

Distance assessment Distance assessment is a problem in the desert due to the clarity of the atmosphere—a condition making objects appear closer than they actually are. To correct for this, your visual estimation of distance should be multiplied by three. Your eyes may also be tricked by mirages, which are optical illusions caused by light refraction through the hot air and which have the potential to seriously affect navigation. The solution is to gain a higher vantage point to see over the mirage, and to take visual fixes at dawn and dusk to reduce the confusion created by mirages.

Pacing One of the exercises you will perform in the practical phase is estimating distance by counting paces. Since the average stride of an adult male is 75 centimeters, 10 steps equates to 7.5 meters but, although this sounds simple in practice, in the desert, the reality is rather different since, in order to maintain a straight course, it will be necessary to walk on the windward side of the tops of dunes rather than walking up and down.

Timing Another simple means of estimating distance is simply using your watch, knowing that the average adult walks at four kilometers per hour.

7. Water Water management principles Your body requires five liters of water per day to function optimally in most desert environments—a fact demanding you find water sources and follow the principles of water management: • To minimize dehydration, travel by day only if circumstances make it impossible to wait until nightfall • Do not take salt or eat food unless there is sufficient water available • Start drinking before the onset of thirst and • Any water should be drunk in small doses, and not all at once. Adhering to these principles will ensure your survival time (Table 9.6) in the desert is maximized. 190 Orbital Ground School Manual

Table 9.6. Survival time.

Approximate no. of Approximate no. of days Maximum days person can person can survive Distance that temperature Water survive in the shade travelling at night and can be in the shade reserve at rest staying in shade during day traveled

≥38ºC No water 2–5 days 1–3 days 30 km 4 liters 3–7 days 2.5–4 days 50 km 27–38ºC No water 5–9 days 3–7 days 30–65 km 4 liters 7–13 days 4–9 days 45–95 km <27ºC No water 9–10 days 7–8 days 65–95 km 4 liters 13–14 days 9–11 days 95–240 km

Finding water The only two reliable sources of water in the desert are condensation and subsurface water, which may be found as dew, subsurface moisture, and areas of vegetation. Finding these sources often requires work and following the principles described here: • Dew: a pile of stones, cleaned of dust, will collect water by morning due to the temperature difference between night and day, which will result in the stones being covered with dew as air condenses on the stones’ surfaces. • Subsurface moisture: can be obtained by digging a hole in the sand and allowing moisture to condense on a plastic sheet, which will act as a funnel. Water is then gathered in a container placed beneath the plastic. • Dry wadis: although wadis are dry, digging to a depth of one to two meters will usually reach the water level. • Areas of vegetation: such as reeds and palm trees, are all good water indicators. If you find an area of vegetation, chances are you may find desert plants that can provide water. For example, the water from a cactus can be extracted by cutting off the barrel, whereas the baobab tree collects water in its trunk during the rainy season.

Sea survival 1. Swim test 2. The ocean and basic precautionary measures 3. Capsule and raft survival procedures 4. Cold and hot weather considerations 5. Short water ration procedures and food procurement 6. Medical problems associated with sea survival 7. Sharks 8. Detecting land, rafting, and beaching techniques 9. Swimming ashore, pickup, and rescue Str 200: Survival Training 191

1. Swim test Since an emergency de-orbit may result in ditching, it is important you can swim! To test your swimming ability, you may be required to perform the following tests.

Deep water jump You will jump from a height of ten meters into the water and swim to the surface. On leaving the platform, your body will be straight with eyes staring forward. Your arms will be crossed across your chest and your legs must be straight and crossed at the ankles.

100-meter swim test A continuous non-timed test using breaststroke, sidestroke, crawl, or backstroke. You must complete this test without holding onto or resting on the sides of the pool for any time longer than is needed to perform a turn. Walking on the bottom or stopping to float or rest constitutes a failure.

Prone (face down) and back float The purpose of this test is to ensure you won’t panic when you’re submerged. The test also teaches you breathing control and how to conserve energy in deep water. In deep water with your head above the surface, you will lie face down for one minute, lifting your head up regularly to breathe. Try and remain as relaxed as possible, as any breathlessness or erratic breathing will result in a failure of this test.

Underwater swim Swim 25 meters underwater to demonstrate the ability to avoid burning oil or fuel. You may use any method of swimming underwater but you must not surface more than once during the 25-meter swim and, when surfacing, you may take only one breath.

2. The ocean and basic precautionary measures As a survivor on the ocean, you will face waves, wind, heat, and cold, and it will be necessary to take precautionary measures as soon as possible to prevent these hazards from becoming serious. To protect one another from the elements, you and your fellow crewmembers will need to effectively use all resources available as well as procuring water and food. Survival at sea will depend upon being proficient in a number of skills and applying them to cope effectively with any hazards you may encounter. As a part of your training, you will be instructed in the use of survival equipment as a part of the practical phase. The survival equipment in the capsule comprises two survival packs: one dedicated to the life raft (Table 9.7a) and one that is a generic pack (Table 9.7b). Both lists comply with the equipment stipulated by the International Maritime Organization. 192 Orbital Ground School Manual

Table 9.7a. Life raft equipment: emergency egress capsule.

Bailer (1) Water (1 liter per person) Sponges (2) Graduated drinking vessel Leak stoppers (3) Fishing equipment Pump (1) Flashlight and spare batteries (8) and bulb (1) Raft repair kit Anti-seasickness medication Buoyant paddles (3) Rescue line and quoit Signal card Utility knife Instructional leaflets Sea anchor (1) Flares: Red parachute (3) First aid equipment Red handheld (3) Radar reflector with telescopic pole Sick bags (10) Whistle Thermal protective aids (3) Buoyant orange smoke (2) Non-thirst-provoking rations for 72 hours Heliograph (1) Tin opener

Table 9.7b. Generic survival equipment: emergency egress capsule.

Second (spare) sea anchor Parachute flares (4) Additional first aid equipment Red handheld flares (2) Extra anti-seasickness medication Sunscreen and lip salve Buoyant smoke signal (2) Personal location beacon Handheld waterproof VHF/GPS Cyalume sticks (6) Balaclava with waterproof outer shell Blunt-ended heavy-duty scissors Waterproof warm gloves Packet safety pins Multipurpose knife Boiled candy Waterproof matches ZipLock bags Fracture straps (2) Small roll of cling film Book on survival (!) Diary (logbook) and pencils

3. Capsule and raft survival procedures Once watertight integrity of the capsule has been determined, the following checks must be performed: 1. Physical condition of each crewmember 2. Administration of first aid if required 3. Administration of anti-seasickness medication 4. Initiation of search-and-rescue (SAR) beacon. If the capsule loses watertight integrity, it will be necessary to abandon and evacuate to the raft by following the cut, stream, close, and maintenance actions described here.

After abandoning First, cut the painter to set the raft adrift and stand off in case of entanglement. Secondly, stream the sea anchor, which will provide additional stability as well as slowing the rate of drift. Thirdly, close the canopy and commence maintenance procedures. Str 200: Survival Training 193

If the capsule must be abandoned, a crewmember must inflate the raft by pulling the lanyard. If the raft inflates upside down, approaching the side on which the cylinder is attached and flipping the raft over should right it. This action should be performed facing into the wind, as the wind provides assistance in righting. The following are guidelines for boarding the raft: 1. A crewmember with an arm injury should board by turning their back to the small end of the raft, push the raft under their buttocks and lie back. Another way to board is to push down on the raft’s small end until one knee is inside and lie forward. 2. In rough seas, it may be easier to grasp the small end of the raft and, in a prone position, kick and pull oneself into the raft. 3. Once lying face down, deploy and adjust the sea anchor and the spray shield. 4. To use the boarding ramp, ensure another crewmember holds the opposite side of the raft, grasp the oarlock and boarding handle, kick your legs to get your body prone on the water, and kick and pull yourself into the raft. 5. Once inside the raft, check for inflation leaks and bail excess water. 6. Ensure primary buoyancy chambers are firm but not overly tight and check inflation regularly. Once watertight integrity is confirmed, follow themaintenance steps described here: 1. If the capsule has leaked fuel, decontaminate the raft to prevent fuel from weakening glued joints and bonds. 2. Deploy the sea anchor, which will assist in maintaining position and will act as a drag that keeps the raft in the area. When closed, the anchor will form a pocket for the current to strike and will propel the raft in the current’s direction. Without the anchor, the raft may drift in excess of 100 kilometers per day. 3. Wrap the sea anchor line with cloth to prevent it chafing the raft. 4. In stormy weather, rig the spray and windshield immediately. 5. Ensure the raft is kept as dry as possible. 6. Maintain optimal weight distribution by placing the heaviest crewmember in the center and ensuring each crewmember remain seated. 7. Consider all aspects of the situation and determine what must be done to survive: a. Inventory all equipment and ration food and water. b. Waterproof items that salt water may affect. c. Assign a duty position to each crewmember such as water collector, food collector, and lookout. d. Record the navigator’s last GPS fix, time of ditching, ration schedule, winds, astronomics, and navigational data. e. Decide whether to stay in position or travel. This decision will be influenced by the following factors: • Knowledge of information transmitted prior to de-orbit. • Knowing if rescuers know the rafts position. • Knowledge of raft’s position. 194 Orbital Ground School Manual

Table 9.8 Fall in body temperature with corresponding symptoms.

Body temperature (ºF) Signs and symptoms 99 Shivering 97 Impairment of manual dexterity 95 Errors of commission or omission 93 Muscle function impaired 91 Introversion 89 Slowing of mental and physical activity 87 Amnesia, pupils dilating 86 Shivering replaced by muscle spasticity 84 Unconsciousness 82 Ventricular fibrillation likely 79 Slowing of respiration and heart rate 77 Muscle flaccidity 76 Death

• If weather favors a SAR. • Traffic lane proximity. • Food and water supply.

4. Cold and hot weather considerations Cold weather considerations The greatest problem faced when exposed to cold water is death due to hypothermia, the effects of which are detailed in Table 9.8. Hypothermia occurs rapidly due to the decreased insulating quality of wet clothing and water displacing the layer of still air that surrounds the body. To reduce the chances of hypothermia, the following guidelines should be followed: • Each crewmember dons an anti-exposure suit. • Rig a spray shield and canopy. • Cover the raft floor with canvas for extra insulation. • Huddle to maintain warmth and move to maintain blood circulation.

Hot weather considerations Humans can tolerate a drop in core body temperature of 10ºC but an increase of only 5ºC. Exposure to excessive heat may result in thermal stress conditions such as heat stroke. To reduce the chances of suffering thermal stress, follow these guidelines: • Rig a canopy to ensure sufficient space for ventilation. • Cover skin to protect from sunburn. • Use sunblock on all exposed skin. • Drink little and often. Str 200: Survival Training 195

5. Short water ration procedures and food procurement “After a week, the terrible thirst became a bigger problem than the general discomfort and intense heat from the Sun. It was no longer simply a question of a dry mouth; now our tongues were swollen and furred, while our lips were cracked. It was difficult to muster a spit and eating our tack was impossible. After a quarter of an hour of chewing we still couldn’t swallow it and in the end simply blew the powder away like dust.” Second World War ship survivor If water supply is limited and it is not possible to replace it by chemical or mechanical means, follow these guidelines: 1. Protect freshwater from seawater contamination. 2. Ensure you are shaded from the Sun and reflection off the sea, and dampen clothes during the hottest part of the day. 3. Limit exertion to a minimum. 4. Determine the daily water ration based on the following: a. amount of water remaining; b. solar stills output and desalting equipment; c. the physical condition of each crewmember. 5. Eating when nauseated should be avoided. 6. To minimize water loss through sweating, soak clothes in the sea and wring them out before donning. 7. Be prepared for showers/rain by keeping the tarpaulin ready for collecting water. 8. At night, secure the tarpaulin and turn up its edges to collect dew.

Water from fish Drink the aqueous fluid found along the spine and in the eyes of large fish by carefully cutting the fish in half to obtain the spinal fluid. If water is so short that it is necessary to drink fish fluids, do not drink any other body fluids, as these are rich in protein and fat, and will use more of your reserve water in digestion than they provide.

Sea ice In Arctic waters, it is possible to obtain water from old sea ice, easily recognizable by its bluish hue and rounded corners. Old sea ice is practically free of salt and is therefore safer than new ice, which is gray and salty.

Food procurement In the open sea, fish will be the primary food source. There are poisonous and dangerous fish, the details of which will be provided by your instructor. 196 Orbital Ground School Manual

Fish When procuring fish, the following guidelines may prove helpful: 1. Do not handle the fishing line with bare hands and never wrap it around your hands or tie it to the raft as the salt that adheres to it can make it a sharp cutting edge that is dangerous to the raft and your hands. 2. In warm regions, gut and bleed fish immediately after catching them. Cut fish that you do not eat immediately into thin strips and hang to dry. Fish not cleaned and dried may spoil in a matter of hours, especially fish with dark meat. Any fish not eaten should be kept for bait. 3. Never eat fish that have pale, shiny gills, sunken eyes, flabby skin and flesh, or an unpleasant odor. 4. Do not confuse eels with sea snakes that have an obviously scaly body and a strongly compressed, paddle-shaped tail. Both eels and sea snakes are edible, but must be handled with care due to their poisonous bites. The heart, blood, intestinal wall, and liver of most fish are edible. 5. Shark meat can be eaten but spoils rapidly due to high concentrations of urea in the blood. To prevent spoiling, the shark should be bled immediately and the meat soaked in several changes of water. Consider all shark species edible except the Greenland shark, whose flesh contains high quantities of Vitamin A. Shark livers should not be eaten due to excessive Vitamin A content.

Fishing aids The following materials may be used to make fishing aids: • Fishing line: unravel threads from the tarpaulin and tie them together in short lengths in groups of three. Parachute suspension cord also works well. • Fish lures: can be fashioned by attaching a double hook to any shiny piece of metal. • Grapples: may be used to hook seaweed, which may then be shaken to obtain crabs and shrimp. These may then be either eaten or used for bait. • Bait: use the guts from birds and fish for bait.

6. Medical problems associated with sea survival Seasickness The nausea and vomiting caused by the motion of the raft may result in extreme fluid loss and exhaustion, attracting sharks to the raft and unsanitary conditions. It is important therefore to treat seasickness by washing the crewmember suffering from the condition and washing the raft to remove the sight and odor of vomit. The affected crewmember should lie down and rest, be administered medication, and be prevented from eating food until nausea has gone. Str 200: Survival Training 197

Table 9.9. Signs and symptoms of heat illness.

Heat exhaustion Chronic effects of heat Light-headedness, dizziness, faintness Lassitude Rapid, shallow breathing Discomfort Rapid, thready pulse Irritability Pins and needles of fingertips Appetite suppression Feeling very hot Impaired physical and mental performance Hot, flushed skin, sweating Muscle cramps Nausea and vomiting, visual distur- Heat stroke, often characterized by hot, dry skin leading bances and headache to unconsciousness, brain damage, and death

Saltwater sores These sores result from a break in skin exposed to seawater for an extended period and may form scabs and pus. They should be treated by being left closed and flushed with fresh water, if available, and allowed to dry, after which antiseptic should be applied.

Constipation Laxatives should not be administered, as this will cause dehydration. To prevent this condition, adequate amounts of water should be taken and exercise should be performed as far as is possible within the confines of the raft.

Sunburn This can be prevented by remaining in the shade, keeping the head and skin covered, and using high-factor blocking. To avoid reflection from the water, the canopy should be erected to optimize shade.

Heat illness This condition is associated with general malaise caused by a rise in core body temperature from other than pathological causes such as infections and occurs when heat gain by the body exceeds heat loss. In this condition, body temperature rises and will continue to do so until some alleviating measure re-establishes heat balance. The progression of the signs and symptoms of the condition is detailed in Table 9.9.

Dehydration The simple remedy for this is to administer oral rehydrating fluid, which should include half a teaspoon of salt and five level teaspoons of sugar mixed with a liter of water. 198 Orbital Ground School Manual

9.20 A Tiger Shark. Courtesy: Wikimedia

Non-freezing cold injury (NFCI) Tissue temperatures between 17ºC and –0.5ºC that persist for a protracted period may result in an NFCI. In a typical NFCI case, the exposed limb will feel uncomfortable before becoming numb and suffering impaired function. As the victim re-warms, circulation will normally return, except in the severest cases, and will be accompanied by tingling. Painkillers will usually be required to alleviate the pain of re-warming.

Freezing cold injury (FCI) The ambient temperature must be below freezing or significantly lower for this condition to occur. This may be the case when a crewmember is immersed in seawater that is close to freezing. The initial treatment of an FCI-affected crewmember requires removal of clothing and whole-body warming in agitated warm water. If re-warming is not possible, the victim should be administered painkillers and the affected limb(s) warmed slowly.

7. Sharks Only about 20 species of shark (Figure 9.20) are known to attack humans, the most dangerous of which are the great white, hammerhead, mako, and tiger sharks. Other dangerous sharks include the gray, blue, sand, nurse, bull, and oceanic white tip sharks. Generally, sharks in tropical/subtropical seas are far more aggressive than those in temperate waters. Sight, smell, sound, and vibrations in the water guide sharks to their prey. So sensitive is this latter sense that even a fish struggling on a line will be sufficient to attract a shark’s attention. Str 200: Survival Training 199

Although most attacks occur during late afternoon, sharks feed at all hours of the day. To reduce the chance of shark attack the following guidelines may prove useful: • Stay with other crewmembers. • Urinate in small amounts only and allow it to dissipate between discharges. • If a shark attack is imminent, splash and yell, to keep the shark at bay. Yelling underwater or slapping the surface may also scare the shark. • If attacked, kick and strike the shark, aiming for the gills or eyes, but NOT the nose. If you hit the nose, you may injure your hand if it glances off and hits the shark’s teeth. If sharks are sighted, cease fishing and, if you have hooked a fish, let it go. Do not throw garbage overboard and absolutely do not let your arms, legs, or equipment hang in the water! Instead, focus on keeping quiet and not moving.

8. Detecting land, rafting, and beaching techniques Detecting land The following are indicators that land is near: • A fixed cumulus cloud in a clear sky, often hovering over or slightly downwind from an island. • In the tropics, the reflection of sunlight from shallow lagoons or shelves of coral reefs often causes a greenish tint in the sky. • In the Arctic, light-colored reflections on clouds often indicate ice fields or snow- covered land. • Deep water is dark green or dark blue. Lighter color indicates shallow water, which may indicate proximity to land. • There are usually more birds near land than over open ocean. The direction from which the flocks fly at dawn and to which they fly at dusk may indicate the direction to land. • Mirages occur at any latitude, but are more common in the tropics, especially during midday.

Rafting and beaching techniques Once land has been sighted, a landing should not be attempted when the Sun is low and ahead of the raft. Instead, attempt a landing on the lee side of an island by aiming for gaps in the surf line, avoiding coral reefs, rocky cliffs, and rip currents. If it is necessary to travel through surf, keep clothes and shoes on to avoid cuts and inflate life vests. The sea anchor should be trailed over the stem using as much line as necessary. If there is a strong wind and heavy surf, the raft must have all possible speed to pass rapidly through the oncoming crest to avoid being turned broadside. If in a medium surf with no wind or off- shore wind, prevent the raft from passing over a wave so rapidly that it drops suddenly after topping the crest. As the raft nears the beach, ride it on the crest of a large wave. Paddle or row as hard as possible and ride in to the beach as far as you can. Do not jump out of the raft until it has grounded, then quickly disembark. 200 Orbital Ground School Manual

9. Swimming ashore, pickup, and rescue Swimming ashore If it is necessary to swim ashore, wear shoes and at least one layer of clothing. If the surf is moderate, ride in on the back of a small wave by swimming forward with it and then dive to a shallow depth just before the wave breaks. In high surf, swim towards shore in the trough between waves, then, when the seaward wave approaches, face it and submerge. After it passes, work towards the shore in the next trough. If you must land on a rocky shore, search for a place where the waves rush up onto the rocks and avoid places where waves explode with a white spray. After selecting a landing point, advance behind a large wave into the breakers, face towards shore, and take a sitting position with your feet in front, two or three feet lower than your head—a position that will allow your feet to absorb the shock when you land.

Pickup and rescue On sighting a rescue craft, all lines and other equipment that may cause entanglement should be cleared. All loose items in the raft should be secured and canopies and sails should be struck. Crewmembers should fully inflate life preservers, remove all other equipment, and remain in the raft unless otherwise instructed.

Tropical survival 1. Tropical climates 2. Weather 3. Water 4. Food sources 5. Navigation and travel 6. Hazards 7. Medical problems

1. Tropical climates There are four types of tropical climates: rain forests, primary and secondary jungle, tropical savannas, and deciduous forests. Most are rich in nutritious vegetation, sources of water, and possibilities for shelter.

Rain forests Typical rain forests are characterized by a hot, steamy climate with mean monthly temperatures between 24ºC and 28ºC, and are found in Central America, Indonesia, Southeast Asia, West and Central Africa, and tropical Australia. Features of this type of tropical forest include the three distinct layers of tree crowns, the highest of which forms the forest canopy, the layer below composed of young trees, and the lower level consisting mainly of tree branches and foliage. Str 200: Survival Training 201

Primary and secondary jungle Primary jungle is strongly tiered and is characterized by tall trees and layers of vegetation below, whereas secondary jungle is less tiered and is the result of the clearing of primary jungle for cultivation.

Tropical savanna Savanna is found in tropical regions 8º to 20º from the equator and receive a mean annual precipitation of between 80 and 150 centimeters, most of which falls between April and September in the northern hemisphere, and between October and March in the southern.

Deciduous forest This may also be called monsoon forest and is characterized by teak trees that shed their leaves in the dry season and bamboo thickets.

