6 THE, SPORT FEDERATIONS' PERSPE,CTIVE,

Etnmanuel Bayle

ISSUL, UNlVllltsl'I'Y OI LAUS/\NNIt, SWI'1 7.ìr.lÌl,ANl)

Introduction

'1-lic govcrnurtcc ofrvr>rlcl spot't is thc lcsponsibility of thc Iltcrrreliolrrl ()lyutpic (ìorn¡tittoe (I(Xì) ¡rrtl inlct'u¡lioull sport fctlcratious (lF) (scc (.)hrrppclct ,lnd I(iiblcr'-Mabboct 200u, o¡ tlrc I()(1, ¡rrcl Arciorti arrcl Ìì:rylc 2012,ort lfr$. Thcsc borlics ¡r'c also tirc owrìcrs r¡f thc hlqcst cvc¡ts (Oly¡rpic (ìuncs lc¡r thc IOC antl wot'lcl charrrpionships fr>r' tllc lfr$, which fìrulr thc llc:rlt of'¡llcir eco¡ornic 'Witlrirt luodcl. this irtcr:n¿tiotral systcn of'privucc rrssociativc l¡odicrs, spolt fòclcr-¿rtir>¡s ovcrscc t|c org:tnisatiou, plolrtotiorì, ancl clcvcloptncrrl of onc or lìrorc clisciplirrcs. Ncvcllhclcss, c[a¡gcs irr llrcil clwilotuucrtl:uril spott's itrcrcusccl in.L¡roltutrcc in socicty havc lccl fl'tlcr¡trorrs tr> tlivcr-sify tlrcir ¡ctivitics irrto lcisLttr: sport lìlìcl prolcssiorrrl sp()rt, iìrì(l t<> t¡rquuisc llcw typcrì ofcvcrrts. Â llruc rn:1.joriry of courpctitivc spo:'ts cvcnts irr'ù ,.r'g¡uisccl by u¿liourl fcrk:r'¡tious (rr:Lriorrul gov- culins bodics ol N(;lì$ anrl tlrcir c:lubs, Ft¡l' cxruìlplc, tluough thcil uc[wo¡k of clLrbs, Fr.¡lrcc'.s two lat'ucst spot't fc'tlct'atiors lìrarìiìgc two lnilliou tcuttis nratclrcs rtrtd jLrst ovcr. u uril'lion secccr ¡r¿tcþcs cvclry yc¡r. lrr Switzcrluld, spolt fcclcratìorrs ¡lrcl tlrcir clul'¡s org.urise rnoLc tll¡u 20,000 spor:ts cvcrrts (Larrrplcclrt û (il. 2o12). Ncarly ;rll thcsc boclics :ìrc r)()t-ft)l'-profìt rrsst¡ciatrons, thc o¡ly cxccptioììs bcirtg thc pr'oft'ssiorrll c;lut¡s rhat cxist in s()1rc sport\. Iu Enropc, thcse s¡ror-ts ¡rc baskctb¿Il, socccr, icc hockcl,, rugby, errrl, wirh :r sliulrtly lcsscr rlcsrcc of profl'ssionalisru, hrrndblll arrtl vollcyball, In North Arucrjcu, thc sports conc:cnrc(l ¿rc Arììcricìâ1) ftrotbull, sc>cccr, b¡scLxll, |1skctþ.rll, 1¡cl icc hockcy. lìrrvlc: (2007) showr'cl thâr spolt orgrtrtisrtir>rrs lravc l s¡rcciÉìc opclutlru nrotlc clcsig¡crl tns rurcl olhcL' typc-s of olqruris¡tious (conplrics, ptrLrlic boclics): sport orgrtuis:ttitttts havc objcctivcs tlìat ai'c socicty ()r socictrlly Lrascrl, rrrthcr than plofrt basccl; t|cy havc ll'tixt-cl stttlt'ccs r¡f fÌn¡ncc (cornrnclcilrl ¡rrcl uon-cornnrclciul pliv:rtc lìrranr:c,, as wcÌ1 ts clitjcct iì1r(l i[clirccl pLrblic: subsicìicù; tlrcy rcly ¡¡rc:rtly on voluntecl llulu¿n rcsot]r'ccs; encl tlrcy urc sr-rl-rjcct t

109 Emmanuel Bayle

'lhblc 6.1 Statuses, roles, and challenges ofevent orgarrisation for sport federations

