Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

st Published on: 1 Dec 2012 IDENTIFICATION AND UTILIZATION OF WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE TRIBAL’S OF BASTAR REGION (CHHATTISGARH) AJAY BANIK SOS IN FORESTRY & WILDLIFE, BASTAR VISHWAVIDYALAYA, JAGDALPUR (C.G) [email protected]

ABSTRACT: India is one of the 12 “mega-diverse” countries in the world; it has a forest area of 23.81% of the country’s geographical area. In India, the life and economy of the tribal people are intimately connected with the forest. Wild edible plants play a major role in meeting the nutritional requirement of the tribal population in remote parts of the country in general and Bastar of Chhattisgarh in specifically. Wild edible plants not only provide food quantity but also make significant contribution to the population nutrition throughout the year. The use of wild plants as food has been formed an integral part of the culture and tradition of many indigenous communities of the world. It constitutes an essential component in the diet and food security of many tribal communities particularly people living around the forest fringe or in its vicinity. Bastar is the homeland of various tribal groups like Abujh Maria, Muria, Bison-Horn Maria, Dhurwa, Dorla, Bhatra, Halba whose life and culture is nourished in the cradle of Sal (Shorea robusta), Sagon (Tectona grandis), Mahua (Madhuca indica) and others forest timbers and plants. About 74% population of the district is tribal’s. The present study on identification and documentation of wild edible plants revealed that the Adivasis living in forest areas often do very little cultivation; they ate a variety of wild growing plants. The 107 such wild edible plants that were eaten by the tribal’s of Bastar are described in this study. The information was based on an ethno-botanical field study of the district during the months of February - June in the year 2012. The study showed that; a large amount of plants of Bastar region are having an edible values. Some of the edible plants availability is of low in status like Artocarpus lakoocha, Caryota urens, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Dioscorea spicata, Leea macrophylla, Pueraria tuberosa etc. which needs to be conserve in the region by the suitable conservation techniques in view of livelihood and nutritional point of view.

KEY WORD: Identification,Wild edible plants, Bastar region.

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

INTRODUCTION: It is estimated that in India about 800 species are consumed as wild edible plants over the country (Singh and Arora 1978). Wild edible plants not only provide food quantity but also make significant contribution to the population nutrition throughout the year (Grivetti and Ogle Britta, 2000; Ogle Britta, 2001; Ogle Britta et al., 2001; Ogle Britta et al., 2003). The tribals normally collect seeds of local forest produces like Tendu, Mahua, Chironji, Amla, Harra, Bahera, Tamarind, Jamun, Lakh, Dhup, Bhelwa, Bel, Ber, Neem, Tora, Gum, Raal from the forest and sell them to earn their livelihood. Also the diversity of wild edible species offers variety in family diet and contributes to household food security as well as increase dietary diversity. Further, it provides rural households with supplemental income opportunities through their sale in the markets. In view of above, the present study was conducted to achieve the goal by covering the following objectives:- 1. Identification of wild edible plant species in the Bastar District. 2. Documentation of identified wild edible plants in the study area. 3. Ethnobotanical uses of edible plant species. To understand the utilization pattern of value addition and processing techniques of wild edible plants by the Tribal’s of Bastar region.

STUDY AREA: The Chhattisgarh state is spread over in an area of 135,187 km2 which constituted 4.1% of land area and 8.4% of forest cover of the country. The total population of the state is 25.54 million (census 2011). Bastar district is located in the southern part of Chhattisgarh and it is situated 600 meter high plateau above sea level this extend up to Jeypore of the Orissa state; Jagdalpur is 500 m. above the sea level. The district has an average population of 1,411644 as per the 2011 census. Of the total population 86 % are rural population in which more than 70 per cent are tribal people.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: The field study was carried out in the villages and forest villages of the Bakawand, Machkot and Jagdalpur forest ranges of Bastar District (C.G). During the month February - June of the year 2012. The methodology covers two types of survey namely: 1. Field Survey 2. Literature Collection

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

The main aim of the survey was to collect information about the wild edible plant species which are used by the tribal’s and also the species are identified and documented by collecting samples of plant species. The identified and collected plant samples were arranged and documented according to their local names, in different tribal languages are noted; also the information about their availability in forests and the level of demand are also noted and written. The parts used as edible also either taken raw or after processing are briefly noted. Tribals also gave the information about their rituals (taboo) based on the edible products. The traditional techniques and the modern processing techniques of the edible plant species are enquired and briefed well. The total respondents were 50-60 in numbers per villages to collect information on wild edible plants along with the information and identification from forest department about the local names and utilization of wild edible plants the study area. The categories of respondent were old men, Tribal women and forest villager’s i.e. user group.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS: Roy and Rao, 1957 summarized the diet as monotonous and nutritionally very unsatisfactory, lacking in animal protein, calories, calcium and certain vitamins. They also reported that the eggs of ants are collected from the leafy nests and considered as a delicacy. ‘Gurmuri kira’ which is collected from its nests by holding a lighted torch, is also eaten by many of the tribal people. Ayyanar et al., 2011 Paliyar's (Tribal group of Theni Distt Tamilnadu state) diet comprises variety of unconventional foods such as edible forms of flowers, fruits (ripe and unripe), tubers and rhizomes, leaves, stems, seeds and wild mushrooms. Kala, 2009 investigated and recorded 73 ethno-botanical species used by tribal and non-tribal communities in southern part of Surguja district of Chhattisgarh state in India. Jain, 1963 reported 88 edible plant species in Bastar region utilized by the tribal’s. It has been commented that authors of works on wild edible plants generally fail to exclude plants that are merely edible but are certainly no treat. The present work, too, needs an explanation in this regard. The purpose of such reports is to present a list of indigenous plant materials which the tribal of the region know and recognize as edible. No attempt is generally made to remark to comparative utility of the different plant-foods in the daily diet, or to recommend any to native wild foods to the city-dwellers. These aspects fall within the regime of a nutrition scientist. A catalogue of all plants reported to be used for eating purposes supplies basic material for nutritional research. The present study revealed that the tribal’s mostly rely on tree species of forests for their food purpose as the 45 plant species were of tree habit out of total 107 plant species compiled. Besides tree species, 25 plants were used of roots/tubers importance, 33 were of leaf importance, 42 plants of fruit importance, 3

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) were of nuts importance, 17 were of stem and 9 of flowers importance etc. In accordance with the systematic classification, the plants of family belonging to the Fabaceae, Caesalpiniaceae and Dioscoreaceae were found highest/maximum plants which are used as edible plants. On the basis of usage the tribal’s were mostly used wild fruits from the forests and consumed as vegetable were mostly preferred way to consume wild edible plants. However, they also made some value addition by preparing the value added products like Achaar’s, Murabaah’s, Bevrages, chips like kuliapapad chips of Dioscorea hispida tubers, chutneys like of Artocarpus lakoocha, Gur from plant species like Borassus flabellifer and Phoenix sylvestris and beverages & drinks like from the plants like Aegle marmelos, Borassus flabellifer, Caryota urens, Citrus maxima, Madhuca indica etc. Mostly the forest products were either used raw or used to cooked vegetables but like Dioscorea hispida, Dioscorea spicata, Dioscorea pentaphylla or tuberous species were required a long processing techniques which takes about 24-48 hrs of processing before used. The investigations were also revealed that the 48 plant species were found to be abundant and 46 plant species were found moderately available in the forests of Bastar region. However, species like Pueraria tuberosa and Caryota urens were found to be rare or endangered in the studied area which needs to be conserved by suitable in-situ techniques. The plants like Dillenia pentagyna, Bauhinia malabarica were of religious importance and they use such plant products only after the religious/worship ceremony called “Kakshadh”. 1. Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae An Annual herb. Local name - Lathzeera (H); Circita (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - July - October Location - Machkot Edible uses - The leaves of the herb is used as vegetables by the tribal’s and the seeds are used as grains and are eaten. 2. Adenanthera pavonina Fabaceae A tree. Local name - Raktchandan, Raktkambal, Lalchandan Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - March - October Location - Machkot Edible uses - The seeds are eaten after roasting by the tribal’s. 3. Adhatoda zeylanica Acanthaceae An evergreen shrub. Local name - Basokpata, Basakpat Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - Throughout the year Location - Machkot

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

Edible uses - Leaves are used to cook vegetables. 4. Aegle marmelos Rutaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Bel, Billi Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - March - May Location - Machkot Edible uses - The fruit is eaten fresh or dried. The juice is strained and sweetened to make a drink similar to lemonade, and is also used in making “SHARBAT”. 5. Agave vera - cruz Mill. Agavaceae An herb. Local name - Naagfani (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Low Availability - Throughout the year Location - Bakawand Edible uses - The young leaves and young soft stem are used to cook vegetables. 6. Alangium salvifolium Alangiaceae A spinescent deciduous shrub. Local name - Amkol (H); Koyamara (G); ulge (T); Dhol anku, Ankol Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Low Availability - April - June Location - Irikpal Edible use - Ripe fruits are eaten. 7. Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthaceae An Annual herb. Local name - Katabhaji (H); Kontamariso Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - April - August Location - Nagarnaar Edible uses - The leaves of the herb are used as vegetable. 8. Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Araceae A perennial herb. Local name - Sirdikanda, Surankanda (H); Pullakanda (T); Jantakanda, Haatipau Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - October - December Location - Machkot Edible uses - Rhizome cooked. Tubers are largely eaten, and are sold in market. Most of the varieties of jimmy-kand found in Bastar region cause itching in hands, tongue, and neck of person eating it, also to the person cooking them because of the presence of calcium oxalate. Such type of tubers are boiled with leaves of Imli (Tamarind) and are cooked mixed with Tamarind fruits or Amchur(Mango) powder, the vegetable have no longer itching sensation. 9. Andrographis paniculata Acanthaceae An annual herb. Local name - Bhuinim (G); Kirata

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - October - December Location - Machkot Edible uses - The leaves are added to curries like bitter gourd. 10. Annona reticulata Annonaceae A deciduous or semi-evergreen tree. Local name - Ramphal Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - March - May Location - Jagdalpur Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten all around the district. 11. Annona squamosa Annonaceae A small tropical Semi-evergreen tree. Local name - Sitaphal Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - November - April Location - Jagdalpur Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten all around the district. 12. Anthocephalus cadamba Rubiaceae A perennial tree. Local name - Kareka (H); Kadam, Kadom Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - August - November Location - Aasna Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten raw. 13. Antidesma diandrum Euphorbiaceae A shrub. Local name - Avali, Havali (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Low Availability - Throughout the year Location - Jagdalpur EDIBLE USES - Leaves are pounded with rice, some gram flour is mixed with and a curry is made. The leaves are even dried, powdered and stocked for use. The fruits are eaten, and the young leaves are used in curry and as vegetable. It bears purplish red fruits which are pleasantly acidic and are eaten by local people. 14. Artocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Phanas, Kathal Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - February - May Location - Dharampura Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten. Unripe fruits are used as vegetable, pickles. Seeds from the ripe fruits are roasted and are eaten directly.