2. Weather There are two rainy seasons which correspond with the equinoxes and, apart from these periods, which may last several weeks, the weather is usually sunny. The very high humidity never varies in those areas with dense canopies and, despite a cooler maximum temperature than a desert, the conditions in most tropical environments are harder on the body because such high humidity prevents thermal regulation.

3. Water Microbes, parasites, and viruses may contaminate many water sources, and it should be assumed all jungle water other than from bamboo and direct rainfall is contaminated. Good water sources are: • Plants: sources of water may be obtained from banana and plantain trees by cutting the trees down and sawing through the trunk. The stump should be hollowed out to form a bowl, which will fill with water. Bamboo containing water can be recognized by its sharp 45º inclination in relation to the ground and its yellow-green color. It is possible to actually hear the water inside the bamboo as it is shaken. Bamboo makes for an ideal source of fresh and cool water since, even if the temperature is very high, it will always maintain a low temperature. Lianas and vines can be cut to obtain water by cutting deeply into the vine as high as possible and severing it completely near the ground. • Streams: if the stream is fast-flowing with a stone and sand bed, the water is likely to be pure, although as a precaution the water should still be purified in case there are animal deposits upstream. • Dew: By tying cloth around your ankles and walking through dew-covered grass before sunrise, the cloth will become impregnated with water which can then be wrung out. 202 Orbital Ground School Manual

4. Food sources Wildlife Due to dense vegetation and restricted visibility, the most common type of wildlife encountered will probably be reptiles and insects, although you will receive training in setting animal traps in case you encounter other food sources such as those listed here: • Snakes: best eaten either boiled or fried. To prepare for eating, the snake’s head should be removed and the stomach skin slit downward from the neck and peeled back until completely removed. • Monkeys: due to the aggressive nature of larger males, hunting should be restricted to the smaller species, the signs of activity of which may be found near watering holes and tracks on trails. • Tapirs: pig-like herbivores found in Sumatra, Central and South America, and Malaysia. Tapirs like to sleep by day and feed by night, and are often found near swamp areas. • Wild pigs: found in all types of rain forest, and usually live in groups. As these animals are very habitual, they are relatively easy to hunt, although caution should be exercised when preparing its meat as it is often infested with worms!

Plants It is important to distinguish between plants that are edible and those that are poisonous if you are to survive in the jungle. Your instructors will provide you with an identification chart to aid identification during your training. An exhaustive listing of plants is beyond the scope of this section but the following are some of the most commonly found edible and non-edible plants: Edible plants • Bamboo, found in the Far East, may be eaten raw, although the fine black hairs on the edge of the leaves are poisonous. • Bananas are found in the humid tropics and are characterized by large leaves and flowers that hang in clusters. • The breadfruit tree is found in the South Pacific, West Indies, and Polynesia, and is recognized by its dark green leaves. • Manioc, also known as tapioca or cassava, is found in the tropics and is easily recognized by its large, tuber-like roots, although the bitter-tasting type of manioc contains poisonous hydrocyanic acid and is best avoided. • The Taro plant is found extensively in the tropics wherever there is moist ground and is characterized by large heart-shaped leaves, orange flowers, and a large turnip-like tuber. • Yams, of which there are more than 700 species, are found extensively in the tropics and can be recognized by their enormous tubers. Yams must be cooked, as they are poisonous if eaten raw. Str 200: Survival Training 203

Inedible plants • Castor Beans, found in tropical Africa, grow to 12 meters in height and are distin- guishable by orange flowers devoid of petals. The bean-shaped seeds contain castor oil and are deadly poisonous. • Hemlock, the distinguishing features of which include an unpleasant smell and hol- low purple-spotted stems, is highly poisonous and may be fatal if ingested. • Manchineel, found in southern US, Central America, and northern South America, may grow to 15 meters, and is characterized by shiny green leaves and small greenish flowers. The fruit is poisonous. • The Physic Nut, a shrub found in southern US and throughout the tropics, has small, green/yellow flowers and an apple-sized fruit which is poisonous. • Unsurprisingly, given its name, the Strychnine Tree, which is found in Australia and Southeast Asia, has greenish flowers and orange berries that are poisonous.

5. Navigation and travel In the unlikely event the landing site is visible from the air and signaling devices are available, the best course of action may be to stay in place and wait for aerial searches. If chances of location are judged to be low, jungle travel may be the best option assuming minimal casualties. The following are some guidelines for navigation: • Tracks that are obviously made by animals will usually lead to water whereas man- made ones will usually lead to villages. • Dense vegetation will make it impossible to travel in a straight line and will usually reduce progress to less than 500 meters per hour. To increase speed, geographical features such as ridge lines should be used, although rivers should be avoided due to their meandering courses which may increase linear distance threefold. • Mangrove swamps on coastlines should be avoided or crossed as quickly as possible, as they have extensive, tangled root systems above and below water that may harbor crocodiles and leeches. • Savanna should be avoided, due to its thick broad-bladed, sharp-edged grass that stands between one and five meters high, thus reducing visibility and providing little shade from the Sun. Travel through the jungle is akin to negotiating an obstacle course, but there are guidelines that make travel easier: • Choose routes that follow the largest opening in vegetation. • Move slowly and purposefully, stopping regularly to check GPS. • Do not attempt to travel after sunset. • Do not try and cut a path to follow a compass bearing. • Take precautions to limit the effect of insects and leeches. • Do not swim unless you are certain you can negotiate the current. 204 Orbital Ground School Manual

9.21 A fluke. Courtesy: Wikimedia

6. Hazards Snakes and insects can make the jungle a living hell. For example, there is a species of assassin bug (Reduvioidea) that transmits sleeping sickness and there are certain mosqui- toes capable of transmitting a cocktail of diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, and fila- riasis. There are red ants capable of delivering several nasty bites, flukes (Figure 9.21) and hookworms that enter the body by piercing the skin before moving onto the bloodstream, and the anopheles mosquito—a deadly mosquito that carries malaria. Your instructors will provide you with a more thorough indoctrination to these and other hazards.

7. Medical problems During your training, you will probably be vaccinated against the following: • Cholera • Diphtheria • Yellow Fever • Hepatitis A and B • Japanese B-encephalitis • Meningococcal meningitis • Pest • Poliomyelitis (IPV) • Poliomyelitis (OPV) • Rabies Str 200: Survival Training 205

• Tetanus • Tick-borne encephalitis • Tuberculosis • Typhoid fever. Despite all these vaccinations, there are many tropical diseases, infections, and medical dangers you may be exposed to, but there are also several ways of avoiding such hazards: 1. Food-borne diseases such as ciguatera, tetrodotoxin, and paralytic shellfish poisoning result in severe neurological symptoms and vomiting but can be prevented by not eating certain fish. 2. Poor hygiene encourages fungal infections and can be avoided by washing frequently. 3. Amoebiasis occurs in tropical and subtropical areas, the causative agent being pathogenic protozoa that can eventually infest the lumen of the colon and the bowel wall. The infection is acquired by fecal–oral transmission and can be avoided by implementing good hygiene. 4. Giardiasis is caused by protozoa transmitted via the oral–fecal route, by smear infection, or from contaminated food. Symptoms include heavy diarrhea, malabsorption, and abdominal pain. Again, effective hygiene measures can prevent this being a problem. 5. Schistosomiasis is an infection characterized by fever followed by hematuria and bloody stools. It can be avoided by not swimming or wading in lakes and rivers. 6. Borreliosis is a nasty disease transmitted by ticks which results in painful skin, joint, cardiac, and neurological symptoms. The possibility of infection can be reduced by effective use of insect repellent and covering of exposed skin.

Sample questions

1. A desert is any environment: a. that receives an annual rainfall of less than 5 cm, an evaporation rate that exceeds precipitation, and a high average temperature. b. that receives an annual rainfall of less than 25 cm, an evaporation rate that exceeds precipitation, and a high average temperature. c. that receives an annual rainfall of less than 25 cm, an evaporation rate that exceeds precipitation, and a low average temperature. d. that receives an annual rainfall of less than 25 cm, an evaporation rate that equals precipitation, and a high average temperature. 2. Symptoms of anaphylactic shock may include: a. swelling of the tongue, severe cardiovascular and respiratory effects, swelling of the facial tissue, shock, and unconsciousness. b. swelling of the tongue, mild cardiovascular and respiratory effects, swelling of the facial tissue, shock, and unconsciousness. c. swelling of the tongue, severe cardiovascular and respiratory effects, swelling of the facial tissue, mottled skin, and unconsciousness. d. swelling of the hands, mild cardiovascular and respiratory effects, swelling of the facial tissue, shock, and unconsciousness. 206 Orbital Ground School Manual

3. The following illness occurs in tropical and subtropical areas, the causative agent being pathogenic protozoa that can eventually infest the lumen of the colon and the bowel wall: a. Schistosomiasis. b. Borreliosis. c. Giardia. d. Amoebiasis.

MTR 200: Medical Training

9.22 One of the many skills you will be cross-trained in is medical training. Courtesy: NASA

Module objectives • Explain the principle for rendering first aid in microgravity • List the medical criteria for evacuation from orbit • Describe the Crew Health Care System • Describe the control of blood flow and blood pressure 1. Crew health care system 2. Principles and methods for rendering first aid in microgravity Mtr 200: Medical Training 207

3. Advanced life-support procedures 4. Medical criteria for evacuation from orbit 5. In-flight health evaluation 6. Radiation protection

Introduction To date, all astronaut fatalities have been the consequence of sudden catastrophic failures of spacecraft structures or systems, with no time for corrective actions. Other problems have been solved while on orbit either by the administration of prophylactic measures or via consultation with the flight surgeon. Inevitably, with the less stringent medical requirements applied to space tourists, there is the possibility of a higher incidence of medical problems and an increased probability of unfavorable outcomes following life-threatening conditions, which may occur during a stay on orbit. It is therefore really important that you be proficient in rendering first aid to a fellow crewmember. Nearly every medical situation encountered in microgravity requires emergency care, since even small injuries have the potential to be life- and mission-threatening. To achieve realism in your training, you will use a Human Patient Simulator (HPS) on the ground and in an analog environment while flying parabolic flight maneuvers. Obviously, there are several diseases and their manifestations that are not amenable to demonstration with a simulator, so the training outlined here focuses on useful diagnostic and therapeutic procedures that may be performed on orbit. The medical training component is designed to qualify you in basic life-support (BLS) procedures and protocols performed in a microgravity environment. Prior to your flight, you will be required to demonstrate proficiency in performing the procedures for basic, emergency, and primary care as indicated in Table 9.10, and in each group of patient skills listed below: • Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (obstructed airway conscious/unconscious) • Moving patients • Patient ventilation (pocket mask, bag/valve mask (one-person and two-person) • Airway control (oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal airways, suctioning) • Oxygen administration (regulator/cylinder operation, oxygen delivery devices (masks/cannulas)) • Patient assessment (physical examination, vital signs assessment) • Wound care and bleeding control (dressings, bandages, tourniquet) • Musculoskeletal injury stabilization (rigid and soft splints) • Integrated medical checklist (IMC) orientation. Much of your training will utilize the HPS, a computer-controlled patient mannequin that has respiratory, cardiovascular, renal, and hepatic function. Since all the functions are capable of interacting with each other, the HPS is able to provide a realistic simulation of the human body. In fact, the HPS is identical to the one used by trainee doctors and can be used to simulate all kinds of medical emergencies, although there is no guarantee that the HPS will react like a real human body in every situation! 208 Orbital Ground School Manual

Table 9.10. Crewmember curriculum.

Basic Emergency Primary care First aid First aid Provide medication from protocols Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Assess and define medical problem Basic assessment (history, Basic assessment (history, physical Health care (definitive physical exam, vital signs) exam, vital signs) and sustained treatment) Communications Emergency medical communications Dental care (emergency) Basic life-support treatment Basic fracture treatment Fracture treatment (non-invasive) Basic life-support treatment Administer medication from protocols and directions Intravenous insertions and solution Intravenous medication Intramuscular injection Intramuscular medication Wound treatment

Table 9.11. Typical medical kit.

Injectable and oral drugs Diagnostic items Epinephrine, 1:1,000 Morphine, 10 mg/ml Topical medications Corticosporin Actifed Tetracycline, 250 mg BP cuff/stethoscope Sterile drape Atropine, 0.4 mg/ml Decadron Afrin spray Providone-iodine Dexedrine, 5 mg Valium Oto/ophthalmoscope Fluorescein strips Phenergan, 25/50 mg Lidocaine, 20 mg/ml Kerlex dressing Neosporin cream Donnatal Tylenol Foley Catheter 11 Fr. Sterile gloves Compazine, 5 mg Benadryl, 25 mg Anusol-HC cream Sulfacetamide Ampicillin, 250 mg Xylocaine 2% Tourniquet Thermometers Pronestyl, 500 mg/ml Nitrostat, 0.4 mg Binocular loupe Penlight

1. Crew health care system Most of the medical equipment on board will most likely be manifested as part of the crew health care system and will include standard medical equipment, various drugs, and diagnostic items (Table 9.11). The crew health care system will most likely be under the direction of the chief medical officer, who will receive supplementary medical training.

Medical checklist The spacecraft’s medical kit will include a manifest of pharmacologic interventions and various diagnostic items. Although you will become familiar with the use of many of the diagnostic items during your training, you probably won’t be required to have a working knowledge of drug administration, as most pharmacologic interventions can be performed using the appropriate algorithm. Mtr 200: Medical Training 209

Table 9.12. Advanced life-support kit. Chest drain Tape Xylocaine jelly Catheters Syringe (10 cc) Gauze Oral and nasal airways Scalpel Alcohol wipes Nasogastric tube Surgical gloves Tracheostomy tube Magill forceps Proventil inhaler Laryngoscope Endotracheal tube Magill forceps Curved scissors

Advanced life-support kit (ALSK) In addition to the items found in the basic medical kit, you may also be trained in the use of some of the instruments contained in the advance life-support kit (ALSK) (Table 9.12). This kit will include medical instruments and supplies designed to support advanced cardiac life-support (ACLS) and basic trauma life-support (BTLS) procedures that you will probably have the opportunity to practice on the ground, during parabolic flight, and during telemedicine exercises.

Assessment kit Pulse oximeter Oral thermometer Penlight Tongue depressors Emergency surgery contents Forceps Bandage scissors Scalpels Steri-strips Needle driver Sutures Hemostats Sterile drape

Additional contents IV infusion pump Automated blood pressure cuff Diagnostic algorithms ALSK drug contents Adenocard Epinephrine (1:10,000) Morphine Atropine Furosemide Narcan Dexamethasone Haldol Nitroglycerine Diazapam Inderal Romazicon Dopamine Lidocaine Verapamil

Diagnostic algorithms such as the one in Figure 9.23 will most likely be contained in your mission tablet.

2. Principles and methods for rendering first aid in microgravity Cardiopulmonary resuscitation The essential principles of administering cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) are reviewed in Table 9.13: • In unconscious or collapsed individuals, the state of ventilation and circulation must be determined immediately. 210 Orbital Ground School Manual

NOTE Tooth Extraction is a last resort and is reserved only for those cases where pain is excessive or an infective process has set in and the amount of time remaining for the mission is greater than the time to safely control infection with antibiotics. A course of antibiotics will not cure a tooth infection, and more definitive care is always necessary. Extraction should only be done when all other treatment options have been exhausted and on consultation with Surgeon. 1. Unstow from Dental Subpack: AMP Elevator, 301 (Dental-4) (blue) 34S (Dental-4)

NOTE Type number is engraved on probe.

Gauze Pads (4) (P3-B4) and one of following:

Forceps, 151AS (Dental-3) (for incisors, cuspids, bicuspids) Forceps, 17 (for lower molars) (Dental-3) Forceps, 10S (upper molars) (Dental-3)

NOTE Type number is engraved on probe.

2. Anesthetize area where tooth is to be extracted. Refer to {DENTAL - INJECTION TECHNIQUE} (SODF: ISS MED: DENTAL).

NOTE 1. On upper teeth, it will be necessary to inject Xylocaine into gum tissue on palate around tooth to be extracted in addition to Xylocaine injected when performing Upper Injection Technique.

2. On lower molars, it will be necessary to inject Xylocaine into gum tissue on cheek side of tooth to be extracted in addition to Xylocaine injected when performing Lower Injection Technique.

WARNING All extractions require moderate force. Do not use heavy force to remove a tooth. Heavy forces will break either tooth or bone.

3. Place correct Forceps on tooth to be extracted exerting force toward root of tooth and squeeze Forceps with moderate force. Use other hand to grasp onto both sides of gum tissue of tooth to be extracted (if an upper tooth) or to hold lower jaw from moving (if a lower tooth). 9.23 Medical algorithm. Courtesy: NASA Mtr 200: Medical Training 211

4. Exert moderate side-to-side force (tongue to cheek) holding for 30 seconds in each direction. Continue this motion until tooth loosens and comes up out of socket on its own.

5. If after several minutes, tooth has not increased in mobility, continue to step 6.

6. From cheek side, place small Elevator 301 between tooth to be extracted and adjacent tooth with lower edge of Elevator against tooth to be extracted.

Apply moderate rotational force to Elevator (as if turning a screwdriver) creating a lifting force on tooth to be extracted and hold for 60 seconds. Apply this force sequentially on both front and back side of tooth. Once tooth is slightly elevated then repeat with large Elevator 34S.

7. Perform steps 3 and 4 using appropriate Forceps.

8. When tooth removed, fold Gauze Pad and apply to bleeding socket until bleeding stops. AMP 9. Dispose of blood soaked Gauze Pad in Ziplock Bag (P4-B7). (blue) Affix appropriate Biohazard Decal (CCPK) and dispose of Ziplock Bag in biohazardous trash. 9.23 cont.

Table 9.13. The ABCDs of cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

A Airway opened Establish airway using head tilt chin lift, head tilt-neck lift, or mandibular jaw thrust If available, use an artificial airway in the unconscious patient B Breathing restored Note chest movement If no spontaneous chest movement, initiate mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing Reassess for chest movement C Circulation restored Establish pulselessness If pulseless, rapidly assess for VF or pulseless VT If VF or pulseless VT is present, defibrillate If pulseless and appropriate equipment is not available, begin chest compressions D Defibrillate

VF, ventricular fibrillation; VT, ventricular tachycardia.

• Speed, efficiency, and proper application of CPR relate directly to successful neurological outcome as tissue anoxia for more than four to six minutes can result in irreversible brain damage or death. • Successful CPR depends on early BLS, prompt recognition and treatment, and airway and rhythm control as necessary, and must be continued until the cardiopulmonary system is stabilized, the individual is pronounced dead, or resuscitation cannot be continued. 212 Orbital Ground School Manual

9.24 Performing CPR in microgravity. Courtesy: NASA

Cardiopulmonary techniques in microgravity CPR (Figure 9.24) in microgravity remains a challenge that has been addressed in several investigations performed on board Shuttle missions and parabolic flights. During your medical training phase, you will probably be trained in four techniques: • Side straddle: two rescuers delivering synchronized chest compressions and venti- lations from the victim’s right side. • Waist straddle: two rescuers, in which one rescuer performs compressions by kneeling across the victim’s waist. • Handstand position: in which one rescuer places their feet on the flight deck ceiling, providing chest compressions through quadriceps muscle group extension. • Reverse bear hug: a modified Heimlich maneuver where one rescuer performs chest compression from behind the victim. You will have the opportunity to practice these procedures during your parabolic flight training. Once again, you may use the HPS, which will be fastened to a table. During the first five parabolas, you may practice basic resuscitation techniques. During parabolas 6 to 10, you may attempt intubating the HPS with an endotracheal tube, which will be challenging, since you will only have 20 seconds in which to accomplish the task! To assist you, the HPS will be strapped into the supine position 25 centimeters from the flight deck and restrained using anchoring tracks. Each crewmember will perform each CPR position over four parabolas with an interval of one parabola between positions. Physiological-equivalent data will be collected for feedback during post-flight briefing. Mtr 200: Medical Training 213

Resuscitating patients in ventricular fibrillation Ventricular fibrillation refers to a state in which the muscle fibers of the ventricular myocardium are contracting in an unsynchronized way. The most important technique for resuscitating patients in this state is defibrillation—a procedure made simple using the automated defibrillator that will guide you through the steps using screen messages, voice prompts, and lighted buttons.

3. Advanced life-support procedures Telemedicine The mass and volume constraints on your spacecraft mandate the use of minimal medical equipment, which is compensated for to a degree by the use of telemedicine—a system that uses communications and information technologies for the delivery of clinical care. The network technology down-linking video and audio information makes telemedicine a tool doctors can use to diagnose health problems in space and even assist the medical officer on board during an operation using space-adapted portable medical equipment. To date, no operative procedures have been required in space, though operative procedures have been performed with degrees of success in parabolic flight. The ability to perform these procedures has, in part, depended on successfully restraining the patient, often using ingenious systems. The medical training that you and the chief medical officer receive will provide only a cursory introduction to the demands of medical care on board a spacecraft. Since there will probably be no physician on board in the near future, it will be the chief medical officer’s responsibility to deal with medical contingencies, but even the chief medical officer’s training will permit him/her to perform only minor procedures. In the event of a serious operation being required, the operator will need to decide whether to conduct a medical evacuation of the patient, or to rely on the skills of the ground-based flight surgeon to guide the chief medical officer using telemedicine. Since a medical evacuation is prohibitively expensive, it is likely that operative procedures will be conducted using this remote technology—a situation that will require assistance from one or more space tourists! In the event of such a situation, you may be required to assist in the administration of local and intravenous anesthetic agents such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and narcot- ics. You may also be required to assist in intubation and endoscopic procedures and various other interventions. To prepare you for such an eventuality, you will receive training in the basic telemedicine techniques, including virtual reality in situ treatment simulation, vital data acquisition using on-board communications, interactive devices, crew resource management, and advisory and automated diagnostics. After acquiring these basic skills, you will have the opportunity to apply them using the HPS in a simulated in-flight emergency.