StatusRole- Ou,ncr /ot\atiset/ Ditto hut dalegating Onc-o(J' organ iser / Participant Challcngc portkipon.t Íhc organisation pøilidpant Roles of the - Protect xnd - Monitor the - Ilriug together Optimise federation organise olganiser prrblic and private assistance fo¡ the event - Optirnise stakeholders in order to sPortsPeople Optimise - sporting restrlts gairr national coverage before, cluting, sportiltg 1€sults - Meet the specification ancl afte¡ the event Relations Lrternal Orgarrising Event owuer (reporting Elite athletes with the rnost olganising colìI11rttee on the specificrtioD) (national team) important colllllrttee and their staff stakeholders

Main challenges I)urable and - Erxure the event - Control the Exploit sporting Itrcrative is well organised risks involved in resrdts eco11011llC Obtain a organising ¿n event model substantial ofexceptional size - Exploit fì¡rancial return - Exploit associ¿ted sportin¡¡ results - Exploitsporting opportr.rrdties (in the nredia, rcsnlts (renovation of sports socially, and f,rcilities, links with ecouonrically) the public, etc,) - Exploit sporting results

In tlús chapter, the term sport federation is usecl to refer to the network of bodies co'rpr.ising the federation, includirrg the If; NGtss, ancl regional ancl, sometiures, infra-regional bodies, which are rlade up ofclubs' As a ltrle, each level organises conlpetitions; however, rhey ¡ray also be attrib- uted, r-rsually following a bidding process, lhe organisation of larger-scale competitions. For exam- ple, an NGri ll1ay be attributed the olganisationof a world championship, and a regional body or clr'rb nay organise a national championship. Hence, depending on the event, a sport federation can find itself in â variety of positions, incl-rding event owner/organiseç everlt owner who wholly or partially delegatcs the organisation of the evenr, non-owner/olganiser (in the case of a continental or world championship), or sirnple participant, via the sportspeople ."pr.r",.,ti,rg the fecleration (e'g' olympic Games). Naturally, the uranagement approaches required will difler depencling o' the situation (innovate/control, clelegate/pronlote, etc.). Thble 6.1 summarises a federatio't roles, ltlations with major stakeholdels, ancl main chalienges with respect to event organisation, Tiris chapter begins by describing the clifferent categories ofevent feclerations ¡ray organise and those in which they may take part. This is followed by a theoretical analysis, based on the stakeholdef approach, of how organising ancl participating in events impacrs sport federatio' perforDrance, evaltrated with respecl to the six dimensions of performanie iclentifiecl by Bayle and to the way federations !200ob) are steered. The fìnal section preserlts issues and perspectives for fr'rture research into how evellt nlanagement affects spor.t fedeìation perfo'rra'ce.

Typ"s of event and their impact on sport federation performance The evcnts organised by spolt feclerations can be diviclecl into four categories: r.ecurring official corllpetitions, recurriug international events, major one-off competitioni attrib'tecl to a fecler.a- tion (world or colltinental championships, etc.), arr<1 sport-for-all promotional events. Members

110 T'he sport federøtion{ p er sp ecti've

of the nationai team rrtây participale in any of these four types of event, as well as in competilions that are not directly owned or organised by the federation (e.g. organised by a cotmnercial body Parlicipant or by a foreign country).