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

15. Artocarpus lakoocha Moraceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Barhal, Dahu, Dahua Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - Low Availability - May - October Location - Boregaon Edible uses - Unripe fruits are used as spice and substitute for tamarind. Ripe fruits are pickled. Also ripe fruits are added with spices and are eaten like snakes by Tribal’s. 16. Asparagus racemosus Asparagaceae An herb. Local name - Shatavar, Shatavari, Satmuli Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - June - September Location - Machkot Edible uses - The tubers are used as vegetables. 17. Averrhoa carambola Oxalidaceae A deciduous small tropical tree. Local name - Kamra (H); Karmas, Kamarang, Kamras Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - March –May Location - Aasna Edible uses - Ripe Kamras fruits are eaten fresh or in fruit salads. Fruits are also used to make juice. 18. Bauhinia malabarica Caesalpiniaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Dondera, Purol (H); Dondermara (M); Seheda (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - March - June Location - Tamad-gumad Edible uses - The bark chips are tied in small bundle and are added to Salphi (Caryota urens) liquor Handi to increase its intoxicating action. 19. Bauhinia purpurea Caesalpiniaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Dhondhar, Kancankacnar (M); Kodel (G); Koilaribhaji (H, M) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - July - September Location - Aasna Edible uses - The young leaves and flowers of this tree are cooked as vegetables. 20. Bauhinia vahlii Caesalpiniaceae A Creeper. Local name - Koya, Paur (M); Siadi, Siali (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - March - May Location - Aasna

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

Edible uses - The seeds are eaten all through the district. The fruits are roasted on fire; it bursts loudly exposing the seeds. The seeds can be eaten raw, cooked as vegetables and also roasted. The seeds are roasted on fire, de-husked and eaten. 21. Boerhaavia diffusa Nyctaginaceae An herb. Local name - Handithomgde (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - Low Availability - Throughout the year Location - Machkot Edible uses - The young leaves are cooked as vegetables. 22. Borassus flabellifer Arecaceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Tad (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - March - June Location - Bastanaar Edible uses - The ripened fibrous outer layer of the palm fruits are eaten raw, boiled, or roasted. The chief product of the Palmyra is the sweet sap (toddy) obtained by tapping the tip of the inflorescence, as is done with the other sugar palms and, to a lesser extent, with the coconut. The toddy ferments naturally within a few hours after sunrise and is locally popular as a beverage. Rubbing the inside of the toddy-collecting receptacle with lime paste prevents fermentation, and thereafter the sap is referred to as sweet toddy, which yields concentrated or crude sugar (gur). Palmyra palm jaggery (gur) is much more nutritious than crude cane sugar. The pulp of the fruit is eaten after roasting, and the juice is used as an intoxicating drink. 23. Buchanania lanzan Anacardiaceae A medium-sized deciduous tree. Local name - Car (H); Ekda (G); Reka (M); Tolemorli, Charo Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - April - May Location - Nangur Edible uses - The fruits are eaten raw, seeds are an article of commerce. Seeds of chironji are used as nuts (almond) substitute among tribal’s of bastar. The oil extracted from the kernels of the fruit is used as a substitute for almond oil in native 24. Butea monosperma Fabaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Palas, Motka chettu Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - Flowers - February-March; Fruits - April-June Location -Baranji

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

Edible uses - Nectar (Ras) from flowers are collected and used as a drink by tribal’s because of its sweetness. Oil is extracted from dried seeds collected in the month of May-June are used to extract oil comparable to groundnut oil. 25. Calamus floribundus Arecaceae An shrub. Local name - Bet Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Low Availability - July - August Location - Machkot Edible uses - The young shoot culms are cooked as vegetables and fruits are eaten. 26. Cannabis sativa Cannabaceae An annual herb. Local name - Bhang, Ganja Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - November - January Location - Machkot Edible uses - The seeds are roasted and are eaten. 27. Carissa carandas Apocynaceae A sprawling semi-vine shrub. Local name - Karanda (H); Karunda, Karonda Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - High Availability - May - July Location - Dharampura Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten. Unripe fruits are used to make achar in the district. 28. Caryota urens Arecaceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Gargamarra (M), Mari, Salphi Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - October - July Location - Bastanaar Edible uses - The sap of this tree is fermented to make a wine, “Salphi”. It is said to be a refreshing drink. The dried pith of the tree is pounded and boiled in water; it makes a thick drink called salphi-pej. 29. Casearia graveolens Flacourtiaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Kirich, Kirci (H); Khirchi Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - June - July Location - Bakawand Edible uses - The seeds are used to yield edible oil known as “kirich tel”. The ripe fruits are eaten raw. 30. Cassia occidentalis Caesalpiniaceae A shrub. Local name - Cecenda (H); Koretemtem (G); Tagres, Kasonda Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Low Availability - August - January Location - Kokapal (Bakawand)

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

Edible uses - From dried seeds, powder is made which is said to be a stimulant like coffee. Flowers are fried in mustard oil and eaten. 31. Cassia tora Caesalpiniaceae A shrub. Local name - Carota (H); Etkusir (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Low Availability - July - December Location - Jagdalpur Edible uses - The leaves are eaten as vegetables, they are also cooked with rice. The seeds are sold in the local market commonly; they are powdered and are taken with water, considered as an antidote against scorpion, bee and wasp stings. 32. Celastrus paniculata Celastraceae A deciduous shrub. Local name - Manotige (D); Pemg (H); Vadamgul (M); Papdi (T) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - August - October Location - Kokapal (bakawand) Edible uses - The flowers are cooked as vegetables. 33. Celosia argentea Amaranthaceae An annual plant. Local name - Phulbhaji (H); Siliari Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Low Availability - Throughout the year Location - Nangur Edible uses - The tender leaves are cooked and eaten as vegetables. 34. Chlorophytum borivilianum Liliaceae An herb. Local name - Karauli (G); Koinjad, Korkota Kanda (H); Safedmusli Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - August - October Location - Machkot Edible uses - Tubers, leaves and flowers are cooked as vegetables. 35. Cinnamomum tamala Lauraceae An medium sized tree. Local name - Tejpata, Tejpatra Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - Throughout the year Location - Machkot Edible uses - The leaves are added as spices by the tribal’s. 36. Cissus repanda Vitaceae A deciduous climber. Local name - Panilaha (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - May - June Location - Machkot

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online)

Edible uses - Watery sap of this plant is drunk. 37. Citrus maxima Rutaceae An evergreen small sized tree. Local name - Atarraa (H); Batawi nimbu Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - March - June Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Villagers eat the fruit fresh or use it to make juice. Fruit pulp is also used in salads.the riped flesh is used as a desert by mixing it with spices and are eaten. 38. Coix lacryma-jobi Graminae An herb. Local name - Kans, Kasa (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - Throughout the year Location - Kutumsar Edible uses - The grains are eaten as cereals. The pounded flour is sometimes mixed with water like barley for barley water. It is also husked and eaten out of hand like a peanut. Beers and wines are made from the fermented grain. 39. Colocasia esculenta Araceae A perennial herb. Local name - Kochai ghuiyaa (H); Pechi (G); Gaathi Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - Throughout the year Location - Bakawand Edible uses - The tender leaves are used to make saag’s as well as pakoda’s by tribals in bastar. Green leaves are mixed with gram powder and spices; and are cooked in steam for eating. Corms are peeled, cut in pieces and are boiled and are eaten with rice. 40. Cordia dichotoma Boraginaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Bohar (H); Bohari, Buhari Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - May - June Location - Jagdalpur Edible uses - The leaves are used as vegetables, all over the villages in bastar. Fruits are also eaten. 41. Costus speciosus Costaceae A stout herb. Local name - Besemati (G); Keukanda (M) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - April - October Location - Nangur Edible uses - The tubers are washed and baked in hot ash; they are pounded with salt and chillies and eaten as chutney. Another method is to pound and boil them. They can make a full diet. Tubers also make

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) good pickle with lemon (nimbu) and chillies (mirchies). They are also sliced into pieces to prepare vegetables or fried in oil. 42. Curculigo orchioides Hypoxidaceae An annual herb. Local name - Kali musli, Kalomusli Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - August - October Location - Machkot Edible uses - The tubers are eaten as vegetables. 43. Curcuma amada Zingiberaceae A perennial herb. Local name - Ama haldi (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - December to March Location - Kurandi Edible uses - Mainly used to make “achaar” by the tribal’s, also used as spice in vegetable cooking. 44. Curcuma angustifolia Zingiberaceae A perennial herb. Local name - Tikhur (H, Hi); Besegadda (G); Palua Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - December to March Location - Machkot Edible uses - The tubers are processed and largely eaten. “Tikhur” is made from the plants which do not flowered. They are finely meshed and are put in a jar in water. The sweet content of the tubers settles down in bottom. It is kept as such for 12 hours and is then cleaned. It is then used to make sharbat, halvas, and thandai etc, used mainly as coolant. It is commonly found in wild as well as cultivated.

Traditional technique of Tikhur starch processing

Tikhur tubers are rubbed in stones or in iron plate “chillni”. In traditional technique the juice extracted is mixed with double quantity of water and is filtered with cotton cloth in mud utensil (Ghadaa). After filtration liquid is left for whole night to settle down. After one day the liquid over the settled starch is cleaned off. And the cleaning procedure is done 3-4 times; at last starch is taken out with the help of spoon and is spread over plates made up of aluminium or bamboo. Starches are dried for 4-6 days in sun and are stored for future or are sold in market.