Ultrasound One of the techniques you will become familiar with is ultrasound/trauma sonography—a medical tool that provides additional diagnostic information and represents a first-choice modality for a large number of higher-probability medical scenarios. One example of the 214 Orbital Ground School Manual application of this technique is the diagnosis of a problematic condition such as an intra- cavitary hemorrhage. Since ultrasound is a non-invasive, fast, safe, effective, repeatable, and tele-transmitting imaging tool, it is possible for such determinations to be made relatively easily. During training, you will have the opportunity to use ultrasound to perform basic diagnostic techniques and also learn effective management of ultrasound-supported medical scenarios.

4. Medical criteria for evacuation from orbit Crew return is a last-ditch option reserved for critical failures on board, a lost ability to supply the crew, or medical emergency, of which the latter is probably deemed the most likely. Your operator will determine the parameters which will mandate a return to Earth, but it is likely the following criteria will be applied: • A disease that has not been cured in flight with available medical pharmacological intervention and which threatens the health of other crewmembers • An epidemic prognosis or clinical symptoms of a highly contagious infectious disease that cannot be treated with available pharmacological intervention • Contamination of the environmental control and life-support system by virulent or toxic bacteria that cannot be removed in the presence of humans • Psychological problems with the potential to threaten the health of the sick crewmember or other crewmembers • A life-threatening disease with potential to render or disable a crewmember.

Technical criteria for evacuation • Prediction of radiation exposure beyond maximal admissible limit established for specified mission duration • Unrecoverable drop in partial pressure of oxygen to 140 mmHg • Unrecoverable rise in partial pressure of oxygen to 350 mmHg • Unrecoverable rise in carbon dioxide partial pressure to 20 mmHg that persists for more than two hours • An increase in cabin temperature above 33ºC that persists for more than three days • A decrease in cabin temperature below 15ºC that persists for more than three days • Any condition in which toxic compounds exceed admissible levels.

5. In-flight health evaluation During your flight, you will have regular access to a flight surgeon who will conduct a health evaluation every two or three days. During the evaluation, you will have the opportunity to conduct a private video conference (videocon) with the flight surgeon to discuss any problems you may be experiencing adapting to microgravity. The videocon will be cryptographically protected using encoding and cryptorouters to ensure a confidential information exchange. If you have opted for an EVA experience, you will need a medical and fitness assessment prior to conducting and following completion of the EVA. The check will be Mtr 200: Medical Training 215 conducted the day prior to the EVA and will evaluate your physical performance by means of a basic fitness test. It will also assess the strength of your arm muscles using a grip dynamometer and also a handcrank ergometer. During your flight, you will be encouraged to submit personal medical information which will be collected, processed, and stored in your tablet. The files will be stored in a memory unit and down-linked automatically to the terminals of the medical operations team when the spacecraft is within coverage of ground tracking stations. Your medical data will add important information to the growing database of how the body reacts to the microgravity environment. For example, during the flight, you will be required to monitor your radiation exposure using a radiation dosimeter. The data obtained from this instrument will be used to develop a method of forecasting influences of charged particles and dose rate from space radiation in your particular spacecraft and will be used as a comparison for future space tourists.

6. Radiation protection Protection limits Monitoring crewmember radiation is a key requirement of your operator’s operations, which requires the following: 1. Pre flight: activities include projecting mission doses and reviewing crew health records. Prior to flight, you will submit a blood sample for analysis. The blood sample will be divided into four parts, which will be exposed to four different dose levels of gamma radiation. The blood will then be processed and photographs taken of the chromosomes from the cells. 2. In flight: continuous radiological support and space environment monitoring will be provided by Mission Control. 3. Post flight: crew dosimetry is retrieved and analyzed. You will submit another blood sample and chromosome damage counts will be taken; from this, it will be possible to determine the equivalent radiation dose received while in space. Your operator’s radiation health protection program will most likely be administered by your operator’s medical sciences division, the responsibilities of which are summarized below: • Supports the flight surgeon in advising the flight director during radiation contingencies • Maintains astronaut health records including documentation of mission and medical radiation exposure histories • Provides pre-flight mission health risk analysis • Establishes radiation health requirements for manned spaceflight based on reviews of current research • Conducts and administers research into the biological effects of space radiation • Provides dosimetry support for crewmembers • Develops engineering tools for use in space radiation exposure analysis • Develops advanced radiation monitoring equipment. 216 Orbital Ground School Manual

Radiation monitoring To ensure you are not exposed to excessive radiation, measurements are required. On Earth, in environments where high levels of radiation are expected, personnel are equipped with dosimeters which measure the integrated dose of radiation, the value of which can be compared with guidelines. On board the spacecraft, you will also use dosimeters to monitor accumulated radiation dose. To determine the accumulated radiation dose, several types of dosimeters are required to allow a greater range of energies and particle types to be analyzed. The following instruments may be used on board your vehicle/habitat to quantify the crew effective dose equivalent: • Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter (TEPC): a gas proportional counter that measures the LET spectrum of the incident radiation in a simulated small volume of tissue. TEPC uses a cylindrical cell filled with low-pressure propane gas, hydrocarbon gas used to simulate the hydrocarbon content of a human cell. A plastic jacket covering the cell simulates the properties of adjacent tissue cells. Particles passing through the gas release electrons, which are collected by a positively charged biased wire as a pulse. The characteristics of the pulse help identify the energy of the incident particle. • Plastic Nuclear Track Detector (PTND): thin sheets of plastic similar to the material used in eyeglass lenses. The PTND surface becomes pitted with tiny craters as heavily charged ions pass through it. The detectors are returned to Earth after each mission and the plastic is etched to enlarge the craters, which are counted and their shapes and sizes analyzed using a microscope. This information is used to improve the accuracy of the radiation dose the passive dosimetry units have recorded and to improve the estimate of the biological effects of the radiation. • Passive dosimetry: the primary unit on board your spacecraft will probably be the Thermoluminescent Detector (TLD), a flexible, easy-to-use radiation monitoring system. Each TLD resembles a fat fountain pen, which contains calcium sulfate crystals inside an evacuated glass bulb. The crystals absorb energy from incident ionizing radiation as the radiation passes through them. This process results in a steady increase in the energy level of the electrons in the crystal.

Sample questions

1. Technical criteria for evacuation include: a. an unrecoverable rise in partial pressure of oxygen to 140 mmHg and an unrecoverable rise in partial pressure of oxygen to 350 mmHg. b. an unrecoverable drop in partial pressure of oxygen to 180 mmHg and an unrecoverable rise in partial pressure of oxygen to 350 mmHg. c. an unrecoverable drop in partial pressure of oxygen to 140 mmHg and an unrecoverable rise in partial pressure of oxygen to 200 mmHg. d. an unrecoverable drop in partial pressure of oxygen to 140 mmHg and an unrecoverable rise in partial pressure of oxygen to 350 mmHg. GHA 200: G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory 217

2. Speed, efficiency, and proper application of CPR relate directly to successful neurological outcome as: a. tissue anoxia for more than four to six minutes can result in irreversible brain damage or death. b. tissue anoxia for more than one to two minutes can result in irreversible brain damage or death. c. tissue hyperoxia for more than four to six minutes can result in irreversible brain damage or death. d. tissue hypocapnia for more than four to six minutes can result in irreversible brain damage or death. 3. Ventricular fibrillation refers to: a. a state in which the muscle fibers of the ventricular endocardium are contracting in an unsynchronized way. b. a state in which the muscle fibers of the ventricular myocardium are contracting in a synchronized way. c. a state in which the muscle fibers of the ventricular myocardium are contracting in an unsynchronized way. d. a state in which the muscle fibers of the atria are contracting in an unsynchronized way.

GHA 200: G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory

Module objectives • Describe the effects of trapped gas • Explain the medical interventions following a rapid decompression • List three respiratory effects of G 1. Rapid decompression physiology 2. High-altitude indoctrination (HAI) 3. G-tolerance theory 4. G-tolerance training overview

1. Rapid decompression physiology Introduction Perhaps one of the most terrifying of the several hazards you may face on orbit is a rapid or explosive decompression. While a pressure leak or a small perforation caused by micrometeoroid strike will cause a rapid decompression, a substantial perforation of the skin of the spacecraft will result in an explosive decompression that may have grave consequences. It is important therefore that each crewmember is familiar with the characteristics of rapid/explosive decompression so they will be prepared to deal with such a potentially fatal event. 218 Orbital Ground School Manual

9.25 The decompression chamber is where you will conduct your high altitude indoctrination training. This is picture was taken inside the chamber at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver. On the right is Duncan, our chamber operator, and on the left is his daughter. Author collection

Cabin pressures and physiological responses In the event of a small-scale rapid decompression, it will be necessary to ensure the cabin atmosphere is maintained below 3,000 meters, since the air pressure below this altitude provides sufficient oxygen to maintain normal physiological function without the aid of special protective equipment. Any problems associated with such a leak will be minor ones such as trapped gas problems that will cause only mild discomfort. If the rapid decompression has caused a significant volume of air to escape, you may be exposed to cabin pressures that require the donning of oxygen masks. If the barometric pressure inside the spacecraft has fallen to between 3,000 meters and 15,000 meters, it will cause noticeable physiological deficits in those crewmembers not wearing oxygen equipment. In an explosive decompression event, you will need to don pressure suits immediately to prevent severe cardiopulmonary damage. Once cabin pressure is reduced to below 19,000 meters (47 mmHg), body fluids begin to boil (ebullism) with predictably fatal consequences. GHA 200: G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory 219

Respiratory physiology This section introduces you to the essential laws of respiratory physiology, an understanding of which will enable you to better understand the events associated with your HAI training and with the consequences of rapid and explosive decompression. Respiratory function Respiratory function comprises five distinct steps: 1. The process of ventilation is one in which pulmonary alveoli exchange gas with the atmosphere. 2. This gas is exchanged between the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries in a process called pulmonary diffusion. 3. Gas is transported from the lungs to the tissues and back to the lungs via the vascular system in a process called transportation. 4. Gases exchanged between systemic capillaries and tissue cells occur due to tissue diffusion. 5. Finally, cellular utilization describes the process of chemical reactions that occur within cells that utilize oxygen. Laws of gas mechanics It’s useful to understand how the gases we breathe are affected by differences in volume, partial pressure, temperature, and total pressure. To do this, we need to review the gas laws, which explain how the properties of volume, temperature, and pressure are implicated in a decompression event. The means by which volume affects a gas is explained by Boyle’s Law, which states that the volume of a given quantity of gas varies inversely with absolute pressure if the temperature remains constant—a relationship that becomes important when we consider the effects of trapped gas. Partial pressure is explained by Henry’s Law, which states that the amount of gas in a solution varies directly with the partial pressure of that gas over the solution. In other words, partial pressure is the individual pressure exerted independently by a particular gas within a mixture of gases (Table 9.14). The partial pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture equals the total pressure multiplied by the fractional composition of the gas in the mixture—a relationship that is implicated in the various manifestations of decompression sickness (DCS).

Table 9.14. Partial pressures at different altitudes.

Altitude (meters) Pressure Oxygen Sea level 760 mmHg 160 mmHg 303 732 mmHg 132 mmHg 2,424 564 mmHg 118 mmHg 5,454 380 mmHg 80 mmHg 10,300 187 mmHg 39 mmHg 220 Orbital Ground School Manual

The effect of temperature is explained by Charles’ Law, which states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, volume remaining constant. The contraction of gas due to temperature change at altitude does not compensate for the expansion due to the corresponding decrease in pressure—a relationship that becomes immediately apparent when experiencing a rapid decompression. Finally, Dalton’s Law, which helps us understand the condition of hypoxia, explains that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures, which each component would exert if placed separately in the container. Oxygen transport Oxygen is transported in the blood in physical solution and by combining with hemoglobin (oxyhaemoglobin). One gram of hemoglobin has an oxygen carrying capacity of 1.34 milliliters of oxygen, which equates to a capacity of 20 milliliters of oxygen per 100 milliliters of blood assuming normal hemoglobin content of 14.5 grams per 100 milliliters. This represents 100% oxygen saturation. Hypoxia Hypoxia is caused by the lower atmospheric pressure at high altitudes (i.e. a reduced arterial oxygen pressure, or PaO2), which inhibits the diffusion of oxygen from the air to the lungs. Consequently, less oxyhemoglobin is produced, resulting in decreased oxygen transport to the tissues, which results in the signs and symptoms described in Table 9.15. Perhaps the most dangerous sign of hypoxia is impaired judgment, since, even if symptoms are experienced, a crewmember may disregard them and not take corrective action that could prove hazardous. Although your spacecraft will use state-of-the-art oxygen delivery systems, be fitted with advanced cabin pressurization technology, and have advanced life-support equipment, a small puncture in the vehicle’s skin will rapidly cause the symptoms. It is vital therefore that each crewmember is familiar with the subjective and objective effects of hypoxia. A faulty pressurization in your spacecraft may cause you to experience a gradual onset of signs and symptoms as described in Table 9.16, but, in the event of an explosive decompression, you will experience hypoxia almost immediately. Such an event will require you to take immediate action, since, in an explosive decompression situation, cabin pressure may be reduced within seconds to a level that does not support life.

Table 9.15. Signs and symptoms of hypoxia.

Signs of hypoxia Symptoms of hypoxia Rapid breathing Air hunger Cyanosis Dizziness and headache Impaired coordination Mental and muscle fatigue Lethargy/lassitude Nausea Executing poor judgment Visual impairment GHA 200: G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory 221

Table 9.16. Effective performance time (EPT).

Cabin pressure Equivalent altitude (meters) Ambient PO2 Conscious time 349.5 mmHg 6,060 73.22 mmHg 5–12 minutes 282.5 mmHg 7,575 59.2 mmHg 2–3 minutes 216.1 mmHg 9,090 45.4 mmHg 45–75 seconds 179.3 mmHg 10,605 37.6 mmHg 30–60 seconds 141.2 mmHg 12,120 29.6 mmHg 10–30 seconds 111.1 mmHg 13,635 23.3 mmHg 12–15 seconds 87.5 mmHg 15,150 18.3 mmHg <12 seconds 26.6 mmHg 22,725 5.6 mmHg <12 seconds 8.36 mmHg 30,300 1.8 mmHg <12 seconds 1.48 mmHg 60,600 0.3 mmHg <12 seconds 9.49–4 mmHg 90,900 <0.1 mmHg <12 seconds 6.31–6 mmHg 136,350 <0.1 mmHg <12 seconds

Trapped gas As you ascend to altitude during your chamber run, the free gas in your body cavities will expand and, if the escape of this gas is impeded, pressure will build-up within the cavities and you will experience pain due to the difference between internal body gas pressure and external chamber pressure. This process is described by Boyle’s Law and will result in gases trapped in your body cavities to expand as altitude increases, and to contract as altitude decreases. The cavities primarily be affected will be your ears, sinuses, and gastrointestinal system. This section examines some of the effects. Ear block Ear block, the symptoms of which include pressure in the ear, dizziness, or ringing in the ear, may occur during ascent or descent when the air pressure in the middle ear is unable to equalize with the ambient pressure. This may be caused by a cold/sinus infection or an occlusion of the Eustachian tube due to ineffective equalizing procedures, such as pinch- ing the nose shut while swallowing with the chin on the chest. Ear block may also be caused by too rapid an increase in barometric pressure when returning from altitude or from having breathed 100% oxygen. If you suffer from this condition, try swallowing, yawning, or tensing the muscles of your throat—a procedure that will open the Eustachian tube, thereby allowing equalization. You can also try performing periodic Valsalva maneuvers during the first one to two hours post flight, which will lower the oxygen concentration by flushing the middle ear with ambient air. Sinus block The sinuses are air-filled, bony cavities lined with mucous membranes that connect the nose and, if these become obstructed, you may experience an almost incapacitating pressure and/or pain in the frontal sinus. If you are unlucky enough to suffer this condition, you should perform frequent Valsalva maneuvers during the descent and request the chamber 222 Orbital Ground School Manual run is terminated if pain is experienced during ascent. This condition is often precipitated by a cold infection so you should not participate in a chamber run to altitude if you have an infection. Barodontalgia Barodontalgia is altitude-related toothache—a condition invariably associated with pre- existing dental pathology, often entrapped air under imperfect fillings or pre-existing dental conditions such as an abscess. Symptoms of this condition may include barosinusitis or pain in the affected tooth, although high pressure under a filling may cause excruciating pain and, in rare instances, cause the tooth to explode! The condition can be prevented by not undertaking excursions to altitude when suffering from pulpitis or carious teeth and reducing the rate of increase of barometric pressure if symptoms are noticed. Trapped gas disorders of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract This is caused by the digestive processes of fermentation and decomposition of food undergoing digestion. GI problems associated with rapid decompression range from merely embarrassing to totally incapacitating. Typical symptoms include GI pain, GI sensitivity, and/or irritability, and, in extreme cases, loss of consciousness. Fortunately, avoiding this condition is relatively simple and requires you to avoid gas-producing foods such as beans and cabbage, ensure you have thoroughly masticated your food, and avoid drinking large quantities of liquid.

Altitude decompression sickness Henry’s Law states that, when the pressure of a gas over a liquid is decreased, the amount of gas dissolved in that liquid will also decrease. In the body, nitrogen is an inert gas stored in physical solution and in an explosive decompression your body will be exposed to decreased barometric pressure causing dissolved nitrogen to be forced out of solution. If the nitrogen is forced to leave too rapidly, bubbles will form in areas of your body, causing a variety of signs and symptoms, the most common of which is joint pain, also known as altitude DCS, or “the bends”. DCS and its symptoms may, in severe cases, result in shock and, if treatment is not promptly administered, death. Typical signs and symptoms of DCS are listed in Table 9.17. Most bubble formation sites relate to joint pain, but between 10% and 15% of cases will also present neurological symptoms such as visual disturbances. For those suffering from altitude DCS, the immediate treatment is to bring the victim down from altitude for medical evaluation and administration of hyperbaric oxygen therapy. DCS can be prevented by conducting an oxygen pre-breathe, which requires breathing 100% oxygen for 30 minutes to purge nitrogen (termed “washout”) from the body. There are a number of factors that predispose an individual to DCS, one of which is the rate of ascent, the faster the rate usually increasing the risk. Time spent at altitude is also a factor, since the longer the duration of exposure to altitudes greater than 5,500 meters, the greater the risk of altitude DCS, although DCS is rare in exposures of less than five minutes. A surface interval of less than three hours between exposures to altitudes over 5,500 meters may also increase DCS risk. Exposure to hyperbaric conditions such as when GHA 200: G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory 223

Table 9.17. Signs and symptoms of altitude decompression sickness.

DCS type Bubble location Signs and symptoms Bends Large joints of the body Deep localized pain; occasionally a dull ache (shoulders, elbows, knees) Active and passive joint motion aggravates pain Pain may occur at altitude, during descent, or several hours later Neurologic Brain Confusion and/or memory loss Scotoma (spots in visual field), double vision (diplopia), or blurry vision Seizures, fatigue, dizziness, vomiting, vertigo Spinal cord Burning, stinging, and tingling around lower chest and back Symptoms may spread from feet up and be accompanied by ascending paralysis/weakness Abdominal or chest pain Peripheral nerves Numbness, stinging, paresthesia Muscle weakness Chokes Lungs Deep chest pain aggravated by breathing Dry constant unproductive cough Shortness of breath (dyspnea) Skin bends Skin Itching around face, neck, and arms Crawling sensation over skin Mottled/marbled skin around shoulders/chest scuba-diving increases the rate of off-gassing which is why individuals are not exposed to hypobaric conditions within 24 hours following diving. Age is also a predisposing factor, since the incidence of altitude DCS in individuals aged 40–45 years is three times that of those aged 19–25. Because exercise results in an increase in muscle perfusion and inert gas uptake—both mechanisms that increase susceptibility to DCS—individuals being exposed to altitude should refrain from strenuous exercise for 12 hours prior to exposure and for 6 hours following exposure. There is also a gender component, the incidence of altitude DCS in females being almost twice that of men.

Rapid/explosive decompression The difference between a rapid and an explosive decompression is simply related to time. A decompression occurring in less than half a second is an explosive decompression, whereas a rapid decompression is one that takes more than half a second, but less than 10 seconds. In the latter type, there is less potential for fatal physiological damage. Physical characteristics of rapid/explosive decompression To determine whether a decompression has occurred, it is necessary to be familiar with certain physical and observable characteristics: • Noise: the first sign the spacecraft has been penetrated. If the size of the penetration is relatively small, air escaping into a vacuum will make a “swish” sound, whereas 224 Orbital Ground School Manual

a large penetration will normally result in a loud explosive sound. The explosive sound will be preceded by a loud popping sound, like the sound of a champagne cork, only 100 times louder. • Fogging: you will experience this during your rapid decompression run. It is explained by Charles’ Law and is caused by the sudden change in temperature and/ or pressure changing the amount of water vapor the air is able to hold. In a rapid decompression, temperature and pressure are reduced, which reduces the holding capacity of air for water vapor, so water vapor that cannot be held by the air appears as fog. • Temperature: cabin temperature will equalize with the external ambient temperature (close to absolute zero!). This will result in a risk of frostbite and cold- related injuries. • Flying debris: the magnitude of the decompression force will depend upon the size of the puncture but, given the high pressure differential, it is likely the velocity of airflow through the opening will force unsecured items to be extracted and, in the event of a large opening, it is possible crewmembers may be sucked from the spacecraft! For those who would like to see a graphic example of such an event, the Danny Boyle film,Sunshine , is required viewing!