Optimise r co mp etítio n s assistarrce for Recur ing ofi cial r Co spoftsPeople Re curring offìcial conpetitions leading to lhe attribution of oflìcial titles (national or regional ge before, during, charnpion by category: men, wor11en, youth, etc.) form the heart of a federationt activities. )n anci after the event In sonre countries, the federation's monopoly over offìcial colnPelitions is guaranteed by law, q Elite athletes thereby giving it two-fold protection - from the lF (which recognises only one fecleration in (national teanr) eâch country) ancl from the national legislator. Moreover, in sonte countries, any conxllercial and thei¡ staff event on the federation's calendar offering prizes exceeding a certain value must, by law, obtain prior approval from the federation. Exploit sporting OfIìcial conr.petirions include both amateur and professional cornpetitions, as well es cot11- resulLs petitions that allow for serni-professionalism or'remunerated' âlxateurisnl (e.g., sorne wouren's elite cinb sports in Europe mix these three statuses, see Williams 2012,on wotlen's football)' Offìcial competitions owned by a federation can be organised clirectþ by the federation (e.g, by the federation's governing body) or attributed by a bidding process to bodies within the federa- tion's network, in which case the chosen club or regional association usually creates an orgarlising committee to apply the federationt specifìcation. Cornpetitions in team sports include several stages of professionalisation (Bayle 2000a)' Its although the federation does not necessârily play a driving role in the professionalisation process, Such sports are usually rnanaged by a national professional league supervised by the federation (e. g. 's Prenrier League and Frânce's Professional Football Leagtte, in soccer). The nacional of bociies comprising league and NGB usually draw up a cooperation agreement (sornetirnes including fìnancial com- :gional bodies, which pensation). The most comllton sources of conflict between an NGli ancl a league âre the sPorting ey rray also be attrib- calendar and the proteclion of the nalional team's sporting and econonric interests, For exarnple, lpetitions. For exarn- in Europe, the conflict between national teams, managed by the NGBs, and professional clubs, rd a regional body or managed by the leagues, has led to soccer federations compeusating clubs whose players play for r sport federation can the national teanr and paying the players'injury insurance. In , New Zealand's NGB wner who wholly or pays national team players a saiary for a certain nutnber ofweeks ofthe year in order lo guaranlee case ofa continental the qualiry of their preparation. Conversely, in , an intense battle has raged between lhe :nting the federation biggest clubs and the NGB in order to free players to prepare for major conpetitiolls (norably, differ depending on the VI Nations Tournament and the World Cup). :s a federation's roles, organisation, Recur r ing int er natío nal ev ent s tations nlay organise nalysis, based on the Major recurring events (generall)r annual) may form part of an IF's calendar or a professional rcts sport federation inte¡national circuit (e.g. Diamond League rneetings in athletics, ATP and'WTA tour- identified by Bayle naments). Some such events belong to a federation for historic reasolls (e.g. Grand Slam tennis ,ues and perspeclives tournaments such as the Australian Open and US Open); others were created in respouse to an opportuniry ancl then recognised by the fecleration (Décanation by the French Athletics Federa- tion, Grand Slarn Judo Tournament by the , elc,). which it can capitalise to brmance For a federation, it is essentiâl to own a'rnajor recurring event'on promote the sport, build irs image, obtain financial revenues (a profit), and create a pool of exper- es: recurring ofEcial tise in organising events, One of the best-known exâlnples is the and :¡ibuted to a federa- Roland Garros (Bayle, 2009). President Chatrier (1972-1993) used Roland Garros, which was ral events. Members historically owned by the NGB, to build an economic and pronrotional rnodel that would serve

1ll Emmarutel Bayle the feder.ation. The huge increase in television, sponsoling, and public relations revelllles nìeans th¡t the event now has a turnover of ar'ound 160 rnillion er"rros aud prodltces a profit of 70 rnillion . Every year since the early 1980s, a third of these profits has becn given to tl-re regional leagues to help them develop tennis and trairr future elite players. ,\s a result of this economic rnodel, nearly all of Francet top tenrris players sinceYannick Noah have cotrre through the NGtst system, In additior-r,these resources have given France a unique clensity of elite players þetween 10 ancl 15 in the ATP top 100 every year for the last 30 year'$, which has allorved France to reach several fìn¿ls of the l)avis Ctrp (which they won in I99I,7996,and 2001) and Fed Cup (won in 1997 and 2003). Hence, the economic model based rouncl Roland Garros cau be considered lhe fotrndation stone of the NGll's sporting perforr-nances aucl of oue of the world's most sportingly and econonrically powerful NGtss, which boasts urore than a nrillion ülembers' a budgec of 180 million euros, and 350 staff