Modern technique of Tikhur starch processing

In this technique use of modern equipments are used, because of urbanisation and also by the help of government subsides tribal’s are able to purchase this equipments. In this Tikhur tubers are grinded with the help of electric grinder. It is considered modern because of the use of electricity. In these the time and labour of grinding is saved. After grinding, filtration and removal of

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) excess of water is done by traditional method; it is estimated that by the help of machine, 3-4 tonnes of tuber starch can be extracted per day; whereas in traditional methods only 25-30 kilos can be achieved in a day. The drying process is also done in single day by the help of electric drier.

Step wise traditional method of processing of TIKHUR is depicted in the photos below: Tubers are collected from wild and the soil is cleaned with water and cut into pieces ↓ Pieces of tubers are dipped in water for 4-5 hours. Tubers are cleaned by rubbing ↓ After that, tubers are grinded either in rough stone or in tin plate called “CHILLNI”; during rubbing sap or juice is removed with water. And the Pulp is collected in large vessel ↓ Collected pulp is filtered in mud vessel with the help of cotton cloth ↓ During filtering water is added in 1:2 ratios. After filtering the juice is left for 12hours for settle down, so that the starch settles at the bottom of the vessel and after 12 hours water in above the starch is removed carefully; again same amount of water is added in the vessel. ↓ It is left again for 3 hours ↓ Water is again removed; this process is done 3-4 times in continuous intervals ↓ After that the white starch left in the vessel is taken out with the help of spoon in a steel or aluminium tray ↓ Collected starch is dried in sun. After drying they are broken into pieces and are stored for use or is taken to the market for selling ↓ TIKHUR powder (Dried TIKHUR power can be used for 18 months).

45. Curcuma caesia Zingiberaceae A perennial herb. Local name - Kali haldi Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - December to March Location - Machkot Edible uses - Black turmeric are used in vegetables as spices. In the fields, the rhizomes are washed thoroughly and are placed in a wide mouthed cauldron (ganjh). The water is poured in the cauldron such that the rhizomes are completely sunk. The cauldron is covered with a lid, and the rhizomes are boiled for about 30 minutes until foam oozes out with strong odour. The rhizomes are taken out whilst the water is reduced to one-third of its content and when they turn soft with their inner portion decolorized from blue to dark or pale brown. The rhizomes are then dried in hot sun for 10 to 15 days until they are hardened. These

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) dried rhizomes are then packed for marketing.

46. Dactyloctenium aegyptium Poaceae An herb. Local name - Makra (H); Chikara Status in Bastar (availability) - Abuntant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - May - October Location - Machkot Edible uses - The seeds are used as grains. 47. Dendrocalamus strictus Poaceae A deciduous grass. Local name - Dongribans (H); Narbans (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - July - October Location - Bakawand Edible uses - Young shoots are eaten and are sold largely in local markets known as “Basta”. Seeds are also eaten. Bamboo shoot is one such 'food from the forest' that is relished by the people as a substitute of vegetable in the daily diet.

48. Dillenia pentagyna Dillaniaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Keringila, Karmatta (G); Mici (M); Raayi Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - March - May Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Sour chutney is made from the fruits. Young small fruits are eaten raw or after cooking. They are also cooked with rice. When the fruits are ripe, their rind is removed and they are cooked as vegetable. Raw fruit slices are used in cooking dal. Also the dried slices of fruits are made Achaar.

49. Dioscorea alata Dioscoreaceae A considerable perennial climber. Local name - Nagarkand, Uskakand, Rasamating (H); Gornakand, Naarkand Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - July- October Location - Nangur Edible uses - The tubers are eaten after processing. These yams occur wild and are also cultivated. 50. Dioscorea bulbifera Dioscoreaceae A climbing sweet yam. Local name - Damgkanda (H); Lathikanda (G); Faryagatikanda Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - October - December Location - Nangur Edible uses - Both the roots and fruits (bulbils) are used as vegetable. The tuber takes three years to develop and grows to the size of pumpkin. After prolonged boiling the tubers are eaten.

51. Dioscorea hispida Dioscoreaceae A twining vine. Local name - Kulia, Kuliakand (H); Kaimulkanda, Kaimulmati (G)

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Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - December - March Location - Aasna Edible uses - The tubers are largely eaten after processing. Tubers are collected from wild and the soil is cleaned with water and small rootlets are removed from the tubers. Tubers are boiled in water and their skin is removed. Tubers are put in basket; the latter is put in a water stream for 24 hours. The acrid content of the tubers is washed away. These chips can be cooked as rice or with rice. On drying these chips look like potato chips; this are called “kuliapapad”. The Adivasis prepare these chips and sell it to local market or mostly to the contractors who sell them to the city markets.

TRADITIONAL METHOD OF PROCESSING OF KULIA-KAND

Tubers are collected from wild and the soil is cleaned with water and small rootlets are removed from the tubers ↓ Tubers are boiled in water and their skin is removed ↓ Tubers are put in basket; the latter is put in a water stream for 24 hours. The acrid content of the tubers is washed away ↓ Then the tubers are sliced into pieces in form of chips. These chips are sun dried for few days for proper drying ↓ These dried chips are called as “KULIAPAPAD” 52. Dioscorea oppositifolia Dioscoreaceae A climber. Local name - Tagariyakand (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - October - December Location - Machkot Edible use - The tubers are boiled and eaten as vegetables. 53. Dioscorea pentaphylla Dioscoreaceae A climber. Local name - Bhains deti kanda (M); Bara kand, Sorenda kanda Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - October - December Location - Machkot Edible use - The tuber, which contains a toxic element, is dug from the ground. The rind is removed and the tuber is then cut into pieces and boiled. The pieces are then immersed or dipped in a running stream for one night. After leaching, it is again boiled reportedly five or six times and then eaten mixed with salt and spices.

54. Dioscorea spicata Dioscoreaceae A climber.

Local name - Pitakand, Pithkand, Tudupmati (M); Kadukanda (H) http://lifesciencesleaflets.ning.com/ PEER-REVIEWED Page | 43

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Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High

Availability - December to March Location - Aasna

Edible uses - The tuber is consumed after elaborate processing; else they are bitter. The slices are cut and boiled in water mixed with ash for about 2 hours, and thoroughly washed in clean water and boiled again for a few minutes. The slices are peeled off, and the slices are eaten.

55. Diospyros malabarica Ebenaceae An evergreen tree.

Local name - Gandhphanas (M); Tirkakaya (G); Makadtendu

Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - Low

Availability - March-April Location - Karpawand

Edible uses - Ripe seeds are eaten by villagers.

56. Diospyros melanoxylon Ebenaceae A deciduous tree.

Local name - Tumirmara (M); Temru, Tenu

Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High

Availability - May - June Location - Nangur

Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten largely known as temru in local, approximately 17-18 fruits are sold in 10 rupees in local markets. Tendu fruit is pickled when still unripe and put into kodo chaff to mature. To make it ripen sometimes tribal’s bury the fruits in the ground and fire is lit over it, when ripe, it is eaten raw.

57. Elaeocarpus floribundus Elaeocarpaceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Banghkri Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - May - December Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Fruits are pickled and are eaten with rice. Also used in cooking dal. 58. Emblica officinalis Phyllanthaceae A small to medium sized deciduous tree. Local name - Ishurkaya (G); Nilli Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - March - June Location - Kurandi Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten and are plenty available in forests of bastar. Because of its medicinal importance it is of now a commercial fruit. Also it is one of the 15 state medicinal plants of Chhattisgarh

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) state. Also by making value addition rural also make “achaar” and “murabaa’s” with ripe fruits of Amla in the district.

59. Ensete superbum Musaceae A banana like plant. Local name - Vankela (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Low Availability - August - October Location - Machkot Edible uses - The young stems are cooked as vegetables. Unripe fruits and inflorescence are cooked as vegetables and unripe fruits are pickled into “ACHAAR”

60. Euphorbia prostrata Euphorbiaceae An annual herb. Local name - Mukeljaba, Phalodi (M) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Low Availability - Throughout the year Location - Karpawand Edible uses - The herb is cooked as vegetable in villages. 61. Ficus glomerata Moraceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Dumar (G); Gular Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (Use) - High Availability - February- June Location - Kurandi Edible uses - dried fruits are ground and mixed with rice or millets flour to make pej, a staple food of tribal’s of bastar. The ripe figs are eaten raw.

62. Flacourtia indica Flacourtiaceae A deciduous small tree. Local name - Kakai (H); Kattai, Mudvedma (G); Kevti Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - March-June Location - Bakawand Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten raw. 63. Gardenia gummifera Rubiaceae A perennial shrub. Local name - Kullu, Kurlu, Kuru (H); Vidgu (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - June - August Location - Aasna Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten. Seeds are also eaten. 64. Gmelina arborea Verbenaceae A medium-sized deciduous tree. Local name - Seona, Sivna (G, H); Kursi (M); Kurasmara (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - March - April Location - Nangur Edible uses - Fruits are dried in sun, boiled and eaten. http://lifesciencesleaflets.ning.com/ PEER-REVIEWED Page | 45

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65. Hibiscus rugosus synn Hibiscus manihot Malvaceae A small shrub. Local name - Dhokrakanda (H); Guppadmate (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - August - December Location - Kurandi Edible uses - The tuberous roots are boiled in water and their rind is removed and the inner part is eaten. 66. Holarrhena antidysenterica Apocynaceae A deciduous shrub to small tree. Local name - Kudai (H) ; Dudhi, Kutri Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - March - July Location - Kurandi Edible uses - In Bastar tribal cook the flowers of Kudai as vegetables known as “kudaisaag”. 67. Hymenodictyon orixense synn. H. Excelsum wall Rubiaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Guppudmaram, Mac, Minaboder (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - June - August Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Leaves of this tree is cooked as vegetable in the district by tribal’s. 68. Indigofera cassioides synn Indigofera pulchella Fabaceae A shrub Local name - Giril, Ghirel, Jhiler (H); Velva (M); Jivla, Kandicettu Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Low Availability - March - May Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Its flowers are cooked and eaten as vegetables all around the district by the tribal’s. 69. Ipomoea batatas Convolvulaceae A climber. Local name - Mitha aalu Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - March - June Location - Nangur Edible uses - Tubers are boiled and cooked, and eaten with rice. 70. Ipomoea aquatica Convolvulaceae A climber. Local name - Kalum, Komlibhaji, Komlisaag (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - Throughout the year Location - nangur Edible uses - The leaves are cooked as vegetables by the tribal’s. 71. Leea macrophylla Leeaceae An herb. Local name - Dhotelakand (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Low Availability - September - November Location - Kutumsar Edible uses - Leaves are eaten as famine food. Tubers are cooked as vegetables.