Physiological effects of rapid/explosive decompression In the event of a decompression, crewmembers will be faced with several life-threatening effects on the pulmonary, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and CNS, most of which are summarized below: • Pulmonary system: this system is potentially the most vulnerable due to the large volume of air in the lungs and the fragile nature of pulmonary tissue. The extent of the damage inflicted upon the system will depend upon the magnitude and rate of decompression, which in turn will determine survivability. If decompression is rapid rather than explosive, crewmembers may experience mild to moderate pulmonary hemorrhaging and edema whereas, if the decompression event results in a decompression rate faster than the capability of the lungs to decompress, there will be a transient positive increase in intrapulmonary pressure with potentially fatal consequences. • Cardiovascular system: damage inflicted upon the heart will primarily be caused by anoxia, which results in stretching of the myocardium. After approximately 30 seconds, heart rate will decrease to almost half of resting levels, although cardiac contractility will be maintained. As cabin pressure approaches vacuum, heart rate will drop significantly. • Central nervous system: most effects will be due to anoxia and its effect upon brain function. As less oxygen is available, the CNS will become progressively more damaged and the crewmember will suffer greater neurological damage. • Gastrointestinal system: the dangers associated with this system are related to the rapid expansion of trapped gases within the body cavities. The abdominal disten- sion resulting from the rapid decompression will displace the diaphragm, which will compromise respiratory function to such a degree as to impede breathing. GHA 200: G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory 225

Ultimately, as cabin pressure approaches vacuum, blood pressure will drop precipi- tously, and unconsciousness and shock will ensue. • Hypoxia: a rapid reduction in ambient pressure will produce a corresponding drop in the partial pressure of oxygen and, depending on the magnitude of the drop, a performance decrement as previously discussed. • Hypothermia: protective clothing and the speed at which cabin temperature drops will determine the severity of cold-related injuries such as hypothermia and frostbite.

Medical interventions following rapid decompression There is no treatment protocol for exposure to rapid or explosive decompression, although options are available. A crewmember who has suffered a rapid/explosive decompression will be brought to the airlock which will serve as a hyperbaric chamber for recompression. Recompression may be successful in reversing the massive tissue swelling and may permit further treatment of the victim. In this scenario, the crewmember will be placed inside the airlock and hyperbaric oxygen therapy will be administered in accordance with established protocols. If pulmonary hemorrhage is evident and respiratory function is compromised, endotracheal suctioning and intubation may be administered. If the crewmember is diagnosed with internal bleeding, Dextran (a fluid expander that offsets plasma loss) will be administered via two large-bore IVs.

2. High-altitude indoctrination (HAI) The high-altitude indoctrination (HAI) training phase will comprise a theoretical component followed by a practical component. During your initial exposure to high altitude, you will breathe supplemental oxygen for 30 minutes at ground-level pressure to reduce the nitrogen load in your body tissues—a procedure termed “pre-breathing”. To provide you with an opportunity to experience hypoxia, the chamber will be gradually depressurized to an altitude of 7,500 meters. You will then remove your oxygen mask and complete simple, repetitive drawing and mathematical tasks for a period of up to four minutes, after which you will return to ground pressure.

Practical preparation A chamber operator will accompany you when you enter the chamber. The chamber operator will be responsible for communicating with the console operators seated outside and also for controlling the interior pressure. They will also be responsible for sealing the lock leading to the access chamber/entry lock, and ensuring safety procedures are adhered to. During the ascent to altitude, the entire chamber will be maintained at the same internal pressure. In the event of someone not feeling well, the affected person will be placed in the entry lock and this will be sealed from the main chamber. The entry lock will then be depressurized. During the chamber run, the console chamber operator will record the times of the start and finish time of pre-breathe, the time each altitude is reached, and the length of time the chamber is kept at each altitude. 226 Orbital Ground School Manual

Table 9.18. Characteristics of hypoxia.

Stages of hypoxia Indifferent Compensatory Disturbance

(98–90% O2 (89–80% O2 (79–70% O2 Critical (69–60%

saturation) saturation) saturation) O2 saturation) Altitude (000’s m) 0–3 3–4.5 4.5–6 6–7.5 Symptoms Decrease in Drowsiness Impaired motor Circulatory failure vision Poor judgment control CNS failure Impaired coordina- Decreased Convulsions tion and efficiency coordination Cardiovascular Impaired vision collapse and memory Death

Pre-breathe Thirty minutes prior to the chamber run, you will don masks connected to 100% oxygen and commence your pre-breathe. The chamber techs will ensure your masks are fitted correctly and conduct a comm check. Following pre-breathe, the chamber operator will close the chamber’s external hatch and the run will commence at an ascent rate of 1,500 meters per minute. At 1,500 meters, the ascent will be stopped to check for system leaks. During the ascent, the chamber operator will remind you of the physiological effects (Table 9.18) you would be experiencing if you were not breathing via the built-in breathing system. At 7,500 meters, you will buddy up and perform a hypoxia awareness test, requiring you to drop your mask and shut off the oxygen. The hypoxia familiarization is an essential element of HAI, as it teaches you to recognize your physiological response to hypoxia, and also makes you aware of your reaction times. After a maximum four minutes at 7,500 meters, you will don oxygen masks and restart your oxygen supply and descend to sea level.

Exposure to high altitude and rapid decompression Following your chamber run, you will have the opportunity to familiarize yourself with the pressure suit and helmet you will be wearing during launch and re-entry. The suit technicians will begin by asking you to perform simple tasks such as pulling pens from pockets and testing your manual inflation systems. You will then perform a press-to-test, which will allow you to regulate pressure inside the suit. To ensure you are comfortable with the suit, you will experiment dialing in, regulating, and maintaining various pressures, after which the suit technician will perform a final check of your suit and the chamber will be prepared for another run.

Flight to 25,000 meters During the ascent, you will be reminded about suit inflation and the events that occur at specific altitudes. For example, as the chamber passes through the Armstrong Line at 19,100 meters, you will notice the suede patches on your suit begin to smoke and the water GHA 200: G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory 227 in the glass beaker will begin to boil—a not-so-subtle reminder that, if you were not wearing a pressure suit, your blood would be boiling! As the chamber approaches 25,000 meters, the instructor will explain the emergency egress checklist and ask you to find and touch each item related to conducting an emergency egress while the suit is fully inflated. The chamber will remain at 25,000 meters for four minutes during which time the chamber operator will explain what to expect during the rapid decompression exercise. The chamber will descend to 7,500 meters but the entrance lock will remain at 25,000 meters. At 7,500 meters, the chamber operator will give you a briefing about the events preceding rapid decompression. The console operator and chamber operator will verify the main chamber and the entrance lock are at the correct altitude and the console operator will open the transfer valve between the two chambers and signal to the chamber operator it is safe to conduct the rapid decompression. The chamber operator will press the red button located in the ceiling of the main chamber and rapid decompression will occur, the first sign of which will be a loud “bang”, followed by a forceful rush of air. You will see condensation form instantly on the interior of the chamber and, within seconds, you will be unable to see those seated in front of you due to the fogging inside the chamber. The water you observed boiling in the beaker will explode out of its container and you will feel your suit become rigid. This is something you definitely do not want to happen while you are on orbit!

3. G-tolerance theory1 Introduction During the launch, ascent, orbital, de-orbit, and re-entry flight phases, you will encounter different acceleration stresses and, although your spacecraft has been designed to reduce these stresses, in the event of a contingency, especially during re-entry, these forces may be significant. This section provides you with an introduction to the theoretical and practical aspects of G-tolerance and the accelerative forces you will encounter during launch and re-entry. But, before you enjoy the centrifuge, it is necessary to understand the principles governing gravitational physiology. Sustained acceleration (+Gz) is acceleration lasting for more than one second and is a force that can make it impossible for you to breathe. High rates of sustained acceleration can also result in blood pooling to such a degree that it will cause you to convulse and eventually black out. Given the serious consequences of these events, it is important you are familiar with the effects so you are able to deal with in-flight events such as grayout, blackout, or even unconsciousness. During your trip to and from orbit, you can expect to experience five distinct phases of accelerative stress, each differing in their magnitude and duration: • Launch: typically between 3.5 and 4.5 Gs. • Orbital: the centrifugal force of the spacecraft balances the gravitational force, thus producing a microgravity environment of zero gravity!

1 If you are interested in this subject, I suggest the excellent book Pulling G by Erik Seedhouse, published by Springer-Praxis. 228 Orbital Ground School Manual

• Re-entry: you will begin to notice acceleration stresses at an altitude of 75,000 meters due to the sudden drag and deceleration during re-entry into the denser atmosphere. The magnitude of G-forces you experience will depend on the spacecraft’s angle of entry into the atmosphere. High re-entry angles (>10º) produce very large forces (>25 Gs) whereas shallow angles of less than 1º usually result in forces of less than 5 Gs. • Landing: if your vehicle uses big parachutes and you land on soft terrain, you should experience landing forces no greater than 5 Gs. • Emergency egress: you can expect high-magnitude accelerations exceeding 15 Gs, sustained for one or two seconds.

Cardiovascular effects of +Gz The most sensitive of the physiological systems to +Gz is the cardiovascular system. Before the centrifuge run, you may be instrumented with ECG and heart rate monitoring equipment so you will be able to see for yourself how you react to increasing G. Generally, you can expect your heart rate to correlate with increased +Gz due to the acceleration force. In fact, most people will experience an initial cardiovascular response even before the start of the run due to the anticipation of the event.

Respiratory effects of +Gz The rapid onset runs (RORs) will expose you to five or more Gs and will help indoctrinate you to the effects on your respiratory system you will experience during launch. The effect of being launched in the reclined position will compress the chest as accelerative (G) forces increase—a sensation astronauts describe as having an elephant sitting on their chest!

Sensory effects of +Gz Many of the CNS effects of +Gz are a direct consequence of the cardiovascular effects, since a regular blood supply is required for the CNS to function, so the ability of your body to tolerate acceleration is related directly to adequate blood flowing to your brain. Because of this relationship, symptoms relating to insufficient blood flow to the brain are used to determine tolerance to +Gz. The normal index of defining G-level tolerance is to use loss of vision (LOV) in an upright-seated position at a specific level of G-exposure. The visual symptoms you will experience during your centrifuge run are caused by a reduction of blood flow in the retina of the eye, which in turn is caused by a reduction in driving pressure and higher intraocular pressure. Table 9.19 summarizes the sensory symptoms you may experience during your centrifuge run. You will be able to measure light loss by watching a light bar placed in front of you at eye level. The bar has a green light at each end and a red light in the center. When you look directly at the light bar without moving your eyes or head and you cannot see the green lights but can see the red light, 100% PLL has occurred. GHA 200: G-Tolerance and High-Altitude Theory 229

Table 9.19. Categorization of light-loss criteria.

Onset of Symptom Description symptoms Criteria Grayout Partial LOV. Often occurs as first 3.5 Gs 100% peripheral light physiological effect of sustained loss (PLL) combined G-loads. Low blood oxygen levels with 50% central light cause peripheral vision to fade. loss (CLL) Objects in center of FOV can be seen but seem surrounded by gray haze Blackout Gray haze envelops entire FOV and Above 5 Gs 100% CLL, but sufficient almost immediately becomes black. blood reaches brain to You will be conscious but unable to permit consciousness see and hearing Gravity-induced Follows quickly after blackout with Above 5 Gs Normally occurs loss sustained G-load. You will be following increase of of consciousness unconscious but will regain con- acceleration after (G-LOC) sciousness when G-load is released blackout LOV, loss of vision; FOV, field of vision.

Individual tolerance to +Gz Tolerance to +Gz may vary from day to day and is highly individualized as everyone has different physiological responses, but there are some steps you can take to minimize any unpleasantness. You should eat prior to the centrifuge run because, if you are hypoglyce- mic, you will impair your heart’s ability to compensate at the onset of high G-loads, and you will experience grayout and blackout at relatively low sustained G-loads. If you are unfit, you can expect a significant decrease in your ability to tolerate +Gz. If you have an illness, you should inform the staff, as most illnesses will compromise your tolerance to +Gz. Be sure to drink adequately prior to your run, as dehydration will have an adverse effect on your ability to tolerate G by reducing plasma volume. Finally, recency of G-exposure will affect your tolerance to +Gz, as this declines markedly if frequent exposure to G is not maintained.

4. G-tolerance training overview Ground school Upon arrival at the centrifuge facility, your instructor will most likely review the major theoretical elements of G-tolerance and take you on a tour of the console room and the centrifuge chamber. During your tour, you will be shown the interior of the gondola and the instructor will indicate the adjustable rudder pedals provided for foot support, and the shoulder and lap harnesses that will secure you. You will also have the opportunity to don the facemask you will be wearing during the run to monitor your breathing. The facemask 230 Orbital Ground School Manual serves a dual function, as it also permits two-way communication with the console operator. When you sit in the chair, you may notice a small video camera, which will record your run.

Practical preparation Shortly after breakfast on test day, you will observe a dry run from the console room. The console operator will review the G-onset loads and the operation of the communication system and will assign you to a centrifuge rotation, explain the safety procedures, and outline the roles of the flight surgeon and centrifuge operator. Before you step into the gondola, the flight surgeon will explain what you should expect during each run. Support personnel will supervise your ingress where you will be connected to biomedical instrumentation that will include a 12-lead ECG, blood pressure cuffs, and respiratory monitoring equipment.

G-tolerance test The run schedules for your assessment are detailed in Table 9.20.

Sample questions

1. The process in which pulmonary alveoli exchange gas with the atmosphere is known as: a. ventilation. b. perfusion. c. transportation. d. convection. 2. Chokes is characterized by: a. deep chest pain aggravated by breathing, mottled skin, and shortness of breath (dyspnea). b. deep chest pain aggravated by breathing, a dry constant unproductive cough, and hyperoxia.

Table 9.20. Run schedule for determination of G-sensitivity.

Rate of onset Peak G Rate of offset Run no. Type of run (G/second) Magnitude Duration (seconds) (G/second) 1 Warm-up 0.5 2.5 15 0.2 2 GOR 0.1 5.0 5 1.0 3 ROR 1 1.0 3.0 10 1.0 4 ROR 2 1.0 4.0 15 1.0 5 ROR 3 1.0 5.0 20 1.0 Sms 200: Space Motion Sickness 231

c. deep chest pain aggravated by breathing, a dry constant unproductive cough, and paresthesia. d. deep chest pain aggravated by breathing, a dry constant unproductive cough, and shortness of breath (dyspnea). 3. Critical hypoxia is characterized by: a. circulatory failure, CNS failure, mottled skin, cardiovascular collapse, and death. b. circulatory failure, CNS failure, convulsions, cardiovascular collapse, and death. c. circulatory failure, deep chest pain, convulsions, cardiovascular collapse, and death. d. circulatory failure, CNS failure, convulsions, scotoma, and death.

SMS 200: Space Motion Sickness

Module objectives • Describe the etiology of space motion sickness • Explain the benefits of autogenic feedback training • List three symptoms of space motion sickness

9.26 The sense of being inverted can provoke motion sickness symptoms in many people. Courtesy: NASA 232 Orbital Ground School Manual

1. Introduction to space motion sickness 2. Space motion sickness research 3. Autogenic feedback training 4. Virtual reality and pre-flight visual orientation and navigation training 5. Parabolic flight training 6. Unusual attitude and incremental velocity training

1. Introduction to space motion sickness Two-thirds of first-time space tourists will experience SMS symptoms, which may include headache, stomach awareness, nausea, and vomiting. You may notice these symptoms shortly after orbital insertion and may find them triggered by viewing an unusual scene such as an inverted crewmember, although symptoms may also be provoked by head movements. The good news is that symptoms normally abate within 48–72 hours in flight, although the rate of recovery, degree of adaptation, and specific symptoms vary between individuals. The development of SMS typically follows an orderly sequence, the timescale largely being determined by factors such as the individual’s susceptibility and the intensity of the motion stimulus. Although the incidence and severity will depend upon the particular environment involved, SMS is always unpleasant and may in certain situations compromise performance during an emergency egress.

Space motion sickness symptoms A common feeling upon orbital insertion is one of disorientation—a sensation that will probably be addressed on your vehicle by careful location of lighting and color schemes to give you a definite “up” and “down” feeling. The disorientation is likely to precipitate classic SMS symptoms such as GI awareness, perhaps as early as the first few minutes on reaching orbit. These symptoms may range from nausea to vomiting and retching. Unfortunately, these episodes will not be preceded by prodromal symptoms as they are on Earth. Most likely, the first indication you’re suffering from SMS will be a forceful expul- sion of stomach contents, which you will need to capture and stow as soon as possible to avoid the ire of your fellow crewmembers! If you are among the lucky few who do not experience SMS, you may experience milder symptoms such as malaise, lack of initiative, and general irritability. One way for you to reduce the incidence of SMS symptoms is to minimize head movements, since hypersensitivity to head motion is perhaps one of the more commonly suffered symptoms and may provoke stronger sensations for reasons that are explained in the following sections.

Essential neurovestibular physiology The vestibular system (Figure 9.27) consists of the inner ear, in which are located three semicircular canals for detecting angular acceleration, and the saccule and utricle, which detect linear acceleration. The semicircular canals correspond to the three dimensions in Sms 200: Space Motion Sickness 233

9.27 The organs of the vestibular system. Courtesy: Wikimedia which movement occurs, each canal being responsible for detecting motion in a single plane. Flowing through each canal is a fluid (endolymph), which deflects small hair-like cells (cupula) as the head experiences angular acceleration, which in turn sends messages to the vestibular receiving areas of the brain. One vestibular component is located on each side of the head, their function being to mirror each other and act in a push (excited) pull (inhibited) manner depending on the direction the cupula move. When you move forward, when accelerating in a car for example (linear acceleration), this information is communicated to the brain via the utricle and saccule—structures that have a sheet of hair-like cells (macula) embedded in a gelatinous mass. This mass has areas of small crystals (otolith), which provide the inertia required to drag the “hairs” from side to side, thereby providing the perception of motion. Once you have decided on a speed to drive, a steady velocity is detected, the otoliths stabilize, and the perceived motion dissipates. The arrangement of the utricle and saccule determine motion detection, the utricle being responsible for motion in the horizontal plane, since it lies horizontally in the ear, and the saccule able to detect down, up, forward, and backward motion by virtue of its vertical orientation.

Etiology One of the problems faced by space medicine experts is that, despite the high incidence of SMS, there is no reliable ground-based test to predict which crewmembers will be affected. Also, despite 50 years of manned spaceflight, little knowledge exists of how to prevent SMS and there are no fully acceptable means of treating symptoms once they appear. Although the underlying causes of the SMS syndrome are reasonably well understood, the mechanisms are not clearly defined and no satisfactory methods have been identified for the prediction, prevention, or treatment. Unsurprisingly, considerable research has been directed at elucidating consistent and objective physical signs that correlate with the onset of the constellation of symptoms 234 Orbital Ground School Manual associated with SMS, but much of this research has been largely unsuccessful. A part of the reason for the lack of success in accurately identifying methods for its prediction, prevention, and treatment is due to the in-flight use of anti-motion sickness (MS) drugs—a procedure that tends to obscure meaningful clues. Also, while astronauts serve as an elite subject group, their numbers are small.

2. Space motion sickness research Due to the limitations of conducting space-borne research, it would seem logical to conduct SMS research in terrestrial laboratories. Unfortunately, methods of simulating the syndrome are difficult and have not been fully studied, while the views on the mechanics of its development are quite diverse and, at times, contradictory. One of the most realistic ways to simulate microgravity is by means of a parabolic flight profile, but this method is limited by time, as it provides only short periods of microgravity.

Vection As you may be incapacitated for up to three days on orbit, it is important you train to recognize SMS symptoms and also to help desensitize yourself against these symptoms, thereby reducing the chances of you becoming sick. Unfortunately, much of this training involves you being exposed to motion-provoking environments! On the classic methods of inducing experimental MS is to expose seated individuals to whole-field visual stimulation. For this test, you will be seated in a large drum that will be rotated to present a moving array of vertical black and white stripes. Within 5–30 seconds of drum rotation, you will probably experience compelling illusory self-rotation termed “vection”. After a few minutes of this rotation, it is likely you will begin to experience MS symptoms that may become progressively more severe. The reason you experience self-rotation is due to a hypothesized sensory mismatch or sensory conflict between visual inputs. The sensory conflict you experience in the drum is assessed for its conformity with certain patterns established on the basis of your previous experience of motion environments. If the novel sensory input fails to conform to the established patterns of your previous motion experience, the sensory conflict will provoke MS symptoms.

3. Autogenic feedback training Autogenic feedback training (AFT) theory Autogenic feedback training (AFT) may be the most effective countermeasure developed to counter the deleterious effects of SMS. It is a system developed by Dr. Patricia Cowings of Ames Research Center (ARC) and consists of a straightforward training procedure combining the application of biofeedback and autogenic therapy (an acquired self-regulation technique) in controlling some SMS symptoms such as vomiting and Sms 200: Space Motion Sickness 235 nausea. The six-hour Autogenic Feedback Training Exercise (AFTE) program improves motion tolerance by up to 85% and may reduce the chances of SMS affecting your expensive vacation!

AFT training The principle of the AFTE course is to teach you to voluntarily control several physiological responses using a combination of physiological and perceptual training techniques such as Autogenic Therapy and Biofeedback that are designed to relax your physiological profile and thereby reduce your reaction to stress. For example, Autogenic Therapy is a self-regulatory technique that has proved to be effective in modifying the autonomic response to stress by using self-suggestion exercises designed to induce bodily sensations that are highly correlated with specific physiological responses such as peripheral vasodilation. You will find that, after practicing these self-suggestion exercises, you will be able to relax your physiological response to stress, thereby reducing the severity of any symptoms. The biofeedback component of the AFTE course will inform you of sensory information concerning physiological responses to stressors by presenting you with your heart rate and/or blood pressure on a digital panel meter, thereby allowing you to recognize physiological changes associated with motion stimulation.