Maj or o ne- oÍf c offip etitio n s

Major: one-off conrpetitions occLlr ât diflerent intervals, for example, every four years for lhe Olympic Games, Football World Cup, and European Football Championship; every two years for the 'World Championships in Athletics. In ordet' to host a major one-off event, candidates usually have to enter a bid (see Chappelet2}O6,ancl chapter'2 of this voiune) and go through a selection proceclure run as a corrpetition between countries. An NGB uray choose olle or lrrore cities with the reqr-rired attribules to present its bid. Such events will not retllrn to the same host venue within a certain time period (e.g, 15-20 years) and are very large compared with the events traclidonally organiseci by NGtss. This implies a specifìc form of managenlert (legal independence of the fedcration, event oflerr orgauised in partnership with public bodies: state, local authoritie$. Symbolically, the president of the federa- tion is givcn the role of organising cornlnittee president. In or.der to be awarded a major non-lecurring corllpelilioll, a federa¡ion urust be able to denlonstrate its ability to olganise this type ofevent, so1l1elil11es âs Part ofa wider strategy by the host country to attract major events. The interest of these very large events is tl-rat they can help strlrctllre and accelerate the constluction and renov¿rtion of a country's sports facilities, ancl the development of the sport in question (tsarget and Gouguet 2010). Councries lhat havc adopted such strategies include Canacla in 2OO8,r France frotl the mid-l990s, Greât Britain from tire 1990s (Robinson2O74),South Korea (Lee 2013), and Qatar since lhe early 2000s (Can'ry 2014)' The issues of the country's image and economic and tourisur benefìts (Charrier and Jourdan 2009, Douillet 2010, Fourie and Santana-Gallego 2011) go far beyoncl tire prism of the federation ancl its objectives.

P romotionøl sp ort-for- all ev ents

Sport-for.-a1l events, which nley or may not be competitive, corne in tlany forms, iucluding Pro- l-¡ocio¡al tournanents, beach tournarnencs, national festivals of sport, volunteets'festivals, sports nights, sport for health, and mass-participation events, They are sollelitrtes organised to support â cause (e.g. natural disaster, children's charity, national cattse, etc.) and theír nutnber is growing rapictly. Organised alone or in conjunction with public paLtners, noll-goverllnlental organisalions (NGOs such as'W'orld Wildlife Fund and the Red Cros$, charities, or sponsors, they are useil to advertise and promote sport to new audiences or at specitc l1lolllents. Examples irrclude the UNICEF Geneva marathon and the French Rugby Fedelalion's 'Iieach Rugby Tour', helcl each sur111lrer since 2003. France's'Fête Nacionale clu Mini Basket', created h 7994, is a series of

1t2 The sport federations' perspectirte ic relations revelrlles lrreans basketball events for 5- to 11-year-old children, organised by each regional basketball commitree. 'duces a profit of 70 million Roland-Garros' chilcLen's chariry day, founclecl ín 1977 and originally called 'Ilenny-Berthet been given to the regional l)ay', has becoure a tradition at the tournament. Held on the Saturday afternoon before the s a restrlt of this econorrúc tournânent begins, the best players play a series of single-set exhibi¡ion nr.atches in order to raise 3 come through the NGBI funds for a medical research charity. Entry is free ft¡r children under rhe age of seven. profils are ¡' of elìte players þetween clonatecl to charities. As arrother exalrple, www.econlaniÊsport-r'a.frl presents all the'eco-sports ras allowed France to reach events' in the Rhône-Alpes region of France, some of which are organised by feclerations and )01) and Fed Cup (won in their clubs. rros can be cousidered the All of these events, whether they are organised by a êderation or whether tl-re federation is re worldt nlost sportingly just a participant, afFect the federation's perforrnance in a nurnber of domains. :nembers, a budget of 1g0

The effects of events on tlle performance of federations

Several researchers have tried to identify ways of categorising and nreasuring the performance of sporc federations (Madella 1998; Madella et al. 2O}S,Papadimitriou and Täylor 2000, Shilbury every fotrr years for the .Winand ancl Moore 2006, et al, 2010). Maclella (1998) included a federation's evenr organisation rionship; every two years per{ormance (defined in terms of its ability to orgårise events and €fenerate revenues) as one of rne-off event, candidates seven dimensions conttibuting to overall perforrnance. The present chapter uses the approach rlurne) and go through a cieveloped by Bayle (2000a) to examine the eflects of organising or parricipating in events in the uray choose one or nrore four calegories described in the previous section. Iiayle used an analysis of the expectations of federations'stakeholders (athletes, lnanagers, sports núnisters, media, sponsors, etc.) to identify six tirne period (e.g. IS-20 rypes of perfornl.ance - sporting, economic and financial, organisational, internal social, media, anc-l t by NGtss. This impiies societal - that contribute to a federation's overall performance. Â federationt performance is not :vent ofleu organisecl in jtrst the perfortlance of the NGts, it is the perfonlance of the entire fecle¡al system, thar is, the net- presidenr of the federa_ work ofdecentralised ancl devolved regional associations that represent and unite a region's clubs.