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72. Leucas aspera Lamiaceae An herb. Local name - Gubibuta (H); Bhata gobi (G); Goiso Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Low Availability - Throughout the year Location - Aasna Edible uses - The leaves of the plant are plucked before flowering, they are cooked as vegetables. 73. Madhuca indica Sapotaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Garang, Idukmara, Idum (M); Mahu, Moda, Tora (H); Mahua Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - March - May Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Its flowers are cooked as vegetables. Seeds (Tora) dried yield edible oil known as TORA TEL in bastar. The sugary solution obtained on boiling flowers in water is mixed with flour to prepare sweet dishes like puris and ladoos. They are also boiled together with tamarind fruits and eaten.

Mahua liquor or locally known as “mand” is largely distilled from the flowers. In flowering season i.e. February - April flowers are collected and dried in sun and are stored for future use. Oil is also extracted from seeds and is used in cooking and lighting. Also flowers are beaten into pulp and are mixed with dried Kamei fruit and Tamarind kernels to prepare chutney, which is eaten with rice.

Processing of Mahua flower into mand (Fig. 6.) Large scale brewing by licensed bhattis is not permitted in Chhattisgarh. Hence brewing is a household industry in the tribal belt of the state. However every household does not engage in brewing. In a village of 60-70 households, barely 5-7 households are engaged in this activity.

The process Mahua flowers are put in earthen pots filled with water two days before it goes into brewing. After the bubbles are seen on the top of the pot, that pot of flowers is fit for further processing in the furnace and transferred to the brewing brass pot on the bottom. The brewing room has a hearth/furnace with three pots put on one another. The bucket placed near the furnace is connected to the brew pot with a pipe. The process often takes five to six hours. The skills of brew making are primarily with the women. Often as a business woman, they protect the brew from the male members of their households so that they get the returns expected. They lock the brewing room if they go out for some other work.

74. Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Maka, Makamg, Marka (M) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - April - July Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Unripe fruits can be used to prepare pickles or chutney. Ripe fruits are eaten raw.

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75. Manilkara zapota Sapotaceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Chiku, Palacettu Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - December - March Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Generally, the ripe sapodilla is merely cut in half and the flesh is eaten. It is an ideal dessert fruit and the skin, which is not eaten.

76. Melilotus indica Fabaceae An herb. Local name - Banmethi Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - December - June Location - Machkot Edible uses - The leaves are cooked as vegetables. 77. Mucuna pruriens Fabaceae A climber. Local name - Bido (G); Kewach, Kiwach Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - December - April Location - Machkot Edible uses - The seeds are eaten after roasting. 78. Oroxylum indicum Bignoniaceae A tree. Local name - Kotore, Tappakaya (G); Phaphni (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Low Availability - December - April Location - Machkot Edible uses - Seeds are used in vegetables. 79. Oxalis corniculata Oxalidaceae An herb. Local name - Amrul, Amblit Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Low Availability - Throughout the year Location - Bakawand Edible uses - Leaves of the plant are used to cook vegetables (bhaji). 80. Phoenix sylvestris Arecaceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Chind (H, M); Indi (M) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - May-August Location - Nangur Edible uses - The petiole bases are removed from the young shoots and the tender white soft pith is eaten. The ripe fruits are eaten. An insect is found in basal part of the stem; it is fried and eaten. Sap obtained from the main stem from an incision in the bark below the tree crown is used as a beverage (intoxicating beverage) by the tribals of bastar known as “chind ras”.

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Processing of Gur - Gur is made by firstly by cleaning the stem, earthen pots are disinfected and slung at the stem of the plants. A bamboo pipe is inserted within the tree. Nectar from the tree oozes overnight and collects in a pot which is taken out in the morning. At the end of the day the clay pots are scorched again for further use. The nectar is then concentrated on fire. Huge earthen ovens are erected in the fields. Date juice in aluminium pots are heated and concentrated. The gur is boiled for two & half hours. Liquid gur is formed before twenty minutes and solid after 20 minutes. Then they are poured in banana leaves to cool and solidify. They are then pieced with date thorns.

81. Phyllanthus acidus Phyllanthaceae A small deciduous tree. Local name - Rani Amla, Chota amla, Shree amla Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - March-June Location - Nangur Edible uses - The fruits are edible and used to prepare pickles. 82. Plesmonium margaretiferum Araceae An herb. Local name - Dhui (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - Throughout the year Location - Machkot Edible uses - The stem and leaves are cooked as vegetables. 83. Polygonum plebeium Polygonaceae An herb. Local name - Catibhaji Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - June - November Location - Bakawand Edible uses - The whole plant are cooked as vegetables. 84. Pueraria tuberosa Fabaceae A large perennial climber. Local name - Patal kumda (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Low Demand (use) - High Availability - December - March Location - Nangur Edible uses - Tubers are cooked as vegetables. 85. Sacciolepis interrupta Gramineae A grass. Local name - Hathilid Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - Throughout the year Location - Nangur Edible uses - The seeds are eaten as grains. 86. Schleichera oleosa Sapindaceae A tree. Local name - Kosamb (H): Kusum

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Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - June - July Location - Kokapal Edible uses - The fruits are eaten raw when ripened. 87. Scirpus grossus synn Actinoscirpus grossus Cyperaceae A perennial grass Local name - Kashur Kand, Kesur, Kasuru (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - June - October Location - Kokapal Edible uses - The tubers are dug up and are eaten under the name “kesurkand”. 88. Semecarpus anacardium Anacardiaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Idumaram (G); Kohka (M); Jidcettu (T) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - April - June Location - Bastanar Edible uses - The fruit ripens in April-June, and is eaten ripe or unripe. It can be collected, dried and stored for consumption in rainy season. Leaves and seeds are eaten as vegetables seeds are eaten as vegetables. Fruits (hypo carp) are roasted, powdered and mixed with water and eaten. Bhelva are sold in local markets.

89. Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Haramgi (M); Hargi (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - March-April Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Young green leaves are used as vegetables. 90. Smilax macrophylla Smilacaceae A climber. Local name - Mutrilaha (G); Phomsar (H); Ramdatun (M); Mootri Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - Throughout the year Location - Kokapal Edible uses - Young fruits are cooked as vegetables. 91. Smithia conferta Fabaceae An annual herb. Local name - Citalboti, Titalboti (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - Throughout the year Location - Kokapal Edible uses - The leaves of the herb are cooked as vegetables. 92. Solanum surattense Solanaceae An herb Local name - Katakari (H); Remgahapa Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - Throughout the year Location - Machkot Edible uses - The fruits are eaten by the tribal’s. http://lifesciencesleaflets.ning.com/ PEER-REVIEWED Page | 50

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93. Sphaeranthus indicus Asteraceae An annual herb. Local name - Lambapul (H); Molelkusir (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Low Availability - Throughout the year Location - Jagdalpur Edible uses - Leaves of young plants, which have not flowered, are plucked. They are washed and boiled in water; water is thrown and the green vegetable is eaten with salt and chillies. Young leaves are cooked with rice.

94. Spondias pinnata Anacardiaceae A deciduous tree.

Local name - Amodi (G); Amadi (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - March-June Location - Dongaghat Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten raw. Raw fruits are used in cooking dal in tribal areas. 95. Sterculia urens Sterculiaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Itum, Karat (G); Kulu (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - High Availability - October - May Location - Kutumsar Edible uses - Fruits are pounded; seeds are separated and cooked as vegetables. Gum is also edible. 96. Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Nendi (m); Nendum (g) Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - June - July Location - Machkot Edible uses - Fruits are commonly eaten, sold in markets. The best way to enjoy jamuns is to pound them gently until slightly mushy, and eat with a pinch of rock salt.

97. Syzygium jambos Myrtaceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Jam

Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - Moderate

Availability - March - May Location - Kokapal

Edible uses - Fruits are usually eaten fresh or used after preserving in form of ACHAAR’S. Rose apples spoil very quickly so fruits should be used soon after picking. The large, hollow seed cavity is sometimes utilized to stuff the fruits and bake them. Fruit extract can be used to make a sweet smelling rose water.

98. Tamarindus indica Caesalpiniaceae An evergreen tree. Local name - Hita, Hitamg (M); Amli, Thenthuli

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Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High

Availability - October - April Location - Kokapal

Edible uses - Fruits are eaten all over the district. The pulp is sold in markets in the shape of round balls. Seeds are fried or roasted and the kernels are powdered. The powder is boiled in water to make a sort of drink during summers.

The fruit pulp is edible. Pulp of young fruits is sour and acidic, but ripe fruits are sweeter. Some varieties are sweet, while others have always a sour taste. Young leaves can be used in salads. It is popularly used in chutneys and sauces

99. Termenelia cattapa Combretaceae A deciduous tree. Local name - Desi badam

Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High

Availability - October - December Location

Edible uses - The seeds of the fruits are eaten like nuts (Almonds) among Tribal’s of Bastar.

99. Urginea indica Liliaceae An bulbous plant Local name - Bailaagodri (H); Kolikanda

Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate

Availability - October - February Location - Kurandi Edible uses - The bulb tastes bitter; slimy and is used to cook curries.

101. Woodfordia fruticosa Lythraceae A tall shrub. Local name - Dhavai, Dhaul, Daul (H); Ittol, Jaji, Dhataki

Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High

Availability - March - April Location - Kokapal

Edible uses - The flowers are available all around the year and are cooked as vegetables. Also the sweet nectar of flowers is also sucked by the tribal’s.

102. Xanthiu indicum Asteraceae An herb Local name - Gokhru Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - October - December Location - Machkot Edible uses - The young leaves are cooked as vegettables.

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103. Xylia xylocarpa Mimosaceae A tree. Local name - Kadai, Kadum Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - Location - Machkot Edible uses - The seeds are roasted and eaten. 104. Zizyphus mauritiana Rhamanaceae A deciduous medium sized tree. Local name - Remga (H); Borkoli Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - February - April Location - Jagdalpur Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten. Fruits are dried and are used to make achar in villages with mirchies. 105. Ziziphus nummularia Rhamanaceae A shrub. Local name - Jhar beri Status in Bastar (availability) - Abundant Demand (use) - High Availability - February - April Location - Jagdalpur Edible uses - The dried fruits can be eaten as is, or can be refreshed by soaking in water for a few minutes. Also used to make refreshing drinks. 106. Ziziphus oenoplia Rhamanaceae A shrub. Local name - Katakuli (M), Ude (G) Status in Bastar (availability) - Moderate Demand (use) - High Availability - February - April Location - Machkot Edible uses - Ripe fruits are eaten. 107. Zizyphus jujuba Rhamanaceae A shrub. Local name - Kul, Boir (H) Status in Bastar (availability) - Less Demand (use) - Moderate Availability - December - March Location - Kokapal Edible use - Ripe fruits are eaten. Ripe fruits are also dried and stored for future use.