AFT system During your training, you will wear a biomedical instrumentation package—a physiological monitoring and feedback system consisting of a shirt fitted with transducers, signal conditioning amplifiers, a microcontroller, and a wrist-worn feedback display. You will wear this when conducting your training with a PC-based physiological monitoring and training system which utilizes user-interactive software that measures and displays your physiological responses in real time. The monitoring of your physiological responses is achieved by placing sensors and transducers on various locations on your body, and the information from these sensors is displayed on a wrist-worn display. By using this system, you will be able to monitor the following parameters: • Blood volume pulse (BVP): a tiny infrared sensor worn on the small finger of your left hand will detect changes in the blood-vessel volume of your hand. • Skin temperature: a sensor mounted within the same unit as the BVP sensor will measure skin temperature. • Skin conductance level (SCL): electrodes mounted on your left wrist will monitor changes in the electrical conductivity of your skin. • Respiration: piezoelectric film strapped across your diaphragm will measure the range and frequency of respiratory cycles. • Electrocardiography (ECG): electrodes will be placed on your chest to monitor electrical impulses from your heart. • Acceleration: an accelerometer attached to your headband will measure your head’s motion along three axes. 236 Orbital Ground School Manual

4. Virtual reality and pre-flight visual orientation and navigation training Introduction A key component of this module is your opportunity to use synthetic environment training. The Simulated Intravehicular Activity System (SIVAS) you will be using during this training uses data derived from video of your operator’s vehicle allowing you to view the vehicle interior with real geometry and lighting consistent with on-orbit activities.

Virtual reorientation illusion/intravehicular (IVA) training Another objective of IVA training is to help you maintain your spatial orientation during your stay. When determining orientation in a 1-G Earth environment, your brain utilizes input from a number of sensory channels, predominantly proprioception and vision. Once on orbit, however, your proprioceptive sense often provides illusory information, meaning you will need to rely much more on vision to maintain your spatial orientation, since inner-ear cues will no longer signal the direction of “down”. One of the illusions you will encounter is the natural tendency to assume the surface beneath your feet is the floor and the perception that the “walls”, “ceiling”, and “floors” will often exchange subjective iden- tities! Also, when viewing a fellow crewmember “upside down”, you may often feel upside down yourself due to the subconscious assumption carried over from life on Earth that people are usually upright. You may perceive feeling continuously inverted regardless of your orientation in the spacecraft due to the effect of fluid shifts and how receptors in your body interpret these inputs. This inversion is an artificial impression termed a “visual reorientation illusion” (VRI) and may cause you to experience SMS symptoms, especially during your first few days. These VRIs may also cause you to experience navigation difficulties when moving around the spacecraft. For example, you may find it difficult to remain oriented when travelling from one compartment to the next, as some compartments are not co-aligned. To reduce this difficulty, you may be able to use landmarks within the spacecraft as frames of reference and, after a while, and with some practice, you will probably begin to visualize the 3D relationships among the compartments and be able to traverse between them instinctively. The importance of VRIs not only causes problems for new astronauts, but also represents a very real operational concern in the event of an evacuation or explosive decompression. This is one of the reasons that pre-flight visual orientation as a countermeasure will probably be utilized as part of your training.

Virtual environment generator training After completing your SIVAS training, you will have the opportunity to be trained in the use of the virtual environment generator (VEG), a virtual reality (VR) system that can simulate certain aspects of microgravity and serve as a countermeasure for SMS and spatial disorientation. Although our understanding of how the human sense of direction is neurally coded in microgravity is incomplete, research has suggested that using a VR system may help in reducing disorientation. The VEG comprises a head-mounted display, Sms 200: Space Motion Sickness 237 the position and orientation of which command a computer to generate a scene corresponding to the position and orientation of your head. This synthetic presence allows you to move around in the artificial world of the spacecraft. When you don the VEG equipment, you will be presented with an image of the interior of your operator’s spacecraft and a space-stabilized virtual control panel with an image of your hand in the head-mounted display. As you move your hand, the virtual hand will also move. Collision detection software in the graphics computer will detect when your hand penetrates the virtual control panel, enabling you to interact with the virtual switches or objects to control events within the spacecraft. You will also be able to manipulate objects in the virtual spacecraft and to experience resistance to movement, texture, mass, and compressibility thanks to the haptic (tactile) and force feedback systems. To help you in the virtual spacecraft, the system has been designed to provide auditory cues when an object is grasped or dropped, or when a virtual switch is operated. This synthesis of visual and auditory cues will augment the visual information presented to you and thereby enhance your performance within the spacecraft. Your operator will ensure that database compression techniques will result in the virtual spacecraft containing all objects, effect of human behavior, and effect of collision for real- time operation, meaning that, no matter how fast you move through the environment, you will experience no visual lags. The real-time operation will result in you being able to experience the high degree of realism and interactivity necessary to allow you to perform tasks necessary for training.

5. Parabolic flight training Microgravity can be simulated when an aircraft flies a Keplerian trajectory, or parabolic flight profile (Figure 9.28). At the apex of the parabola, the aircraft produces a near-zero-G effect (1 × 10–3 G) for between 20 and 24 seconds just as the aircraft achieves 9,500 meters of the 10,000-meter ascent (termed pull-up) before it slows. The aircraft then traces a parabola (pushover), descending rapidly at a 30º to 45º angle (termed push-out) to 7,300 meters. The acceleration forces produce approximately two times normal gravity (2 Gs) during the “pull-up” and “pull-out” phases of the flight, and between these phases is an intermediate phase, termed the “pushover”, which occurs at the apogee, generating a zero-G environment with less than 1% of Earth’s gravity. Due to the gut-wrenching sensations produced during parabolic training flights, the aircraft has earned the nickname “vomit comet”. During your training, you will probably fly three parabolic increments, during which you may fly more than 50 parabolas. Your parabolic flight indoctrination will take place on board a specially modified Boeing 727-200, named G-Force OneTM, an FAA-approved cargo aircraft designed to conduct parabolic flight maneuvers. The interior is divided into two zones: the rear designated the Seating Zone and the forward area designated the Floating Zone, the floor of which is covered with passenger- friendly special energy-absorbing Ensolite padding. Just like a regular airliner, G-Force OneTM carries a crew including a captain, first officer, and flight engineer, and, just like a regular airliner, there is a flight attendant who is available to assist any crewmember who might feel sick. 238 Orbital Ground School Manual

9.28 ESA’s microgravity aircraft. Courtesy: ESA

6. Unusual attitude and incremental velocity training The purpose of this training (Figure 9.29) is to indoctrinate you to the spatial disorientation and G-forces you will experience during launch, re-entry, and on orbit. The course combines actual aerobatics with a ground school phase that provides you with computer- animated enactments of the maneuvers you will fly. During the actual flights, most of the upsets and unusual maneuvers will be sudden and unexpected and, during most of the flight, you will feel as if you are riding a rollercoaster that is slightly out of control! Your supersonic indoctrination ride will begin in the fitting room, where an anti-G-suit (Figure 9.30), oxygen mask, and helmet will be waiting for you. Since you will have completed the HAI and G-tolerance training course earlier, these items will be familiar to you. After suiting up, you will receive a short introduction in the use of the ejection seat (Figure 9.31), your pilot will deliver a pre-flight briefing, and you will proceed onto the apron, where a jet will be waiting to take you on your ride. If you think you might get airsick, now would be a good time to pop some pills! Since you will be flying at high altitude, you will need to wear a mask that provides you with a 100% positive pressure oxygen source but, because you will be flying below the Armstrong Line, your suit will not be a pressure suit. Because you will spend much of the 40-minute flight either upside down, looping, or spinning, you will need to empty your pockets of cell phones, pens, and pencils. Once you are comfortably seated, you will buckle your five-point flight harness, which will be checked by the pilot before he/she climbs into their seat, after which they will conduct a brief cockpit orientation. After clearance from the Sms 200: Space Motion Sickness 239

9.29 The author about to depart for an unusual attitude flight. Author’s own collection

9.30 Alan Stern about to depart on a Starfighter supersonic flight. Courtesy: SwRI/Alan Stern 240 Orbital Ground School Manual

9.31 A Martin–Baker ejection seat. Courtesy: Wikimedia Sms 200: Space Motion Sickness 241 tower, the jet will tear down the runway and take off, afterburners kicking in as the nose rises sharply. In less than a minute, you will be at your practice altitude of 12,000 meters. The pilot will perform two consecutive 360º turns, one to the right and one to the left at a shallow bank angle, followed by two more turns at increasing bank angles and increasing speed. At the end of the fourth turn, the pilot will flip the plane inverted and fly in this orientation for a while before flipping the plane right way up and entering a spiral dive. After bottoming out at 1,000 meters’ altitude, the aircraft will climb steeply to 3,000 meters at a progressively increasing angle of attack. At 3,000 meters, you will feel the aircraft begin to shake as it approaches its stall speed, followed shortly after by the very real sensation that the aircraft is falling. After falling 1,000 meters, the pilot will pitch the nose down into a sharp dive that will rapidly become a spin. The aircraft will now be flying directly at the ground, spinning faster and faster as the pilot calmly explains to you how he/she will recover the aircraft. Once you have recovered your stomach and assured the pilot you really do want to continue, the pilot will execute the Flat Scissors and the Rolling Scissors, which will be your first exposure to significant incremental G-loading. A few more spins and the aircraft will be flying wings level and the pilot will prepare for landing. Or, if you’re really lucky, like I was, the pilot will hand the controls over to you and let you fly the jet for a while. Very cool!

Sample questions

1. The vestibular system consists of: a. the outer ear, in which are located three semicircular canals for detecting angular acceleration, and the saccule and utricle, which detect linear acceleration. b. the inner ear, in which are located three semicircular canals for detecting angular acceleration, and the saccule and utricle, which detect linear acceleration. c. the inner ear, in which are located two semicircular canals for detecting angular acceleration, and the saccule and utricle, which detect linear acceleration. d. the inner ear, in which are located three semicircular canals for detecting angular acceleration, and the saccule and utricle, which detect vertical acceleration. 2. Flowing through each semicircular canal is: a. endolymph, which deflects small hair-like cells as the head experiences angular acceleration. b. endolymph, which deflects small hair-like cells as the head experiences linear acceleration. c. endolymph, which deflects small hair-like cells as the head experiences deceleration. d. endolymph, which deflects small hair-like cells as the head experiences vertical acceleration. 3. Space motion sickness symptoms: a. always resolve within six hours on orbit. b. may last more than four days. c. typically resolve within 48–72 hours. d. only affect those who suffer from terrestrial motion sickness. 242 Orbital Ground School Manual

SSO 200: Space Systems Orbital

9.32 Part of your systems orientation will feature a visit to the cockpit to see what the pilot gets up to during your ride to orbit. Courtesy: NASA

Module objectives • Describe the principles of the life-support system • Explain how the guidance, navigation, and control system works • Explain what the active thermal control system (ATCS) does 1. On-board systems orientation 2. Generic vehicle orientation

1. On-board systems orientation Professional astronauts must have a comprehensive understanding of all systems and subsystems on board. They must also understand the relationships between these systems and be able to identify major hardware components, state their function, identify intrasystem and intersystem interfaces, and describe the capabilities of each. Such a rigorous level of knowledge is not a requirement for space tourists, although a familiarity with the vehicle’s primary systems is necessary, as you may be required to assist with routine maintenance tasks and must be proficient in reacting to emergencies such as fire and decompression. Sso 200: Space Systems Orbital 243

Environmental control and life-support system (ECLSS) The environmental control and life-support system (ECLSS) performs vital functions such as supplying air, water, and food. It also maintains temperature and pressure as well as shielding you from radiation. The subject matter expert for this system will be the flight engineer, who will be familiar with every component, including the air revitalization system, the atmosphere revitalization pressure control system (ARPCS), and the ATCS, each of which interacts to provide a habitable environment.

Air revitalization system Your habitat contains several independent air loops that circulate habitat pressure atmosphere. These loops constitute the ARS, which is responsible for: • Circulating air • Ensuring humidity remains between 30% and 75% • Ensuring carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide levels remain non-toxic • Ensuring temperature and ventilation is regulated • Ensuring the habitat’s avionics and electronics are cooled. As air circulates, it collects heat, moisture, carbon dioxide, and debris before being drawn through a cabin loop and filter by a cabin fan which ducts the air to lithium hydroxide canisters that remove carbon dioxide and trace contaminants. Once air has passed through the lithium hydroxide canisters, it passes through a heat exchanger and is cooled. At this stage, any water in the air is separated by a humidity separator fan which routes water to a waste water tank and the air is returned to the cabin. The frequency with which air is renewed depends on the size of the vehicle/habitat but usually a cabin air change will occur between six and eight times an hour.

Atmosphere revitalization pressure control system (ARPCS) The atmosphere revitalization pressure control system (ARPCS) ensures habitat air pressure is maintained at 14.7 psia and that the partial pressures of oxygen and nitrogen are maintained within nominal levels. Since oxygen constitutes 20% of the air mixture, the partial pressure of oxygen must be maintained between 2.95 and 3.45 psia, whereas the partial pressure of nitrogen, which makes up 80% of the air, must be maintained at about 11.5 psia. Several specialized cryogenic oxygen tanks contain the source of the habitat’s oxygen whereas nitrogen is contained in several nitrogen cylinders. An average of 800 grams of oxygen is used per crewmember per day but these numbers to not take into account the normal loss of habitat gas to space and the amount lost to metabolic usage. The oxygen and nitrogen supply systems are controlled by the atmosphere pressure control system that regulates the release of the gases by a system of check valves, inlet valves, relief valves, supply valves, sensors, control switches, and talkback systems. A description of the function of this system is beyond the scope of this section and you will not be expected to have an understanding of how the system works. However, you will need to know how to react if the system detects pressures outside nominal parameters. 244 Orbital Ground School Manual

If habitat pressure falls below 14.0 psia or rises above 15.4 psia, or if oxygen partial pressure falls below 2.8 psia or rises above 3.6 psia, then the master alarm will sound and caution lights will illuminate on the ARPCS panel. Whichever crewmember is closest to the ARPCS panel will be responsible for dealing with the emergency, meaning you will need to know where the overpressure and negative relief valves are located. For example, if the emergency is an over-pressurization, you will need to activate the relief switch which will in turn activate a valve designed to relieve pressure through venting. If the emergency is a low-pressure alarm, you will activate the negative pressure relief valves releasing a flow of ambient pressure into the habitat.

Active thermal control system (ATCS) The active thermal control system (ATCS) is responsible for heat rejection, achieved by the use of cold plate networks, coolant loops, liquid heat exchangers, and various other heat sink systems that reject heat outside the habitat. The habitat has a large number of electronic units and systems that generate heat and it is important the heat sink systems are not overloaded, although, if the capacity of the heat sink units is exceeded, the habitat can activate a flash evaporator designed to meet excess heat rejection requirements for short periods.

Smoke and fire detection and suppression A description of each item of firefighting equipment and the fire response procedures employed by your operator is beyond the scope of this manual but, given the potentially grave implications of such an event, it is appropriate to review some generic firefighting capabilities and systems. Smoke and fire detection and suppression capabilities are provided throughout the vehicle by means of ionization detection elements that provide information of smoke concentration levels to the general purpose computer (GPC). If the GPC detects an abnormal concentration of smoke, the master alarm lights will activate and the general alarm will sound. Fire suppression in the vehicle and habitat is dealt with by release of Freon-1301 (bro- motrifluoromethane), which may be released automatically by the GPC or manually by a push button. In addition to the fitted systems, the crew can fight fires using portable, Halon-1301 (monobromotrifluoromethane) fire extinguishers (PFEs)—watch the film Gravity to get a sense of the challenges operating one of these. PFE operation comprises a simple sequence of events requiring you to remove the locking pin and depress the trigger. These actions will become intimately familiar to you as you conduct what will seem like endless fire drills in your habitat mock-ups. During the drills, you will use the same PFEs installed on board the vehicle and habitat and also have the opportunity to become familiar with the portable breathing apparatus (PBA)—a system you will need to fight fires. The PBA is a space-modified breathing mask similar to the ones terrestrial firefighters use and comprises a mask attached to a 1.8-meter Sso 200: Space Systems Orbital 245 hose that has a quick disconnect attached at one end. The disconnect end of the hose is plugged into a small oxygen cylinder that supplies oxygen for 15 minutes.

Communications: the basics • Communication between the vehicle/habitat and Mission Control will probably be sent via a domestic communications satellite on a shared-time basis, meaning you will have limited time for communicating with family and friends. • Direct signals from Mission Control to the vehicle are referred to as uplinks. • Signals from the vehicle to Mission Control are referred to as downlinks, each of which is sent using the S-band portion of the radio frequency spectrum of 1,700–2,300 MHz. • Communication security (COMSEC) equipment permits the encryption/decryption of confidential data.

Guidance, navigation, and control: the basics Guidance, navigation, and control (GNC) are effected using three simple steps: 1. First, the guidance computer calculates the vehicle’s location. 2. Secondly, the navigation software tracks the vehicle’s location. 3. Thirdly, flight control hardware transports the vehicle to the required location. During the launch and ascent phases, the GNC assists in: • Maintaining the vehicle’s center of gravity. • Gimbaling the rocket engine clusters. • Ensuring thrust does not result in excess aerodynamic loading on the vehicle. The GNC system operates in either auto or manual mode, the latter requiring the pilot to use the control stick to steer, whereas, in the automatic mode, the vehicle’s avionics software system permits the on-board computers to fly the vehicle. On orbit, the primary GNC tasks include: • Achieving the correct position, velocity, and attitude necessary to accomplish the mission objective, which will usually be docking and undocking with the orbital habitat. • Detecting out-of-limit conditions: warnings are provided by visual cues consisting of master alarm push-button light indicators on the flight control panel.

2. Generic vehicle orientation A part of your training will include equipment acquaintance sessions to introduce you to everyday equipment, a familiarity with which will be essential during your time on board. Most sessions will combine a theoretical element delivered using the VEG and a practical element delivered in the vehicle and habitat mock-ups onsite. The following is a synopsis of the types of equipment you may be required to train on. 246 Orbital Ground School Manual

Food preparation system Your habitat will be equipped with facilities for food preparation, dining, and stowage customized for each crewmember. You will have chosen your menu options when you completed your mission requirements checklist. This will have required you to choose menu food items that consist of three daily meals per day per crewmember, and pantry food items consisting of snack items and beverages. In addition to these two food categories, you will also have chosen a contingency menu designed to provide you with food for up to 72 hours in the event of a de-orbit delay. In addition to choosing food items, you will also be able to express a preference for the way your food is prepared. For example, you will be able to choose between having fresh, irradiated, natural-form, thermo-stabilized, or rehydratable menu choices. The food preparation area in the habitat is designated a galley and consists of food warmers, food trays, and food system accessories designed to help you prepare your food. During the practical training phase for this module, you will have the opportunity to practice using the various galley equipment in the mock-up. Instructors will demonstrate the use of the water dispenser and rehydration station to you and the method of operation in microgravity. You will learn that activities we take largely for granted here on Earth often require much more thought and time. For example, the simple task of taking a drink requires you to insert a rehydratable beverage container into the rehydration station until the water dispenser needle penetrates the rubber septum on the rehydratable container, all the time ensuring the specified amount of water is discharged into the container. Once you have managed that, you will need to mix the beverage and heat it, if required. The whole process, which would take perhaps 30 seconds on Earth, may take five minutes or more in microgravity. To prevent a mix-up of food items, everything is color-coded, including accessories such as condiments, vitamins, gum, and candy. Due to space constraints, the galley is designed for one person at a time, so it is important you become proficient at preparing your food so your fellow crewmembers don’t waste valuable time waiting for you to finish! Generally, it takes one hour for one crewmember to prepare a meal, eat it, and clean up.

Crew launch, and entry suit and on-orbit clothing During launch and re-entry, you will wear a pressure suit, consisting of a helmet, communications cap, a pressure garment, an anti-exposure layer, gloves, and boots. Over this ensem- ble, you will wear escape equipment consisting of an emergency oxygen system, parachute harness and parachute rig with automatic opening device and pilot chute, a life raft, two liters of emergency drinking water, a flotation device, and a survival vest pocket containing a SAR beacon, smoke flare, and sea dye marker. During the practical portion of this module, you will become familiar with the various items contained in your flight suit and, during the HAI training, you will test the integrity of your suit during your chamber ride. Your launch and entry suit is designed to protect you from sudden depressurization of the cabin during the launch and re-entry portions of the flight and against orthostatic intolerance following landing thanks to inflatable bladders in the legs. It will also protect you Sso 200: Space Systems Orbital 247 in the event of an emergency egress below an altitude of 18,000 meters and, in the event of a water landing, it will provide protection for up to 24 hours. The suit is a one-piece five- layer suit that includes a cover layer of fire-retardant NOMEX.

Sleeping quarters Your sleeping quarters will probably consist of a sleeping bag, pillow, sleep restraints/ adjustable straps, and a sleep station. How much space and therefore how much privacy you have will depend on the habitat and the number of crewmembers but you should expect fairly spartan quarters during the first few years of private orbital operations. Your sleeping station will probably be located close to a porthole so you can go to sleep and wake up with a million-dollar view—after all, you paid for it! To ingress your station: • Unstow your personal sleep kit from your locker. • Decide whether you want to sleep in a horizontal or vertical configuration. • Position your sleeping bag, ensuring the adjustable straps are within reach. • Make sure you have attached the pillow using the Velcro strips on the ends and slide into your sleeping bag. • Restrain yourself using the elastic adjustable restraining straps. • Draw the privacy curtain, wrap the eye-covers over your head and push your ear plugs into place so the noise from the ventilation and ECLSS doesn’t keep you awake.