)ration n1Llst be able to ia wider straregy by the Sporting performance nts is that they can help Sporting perforlllance is defined as the nunlber of members (c1ubs and registered players) belong- sports faciliries, and the ing to a federation, and whether this nurrber is growing or declining. Ic also includes the sporting Ltries that have adopted results obtained by national tearns at major cornpetitions. The objective is to understand how the 3reat Britain from the organisation of events by an NGB ancl the participation of the NGBt national teams in i¡terna- ly 2000s (Carny 2OI4). tional competitiorrs influences sporting performance, that is, the national teams'results and their (Chamier and Jourdarr influence on increasing participation in sport. prism ofthe federation Research shows that organising events has an impact on the number of people participating in sport (for a su1rnlary see tlarget and Gouguel 201.0),and this clynamic is certainly greater when national teatns do well in major conrpetitions hostecl by their country. Noteworthy exanples of .$/in- this include the success of Jean-Claude Killy and the Goitchel sisters ar the 1968 Grenoble ter Olympics, and the victories of the American tearn, mostly composed of stuclents, forms, irrcluding pro_ over the USSR at the 1980 Lake Placid Olympics, ofYannick Noah at Roland-Garros in 1983, of rnteers' festivals, sports Car'l Lewis at Los Angeles in 1984, of the Souch African rugby team in 1995,of the All Blacks ; organised to support ín 2071, of Andy Murray at Wimbledon in 2013, and of tsritish athletes et the 2072 London ir nulnber is growing Olympics. As well as resulting in massive media coverage and irnpacting media and organisational nmental organisations perforurance, successes such as these may increase participation in the sports in question. How- ,o11So1S, they are used ever, several slttdies contest this point, nlost notâbly with respect to the development of sport in Examples inciude the the LII{ following the London Olympics.2 More generally, if NGBs and their clubs are ro meer rhe rgby Tour', held each extra denand to do their sPort generatecl by a major event, they have to have sufficient facilities, r 7994, is a series of qualified educators, managers, and clubs. Emmanuel Bayle

The SPLISS (Sports Policy Factors Leading lo Internalional Sporting Success 2008) model lists olganising ancl palticipating in international conlpelitíons as the eiglrth piliar, out of nine, of a nation's sporting sllccess. However, the link betwee n the results obtained by elite athletes and their NGts's policy on elite sport is rlot clear, Is sporting success a result of the NGll's system (from detecting talent to providirrg sportspeople with assistance and career guidance) or of a system that is independent of the NGts? Palticularly in individual sports, many elite sportspeople plcpare their careers outside the federal system and âre the product of private, commercial systelns (tennis academies, golf acaclenúes, Anrerican trniversity system, etc.), rather than an NGllt systerr.

Economìc ønd financíal performance

In teaur sports, sonle professional leagues contribute nlolley to amateul: sport, often via a levy orr television rights for sports events involving the professional sport (in France, thìs levy is set by law ât 5 pelrent and generales apploximately 50 million euros) or on lolleries (0.36 percent for all games of chance except sporls betling, and 1 .8 perce rlt of all sports bets placed with La Française cles Jeux, i.e. approximately 230 million euros in 2013). In individual sports, the objective is to develop events lhat generate revenlles and profits that ca¡r be re-injected into the federal system. Grand Slam tennis lournaments are an exanple of this, with Roland Garros helping to fìnance tire FFT by federation. Conversely, the large profits macle by the are of no benefit to the French Federation because the event is ownecl by Amaury Sport Organisation, a ptivale company with the same owllers as IJEquipe, France's daily sports newspâper. The Tour de France is the world's third most popular speclator event after the Olympic Ganes ancl lhe soccer world ctrp, and has atr estimâted turllover of 150 million euros.3

O r ganí s atio nal p erfo ftnance

Organising events is both a way to improve an NGBï professionalism (constraints, specification to draw uplfollow, etc.) and a risk factor (ability to manage key factors in an event'.s success). Although organising events can help increase professionalism, NGBs often fìnd it diflìcult to capitalise on the expertise they gain by managing cornpetitions (clue to the use of volnnteers, the nrodest size of NGBs, a weak culture of formalizing processes, heterogeneous and fragile profes- sionalisation, etc,). The professionalisation of a sport fecleration can be defined as a "process in which amateurism rececles to urake way for greater raliorralisation, effìciency, and project-based management. This professionalisation does not necessarily mean ernploying paid staff" (Chan- telat,2OOl,7). Research shows thal the incteased professionalism restrlting frour organising events can have fìve major consequences:

1 rationalisation ofwork processes leading to a bureaucratisation process; 2 change in governance methods; 3 transforrnation of objectives ancl organisatiolal values; 4 cleation of conflicts betwee n paicl staffand volunteers; and 5 inr,pact on performance manâgen1ent.