DISCUSSION: IDENTIFIED SPECIES CLASSIFIED ON THE BASIS OF HABIT: The information given in the species list above has been analysed in the following paragraphs. Species are classified on the basis of the habit i.e. nature of growth in the forests of Bastar region. The total number of species in any category is given within brackets. 1. TREE (45 species out of 107 species of plants) Adenanthera pavonina, Aegle marmelos, Annona reticulata, Annona squamosa, Anthocephalus cadamba, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Artocarpus lakoocha, Averrhoa carambola, Bauhinia malabarica, Bauhinia purpurea, Borassus flabellifer, Buchanania lanzan, Butea monosperma, Caryota urens, Casearia

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) graveolens, Cinnamomum tamala, Citrus maxima, Cordia dichotoma, Dillenia pentagyna, Diospyros melanoxylon, Diospyros malabarica, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Emblica officinalis, Ensete superbum, Ficus glomerata, Flacourtia indica, Gmelina arborea, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Hymenodictyon orixense, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Manilkara zapota, Phoenix sylvestris, Oroxylum indicum, Phyllanthus acidus, Schleichera oleosa, Shorea robusta, Semecarpus anacardium, Spondias pinnata, Sterculia urens, Syzygium cumini, Syzygium jambos, Tamarindus indica, Termenelia cattapa, Zizyphus mauritiana 2. SHRUBS (13 species out of 107 species of plants) Adhatoda zeylanica, Alangium salvifolium, Antidesma diandrum, Calamus floribundus, Carissa carandas, Celastrus paniculata, Gardenia gummifera, Hibiscus rugosus, Indigofera cassioides, Woodfordia fruticosa, Ziziphus nummularia, Ziziphus oenoplia, Zizyphus jujuba 3. HERBS (31 species out of 107 species of plants) Achyranthes aspera, Agave vera, Amaranthus spinosus, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Andrographis paniculata, Asparagus racemosus, Boerhaavia diffusa, Cannabis sativa, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia tora, Celosia argentea, Chlorophytum borivilianum, Colocasia esculenta, Costus speciosus, Curculigo orchioides, Curcuma amada, Curcuma angustifolia, Curcuma caesia, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Euphorbia prostrata, Leea macrophylla, Leucas aspera, Melilotus indica, Oxalis corniculata, Plesmonium margaretiferum, Polygonum plebeium, Smithia conferta, Solanum surattense, Sphaeranthus indicus, Urginea indica, Xanthiu indicum 4. CLIMBERS/CREEPERS (13 species out of 107 species of plants) Bauhinia vahlii, Cissus repanda, Dioscorea alata, Dioscorea bulbifera, Dioscorea hispida, Dioscorea oppositifolia, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Dioscorea spicata, Ipomoea batatas, Ipomoea aquatica, Mucuna pruriens, Pueraria tuberosa, Smilax macrophylla 5. GRASSES (4 species out of 107 species of plants) Coix lacryma-jobi, Dendrocalamus strictus, Sacciolepis interrupta, Scirpus grossus IDENTIFIED SPECIES CLASSIFIED ON THE BASIS OF USAGE: The information given in the species list above has been analysed in the following paragraphs. Species are classified on the basis of the parts used and how they are used. The total number of species in any category is given within brackets. 1. PLANT PARTS USED 1. FRUITS (42 species out of 107 species of plants) Aegle marmelos, Annona reticulata, Annona squamosa, Anthocephalus cadamba, Antidesma diandrum, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Artocarpus lakoocha, Averrhoa carambola, Bauhinia vahlii, Borassus

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) flabellifer, Buchanania lanzan, Carissa carandas, Casearia graveolens, Celastrus paniculata, Citrus maxima, Cordia dichotoma, Dillenia pentagyna, Diospyros melanoxylon, Diospyros malabarica, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Emblica officinalis, Ensete superbum, Ficus glomerata, Flacourtia indica, Gmelina arborea, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Manilkara zapota, Phoenix sylvestris, Phyllanthus acidus, Schleichera oleosa, Semecarpus anacardium, Spondias pinnata, Solanum surattense, Syzygium cumini, Syzygium jambos, Tamarindus indica, Termenelia cattapa, Zizyphus mauritiana, Ziziphus nummularia, Ziziphus oenoplia, Zizyphus jujube 2. SEEDS OR GRAINS (22 species out of 107 species of plants) Adenanthera pavonina, Alangium salvifolium, Annona reticulata, Annona squamosa, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Bauhinia vahlii, Buchanania lanzan, Cannabis sativa, Casearia graveolens, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia tora, Coix lacryma-jobi, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Diospyros malabarica, Madhuca indica, Mucuna pruriens, Oroxylum indicum, Sacciolepis interrupta, Semecarpus anacardium, Spondias pinnata, Tamarindus indica, Termenelia cattapa, Xylia xylocarpa 3. LEAVES (33 species out of 107 species of plants) Achyranthes aspera, Adhatoda zeylanica, Aegle marmelos, Agave vera, Alangium salvifolium, Amaranthus spinosus, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Andrographis paniculata, Annona reticulate, Annona squamosa, Antidesma diandrum, Averrhoa carambola, Bauhinia purpurea, Bauhinia vahlii, Boerhaavia diffusa, Butea monosperma, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia tora, Celosia argentea, Cinnamomum tamala, Colocasia esculenta, Euphorbia prostrate, Hymenodictyon orixense, Ipomoea aquatica, Leucas aspera, Melilotus indica, Oxalis corniculata, Plesmonium margaretiferum, Shorea robusta, Smilax macrophylla, Sphaeranthus indicus, Syzygium cumini, Tamarindus indica, Xanthiu indicum 4. ROOTS OR TUBERS (25 species out of 107 species of plants) Aegle marmelos, Alangium salvifolium, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Asparagus racemosus, Chlorophytum borivilianum, Colocasia esculenta, Costus speciosus, Curcuma amada, Curcuma angustifolia, Curcuma caesia, Dendrocalamus strictus, Dioscorea alata, Dioscorea bulbifera, Dioscorea hispida, Dioscorea oppositifolia, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Dioscorea spicata, Gardenia gummifera, Hibiscus rugosus, Ipomoea batatas, Leea macrophylla, Pueraria tuberose, Scirpus grossus, Smithia conferta, Urginea indica 5. STEM BARK OR SAP (17 species out of 107 species of plants) Amaranthus spinosus, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Annona reticulata, Annona squamosa, Bauhinia malabarica, Borassus flabellifer, Butea monosperma, Calamus floribundus, Caryota urens, Cassia occidentalis, Cissus repanda, Colocasia esculenta, Dendrocalamus strictus, Ensete superbum, Phoenix sylvestris, Plesmonium margaretiferum, Sterculia urens

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6. FLOWERS (9 species out of 107 species of plants) Bauhinia purpurea, Borassus flabellifer, Butea monosperma, Caryota urens, Celastrus paniculata, Ensete superbum, Indigofera cassioides, Madhuca indica, Woodfordia fruticosa 7. WHOLE PLANT (12 species out of 107 species of plants) Amaranthus spinosus, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia tora, Colocasia esculenta, Euphorbia prostrate, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Leucas aspera, Oxalis corniculata, Polygonum plebeium, Smilax macrophylla, Smithia conferta, Sphaeranthus indicus 2. PLANTS ARE USED AFTER VALUE ADDITION: Plants are used as vegetables, nuts, grains, etc. On the basis of usage the plants can be classified into following categories. The total number of species in each category is given within brackets. 1. VEGETABLES (71 species out of 107 species of plants) (A) LEAVES Achyranthes aspera, Adhatoda zeylanica, Agave vera, Amaranthus spinosus, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Andrographis paniculata, Antidesma diandrum, Bauhinia purpurea, Boerhaavia diffusa, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia tora, Celastrus paniculata, Celosia argentea, Colocasia esculenta, Cordia dichotoma, Euphorbia prostrata, Hymenodictyon orixense, Indigofera cassioides, Ipomoea aquatica, Leea macrophylla, Leucas aspera, Melilotus indica, Oxalis corniculata, Plesmonium margaretiferum, Semecarpus anacardium, Shorea robusta, Smilax macrophylla, Smithia conferta, Sphaeranthus indicus, Tamarindus indica, Xanthiu indicum (B) ROOTS Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Asparagus racemosus, Chlorophytum borivilianum, Colocasia esculenta, Curcuma amada, Curcuma angustifolia, Curcuma caesia, Dendrocalamus strictus, Dioscorea alata, Dioscorea bulbifera, Dioscorea hispida, Dioscorea oppositifolia, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Dioscorea spicata, Gardenia gummifera, Hibiscus rugosus, Ipomoea batatas, Leea macrophylla, Pueraria tuberosa, Scirpus grossus, Urginea indica (C) FLOWERS Bauhinia purpurea, Ensete superbum, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Indigofera cassioides, Madhuca indica, Woodfordia fruticosa (D) FRUITS Artocarpus heterophyllus, Bauhinia vahlii, Celastrus paniculata, Cordia dichotoma, Dillenia pentagyna, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Ensete superbum, Gmelina arborea, Mangifera indica, Semecarpus anacardium, Spondias pinnata, Tamarindus indica (E) WHOLE PLANT