Personal hygiene and general housekeeping Your personal hygiene kit contains the necessary articles for brushing hair, shaving, nail care, tooth care, and general grooming. In addition to the kit, you will be provided with two washcloths and two towels per day. Although you have paid a lot (A LOT!) of money for your flight, you will still be expected to perform necessary housekeeping tasks requiring about an hour of your time each day. The housekeeping chores will be divided between crewmembers and a rotation will be posted in the galley every day. The chores include: • Cleaning the galley • Changing the air filters • Trash disposal • Exchanging lithium hydroxide canisters • Cleaning the waste management compartment.

Photography and photographic equipment Your standard issue camera is a Nikon DSLR, which, incidentally, is not modified for their use in space (a fact the company likes to boast about whenever a new order is placed by a space agency). It is a single-lens reflex digital camera with interchangeable lenses capable of single-frame shooting, capture preview, and record-and-review modes. Although you may find it a little heavy during your familiarization sessions, this is obviously not a problem you’ll have to worry about during your stay on orbit! 248 Orbital Ground School Manual

Restraint and mobility devices To take good-quality photos, you’ll need to use restraints, which will not only help you during your photography sessions, but will also help you perform your galley duties safely. The most common restraint device is the foot loop, which is a cloth loop attached to the decks. You will find foot loops installed near the portholes, galley, and at the workstations and, if you need a foot loop, you can simply install one yourself by unwrapping one and peeling off the adhesive before placing it in the desired location! Mobility aids such as handholds, footholds, and handrails are installed at various locations, allowing you to move safely from one area to the next.

Equipment stowage Each crewmember will be allocated two lockers, the dimensions of which will be about 30 × 45 × 60 centimeters. One locker is for personal items and small items of issued equipment such as your cameras, whereas the other locker is for issued items. Each locker contains two trays and dividers to provide a friction fit for microgravity retention. Other lockers are container modules designed to stow launch equipment.

Exercise equipment The longer your stay on orbit, the more time you will need to use this item of equipment. If you are staying for a week or less, you can expect to spend 30–40 minutes exercising per day. If you are staying for one to four weeks, you will spend between one and two hours per day exercising, which is why the treadmill is installed next to the biggest porthole. When you unstow the treadmill, ensure you have all of its components, which should include a waist belt, two shoulder straps, four force cord extender hooks, and a heart rate monitor. Once positioned on the treadmill, you will need to restrain yourself using the force cords. Next, ensure your heart rate monitor is working and then decide how fast you would like to run by setting the speed control panel. As you run, the speed control panel will provide you with the time and distance run. Bear in mind that, if you run for 90 minutes, you will belong to a select group who have run once around Earth!

Supply and waste water The supply and waste water systems provide water for crew consumption and hygiene. The vehicle/habitat will have a number of supply water tanks containing potable water and one waste water tank. Due to obvious mass restrictions, spacecraft do not embark water supplies on board, relying instead on fuel cell power plants to generate water. To ensure the water is drinkable, the system is fitted with a pH sensor and a microbial filter that adds iodine to the water. Due to the effect of microgravity upon any fluid, the water systems are pressurized using gaseous nitrogen. The water you will be using in the galley is ready chilled at a temperature of between 4ºC and 8ºC, whereas the ambient water temperature that is used for other purposes is between 17ºC and 38ºC. Sso 200: Space Systems Orbital 249

Waste collection system The waste collection system is located in the waste management compartment designed to collect and process biological waste. No doubt, you have heard the question often asked by school children: How do you go to the toilet in space? This section explains everything. Although the waste collection system appears similar to the toilet at home, there are several differences in its function and in its use which you must master. During your practical module, you will have the opportunity to use the system, the use of which is best described using a step-by-step approach. In fact, to ensure no unfortunate events occur while a crewmember is inside the waste management compartment, a checklist has been devised and is posted next to the toilet. It will provide instructions similar to the following. Generic urine collection device instructions • Lift funnel from holder • Remove lid from funnel • Switch valve to “Open” position on funnel • Confirm “Separator” light is ON • Confirm airflow and position funnel clear of body • Urinate • 20 seconds following urination, close valve on funnel • Confirm “Separator” light is OFF • Wipe funnel with washcloth and place in waste collection unit • Install lid on funnel • Place funnel on holder. Generic urination/defecation instructions • Remove lid from funnel • Leaving funnel in place, open plug valve • Confirm “Separator” light is ON • Confirm airflow • Affix solid waste collector insert on collector entrance and spread over seat • Lift funnel • Use solid/liquid waste collector unit • Lift seat, remove insert, and place in solid waste receptacle • Wipe seat and funnel with bacterial wipe and place in waste compartment • Close lid of solid/liquid waste collector • Close valve on funnel • Conform “Separator” light is OFF • Replace lid on funnel.

Sample questions

1. The atmosphere revitalization pressure control system: a. ensures habitat air pressure is maintained at 147 psia and that the partial pressures of oxygen and nitrogen are maintained within nominal levels. 250 Orbital Ground School Manual

b. ensures habitat air pressure is maintained at 14.7 psia and that the pressures of oxygen and nitrogen are maintained within nominal levels. c. ensures habitat air pressure is maintained at 4.7 psia and that the partial pressures of oxygen and nitrogen are maintained within nominal levels. d. ensures habitat air pressure is maintained at 14.7 psia and that the partial pressures of oxygen and nitrogen are maintained within nominal levels. 2. The ARS is responsible for: a. circulating air, ensuring humidity remains between 30% and 75%, ensuring carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide levels remain non-toxic, ensuring temperature and ventilation are regulated, and ensuring the habitat’s avionics and electronics are cooled. b. circulating air, ensuring humidity remains between 50% and 95%, ensuring carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide levels remain non-toxic, ensuring temperature and ventilation are regulated, and ensuring the habitat’s avionics and electronics are cooled. c. circulating air, ensuring humidity remains above 75%, ensuring carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide levels remain non-toxic, ensuring temperature and ventilation are regulated, and ensuring the habitat’s avionics and electronics are cooled. d. circulating air, ensuring humidity remains between 30% and 75%, ensuring carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide levels remain non-toxic, ensuring temperature and ventilation are regulated, and controls the fire suppression system. 3. The primary GNC tasks include: a. achieving the correct position, velocity, and altitude necessary to accomplish the mission objective, and detecting out-of-limit conditions. b. achieving the correct position, velocity, and attitude necessary to accomplish the mission objective, and detecting out-of-limit conditions. c. achieving the correct position, velocity, and attitude necessary to accomplish the mission objective, and ensuring nitrogen levels remain non-toxic. d. achieving the correct position, velocity, and attitude necessary to accomplish the mission objective, and ensuring the habitats electronics are cooled.

FEP 200: Flight and Emergency Procedures

Module objectives • Describe the nominal pre-flight procedures • Describe nominal in-flight procedures • Describe nominal on-orbit procedures Most of your flight and emergency procedures will be taught using the VEG and animated pedagogical agents, which you will be able to see in stereoscopic 3D. Using the latest speech recognition software, you will also be able to talk to these agents as you conduct your training module. The lifelike characters will cohabit in the vehicle during FEP 200: Flight and Emergency Procedures 251

9.33 Emergency egress training during the good old days of the Shuttle. Courtesy: NASA simulated flights to create a rich, face-to-face learning interactive environment. The agents will also be able to demonstrate complex tasks, employ locomotion, and gesture to focus your attention on the most salient aspect of the task at hand. The agents will have a comprehensive knowledge of the domain in which the training takes place so they will be able to provide problem-solving advice to you and provide hints in case you have trouble solving a problem. Since your habitat and vehicle are complex environments, the virtual mock- up and the animated agents will be an effective way of leading you around and helping you to learn where everything is before moving on to more complex tasks such as reacting to emergency situations. To assist you in learning as quickly as possible, the agents will have been designed with believability-enhancing behaviors that complement the advisory and explanatory behaviors the agents will perform. For example, if you take too long solving a particular problem, the agent assigned to you will exhibit “idle-time” behavior such as foot-tapping. To create the illusion of life, the agent will also exhibit full-body emotive behaviors such as expressive movements and visually complement the problem-solving advice they provide you. It will really feel like you are actually inside the vehicle or habitat. For example, your agent will scratch their head in wonderment when posing a rhetori- cal question. Since the agent is integrated into the web-based delivery system that you have as a part of your computer-based training, your learning will be valuably enhanced. To give you an idea of what to expect during your flight, this next section describes a generic flight in a Vertical Take-off Vertical Landing (VTOVL) spacecraft, similar to the New Shepard vehicle currently being developed by Jeff Bezos’s company, Blue Origin. For the purposes of the fictional flight described here, we will assume the vehicle, the 252 Orbital Ground School Manual design, and the technical concept which was inspired by NASA’s DC-X is a composite VTOVL base-first entry, single-stage to orbit spacecraft consisting of a propulsion section and a payload section that includes the cockpit and crew capsule. The squat, bullet-shaped vehicle, which we will call “Pathfinder”, stands 15 meters high and has a diameter of 7 meters. Propulsion is supplied by a cluster of engines powered by High Test Peroxide (HTP) and RP-1 kerosene for a total mass of 54 tonnes. Pathfinder features four landing struts extending from the edges of the base of the propulsion section. Before describing what occurs during a launch, we must first orient ourselves to the vehicle. The vehicle provides a crew station for a pilot and a flight engineer, each of whom is supported on the ground by a capsule communicator whose job is to maintain communications with the crew. The flight cockpit is similar to the layout of a corporate jet, the pilot sitting in the left seat and the flight engineer seated in the right. In front of the crew are duplicate instrumentation panels. On the pilot’s right side and the flight engineer’s left side are centrally mounted engine throttles positioned forward of the three-axis RCS translation controller. The engine instrumentation layout includes strip gauges and emergency indicator panels located just below the polycarbonate windows of the flight deck. On the left side of the pilot is a GPS flight director connected to a dual differential GPS, the batteries of which are independent of the vehicle’s power supply, providing navigation redundancy in the event of an emergency resulting in loss of power. In an arrangement much like a commercial jet, the engines are controlled via a Full-Authority Digital Electronic Control (FADEC) system, which, in the event of a loss of power, will permit manual control. Other important panels include the tachometer generator panel which provides the pilot with information regarding the revolutions per minute (RPM) gauges and the generator bus system comprising a system of relays that ensure each of the vehicle’s systems are being powered. Next to this panel is a series of master caution and warning lights that indicate failure of any one of the four generators on board. Below the tachometer generator panel is the turbo-alternator panel, which indicates to the pilot how electrical power is being supplied to the various electrical systems. The turbo-alternators use high-pressure, high-temperature gas from the combustion chamber to drive a turbine, which in turn drives up to four AC alternators, depending on the configuration of electrical buses. Adjacent to this panel is the electrical system status board that indicates the amount of power coming through the Bus Power Unit (BPU), a unit that ensures there are no spikes or overvoltages to the vehicle’s systems. As with all other systems, the BPU has its own master and caution lights in the event of a short circuit. The information concerning the vehicle’s hydraulic system is displayed on two identical panels, since there are two independent systems: one for odd-numbered engines and one for even-numbered engines. The flaps, landing gear, and actuators, however, are powered by both systems working together.

Nominal flight procedures You will have several opportunities to practice nominal and off-nominal procedures during your time in the systems trainer and during your VEG sessions. Initially, this component of your training will focus on simply navigating in the vehicle and habitat, before proceed- ing on to routine emergency procedures and drills. FEP 200: Flight and Emergency Procedures 253

Pre flight • Launch minus 2 hours: The countdown begins with a call to stations by the flight director—a procedure that confirms each person of the launch team is in place. Next, the backup flight system and primary flight system computer software is checked and loaded onto Pathfinder’s computer. • Launch minus 1 hour 45 minutes: The flight crew begin stowing their gear and flight engineers conduct a thorough inspection of the flight deck and exterior of Pathfinder. The work crew’s module platforms are removed and loading preparations for fuelling commences. Once the launch pad is cleared of all personnel, the launch pad is declared closed and fuelling commences. • Launch minus 1 hour 20 minutes: Once fuelling is complete, the launch pad is declared open, and the ground team and crew continue their preparations. The ground crew enter Pathfinder and switch on all flight control, navigation, and communications systems. Customized launch seats for each space tourist are installed and payloads destined for the habitat are stowed. Space tourists start to suit up. • Launch minus 60 minutes: A 60-minute countdown begins as ground team personnel calibrate Pathfinder’s inertial measurement units (IMUs). Meanwhile, in Mission Control, personnel are communicating with nearby tracking stations and ensuring tracking antennas are aligned for lift-off. • Launch minus 45 minutes: The pilot and flight engineer conduct a walk-around of Pathfinder. During their inspection, the pilot and flight engineer ensure the spacecraft has been properly serviced with the correct amounts of hydraulic fluid, oxygen, oil, and, of course, fuel! Once the pilot and flight engineer are satisfied Pathfinder is space-worthy, the pilot removes all duct plugs, locking pins, and probe-covers, and proceeds onto the flight deck. There, the pilot, with the assistance of the flight engineer, ensures all switches are in their normal shutdown position before conducting the cockpit inspection checklist. Some of the items checked include circuit breaker status, normal functioning of the pressurization and air- conditioning system, status of the fuel cell reactant valves, closing of the emergency dump valves, setting the fire handles, and checking the FADEC. • Launch minus 30 minutes: Passengers ingress Pathfinder while the pilot and flight engineer conduct their final pre-flight checks. • Launch minus 15 minutes: The ingress hatch is closed and the Pathfinder’s backup flight systems are transitioned to final launch configuration. Cabin vent valves are closed and the flight director receives a “go for launch”. Once the “go for launch” verification is confirmed, the terminal countdown commences at the T minus 10-minute mark. • Launch minus 5 minutes: Mission Control transmits a command that activates Pathfinder’s operational instrument recorders. The pilot and flight engineer complete the final checklist and are ready to start the engines but, before they do that, they run through procedural checks with Mission Control using a sequence of events similar to the transcript below: Pilot: “Oxygen set” Flight engineer (FE): “Set” Mission Control (MCC): “Set” 254 Orbital Ground School Manual

Pilot: “Regulator ON, 100%” FE: “Regulator ON, 100%” MCC: “Regulator ON, 100%” Pilot: “Pressure suit purged” FE: “Pressure suit purged” MCC: “Pressure suit purged” Pilot: “Hoses and connections checked” FE: “Hoses and connections checked” MCC: “Hoses and connections checked” Pilot: “Helmet on, visor open” FE: “Helmet on, visor open” MCC: “Helmet on, visor open” This checklist will continue for some time as the pilot and flight engineer crosscheck with Mission Control that each vehicle system is running in its correct configuration for launch. • Launch minus 4 minutes: The final communication exchange that will apply to you is the command to fasten your harness and safety belt. Once you have confirmed to the pilot that you are strapped in, the pilot will perform the final checks prior to starting main engines. You will hear the auxiliary power units start and will probably hear Pathfinder’s hydraulic systems move the aero surfaces through their range motions. • Launch minus 3 minutes: Ground power transition occurs and Pathfinder’s fuel cells switch to internal power. The pilot crosschecks normal operation of the radio, communications, and navigation equipment, including the radios, radar altimeter, backup flight director, transponder, and launch azimuth. Once satisfied that these systems are operating normally, the pilot retracts the drag flaps, sets the GPS radar altimeter to self-test, and sets the pressure altimeters. • Launch minus 2 minutes: The propellant in the fuel tanks is brought to flight pressure. Concurrently, the Mission Control computers monitor hundreds of launch commit functions in case of any unusual event. • Launch minus 1 minute: The vehicle’s computers commence their terminal launch sequence. You will know the moment of truth is close at hand when you hear the following on the communication loop: MCC: “Clear exhaust area” FE: “Engine systems checked. Engine systems nominal” MCC: “Exhaust area clear” FE: “Pressurization high. Propellant boost pump switches on. Main valves open” Pilot: “Number 3 and 6 engine turning. Throttle idle, depressing Start button” FE: “Mode select switch Start.” • Launch minus 45 seconds: The pilot waits for a rise in combustion temperature and for two engines to stabilize in idle mode. Once satisfied that the engines are performing nominally, the pilot repeats the steps for two more until all engines are running nominally, at which point he/she announces: “Engine checks complete” FEP 200: Flight and Emergency Procedures 255

• Launch minus 30 seconds: With engines running, you will be anticipating the moment of take-off, but the pilot still has some final checks. The pilot will move his/her right hand to the booster engine throttles and push them slowly forward, at which point you will hear a noticeable increase in engine noise, until the pilot throttles back to idle—a sequence repeated for each cluster of engines, odd- numbered first, even-numbered second. • Launch minus 15 seconds: As the pilot checks hydraulic pressures, he/she will conduct a final briefing to you and your fellow crewmembers—an announcement that launch is imminent. Unlike a Shuttle launch, there is no 10-second countdown, as the pilot requests clearance from air traffic control in a similar manner to an airline pilot. • Launch minus 5 seconds: Pilot: “Transponder normal. Flight controls checked” Pilot: “Oklahoma Traffic, this is Pathfinder ready for take-off” Air traffic control: “Pathfinder, clear take-off, Pad number three” Pilot: “Clear take-off”

Launch After acknowledging receipt of the air traffic control clearance, the pilot is committed to launch and will move all throttles forward while monitoring the alignment of Pathfinder and any trajectory deviation. Inside Mission Control, the mission elapsed time is reset to zero and the mission event timer starts its count. During the first few seconds following take-off, the flight engineer monitors engine instruments, reporting abnormalities to the pilot. The take-off will not be anything like the violence unleashed when the solid rocket boosters ignited for a Shuttle (remember those days?) take-off or the 4-G push-down of a Soyuz launch. This take-off will be little more than a nudge in your back but, as Pathfinder begins its ascent, you will begin to feel as if you are gradually being pushed further and further into your seat as the velocity increases until, eventually, as vertical acceleration reaches its maximum level, you will be experiencing 3 Gs. The pilot maintains a running commentary about the events during the flight. Mach 1, the speed you experienced during your supersonic indoctrination training, comes and goes in an instant, followed almost immediately by the announcement the vehicle is travelling at Mach 5, then Mach 7. Mach 15! If you could lift your head far enough to see out of the window, you would see blue rapidly becoming black as Pathfinder races towards orbit, but everything weighs three times as much as it does on Earth so the effort is too much.

On orbit The first words you will hear confirming you have reached orbit will be: Pilot: “Throttles at cut-off” FE: “Altimeters checked. Fuel cells checked. FADEC off” Pilot: “Drag flaps closed. RCS to manual” FE: “RCS valves open” Pilot: “Unnecessary equipment off” FE: “Unnecessary equipment off” 256 Orbital Ground School Manual

Pilot: “On-orbit checks complete” FE: “On-orbit checks complete” The next stage of your journey is rendezvous. Since the VTOVL launch aligns directly with the orbital plane of your habitat, the time between orbital insertion and rendezvous is very short. In fact, only a few minutes after orbital insertion, you will hear the pilot and flight engineer run through a series of checks prior to conducting the rendezvous: Pilot: “Rendezvous radar on” FE: “INS, GPS checked. Rendezvous mode on” Pilot: “RCS mode switch on” FE: “Pressurization check, low” Pilot: “Rendezvous checks complete” FE: “Rendezvous checks complete” Pilot: “Flight. Rendezvous” Once rendezvous checks have been completed, there will be a short wait while the pilot aligns the vehicle with the habitat using orbital aerobatics. Once the habitat commander gives the approval for docking, you will hear the following: Pilot: “RCS switch” FE: “RCS propellant pressures checked” Pilot: “Fuel cells” FE: “Fuel cells checked” Pilot: “Docking collar deployed” FE: “Docking collar deployed. Indicators checked” The pilot will fly Pathfinder at an excruciatingly slow speed towards the habitat using a laser rangefinder and a targeting indicator to guide him. The moment of impact will be hardly noticeable, so the first indication you will have of a successful mating of the vehicle and the habitat will be via the communication loop: Pilot: “Docking collar. Capture. Hard dock. Confirm good seal” FE: “Docking collar. Hard dock. Confirm good seal” Pilot: “Indicators checked” FE: “Indicators checked” After docking, leak checks will be performed and ingress activities will be prepared following a safety briefing. Once the flight engineer is happy, the airlock fan will be bypassed and deactivated. The pilot will check with the habitat commander that the vehicle and habitat configuration—“the stack”—is in the correct attitude and an attitude control handover procedure will be conducted placing the control of Pathfinder over to the habitat commander. Once the space tourists have been transferred from Pathfinder to the habitat, the vehicle will prepare to undock so it can de-orbit and return the passengers whose trip in space has come to an end. For those disembarking, the first checks over the communications loop will be the following: Pilot: “Oh two, Set” This initial command is the pilot ensuring the pressure suit regulator is in the “ON” position, the pressure suit is purged, and all hoses are checked. The pilot and flight engineer will FEP 200: Flight and Emergency Procedures 257 then conduct a thorough orbital checkout of Pathfinder’s systems that will be used during re-entry. This checkout will include checking communications and the status of the fuel cells, flight computer, avionics, hydraulic motors and hydraulic switching valves, the cycling of all aerosurfaces, radar altimeter, TACAN, and crew-dedicated displays: Pilot: “Radio, On” FE: “Fuel cells, ON. Reactant valves, Open. Cryo pressure, Checked. Avionics bus, checked” Pilot: “GPS and radar altimeter, Test. Secondary GPS, On” FE: “FADEC, On, INS, Set, GPS, Set, INS in Nav mode, check, GPS in Nav mode, check, Flight plan verified” Pilot: “Flight plan verified. Lights, Set. Throttles at cut-off. Drag flaps fully retracted” FE: “Communication and navigational equipment, Set” Pilot: “Transponder, set. Downlink and uplink status verified. Autothrottle, Off. RCS switch, ON” FE: “RCS valves, Open. Collar umbilical retracted” Pilot: “Harness fasten, prepare for departure” At this point, you should have fastened your safety harness and be preparing to wave goodbye to any friends you may be leaving behind. After undocking, the pilot will conduct a briefing prior to commencing the de-orbit burn that will align Pathfinder with its descent trajectory. You will know you are approaching the landing site when you hear the radar altimeter being set, as this is normally done at an altitude of 1,500 meters: Pilot: “Radar altimeter, Set” FE: “Pressurization, Set. Propellant, On” Pilot: “Pressure altimeters, Set” FE: “Descent mode, Verified” Pilot: “Descent checks, Complete” The pilot will maneuver using the RCS jets to orient the vehicle into the de-orbit attitude (retrograde) after which Pathfinder will fly in coast mode until the atmosphere and dynamic pressure build-up is reached at 120,000 meters—an altitude referred to as the entry interface. At this point, the pilot will load de-orbit and entry flight software into the flight computer. This information is also sent to Mission Control, which can, if necessary, input delta state vectors to correct for any navigation errors that may occur during re-entry. Before entry interface (EI), the vehicle is still travelling at 7,500 meters per second but, unlike the Shuttle, which at this point would be more than 8,000 kilometers from the landing site, you are less than 160 kilometers away from home, thanks to the unique flying characteristics of the vehicle.