A str.rdy of Canadian NGBs by Thibault et al. (1991) showed that hiring professional staff increases levels of specialisation anci formalisation by modiÂ7ing an organis:rtiont structural arrângernenls. As typological approaches have shown, thìs leads to changes in their organisa- tional structnre (e.g. Kikulis et al,7989,Thibault eú al.799l,Theodoraki ancl Henry 1994). This

tt4 The sport federations' p erspective tg Success 2008) nrodei evolution is characterised by a process of bureaucratisation (e.g. Slack 1985, Bernarcleau-Moreau ighth pillaa out of nine, 2004)' Arcioni and tsayle (2012) and Kikulis (2000) showed that organisational governance can btained by elite athletes be affected by the way the professionalisation process is conducted and the political role some- ¡ a result of the NGB,s times played by the federation's CEO or executive director. :e and career gr-ridance) Numerous studies of NGtss developing by developed countries have found that profession- idual sports, many elite alisation leads to the transformation of objectives and organisational values (e.g. Thibault 1991, lhe product of private, Horch 1994,2001), which generates paradoxes for the bodies concernecl (Koski and Heikkala sity system, etc,), rather 1998)' For lhis reason, this ryp€ oforganisation, in which a volunteer cultrlre is deeply institutio'- alised, oflen resists professionalisation, as the risk of cultural deinstitutionalisation can generâte serious conflicts between paid staff and volunreers (Anris e/ al. 1995, Cuskelly et al. ß9ó). Professionalisation can also have au itnpact on how NGBs manage perfonnance (I3ayle and Robinson 2007)' Welch (1994) showed that paid staffseek to satisÇ eLcted volunreers, some- rort, often via a levy on times to the detriment of efficiency and eflectiveness. A review of the literatnre shows how sport :e, this levy is ser by law orgauisations try to optinlise efficiency and effectiveness through better managerial practices, es (0.36 percenr for all and improve the way they function through professionalisation. In this conlext, cha'ge and .aced with La Française performance are interesting dependent variables. Futurc rcsearch should consider change and orts, the objective is to perfortlance as two means for leveraging the professionalisation processes and, more g.rr.."lly, nto the federal systenr. the manageruent of the risks associated with event organisation. 'ros helping to finance rallce are of no benefit 'Sport Organisation, a Int ernal s o cí øI p erfo rmance )wspaper. The Tour de Internal social performence carl be defìned as the quality of the social clinrate within a' Games and the soccer organisation, that is, the absence of conflicts and the qualicy of human relations. Social climate is an extremely important variable for organisalions such as sport federations, which pro¡rote humanist values. Is organising events an opportunity to develop a greater feeling ofbilonging arnollg an NGB's stakeholders (rnanagers, sportspeople, volunteers, paid staff)? this question touches on the issues of organisational culture and the specifìcity of hr-"r, resources man- nstraints, specifi cation agement (Taylor and McGraw 2006). Running conlpetitions often means calling upon large in an eventt success). numbers ofvolunteers (see Chapter 4 in this volurre);therefore, organising events is en oppor- :n find it diflìcult to tunity for developing volunteer-staff collaboration and atracting (and keeping?) volunteers use of volunteers, the (Ferrand and Chanavat2006)' More generally, organising sports events is an opportunity for us and fragile profes- giving life to the concept of a federation as a family, providing a syrnbol around which difler- ined as a "process in ent nlembers of the federation (nranagers, sportspeople, referees, etc.) can be brought together. cy, and project-based National ancl international championships can be associated with general assemblies, n ..li¡gr, Lg paid staff" (Chan- training courses, etc. They can also provide occasions for uniting the'federation fantily, al. a om organising events Gstive event.