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Amaranthus spinosus, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia tora, Celosia argentea, Colocasia esculenta, Euphorbia prostrata, Ipomoea aquatica, Leucas aspera, Oxalis corniculata, Polygonum plebeium, Smilax macrophylla, Smithia conferta, Sphaeranthus indicus (F) SEEDS Adenanthera pavonina, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Bauhinia vahlii, Cannabis sativa, Mucuna pruriens, Oroxylum indicum, Semecarpus anacardium, Xylia xylocarpa (G) SHOOTS Calamus floribundus, Colocasia esculenta, Dendrocalamus strictus, Ensete superbum, Plesmonium margaretiferum 2. FRUITS (35 species out of 107 species of plants) Aegle marmelos, Alangium salvifolium, Annona reticulata, Annona squamosa, Anthocephalus cadamba, Antidesma diandrum, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Artocarpus lakoocha, Averrhoa carambola, Borassus flabellifer, Buchanania lanzan, Calamus floribundus, Carissa carandas, Citrus maxima, Dillenia pentagyna, Diospyros melanoxylon, Diospyros malabarica, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Emblica officinalis, Ficus glomerata, Mangifera indica, Manilkara zapota, Phoenix sylvestris, Phyllanthus acidus, Schleichera oleosa, Semecarpus anacardium, Solanum surattense, Spondias pinnata, Syzygium cumini, Syzygium jambos, Tamarindus indica, Termenelia cattapa, Zizyphus mauritiana, Zizyphus nummularia, Zizyphus oenoplia, Zizyphus jujuba 3. NUTS (3 species out of 107 species of plants) Buchanania lanzan, Ficus glomerata, Termenelia cattapa 4. BEVERAGES AND DRINKS (15 species out of 107 species of plants) Aegle marmelos, Averrhoa carambola, Borassus flabellifer, Butea monosperma, Caryota urens, Cissus repanda, Citrus maxima, Curcuma angustifolia, Emblica officinalis, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Phoenix sylvestris, Tamarindus indica, Woodfordia fruticosa, Ziziphus nummularia 5. GRAINS (5 species out of 107 species of plants) Cassia occidentalis, Coix lacryma-jobi, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Dendrocalamus strictus, Sacciolepis interrupta 6. OILSEEDS (6 species out of 107 species of plants) Butea monosperma, Casearia graveolens, Diospyros malabarica, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Madhuca indica, Termenelia cattapa 7. CHUTNEY & ACHAAR’S (19 species out of 107 species of plants) Artocarpus lakoocha, Carissa carandas, Citrus maxima, Costus speciosus, Curcuma amada, Curcuma caesia, Dendrocalamus strictus, Dillenia pentagyna, Diospyros melanoxylon, Elaeocarpus floribundus,

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Emblica officinalis, Mangifera indica, Phyllanthus acidus, Spondias pinnata, Syzygium cumini, Zizyphus mauritiana, Zizyphus nummularia, Zizyphus oenoplia, Zizyphus jujuba 8. SWEETS (9 species out of 107 species of plants) Averrhoa carambola, Buchanania lanzan, Citrus maxima, Curcuma angustifolia, Emblica officinalis, Ipomoea batatas, Mangifera indica, Manilkara zapota, Termenelia cattapa 9. CONDINMENTS (5 species out of 107 species of plants) Bauhinia malabarica, Buchanania lanzan, Cinnamomum tamala, Ficus glomerata, Termenelia cattapa 10. BARK (1 species out of 107 species of plants) Bauhinia malabarica 11. TREE SAP & GUMS (5 species out of 107 species of plants) Borassus flabellifer, Caryota urens, Cissus repanda, Phoenix sylvestris, Sterculia urens AVAILABILITY OF IDENTIFIED EDIBLE PLANT SPECIES IN THE STUDY AREA: Species are classified on the basis of the availability of plant species in the forests of Bastar region. The total numbers of species in any category are given within brackets. 1. ABUNDANT (48 species out of 107 species of plants) Achyranthes aspera, Adhatoda zeylanica, Aegle marmelos, Amaranthus spinosus, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Asparagus racemosus, Bauhinia malabarica, Bauhinia purpurea, Buchanania lanzan, Cannabis sativa, Casearia graveolens, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia tora, Celosia argentea, Chlorophytum borivillium, Colocasia esculenta, Cordia dichotoma, Costus speciosus, Curcuma amada, Curcuma angustifolia, Curcuma caesia, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Dendrocalamus strictus, Dioscorea alata, Dioscorea bulbifera, Dioscorea hispida, Dioscorea oppositifolia, Emblica officinalis, Ensete superbum, Euphorbia prostrata, Indigofera cassioides, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Melilotus indica, Mucuna pruriens, Plesmonium margaretiferum, Polygonum plebeium, Sacciolepis interrupta, Scripus grossus, Shorea robusta, Smilax macrophylla, Smithia conferta, Solanum surattense, Spondias pinnata, Syzygium cumini, Tamarindus indica, Xanthiu indicum, Ziziphus nummularia 2. MODERATE (46 species out of 107 species of plants) Adenanthera pavonina, Agave vera, Alangium salvifolium, Andrographis paniculata, Annona reticulata, Annona squamosa, Anthocephalus cadamba, Antidesma diandrum, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Bauhinia vahlii, Borassus flabellifer, Butea monosperma, Calamus floribundus, Caryota urens, Celastrus paniculata, Cinnamomum tamala, Cissus repanda, Coix lacryma-jobi, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Dioscorea spicata, Diospyros melanoxylon, Ficus glomerata, Flacourtia indica, Gardenia gummifera, Gmelina arborea, Hibiscus rugosus, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Hymenodictyon orixense, Ipomoea batatas, Ipomoea aquatica, Leea macrophylla, Leucas aspera, Manilkara zapota, Oroxylum indicum, Oxalis

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Life Sciences Leaflets12:29-76,2012 FREE DOWNLOAD ISSN 2277-4297(Print)0976–1098(Online) corniculata, Phoenix sylvestris, Phyllanthus acidus, Schleichera oleosa, Semecarpus anacardium, Sphaeranthus indicus, Termenelia cattapa, Urginea indica, Woodfordia fructicosa, Xylia xylocarpa, Zizyphus mauritiana, Ziziphus oenoplia 3. LESS (12 species out of 107 species of plants) Artocarpus lakoocha, Averrhoa carambola, Boerhaavia diffusa, Carissa carandas, Citrus maxima, Dillenia pentagyna, Diospyros malabarica, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Pueraria tuberosa, Sterculia urens, Syzygium jambos, Zizyphus jujube DEMAND OF WILD EDIBLE PLANTS AMONG THE TRIBAL’S OF BASTAR: Species are arranged on the basis of demand of plant species/products among the tribal’s of Bastar region. The total numbers of species in categories are given in brackets. 1. HIGH (59 species out of 107 species of plants) Adhatoda zeylanica, Aegle marmelos, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Annona reticulata, Annona squamosa, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Asparagus racemosus, Bauhinia malabarica, Bauhinia purpurea, Borassus flabellifer, Buchanania lanzan, Butea monosperma, Cannabis sativa, Caryota urens, Carissa carandas, Casearia graveolens, Chlorophytum borivillium, Cinnamomum tamala, Colocasia esculenta, Cordia dichotoma, Costus speciosus, Curcuma amada, Curcuma angustifolia, Curcuma caesia, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Dendrocalamus strictus, Dioscorea alata, Dioscorea bulbifera, Dioscorea hispida, Dioscorea oppositifolia, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Dioscorea spicata, Diospyros melanoxylon, Emblica officinalis, Ficus glomerata, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Ipomoea batatas, Ipomoea aquatica, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Manilkara zapota, Mucuna pruriens, Phoenix sylvestris, Phyllanthus acidus, Pueraria tuberosa, Plesmonium margaretiferum, Polygonum plebeium, Schleichera oleosa, Scripus grossus, Semecarpus anacardium, Spondias pinnata, Sterculia urens, Syzygium cumini, Tamarindus indica, Termenelia cattapa, Woodfordia fructicosa, Zizyphus mauritiana, Ziziphus nummularia, Ziziphus oenoplia 2. MODERATE (28 species out of 107 species of plants) Achyranthes aspera, Adenanthera pavonina, Amaranthus spinosus, Andrographis paniculata, Averrhoa carambola, Bauhinia vahlii, Celastrus paniculata, Cissus repanda, Citrus maxima, Coix lacryma-jobi, Dillenia pentagyna, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Flacourtia indica, Gardenia gummifera, Gmelina arborea, Hibiscus rugosus, Hymenodictyon orixense, Melilotus indica, Sacciolepis interrupta, Shorea robusta, Smilax macrophylla, Smithia conferta, Solanum surattense, Syzygium jambos, Urginea indica, Xanthiu indicum, Xylia xylocarpa, Zizyphus jujube

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3. LOW (19 species out of 107 species of plants) Agave vera, Alangium salvifolium, Anthocephalus cadamba, Antidesma diandrum, Artocarpus lakoocha, Boerhaavia diffusa, Calamus floribundus, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia tora, Celosia argentea, Diospyros malabarica, Ensete superbum, Euphorbia prostrata, Indigofera cassioides, Leea macrophylla, Leucas aspera, Oroxylum indicum, Oxalis corniculata, Sphaeranthus indicus SYSTEMATIC FAMILY LIST The identified and documented wild edible plant species belongs to the following 55 families (arranged according to Bentham hooker’s scheme)in table 6.

CONCLUSION: Edible plants of forestry origin can provide a substantial food security to a larger population of the world. Food resources from forests are nutritionally important and are traditionally used to supplement the staple diet besides adding diversity and flavour. Several wild edible plants are used in times of scarcity and famine. To familiarise the food available in our forests, this study work entitled “Identification & utilization of wild edible plants used by the Tribal’s of Bastar region” has been compiled. In this work a total of 107 species of wild plants of forest origin were identified and documented, which were used by tribal’s of Bastar region as edible plants from different forests and forest villages of Bastar district. Investigations were made on plants according to their habit, family, plant description, basis of usage, mode of uses, status of plant availability in forests, demand among the tribal’s, and their value addition. The main aim of this study work was to compile the information of various available wild edible plants by which the state and the country should get attention and to give importance to under-valued resource of nature for a healthy living of the tribal’s. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: I take this momentous opportunity to express my heartiest gratitude, indebtedness and regards to my guide, Dr. Sharad Nema, HOD/Associate Professor, School of Studies Forestry & Wild life, Bastar Vishwavidyalaya, Jagdalpur. It has been a great honour to work under his supervision. I am extremely grateful for his valuable guidance, untiring attention and patience throughout my entire period of work. Carrying out his sheer volume and depth of this work was no easy without the help of some people who made this journey easier with words of encouragement and shore intellectually satisfying by offering different places to look to expand my theories and ideas. I owe the opportunity to express my gratefulness to Shri Deoshankar, Scientist, S.G Agriculture College and Research Centre, Jagdalpur for his encouragement and motivation throughout the present endeavour.