Contingency procedures The VTOVL vehicle you are riding into orbit provides abort options throughout the ascent flight regime, unlike the Shuttle, which provided abort capabilities through only a narrow segment of the ascent profile. Also, unlike the Shuttle, for which one of the emergency procedures was to destroy the vehicle with explosive charges after take-off, the VTOVL does not feature a remote self-destruct option. 258 Orbital Ground School Manual

In the course of your training, you will receive instruction on how to cope with abort and contingency situations. The crew’s chances of survival will be significantly increased if each crewmember has a thorough knowledge of their emergency duties in each contingency situation. If time and circumstances permit, you will be notified by the pilot of an emergency situation via the communication loop. If a verbal warning is not possible, it is likely you will realize an emergency is occurring by the sound of the klaxon and the panels lighting up like keno boards! Emergencies may include engine shutdown, depressurization, throttle failure, engine overheating, gearbox failure, turbine damage, fire, electrical failure, or any one of dozens of other off-nominal events. Since specific emergencies require specific actions on the part of each crewmember, it is important to recognize the type of emergency that is occurring. The primary emergency situations and their associated alarms are as follows: Ground Evacuation: One long sounding of the klaxon Action: ABANDON VEHICLE Emergency egress: Verbal command “BAIL-OUT” will be given over the communication loop THREE times Action: ABANDON VEHICLE using emergency egress system Crash landing: Alarm will ring three times Action: Brace for impact Depressurization: A siren will sound continuously and a rotating blue light will illuminate Action: Initially, stay calm, as you will be wearing your pressure suit, which has sufficient air to keep you alive for four hours A description of the myriad emergency and contingency procedures that apply to each type of launcher is beyond the scope of this manual, but it is useful for you to understand your responsibilities in an emergency situation.

Crewmember responsibilities As a crewmember responding to an emergency, you will: • Need to be situationally aware • Be aware of your duties and the duties of other crewmembers • Be prepared during critical flight phases due to increased risk of accidents • Identify when crewmembers have the authority and responsibility to initiate an egress • Know who is responsible for activating egress signals.

Crewmember knowledge of external factors As a crewmember, you will need to: • Know how to manage egress in adverse conditions (e.g. heavy smoke, darkness) • Describe the different spacecraft attitudes possible as a result of accidents/incidents (e.g. shift in center of gravity) FEP 200: Flight and Emergency Procedures 259

• Identify the factors that could adversely affect spacecraft flotation in water landings (e.g. structural damage, weight, center of gravity, outside conditions, etc.) • Describe the effect of environmental conditions in evacuations (e.g. strong winds, terrain, snow/ice) • Identify the importance of time management in prepared and unprepared egress and how time affects survivability in different accident situations.

Crewmember knowledge of communication As a crewmember, you will be able to: • Describe the importance of crew communication in an egress and the established communication signals for evacuations • Identify the briefings required between pilot and crewmembers in an emergency that may require an evacuation.

Crewmember knowledge of the brace position As a crewmember, you will be able to: • Define the brace positions • Describe the effectiveness of each brace position and the importance of assuming the preferred brace position to minimize injury • Identify the signal(s) for assuming the brace position in emergency situations, when it is given, who is responsible for giving it, and the crew responsibilities when the brace signal has been given.

Crewmember knowledge of egress procedures following landing As a crewmember, you will: • Identify crewmember responsibility to assess conditions prior to opening any exit • Identify the egress procedures for each type of exit (i.e. hatches, opening in fuselage).

Crewmember knowledge of evacuation responsibilities As a crewmember, you will be able to: • Identify the commands for each type of evacuation and describe the rationale behind each • Describe the ways to increase the effectiveness of commands (e.g. assertive, loud, positive, short, body language, phraseology, commands in unison, etc.) • Identify the responsibility of crewmembers to assist passengers and fellow crewmembers in an evacuation; list the conditions when crewmembers should evacuate themselves • Describe ways to assist incapacitated passengers/fellow crewmembers in evacuations. 260 Orbital Ground School Manual

Crewmember knowledge of preparation for egress As a crewmember, you will need to know the steps involved for the preparation of an egress, including required communications between crewmembers. These steps are arranged in order of priority to allow the more important duties to be completed first, on a time-available basis. Each operator will develop their own established procedures and commands as required by their operation. The list below identifies, in order of importance, the crewmember duties required to prepare for an egress when time permits: 1. Conduct briefings a. Pilot-in-command to in-charge crewmember • Nature of emergency • Land or water evacuation • Time available for preparation • Any other information/instructions b. In-charge crewmember to other crewmembers • Information provided by pilot briefing • Preferred exits • Crew communication signals during preparation (i.e. thumbs-up) c. In-charge crewmember to pilot • Crew briefing completed • Update any information as required 2. Secure and stow equipment a. Re-stow payloads and equipment b. Stow garbage c. Turn off circuit breakers, if applicable 3. Ensure hatches in proper mode 4. Secure cabin and brief a. Remove sharp objects b. Don warm clothing (inclement weather/ditching) c. Don life preservers, if applicable d. Secure safety belts e. Review brace position and when to assume f. Review exit locations 5. Advise pilot when cabin ready and obtain update 6. Assume brace position a. Begin silent review 7. Commence shout commands when required 8. Perform assigned egress duties. FEP 200: Flight and Emergency Procedures 261

Crewmember knowledge of evacuation procedures As a crewmember, you will be able to: • Describe the established egress procedures in order of priority for each of the following types of egress scenarios: • Land—prepared • Land—unprepared • Ditching • Inadvertent water contact • Describe the established procedures for rapid egress • Describe the responsibilities of crewmembers after an egress (e.g. grouping passengers, assisting with first aid, etc.) • Identify the supplies and equipment available after an egress that will provide assistance and enhance survivability (e.g. emergency locator transmitter (ELT), survival kit, blankets, raft, life preservers, flashlight, food, water, etc.) • Include ways crewmembers can manage the evacuation to coordinate their actions with the ground rescue personnel • Describe the different groups (e.g. media, legal, accident investigators) that will attempt to solicit information from you after an evacuation and outline the procedures for dealing with these groups • List the types of survival situations crewmembers may encounter as a result of an evacuation • Identify the importance of post-crash procedures to increase survivability in each of the survival situations, including the following: • Survival first aid • Survival priorities • Hazards inherent in different environments • Survival skills for different environments • Survival equipment and supplies carried on the spacecraft • Signaling and recovery techniques • Describe the search-and-rescue systems, their scope of operation, and how they are able to locate downed spacecraft.

Crewmember knowledge of spacecraft egress drills As a crewmember, you will be able to: 1. Perform normal hatch operation, to include the following: a. Each crewmember shall operate each egress type in the normal mode and perform the following: • Identify the signal and conditions under which the hatch may be opened • Identify the signal for arming/disarming the exit hatch • Perform the arming/disarming sequence for the exit hatch 262 Orbital Ground School Manual

• Verify the exit mode as armed and disarmed by completing appropriate checks (e.g. visual checks, physical checks) • Open/close hatch (in the normal (disarmed) mode) • Engage and release exit locking mechanisms and verify functioning of locking mechanisms • Verify exit is in the correct mode • Position escape device (if applicable) • Assume and maintain appropriate protective body and hand positions. During your practical module you will be observed, rated, and debriefed as follows: 1. Acknowledgment and timely response to signals 2. Assesses conditions outside the exit to determine exit usability 3. Correct usage of exit operating mechanisms including hand and body position 4. Usage of proper terminologies and procedures 5. Correctly positions escape device 6. Securing exit in the fully opened position or ensuring correct stowage position of exit door, window, or hatch 7. Correctly applies procedures.

Crewmember knowledge of evacuation drills/simulations Evacuations are emergency situations which you must effectively manage using your knowledge of procedures and the resources available. These skills are developed through practice, which means you will spend a lot of time in simulators conducting drills so you can put theory into practice. One of these drills will be an evacuation drill which will por- tray an operational flight and include abnormal and emergency occurrences and interactions amongst crewmembers. Other drills will differ in sequence from one drill to the next and may include but will not be limited to: 1. Unserviceable exits 2. Inflation devices that fail or only partially inflate 3. Poor visibility (e.g. darkness, smoke) 4. Incapacitated crewmembers 5. Exits which become unusable during the evacuation 6. Crewmembers in panic 7. Failure of spacecraft emergency systems 8. Decompression. Have fun!

Crewmember knowledge of unprepared land and inadvertent water contact evacuation You will most likely perform at least one land and one inadvertent water contact evacuation drill that incorporates the procedures pertinent to a specific exit. During your evaluation, you will need to: 1. Recognize that an emergency situation is developing and react appropriately FEP 200: Flight and Emergency Procedures 263

2. Apply all applicable commands 3. Recognize when and how to initiate the evacuation 4. Assess conditions inside/outside the exit to determine exit usability 5. Locate and don life preserver 6. Prepare and open exit 7. Assume appropriate protective position 8. Initiate crewmember evacuation 9. Exit spacecraft/trainer correctly 10. Demonstrate post-evacuation procedures

Crewmember evaluation criteria Your performance during the practical phase will be observed, rated, and debriefed according to: 1. Correct and timely reaction to emergency situations 2. Consistent usage of appropriate terminologies with clear, positive, authoritative communication techniques, as appropriate for drill scenario 3. Preparation and correct operation of exit 4. Assuming and maintaining appropriate protective body and hand positions 5. Correctly applying procedures as related to scenario 6. Correctly applying post-egress procedures 7. Understanding the consequences of errors.

Sample questions

1. During re-entry, dynamic pressure build-up is reached at: a. 120,000 meters, an altitude referred to as the entry interface. b. 220,000 meters, an altitude referred to as the entry interface. c. 12,000 meters, an altitude referred to as the entry interface. d. 120,000 meters, an altitude referred to as the entry transition. 2. The flight crew begin stowing their gear and flight engineers conduct a thorough inspection of the flight deck and exterior of Pathfinder. The work crew’s module platforms are removed and loading preparations for fuelling commences. Once the launch pad is cleared of all personnel, the launch pad is declared closed and fuelling commences. How much time is there before launch? a. 5 minutes. b. 45 minutes. c. 1 hour 45 minutes. d. 1 hour. 3. Ground power transition occurs and Pathfinder’s fuel cells switch to internal power. The pilot crosschecks normal operation of the radio, communications, and navigation equipment, including the radios, radar altimeter, backup flight director, tran- 264 Orbital Ground School Manual

sponder, and launch azimuth. Once satisfied that these systems are operating normally, the pilot retracts the drag flaps, sets the GPS radar altimeter to self-test, and sets the pressure altimeters. How much time is there before launch? a. 1 minute. b. 3 minutes. c. 10 minutes. d. 5 minutes. Appendix I

Space Tourism Service Providers

NASTAR

www.nastarcenter.com; e-mail: [email protected]; telephone: 1(866) 482-0933 The NASTAR Center is a non-government, world-class aerospace training facility that supports the training, research, and educational needs of the aerospace industry. Established in 2006, the center began as a product showcase, engineering development and test center for its owners, the Environmental Tectonics Corporation (ETC), but soon became recognized for its unique approach and sophisticated interactive fl ight training technology. The center contains all sorts of space training equipment, ranging from high-fi delity simulators to a multi-axis centrifuge—the ATFS-400 Phoenix. NASTAR’s Basic Space Training is an entry-level, two-day course (Table A1 ) that provides the core knowledge and skills necessary to introduce space tourists to suborbital spacefl ight. Using a combination of academic instruction, hands-on exercises, and realistic simulated spacefl ight, potential space tourists become safe, confi dent, and capable space passengers. If you decide to sign up, you’ll receive a mission kit including course book, team photo, certifi cate of completion, a personal DVD of your experience, a NASTAR Center Suborbital Passenger Card, and a certifi cate of achievement. As part of the program, you will given a tour of the facility during which you will be shown the ejection seat simulators, the yaw, pitch and roll confusion generators, hypobaric chamber, and, of course, the centrifuge, complete with spacefl ight simulator pod. Then, you will be fi tted for fl ight suits and instructed on the basics of aerospace physiology. After that, you will complete your high-altitude indoctrination inside the hypobaric chamber while attempting to solve problems on a worksheet to test your reaction to hypoxia. You will spend some time prepping for your G-tolerance test, which includes teaching you the anti-G straining maneuver (AGSM), which helps combat G-forces. After practicing your AGSM technique, you will perform four centrifuge runs (“fl ights” in NASTAR parlance). After enjoying/surviving the centrifuge, you get to experience a simulated launch and re-entry sequence in SpaceShipTwo (SS2). Very cool.

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 265 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 266 Appendix I: Space Tourism Service Providers

Table A1. NASTAR Basic Space Training program content.

• Aerospace environment • Space vehicles and fl ight • Motion environment and orientation • Acceleration forces • Life-support systems and suits • Space experience • Physiological and psychological effects • G-protection, countermeasures, and skills • Space safety and emergency procedures • Maximizing your spacefl ight experience • Keeping and preserving space memories • G-tolerance fl ights and simulated spacefl ights in Phoenix centrifuge Duration: 2 days. Prerequisites: FAA Class 3 Medical Certifi cate or equivalent.

SUBORBITAL TRAINING

www.suborbitaltraining.com; e-mail: [email protected] Another company in the business of offering suborbital training and providing customized space training is Suborbital Training. As a provider of suborbital training services, the company provides affordable, discounted (thanks to agreements with several companies across the industry), and mission-specifi c suborbital fl ight training customized to the client’s needs. Among its many services (see Table A2 ), the company specializes in the delivery of suborbital fl ight academic training modules and provides pre-mission, in-mission, and post-mission biomedical support. It’s a small but highly versatile commercial spacefl ight company that has an extensive background in the space life sciences arena and fully understands the challenges of the theoretical and practical training required for suborbital fl ight. By customizing the client’s training requirements, Suborbital Training aims to provide its customers with a high-quality, time-saving product that is designed to ensure mission success.

INNERSPACE TRAINING

www.innerspacetraining.com; e-mail: [email protected] Inner Space Training is based in the Netherlands and caters to a specifi c niche of training: ensuring you get the most of your spacefl ight experience. How? It’s all down to training passengers to relax and be calm during the mission. The one-day course prepares clients for the psychological and emotional challenges of different fl ight phases, focuses their mental acuity and concentration to help them accomplish their mission objectives, and helps passengers create strategies to deal with relationships with other passengers to resolve any potential confl icts. During the training (Table A3 ), participants undergo Innerspace Training 267

Table A2. Suborbital Training.

Service Description

Vehicle Familiarity This program features academic instruction on emergency procedures, Training Program instruction on intra-vehicular orientation, and an overview of basic spacecraft systems and subsystems. The program comprises the following sub-modules, which can be taken individually or collectively: (i) instruction on the anti-G straining maneuver; (ii) high-altitude indoctrination at a facility nearest to your location; (iii) emergency egress training; (vi) generic zero-G exercises. Environment This program provides clients with the theoretical and practical aspects of Training Program training to become a suborbital payload specialist. The program comprises the following sub-modules, which can be taken individually or collectively: (i) G-physiology; (ii) high-altitude physiology; (iii) emergency egress; (iv) pre-fl ight preparation; (v) in-fl ight indoctrination; (vi) survival training theory; (vii) fl ight vehicle systems theory; (viii) post-fl ight preparation. Interpersonal This program provides scientist astronauts with instruction on the latest in Training Program space crew resource management techniques. This program comprises the following sub-modules, which can be taken individually or collectively: (i) information processing for suborbital payload specialists; (ii) human error and error management; (iii) situational awareness; (iv) communication and management. Suborbital Training This program is based on research-validated exercises proven to increase Pre-Flight Fitness a person’s tolerance to Gs. The program was devised by Erik Seedhouse, Program Ph.D., a trained commercial suborbital astronaut and Director of Canada’s manned centrifuge operations.

Table A3. Topics included in Inner Space Training.

• Psychological acclimation and anchoring • Peak experience and conditions to create one • Intention setting for your journey • Situational awareness fl ow protocol (theory) • Situational awareness fl ow protocol (practice) • Understanding spacecraft culture • Becoming a social ambassador • Brainwave Entrainment (BWE)—theory and practice for optimizing your “inner space” using the MindSpa® device various personal and team exercises to build their understanding of what the suborbital space environment entails and how their mission objectives can be achieved. Along the way, participants learn what the various fl ight phases are and become aware of any physical and psychological challenges, along with fi nding solutions to them. After the course, participants practice their spacefl ight, training their mind using Brainwave Entrainment (BWE) technology. The techniques and the positive effects of the BWE program can be 268 Appendix I: Space Tourism Service Providers reactivated during spacefl ight to give astronauts calm focus during their entire fl ight, enabling them to have a peak experience. For those interested in this sort of training, you can book through Suborbital Training with whom Innerspace Training has a 20% discount.

SIRIUS ASTRONAUT TRAINING

www.siriusastronauttraining.com; e-mail: janna.kaplan @siriusastronauttraining .com While Inner Space Training focuses on the psychological aspects of spacefl ight, SIRIUS Astronaut Training develops programs that helps you deal with the problems of SMS and spatial disorientation. Based on their long-standing involvement in space research and employing unique research facilities at the Ashton Graybiel Spatial Orientation Laboratory AGSOL), SIRIUS has developed programs that help passengers adapt to spacefl ight through the use of gravity/rotating environments and motion platforms. Take their Multi- Axis Rotation and Tilt (MART) device, for example. This device allows SIRIUS to expose passengers to motion in two axes simultaneously, the result of which is spatial disorientation, which usually means clients have trouble determining “up” and “down”. But, thanks to being exposed to this disorientation, and thanks to SIRIUS’s carefully designed protocols, spending time in the MART helps passengers pre-adapt. Another useful piece of equipment is the Vection Chamber. The black-and-white striped walls and fl oor of this cylindrical chamber can rotate independently of each other, causing illusory experiences of self-motion in about 60% of clients. SIRIUS uses the device to train passengers to recognize such illusions and be aware that they may impair their actions in spacefl ight. Appendix II

Medical Standards for Space Tourists

There is still some uncertainty in the commercial human spacefl ight industry as to what medical standards are appropriate for space tourists. While the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires a Second Class medical certifi cate, some doctors consider this inadequate, especially for orbital fl ight. Since SpaceShipOne launched in 2004, there have been several guidelines proposed for space tourists’ medical acceptance guidelines. Organizations and interest groups have published medical recommendations for space tourists, but until recently there had not been a consolidation of these standards in a cohesive document. To that end, the FAA sponsored a research project that resulted in the publication of the Flight Crew Medical Standards and Spacefl ight Participant Medical Acceptance Guidelines for Commercial Space Flight , written by Richard Jennings, M.D., M.S., James Vanderploeg, M.D., M.P.H., Melchor Antunano, M.D., M.S., and Jeffrey Davis, M.D., M.S. The anticipated outcome of the project was two-fold: 1. To defi ne recommendations for crew medical standards that would be useful to the FAA in its regulatory responsibility for crew medical standards and safety. 2 . To establish passenger acceptance guidelines that could serve as advice to operators as they developed medical programs.

MEDICAL ACCEPTANCE GUIDELINES—SUBORBITAL

Before starting the research, the team defi ned a reference mission, which assumed the following: • Spacecraft : will provide a shirt-sleeve cabin environment with appropriate temperature, pressure (equivalent to a maximum altitude of 8,000 feet), oxygen, and humidity. • G profi le : acceleration should not exceed +6 Gx, +1 Gy, and +4 Gz. If the acceleration exposes space tourists to more than +4 Gz, then passengers should be screened according to guidelines for orbital passengers (see next section). • Number of fl ights/day : Space tourists will participate in one fl ight per day. • Time limit in spacecraft : defi ned as hatch closed prior to fl ight to hatch open on return. Time to complete a fl ight will be short enough to avoid negatively impacting

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 269 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 270 Appendix II: Medical Standards for Space Tourists

a medical condition and interrupting medical treatment needs, and will take physiological needs into consideration.

Guidelines for screening suborbital space tourists It was agreed that the content and extent of a screening medical questionnaire and physical exam should be related to each operator’s fl ight profi le, and that space tourists should complete a medical questionnaire and a physical exam by a physician with knowledge of the spacefl ight environment. Space tourists were assumed to be 18 years of age or older to comply with the FAA requirement to sign an informed consent document. Based on the study’s recommendations, you will probably be required to complete a medical history questionnaire covering the following conditions: • Otitis, sinusitis, bronchitis, asthma, or other respiratory disorders • Mental disorders, anxiety, or history of hyperventilation • Dizziness or vertigo • Claustrophobia • Fainting spells or other loss of consciousness • Attempted suicide • Seizures • Use of medications • Tuberculosis • Alcohol or drug dependence or abuse • Surgery and/or hospital admissions • Current pregnancy, recent post-partum (less than six weeks ago), or recent spontaneous/voluntary termination of pregnancy • Visits to health care provider in the last three years • Recent signifi cant trauma • History of decompression sickness (DCS) • Diabetes • Anemia or other blood disorders • Cancer • Heart/circulatory disorders, including implanted pacemaker or defi brillator • Rejection for life or health insurance • Disability or deformity requiring accommodation • Given the specifi c fl ight parameters, any known medical conditions that may require possible accommodation

Physical examination After you have completed the medical history questionnaire, you will most likely be examined by an aerospace medicine physician (this will be done less than six months before your ﬂ ight) who will check the following: • Vital signs (heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and temperature) • Upper extremities Medical Acceptance Guidelines—Orbital 271

• Head, face, neck, scalp exam • Lower extremities • Nose, sinuses, mouth, throat, and ears (eardrum integrity/function and Eustachian tube function) • Spine • Ophthalmologic evaluation (including pupil function and ocular motility) • Lymphatics • Lungs and chest • Rectal, pelvic, and breast exams will be performed only if indicated by medical history • Heart (including pre-cordial activity, rhythm and rate, sounds, and murmurs) • General neurological evaluation • Peripheral vascular system • General psychiatric evaluation • Abdomen/viscera (including hernia) • Genitourinary system If the physician fi nds something wrong, additional medical testing may be required. While there is no guidance for issues that may cause concern, some typical problem conditions include those that: • may result in in-fl ight death or injury; • cause functional defects that may interfere with proper use of personal protective equipment; • may interfere with emergency egress in the event of a contingency; • may result in an in-fl ight medical emergency; • may prevent a passenger’s ability to follow crew instructions; • may cause health deterioration due to fl ight-related stress; • may put individual at risk for harm to him/herself, the other space tourists, or the crew; • might present a serious communicable illness threat to the other space tourists; • may result in injury to an unborn child. If you have one of these conditions, chances are the doctor will recommend a mitigation strategy, which will be accepted as long as the strategy doesn’t impair your ability to safely perform fl ight activities, including emergency egress, and that the strategy won’t compromise the safety of other passengers and crew. Depending on the strategy, you may be required to perform supplementary training in an analog environment, and you may be required to be medically monitored during exposure to this environment. Once cleared, you will receive medical documentation stating, among other things, that you can safely perform a suborbital fl ight without compromising the safety of other occupants and safely perform an emergency egress without assistance.

MEDICAL ACCEPTANCE GUIDELINES—ORBITAL

Once again, before starting the research, the team deﬁ ned a reference mission, which assumed the following: • Short-sleeve cabin environment : with the appropriate temperature, pressure (a maximum pressure altitude of 8,000 feet), oxygen, and humidity parameters to make this possible. 272 Appendix II: Medical Standards for Space Tourists

• Mission-related medical risk : will vary depending on mission length, G-forces of launch and entry, on-board medical capabilities, emergency return capability, and pre-fl ight health status. • Medical monitoring capabilities : will be minimal. • G profi le: acceleration should not exceed +6 Gx, +1 Gy, and +4 Gz during nominal re-entry, with allowances of up to +8 Gx during ballistic re-entry. • Assumptions: no docking to the International Space Station or other government- controlled orbital facility, minimal medical diagnostic or treatment capability, no physician, nurse or paramedic, and a 24-hour emergency return-to-Earth capability. • Generic medical kit: with over-the-counter medications for common illnesses, and each space tourist will carry their own prescription medications. • Time limit in spacecraft : will be defi ned as hatch closed prior to fl ight to hatch open upon return. The time limit for a space tourist in the spacecraft will not exceed a medical requirement for that space tourist based on their medical mitigation strategy. • Radiation dose : will not exceed the yearly commercial airline passenger dose, defi ned as no more than 1 mSv per year.

Guidelines for screening orbital space tourists If you’re planning an orbital vacation, you will need to meet the same guidelines as for suborbital ﬂ ight, but with the following additions when completing the questionnaire, to indicate any history of: • Otitis, sinusitis, bronchitis, asthma, upper respiratory infections, or other respiratory disorders • Mental disorders, anxiety, or history of hyperventilation • Severe hay fever or allergies • Attempted suicide • Dizziness or vertigo • Use of medications • Motion sickness requiring medication • Alcohol or drug dependence or abuse • Fainting spells or any other loss of consciousness • Date of last menstrual period, current pregnancy, recent post-partum (less than six weeks ago), or recent spontaneous or voluntary termination of pregnancy • Seizures, convulsions, epilepsy, stroke, muscular weakness, or paralysis • History of pneumothorax • Tuberculosis, hepatitis, AIDS, or other chronic infectious disorder • Kidney stones or blood in the urine • Surgery and/or other hospital admissions • Gallstones or gallbladder disease • Recent signiﬁ cant trauma • Diabetes • History of decompression sickness (DCS) • Cancer Medical Acceptance Guidelines—Orbital 273

• Anemia or other blood disorders • History of radiation treatment or occupational exposure to radiation • Heart/circulatory disorders, including pacemaker or defi brillator • Rejection for life or health insurance • Uncontrolled high/low blood pressure • History of disability requiring accommodation or functional impairment • Visits to health care provider in last three years • History of previous spacefl ights One part of the questionnaire the doctor will pay particular attention to will be the mental health evaluation, since orbital spacefl ight is associated with all sorts of psychological stressors and the last thing you want to be faced with is a fellow passenger exhibiting psychiatric problems—especially those affecting their ability to perform critical functions such as an emergency egress. Your physical examination will be very similar to the one you had for your suborbital fl ight, although you will also need to present evidence of a dental examination within six months of the fl ight. Also, you will most likely be required to submit to various medical tests (again, within six months of fl ight) such as: • Hematology • Chest X-rays (posteroanterior (PA) and lateral) • Serum chemistry • Visual acuity (corrected) • Urinalysis • Pregnancy testing • Resting electrocardiogram (ECG) • Audiometric testing In the event you are not cleared for orbital fl ight, you will probably follow a similar mitigation procedure as applied for suborbital fl ight. Another option may be to elect to participate in a medical fl ight where more extensive medical capabilities are available. Because of the demands of orbital fl ight, you will probably receive a pre-fl ight medical briefi ng that discusses mitigation strategies for various medical issues such as space motion sickness, neurovestibular problems, fl uid shift, head and back aches, and urinary retention. You will also probably receive a countermeasures briefi ng that addresses the following:

Mission duration Risks Countermeasures < 3 days Space motion sickness Education Sinus congestion Analog training Decreased gastrointestinal (GI) motility Medication Urinary retention Hydration Auditory aids Urinary catheters 5–7 days Post-fl ight orthostatic intolerance Isotonic fl uid loading Post-fl ight disequilibrium Anti-G-suit Circadian rhythm disruption Scheduling Mechanical sleep aids Medication 274 Appendix II: Medical Standards for Space Tourists

cont.

Mission duration Risks Countermeasures > 30 days Bone and muscle loss In-ﬂ ight exercise Cardiovascular deconditioning Screening Nephrolithiasis Medication Psychiatric Education and Decreased immune function training Private family conferences Time off from duties Hygiene Clean/cover breaks in skin Appendix III

Answers to Sample Questions in Suborbital and Orbital Ground School Manuals

SUBORBITAL GROUND SCHOOL MANUAL (CHAPTER 6)

ENV 100 SLS 100 SFE 100 CRM 100 1. a 1. c 1. d 1. c 2. b 2. a 2. a 2. b 3. d 3. c 3. c 3. d

PER 100 SST 100 PST 100 HAI 100 1. b 1. b 1. b 1. c 2. b 2. a 2. b 2. b 3. c 3. b 3. b 3. a

ORBITAL GROUND SCHOOL MANUAL

SFP 200 STR 200 SMS 200 1. b 1. b 1. b 2. a 2. a 2. a 3. c 3. d 3. c

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 275 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 276 Appendix III: Answers to Sample Questions in Suborbital…

OME 200 MTR 200 SSO 200 1. a 1. d 1. d 2. c 2. a 2. a 3. b 3. c 3. b

RSW 200 GHA 200 FEP 200 1. b 1. a 1. a 2. d 2. d 2. c 3. a 3. b 3. b Index

A Boyle’s Law , 111–113, 219, 221 Acceleration Brian, B. , 4, 5 gradual onset rate , 75 BTLS. See Basic trauma life support (BTLS) rapid onset rate , 75 Buzz, A. , 2, 22, 33, 44, 45, 131 Active thermal control system (ATCS) , 242–244 Advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) , 209 AFTE. See Autogenic feedback training exercise C (AFTE) Cabin AGSM. See Anti-G straining maneuver (AGSM) humidity , 83–84 Air revitalization pressure , 54, 61, 79, 80, 82–84, 96, 218, 220, pressure control system , 243 221, 224, 225 system , 243 temperature , 79, 82, 83, 214, 224, 225 Ajay, K. , 24 Cardiopulmonary resuscitation , 207–212 Almaz , 143–145 Cardiopulmonary techniques in microgravity , 212 Almost loss of consciousness (A-LOC) , 74 Cardiovascular system , 60, 72, 73, 75, 76, 148, Andrew, N. , 33, 49 154–158, 224, 228 Anousheh, A. , 11–13 Caribbean Spaceport (CSP) , 32, 33, 35 Anti-G straining maneuver (AGSM) , 55, 59, 60, Central nervous system (CNS) , 75, 86, 176, 224, 75, 77–79, 151 226, 228, 231 Armstrong Line , 68, 101, 105, 226, 238 Charles Law , 220, 224 Astronaut Diver Course , 114–121 CME. See Coronal mass ejection (CME) ATCS. See Active thermal control system (ATCS) CNS. See Central nervous system (CNS) Attentional narrowing , 105, 108, 111 Cold weather survival Autogenic feedback training , 151, 231, 232, Arctic wildlife , 184–185 234–235 cold weather environment , 178–180 Autogenic feedback training exercise (AFTE) , 235 dehydration , 183 ﬁ re , 179, 184 food , 179, 184 B frostbite , 183 Basic life support (BLS) , 60, 207, 208, 211 heat and cold regulation , 182 Basic trauma life support (BTLS) , 209 hygiene , 182 Blood pressure , 70, 76, 127, 153, 155–159, immersion foot , 183 162–164, 206, 209, 225, 230, 235, shelters , 180, 181, 183 270, 273 snow blindness , 183 Blood volume , 156–158, 161, 235 travel , 180, 185 BLS. See Basic life support (BLS) water , 180–183 Borozdina-Birch, Lina , 22 wind chill , 179–181

E. Seedhouse, Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide, Springer Praxis Books, 277 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05038-6, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 278 Index

Communication , 40, 62, 63, 83, 90, 103, 107–111, Environmental control and life-support system 130, 137, 142, 167, 168, 172, 186, 208, (ECLSS), 214, 243, 247 213, 230, 245, 246, 252–254, 256–260, Europa , 135–137 263, 267 EVA. See Extravehicular activity (EVA) Coronal mass ejection (CME) , 170 Excalibur Almaz , 143–145 Countermeasures Explosive decompression , 81, 217–220, 222–225, 236 crew resource management , 105–111 Extravehicular activity (EVA) , 7, 129, 131, 172, exercise , 160–162 214, 215 lower body negative pressure , 159 operational , 154, 161–164 pharmacological , 161, 163 F CSP. See Caribbean Spaceport (CSP) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) , 1, 19, 47, 59, 85, 266 Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) , 21 D Full authority digital engine control , 252, 253, Dalton’s Law , 113, 220 255, 257 Dan, D. , 48 David, M. , 47 Decompression sickness (DCS) , 62, 82, 94, G 97, 98, 100, 101, 150, 219, 222–223, Galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) , 71, 149, 169, 170 270, 272 General purpose computer (GPC) , 244 Deep Phreatic Thermal Explorer (DEPTHX) , 137 G-LOC. See Gravity-induced loss of Depressurization , 59, 62, 80–82, 97–99, 246, 258 consciousness (G-LOC) Desert survival GN&C. See Guidance navigation, and control environment , 185, 186, 189 (GN&C) equipment , 186, 187 Golden Spike , 128 medical problems GPC. See General purpose computer (GPC) anaphylactic shock , 188 Gravity-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC) , heat exhaustion , 187 74–76, 229 heat stroke , 187–188 Gregory, O. , 11 hyponatremia , 188 G-tolerance , 75, 77, 150, 217–231, 238 navigation Guidance navigation, and control (GN&C) , 152, distance assessment , 189 242, 245 pacing , 189 Guy, L. , 15–16, 123 timing , 189 precipitation , 186 temperature , 186, 188, 190 H water HAI. See High altitude indoctrination (HAI) ﬁ nding , 190 Hazardous gases , 61, 80, 86 management , 189 Henry’s Law , 219, 222 wildlife , 185, 186 High altitude indoctrination (HAI) , 27, 63, winds , 186, 187 111–113, 217–219, 225, 226, 238, 246 Ditching , 62, 99–100, 191, 193, 260, 261 Hydrostatic pressure , 157 Dream Chaser , 139–141, 145 Hypoxia , 60, 63, 71, 82, 84, 85, 101, 105, 111–113, 220–221, 225, 226, 231

E Ebullism , 71, 218 I EI. See Entry interface (EI) IceHotel , 37, 38 E L T . See Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) Inertial measurement unit (IMU) , 253 Emergency egress , 27, 60, 62, 94, 96–97, 101, In-ﬂ ight health evaluation , 207, 214–215 107, 108, 153, 159, 160, 162, 192, 227, Inspiration Mars , 131 228, 232, 247, 251, 258, 267, 271, 273 International Space Station (ISS) , 6–10, 14, 15, Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) , 261 19, 31, 94, 123, 125, 139–142, 171, 272 Entry interface (EI), 257, 263 Intravehicular activity (IVA) , 117, 236 Index 279

J Orbital maintenance , 166 James, L. , 23–24 Orbital mechanics (OME 200) , 147, 149, Jeff, G. , 6, 48 164–168, 276 Orbital Technologies , 139, 143 Orbital velocity , 57, 58, 149, 164–166 K Orthostatic hypotension, 148, 153, 154, 157–161, 164 Kiruna , 35–38 Oxygen concentration , 61, 79, 84–85, 221

L P Lance, B. , 8, 9 Parabolic ﬂ ight , 46, 70, 74, 76, 116, 154, 207, LEO. See Low Earth orbit (LEO) 209, 212, 213, 232, 234, 237 Linear energy transfer (LET) , 171, 216 Particulate contaminants , 61, 80, 86–87 Lori, G. , 9 Paul, A. , 5–7, 44 Low Earth orbit (LEO) , 7, 8, 55, 139, 143, 149, Peripheral light loss (PLL) , 229 166, 169, 171–173 Peter, D. , 1, 5, 16 Lunar tourism , 128–131 Positive pressure breathing , 77 Lynx Pre-breathe , 222, 225, 226 Mark I , 53, 55 Pressure suit , 54, 60, 63, 68, 69, 82, 83, 97, 99, Mark II , 55 101–105, 129, 134, 218, 226, 227, 238, Mark III , 55 246, 254, 256, 258 Principal, Victoria , 23, 47, 127

M Mars , 23, 131–137 R Medical criteria for evacuation from orbit , 206, Radiation 207, 214 acute radiation syndrome , 176 Microgravity , 21, 58–60, 64, 65, 70, 73, 76, 87, blood-forming organ syndrome , 176 108, 110, 114–121, 147, 154, 157–161, central nervous system syndrome , 176 169, 206, 207, 209–210, 212, 214, 215, DNA , 174 227, 234, 236–238, 246, 248 dosimetry , 177 Mike, M. , 2, 44, 47 exposure limits , 173 Mojave Spaceport , 39, 41 gastrointestinal tract syndrome , 176 Muscle structure , 148, 154, 160–161 non-stochastic effects , 175 stochastic effects , 175 Radiation protection N Plastic Nuclear Track Detector (PTND) , 216 NASA , 5, 6, 8–11, 13–15, 26, 30, 33, 36, 40, 46, 52, radiation monitoring , 215, 216 59–62, 65–67, 69, 79, 83, 87, 88, 91, 93, thermoluminescent detector , 216 95, 104, 106, 109, 116, 123, 125, 128–130, Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter 134, 136, 140–143, 147, 149–153, 161, (TEPC), 216 162, 165, 168, 173, 177, 179, 206, 209, Radiation types , 169, 171 210, 212, 231, 242, 251, 252 Rapid decompression , 14, 80–82, 84, 112, 113, National Aerospace Training and Research 217–218, 220, 222–227 (NASTAR) , 22 RBE. See Relative biological effectiveness (RBE) Neurovestibular system , 60, 73, 151 Reaction control system , 166 Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory (NBL) , 116 Re-entry , 5, 51, 52, 55, 65, 73, 74, 76, 78, 80, 89, Noise , 59, 60, 73, 78, 82, 108–110, 133, 153, 170, 93, 108, 127, 140, 158, 159, 161, 163, 223–224, 247, 255 164, 166–168, 179, 226–228, 238, 246, 257, 263, 265, 272 Relative biological effectiveness (RBE) , 171 O Respiratory physiology , 115, 219–221 OME 200. See Orbital mechanics (OME 200) Resuscitating patients in ventricular ﬁ brillation , 213 Orbital decay , 149, 164, 166 Richard, B. , 5, 23, 28, 33, 43, 46, 139 280 Index

Richard, G. , 13–15 data handling , 62, 90–91 Robert, T.B. , 131, 142 environmental subsystem , 62, 92–93 Roski, Edward , 23 landing subsystem , 62, 89, 93 Rutan, Burt , 2, 5, 6, 16, 44, 47 power , 62 propulsion system , 62, 91–92 structure , 62, 89 S thermal , 62, 65, 89 SA. See Situational awareness (SA) Space motion sickness (SMS) , 24, 60, 73–74, Salyut , 143–145 78–79, 127, 148, 151–152, 231–234, Sarah, B. , 15, 16, 19, 123, 142 241, 273 Scaled Composites , 6, 7, 39, 44, 47, 51, 62 etiology , 233–234 SCR. See Solar cosmic radiation (SCR) Spaceport America , 29–32, 41, 51, 139 Sea survival Spaceport Florida , 19 capsule and raft survival procedures , 190, Spaceport Sweden , 35–39 192–194 SpaceShipOne (SS1) , 1, 3, 6, 22, 30, 51, cold and hot weather considerations , 190, 194 78, 269 detecting land , 190, 199 SpaceShipTwo (SS2) , 7, 43, 51, 76, 124, 139, 265 fi sh , 196 Space Shuttle , 2, 3, 11 fi shing aids , 196 SpaceX , 7, 33, 126 food procurement , 190, 195 SS1. See SpaceShipOne (SS1) medical problems SS2. See SpaceShipTwo (SS2) constipation , 197 Stand test , 159, 162, 163 dehydration , 197 Steve, I. , 46 freezing cold injury (FCI) , 197 Stewart, Payne , 84 heat illness , 197 Suborbital Training , 59, 110, 113–115, 118, non-freezing cold injury (NCI) , 198 266–268 saltwater sores , 197 seasickness , 196 ocean and basic precautionary measures , T 190–192 Tauri Group , 19–23 rafting and beaching techniques , 190, 199 Technical criteria for evacuation from orbit , 214 sea ice , 195 Telemedicine , 151, 209, 213 sharks , 190, 198–199 Time of useful consciousness (TUC) , 113 short water rations , 190, 195 Tito, Dennis , 10, 14, 123 swimming ashore, pickup and rescue , 190, TransHab , 124, 125, 142 200–204 Trapped gas swim test barodontalgia , 222 deep water jump , 191 ear block , 22 100 meter swim test , 191 sinus block , 221–222 prone and back fl oat , 191 Tropical survival underwater swim , 191 food sources water from fi sh , 195 plants , 201–203 Sex in space , 127 wildlife , 202 Sharman, Helen , 8–10 hazards Shuttleworth, Mark , 10, 11 medical problems , 200, 204–206 Simonyi, Charles , 13–15 navigation and travel , 200, 203 Simulated intravehicular activity system , 236 tropical climates Singer, Bryan , 8, 16, 23 deciduous forest , 200 Situational awareness (SA) , 63, 82, 86, 105, rain forest , 201 107–108, 267 tropical climates , 200–201 Solar cosmic radiation (SCR) , 71 tropical savanna , 200, 201 Soyuz , 7, 8, 10, 11, 13–16, 80, 96, 123, 124, 126, TUC. See Time of useful consciousness (TUC) 139, 140, 143–145, 255 Space Adventures , 7, 15, 25, 56, 123 Spacecraft U attitude stabilization and control , 63 Ultrasound , 213–214 Index 281

V Weather Vacuum , 57, 60, 65, 71–72, 85, 87, 223–225 water , 68, 180, 181, 185, 186, 189–190, Vection , 235, 236, 268 193–195, 200, 201, 260 Vibration , 59, 60, 73, 78–79, 92, 108, 109, 153, WhiteKnight , 1, 4, 44, 46 197 Whitesides, George , 21, 46 Virgin Galactic , 5–7, 19, 21, 23, 28, 29, 31, 33, 36, 37, 41, 43–48, 51–53, 56, 64, 76, 124, 128, 139, 142 X Virtual environment generator (VEG) , 236–237 XCOR , 6, 19, 22, 33, 39, 43, 48, Visual reorientation illusion (VRI) , 236 49, 51, 53, 54 X-Prize , 1, 5, 7, 16, 17, 30, 44, 51

W Walker, Joe , 2 Z Watts, Alan , 45 Zogby , 24, 25