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I would like to express my grateful gratitude to Dr. Vinod Soni, Dr. Sanjeevan Kumar, Assistant Professor, School of Studies Forestry & Wildlife, Bastar Vishwavidyalaya, Jagdalpur for his constant support during my study work. I would also like to thank my friends and the villagers who lended me cooperation during the study work. My thanks also remain due for those who have helped me knowingly and unknowingly in various ways to complete my research work successfully.

REFRENCES: Ayyanar M., Sankarasivaraman K., Ignacimuthu S. and Sekar T. (2010): Asian j. exp. biol. sci. 1(4): 265- 271.

Dwivedi A. P. (2007): Forests The Non-Wood Resources. International book Distributors, Dhera Dun. p 352

Grivetti LE and Ogle Britta M. (2000): Value of traditional foods in meeting macro- and micronutrient needs: the wild plant connection. Natl. Res. Rev.13:31-46.

Jain S. K. (1963): Wild Plant-Foods of the Tribals of Bastar (Madhya Pradesh); B.S.I. 30 B, (2):56-80.

Kala prakash Chandra. (2009): Aboriginal uses and management of ethnobotanical species in deciduous forests of Chhattisgarh state in India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 5:20

Roy J. K., and Rao R. K. (1957): Investigations on the diet of the muria of Bastar Dist. Bull. Dept. Anthrop., Govt. India, 6, 33-45.

Ogle Britta M. (2001): Wild vegetables and Micronutrient Nutrition- studies on the Significance of Wild vegetables in Women’s Diets in Vietnam, (Comprehensive summaries of Uppsala, Dissertations from the Faculty of Medicine).

Ogle Britta M., Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung, Do Tran Thanh and Hambraeus L. (2001): The contribution of Wild Vegetables to micronutrient intakes among women: An example from the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, Ecol. Food Nutr., 40:159-184.

Ogle Britta M., Ho Thi Tuyet, Hoang Nghia Duyet and Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung. (2003): Food, Feed or Medicine: The multiple functions of edible wild plants in Vietnam, Econ. Bot. 57(1):103-117.

Singh H. B., Arora R. K. (1978): Wild edible plants of India (1st ed.). ICAR Publication, New Delhi. p 88.

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ABBREVATIONS: @ At the rate of Sq Km Square Kilometre oC Degree Centigrade FAO Food and Agriculture Organization % Percent ISFR Indian State Forest Report et al. Others NWFP Non Wood Forest Products Ha Hectare INB Indian National Bibliography i.e. That is Viz. Namely Sq Square LANGUAGES Fig Figure D Dorli Spp Species G Gondi Ht Height H Halbi Kg Kilogram Hi Hindi Km Kilometre M Maria m Metre T Telgu cm Centimetre mm Millimetre gm Gram Hrs Hours in Inch ft Feet BM Bison-horn Maria Km2 Kilometre square

TABLE 01:CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF THE HABIT / NATURE OF GROWTH, FOLLOWING RESULTS HAS BEEN FOUND Sr FORM / NATURE No. of species Total no. of species no. found 1. TREE 45 107 2. SHRUBS 13 107 3. HERBS 31 107 4. CLIMBERS 13 107 5. GRASSES 4 107

TABLE 02: CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF USAGE OF PLANT PARTS, FOLLOWING RESULTS HAS BEEN FOUND: Sr BASIS OF USAGE No. of species Total no. of species no. (PARTS USED) found 1. FRUITS 42 107 2. SEEDS OR GRAINS 22 107 3. LEAVES 33 107 4. ROOTS OR TUBERS 25 107 5. STEM BARK OR SAP 17 107 6. FLOWERS 9 107 7. WHOLE PLANT 12 107

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TABLE 03:CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF HOW THE PLANTS ARE USED AFTER VALUE ADDITION, FOLLOWING RESULTS HAS BEEN FOUND: Sr BASIS OF USAGE No. of species Total no. of species no. (FORM) found 1. VEGETABLES 71 107 2. FRUITS 35 107 3. NUTS 3 107 4. BEVERAGES & DRINKS 15 107 5. GRAINS 5 107 6. OILSEEDS 6 107 7. CHUTNEY & ACHAARS 19 107 8. SWEETS 9 107 9. CONDINMENTS 5 107 10. BARK 1 107 11. TREE SAP & GUMS 5 107

TABLE 04:CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF AVAILABILITY IN THE FORESTS OF BASTAR REGION, FOLLOWING RESULTS HAS BEEN FOUND Sr BASIS OF No. of species Total no. of species no. AVAILABILITY found 1. ABUNDANT 34 107 2. MODERATE 39 107 3. LESS 11 107

TABLE 05:CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF DEMAND AMONG THE TRIBAL’S OF BASTAR REGION, FOLLOWING RESULTS HAS BEEN FOUND Sr BASIS OF DEMAND No. of species Total no. of species no. found 1. HIGH 50 107 2. MODERATE 20 107 3. LOW 14 107

TABLE 06: SYSTEMATIC FAMILY LIST S FAMILY SPECIES TOTAL S FAMILY SPECIES TOTAL No. No. No. No. 1. ACANTHACEAE 3, 9 2 29. GRAMINAE 38, 46, 4 47, 85 2. AGAVACEAE 5 1 30. HYPOXIDACEAE 42 1 3. ALAGIACEAE 6 1 31. LAMIACEAE 72 1 4. AMARANTHACEAE 1, 7, 33 3 32. LAURACEAE 35 1 5. ANACARDIACEAE 23, 74, 88, 4 33. LEEACEAE 71 1 94 6. ANNONACEAE 10, 11 2 34. LILIACEAE 34, 99 2 7. APOCYNACEAE 27, 66 2 35. LYTHRACEAE 101 1 8. ARECEAE 8, 39, 82 3 36. MALVACEAE 65 1

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S FAMILY SPECIES TOTAL S FAMILY SPECIES TOTAL No. No. No. No. 9. ARECACEAE 22, 25, 28, 4 37. MIMOSACEAE 103 1 80 10. ASPARAGACEAE 16 1 38. MORACEAE 14, 15, 3 61 11. ASTERACEAE 93, 102 2 39. MUSACEAE 59 1 12. BIGNONIACEAE 78 1 40. MYRTACEAE 96, 97 2 13. BORGINACEAE 40 1 41. NYCTAGINACEAE 21 1 14. CAESALPINIACEAE 18, 19, 20, 6 42. OXALIDACEAE 17, 79 2 30, 31, 98 15. CANNABACEAE 26 1 43. PHYLLANTHACEA 58, 81 2 E 16. CELASTRACEAE 32 1 44. POLYGONACEAE 83 1 17. COMBRETACEAE 99 1 45. RHAMANACEAE 104, 105, 4 106, 107 18. CONVULVULACEAE 69, 70 2 46. RUBIACEAE 12, 63, 3 67 19. COSTACEAE 41 1 47. RUTACEAE 4, 37 2 20. CYPERACEAE 87 1 48. SAPINDACEAE 86 1 21. DILLANIACEAE 48 1 49. SAPOTACEAE 73, 75 2 22. DIOSCORACEAE 49, 50, 51, 6 50. SMILACACEAE 90 1 52, 53, 54 23. DIPTEROCARPACEA 89 1 51. SOLANACEAE 92 1 E 24. EBENACEAE 55, 56 2 52. STERCULIACEAE 95 1 25. ELAEOCARPACEAE 57 1 53. VERBANACEAE 64 1 26. EUPHORBIACEAE 13, 60 2 54. VITACEAE 36 1 27. FABACEAE 2, 24, 68, 7 55. ZINGIBERACEAE 43, 44, 3 76, 77, 84, 45 91 28. FLACOURTIACEAE 29, 62 2

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FIG. 1. A1, A2 - Aegle marmelos pulp. B1, B2 - Amorphophallus paeoniifolius plant and tubers. C - Annona reticulata fruits. D - Asparagus racemosus herb. E - Bauhinia malabarica tree. F - Bauhinia purpurea tree. G - Bauhinia vahlii climber. H - Borassus flabellifer pulp. I, J - Buchanania lanzan tree and fruits. K - Butea monosperma flowers. L - Carissa carandas plant.

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FIG. 2. A, B - Caryota urens (Salphi) tree and inflorescence. C - Tribal taking out Salphi from the tree. D - Salphi drink. E - Tribals selling Salphi at HAAT. F - Casearia graveolens fruits. G - Cassia tora herb. H - Chlorophytum borivilianum herb. I, J - Colocasia esculenta plant & tubers. K - Cordia dichotoma fruits. L, M - Costus speciosus herb and tubers. N - Curculigo orchioides herb with tubers.

FIG. 3. METHOD - A: Traditional method of processing of Tikhur starch. METHOD - B: Modern method of processing of Tikhur starch.

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FIG. 4. A, B - Curcuma amada herb and tubers. C, D - Curcuma angustifolia plant and tikhur starch. E, F - Curcuma caesia plant and tubers. G - Dendrocalamus strictus young stem Culm “BAASTA”. H - Dillenia pentagyna fruits. I - Dioscorea alata tubers. J - Dioscorea bulbifera tubers. K, L, M - Dioscorea hispida tubers, processing and processed chips “KULIAPAPAD”. N - Dioscorea pentaphylla tubers. O - Dioscorea spicata tubers. P - Dioscorea oppositifolia climber. http://lifesciencesleaflets.ning.com/ PEER-REVIEWED Page | 67

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FIG. 5. A - Diospyros melanoxylon fruits B, C - Emblica officinalis fruits “Achaar and Murabaah” D - Ensete superbum plant. E - Euphorbia prostrata herb F - Ficus glomerata fruits. G - Gardenia gummifera plant H, I - Hibiscus rugosus plant and tubers J - Holarrhena antidysenterica flowers K, L - Ipomoea batatas tubers (white & purple).

FIG. 6. A, B - Madhuca indica TREE C - Mahua flowers D - Tribal’s collecting Mahua flowers. E, F - Tribal’s drying Mahua flowers under sun. G, H - Dried Mahua flowers are sold in Mandi’s. I, J - Tribal’s distilling Mahua Alcohol from Dried Mahua flowers. K - Mahua liquor (MAND) L - Tribal’s selling Mahua Mand in Haat’s.

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FIG. 7. A - Leucas aspera herb. B - Oxalis corniculata herb. sylvestris tree. D - Tribal taking out “Chind Ras”. E - Chind Ras. F - Chind fruits. G - Chind gur. H - Pueraria tuberosa tuber. I - Schleichera oleosa (Kusum) fruits. J - Scirpus grossus tubers.

FIG. 8. A - Semecarpus anacardium nuts. B - Tribal’s selling Bhelva nuts in “Haat”. C - Spondias pinnata fruits (Amda). D - Sterculia urens gum (Kullu gum). E - Syzygium cumini fruits (Jamun). F - Syzygium jambos fruits. G - Tamarindus indica fruits. H - Imli bhelaa sold in “HAATS’. I - Woodfordia fruticosa flowers. J - Urginea indica herbs. K - Ziziphus nummularia plant. L - Ziziphus oenoplia fruits.

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50 45 45

40

35 31 30

25

20

15 13 13

10 4 5

0 TREES SHRUBS HERBS CLIMBERS GRASSES

FIG. 09. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF THE HABIT / NATURE OF GROWTH

45 42 40

35 33

30 25 25 22

20 17

15 12 9 10

5

0 FRUITS SEEDS OR LEAVES ROOTS OR STEM BARK FLOWERS WHOLE GRAINS TUBERS OR SAP PLANT

FIG. 10. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF USAGE OF PLANT PARTS

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80 71 70 60 50 40 35 30 19 15 20 9 5 6 5 10 3 4 1 0

FIG. 11. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF HOW THE PLANTS ARE USED AFTER VALUE ADDITION

50 39 40 34 30

20 11 10

0 ABUNDANT MODERATE LESS

FIG. 12. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF AVAILABILITY OF THE PLANT SPECIES IN THE FORESTS OF BASTAR REGION

60 50 50

40

30 20 20 14 10

0 HIGH MODERATE LOW

FIG. 13 CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF DEMAND AMONG THE TRIBAL’S OF BASTAR REGION http://lifesciencesleaflets.ning.com/ PEER-REVIEWED Page | 71

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FLACOURTIACEAE 2 FABACEAE 7 EUPHORBIACEAE 2 ELAECARPACEAE 1 EBENACEAE 2 DIPTEROCARPACEAE 1 DIOSCOREACEAE 6 DILLANIACEAE 1 CYPERACEAE 1 COSTACEAE 1 CONVOLVUCEAE 2 COMBRETACEAE 1 CELASTRACEAE 1 CANNABACEAE 1 CAESALPINIACEAE 6 BORANGINACEAE 1 BIGNONIACEAE 1 ASTERACEAE 2 ASPARAGACEAE 1 ARECACEAE 4 ARACEAE 3 APOCYNACEAE 2 ANNONACEAE 2 ANACARDIACEAE 4 AMARANTHACEAE 3 ALANGIACEAE 1 AGAVACEAE

ACANTHACEAE 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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ZINGIBERACEAE 3 VITACEAE 1 VERBENACEAE 1 STERCULIACEAE 1 SOLANACEAE 1 SMILACACEAE 1 SAPOTACEAE 2 SAPINDACEAE 1 RUTACEAE 2 RUBIACEAE 3 RHAMANACEAE 4 POLYGONACEAE 1 PHYLLANTHACEAE 2 QXALIDACEAE 2 NYCTAGINACEAE 2 MYRTACEAE 2 MUSACEAE 1 MORACEAE 3 MIMOSACEAE 1 MALVACEAE 1 LYTHRACEAE 1 LILIACEAE 2 LEEACEAE 1 LAURACEAE 1 LAMIACEAE 1 HYPOXIDACEAE 1 GRAMINAE 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

FIG. 14. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF THE SYSTEMATIC FAMILIES OF THE PLANT SPECIES

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ANNEXURE – I TABLE 07: CHHATTISGARH FOREST AT A GLANCE: FOREST AREAS: At a glance: Reserved Forests 25782.167 Sq.Km. Protected Forests 24036.100 Sq.Km. Undemarkated P.F. 9954.122 Sq.Km Total Forests 59772.389Sq.Km.

FOREST AREAS PERCENTAGE Undemarkate d P.F. Reserved 17% Forests 43%

Protected Forests 40%

Total Forests 59772.389Sq.Km.

FIG. 14. Indian State forest report 2011

TABLE 08: Forest Types of Chhattisgarh S.No. Types of Forest Forest Area (in Sq.Km.) Percentage (%)

1. Sal 24244.878 40.56

2. Teak 5633.131 9.42

3. Mixed 6484.380 50.02

Total 59772.389 100

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ANNEXURE – II

DISTRICT WISE FOREST COVER (CHHATTISGARH)

Table 09: District-wise Forest Cover (Sq.km.): Year 2011

Forest Cover Geographic Percent of S.No. District Difference area Very Dense Open Forest Total G.A. Scrub Dense forest

1. Bastar 14974 1,349 4,333 2,329 8,011 53.50 0 11 2. Bilaspur 8270 338 1,623 533 2,494 30.16 0 6 3. Dantewara 17634 1,082 6,167 4,079 11,328 64.24 0 22 4. Durg 8549 44 521 202 767 8.97 0 4 5. Janjgir -Champa 3852 4 26 125 155 4.02 0 2 6. Jashpur 5838 111 1,485 568 2,164 37.07 0 11 7. Kanker 6506 215 2,044 835 3,094 47.56 0 2 8. Kawardha 4,223 70 1,126 389 1,585 37.53 0 4 9. Korba 6599 203 2,306 840 3,349 50.75 0 6 10. Korea 6604 79 2,605 1,423 4,107 62.19 0 3 11. Mahasamund 4789 4 534 422 960 20.05 -1 8 12. Raigarh 7086 126 1,697 723 2,546 35.93 -2 13 13. Raipur & 16,468 189 3,837 1,435 5,461 33.16 0 7 Dhamtari 14. Rajnandgaon 8,068 29 1,771 720 2,520 31.23 -1 4 15. Surguja 15731 320 4,836 1,977 7,133 45.34 0 16 Total 35191 4,163 34,911 16,600 55,674 41.18 -4 119

Source: Forest Survey of India Report (Year - 2011) *comparison of 2011 assessment with that of 2009

Annexure – III QUESTIONNAIRES The identified and collected plant samples were arranged and documented according to the following questionnaires:  LOCAL NAME - Local name of the identified species indifferent local tribal languages e.g. Halbi, Maria, Gondi  OTHER COMMON NAMES - Other local names prevalent in the study area.  STATUS IN BASTAR (AVALABILITY) - Information about the availability of plant species in the local forests.  DEMAND (USE) - The level of demand of plant species / plant products among between the tribal’s of the study area.  USEFUL PARTS - which parts are used for edible purposes.  AVAILABILITY - when the plant species or the plant products are available in the forests.  EDIBLE USES - the edible uses of the plant species. And also the way of edibility i.e. either used in raw or processed form.  PROCESSING TECHNIQUES - The traditional techniques and the modern processing techniques of the edible plant species.

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ANNEXURE – V TABLE 10: Nutritive values of some wild edible plants from forest per 100 gms. of edible portion S No. Botanical Name Moisture Protien Fat Minerals Fibres Carbohydrat Calories es

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Aegle marmelos 61.5 1.8 0.3 1.7 2.9 31.8 137 2. Amaranthus spinosus 85.0 3.0 0.3 3.6 1.1 7.0 43 3. Amorphophallus 78.7 1.2 0.1 0.8 0.8 18.4 79 paeoniifolius 4. Annona reticulata 76.8 1.4 0.2 0.7 5.2 15.7 70 5. Annona squamosa 69.3 1.7 0.6 1.1 3.7 23.6 107 6. Antidesma diandrum 7.2 7.2 4.8 9.5 13.5 57.8 303 7. Artocarpus 76.2 1.9 0.1 0.9 1.1 19.8 88 heterophyllus 8. Artocarpus lakoocha 82.1 0.7 0.1 0.8 2.0 13.3 66 9. Averrhoa carambola 91.9 0.7 0.1 0.4 0.8 6.1 28 10. Bauhinia purpurea 78.1 3.6 1.0 2.1 5.5 9.7 62

11. Bauhinia vahlii 25.5 23.7 28.2 3.0 2.3 17.3 418

12. Buchanania lanzan 74.3 2.2 0.8 1.7 1.5 19.5 94 13. Carissa carandas 91.0 1.1 2.9 0.6 1.5 2.9 42 14. Cassia tora 84.9 5.0 0.8 1.7 2.1 5.5 49 15. Celosia argentea 87.4 1.1 0.8 2.6 3.7 4.4 29 16. Colocasia esculenta 78.8 6.8 2.0 2.5 1.8 8.1 77

17. Cordia dichotoma 82.5 1.8 1.0 2.2 0.3 12.2 65 18. Dillenia pentagyna 82.3 0.8 0.2 0.8 2.5 13.4 59 19. Dioscorea bulbifera 67.6 4.5 0.8 1.3 1.1 24.7 124 20. Dioscorea pentaphylla 79.6 2.8 0.3 0.8 0.9 15.5 43 21. Diospyros malabarica 69.6 1.4 0.1 0.8 1.5 26.6 113 22. Diospyros melanoxylon 70.6 0.8 0.2 0.8 0.8 26.8 112

23. Euphorbia prostrata 78.1 4.7 1.7 3.2 - 12.3 83

24. Flacourtia indica 67.8 1.7 1.8 1.3 4.7 22.7 114 25. Madhuca indica 18.6 4.4 0.6 2.7 1.7 72.0 311 26. Phoenix sylvestris 59.2 1.2 0.4 1.7 3.7 33.8 144 27. Schleichera oleosa 86.2 1.5 0.8 1.0 0.6 9.9 53 28. Spondias pinnata 90.3 0.7 3.0 0.5 1.0 4.5 48 29. Syzygium cumini 83.7 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.9 14.0 62 30. Syzygium jambos 89.1 0.7 0.2 0.3 1.2 9.7 43 31. Tamarindus indica 70.5 5.8 2.1 1.5 1.9 18.2 115 32. Zizyphus mauritiana 81.6 0.8 0.3 0.3 - 17.0 74 Source - (Dwivedi 2007)

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