ts; Media performance Publicising events (via the organiser, sportspeople and their television partners, websites, and sponsors) can raise the profile and improve the irnage of an NGB, especially if the NGII's elite athletes, its central product, shine at the event. And it can have the same effecl on the sport itself, which is something very different. This double effect can increase the popularity of the sport, thereby attracting new pârticipants (if the federation has the facilities to welcorne ng professional staff thetl), sponsors, and partners. Conversely, major cornpecitions (worlcl championships and nisationì structural olympic Games) can gerlerate terrible publicity if an NGB's athletes perform ãisastrously or s in their organisa- behave in ways the public consider inappropriate, as was the case for France's soccer team at Henry 1994). This the 2010 World Cup in South Africa (the 'Knysna affair', in which a strike by players was

115 Ihnmanuel lSayle ve::y quickly followecl by the team's elimination from thc conlpetitioll). The reduction in the ,lrl-b.r. of registcrcd players arrd the withdrawal of certain sporlsors led the Freuch soccer tea'r's and tþe FFFI crlrrent sponsors to in'rpose a balometer of the French team's imageq (Mignon 2010).

Societøl Performance Societal performance ¡rostly refers to the social, economic, aud euvironmental impact of or¡¡anising events. Since the pr,rblication of the IOC's Age¡dt 2I in 1999, and sports boclies' spotts increasccl foc¡s on sustainable clevelopment, the orgarrisation of ancl par:ticipaliou ir cve'ts has hacl to be seen to be responsible. Societal clitelia also provide llbernative ways for NGtss to evaluate their performance: calbon footprint, social footprint, and t.rew tools such as a sport's'societal pârlorarnâ'(see lJayle :urd François 2O!7 ott lhe use of these tools by NGtss) and Switzerland's 'event scorecard' (Clivaz 2006). Dovergue aucl Desbordes (2013) ancl l3ayle cau demotrstrate cl. at. (2011) showecl thât events âre tlìe ruain mediutn thlor-rgh which NGBs their. social responsibility; therefor:e, measuring their success in this domain is essential in orcler to assess their societal performance. For example, in 2009, oniy 1 otlt of 100 federations 'Works measured its car'- (U'ior-r of the Fe deration of Lay in Physical Education or UFOLEP) bon footprint. This figure had iucreased to 15 by 2}t1r lrtt France, UFOLEP iutroclucecl atr eva¡-ration tool callccl'environmental selÊdiagnosis for responsiblc cveuts' (Aclcres), based on the ASSER (actions and solutions for eco-r'csponsible eveutst') method. UFOLEP's efforts to promote its practices throughout its netwolk have reslrlted irt four'departmeulal' commiltees calcularing their carbon foorprints. Thc ISO 20121 international stanclard, inlroduced at the time of rlìe Lo¡clon Olympics, also provicles a useful fratnework for event organisers such as spolt fecler:ations. Hence, evcnts are key elements iu a sport federation's pcrfornlance . The next secliou examines r.esearch issues arrd perspeclives associatecl with events and the mânagetrrent of sport federatio¡ perfort-uancc.

Research issues and perspectives associated with events and the management of federations' performances

Very little rescarch has explicitly examinecl the lirrks between event orgauisation and spott federarions. Irr ¡rost câses, events belonging to federations (e.g, wor:lci championships, inlerna- tio'aÌ ci¡cr.rirs) have been alalysed independently of their orvners'sttalegies, so relacivcly little is know' abouc the issues involved ancl the ways in which events äre organised ancl exploited. I¡ adclition, the numerotts sttlclies investigating strategy' orgltiisaliou, slrllcttll'es, ancl profes- sio¡alisatio¡, r-¡ostly crr-riecl out by Trevor Slack ancl colleagues, do not direccly exatrrine this issue; r:rther, they use organisation theory to look at NGlls'capircity (e.g, origir,s, fbr¡rs, and corlsecìuenccs) to implement organisational change (Kikulis ct al. 1992, Slack ancl Hinings 1992,'Ihibattk et ol. 1991,7992,1993, and 7994 ot.l Canadian NGIìs; ,\mis cf al' 1995 on strrctural co¡flicts i¡ these orgllisations; Couseus and Sl:lck 2005 ou orgauísatioual change ir professiolal leagues i1 Nort[ America; O'Ilrien and 51¡ck 2003 on English rugby union)' Give¡ thc paucity of previous lcsearch, the present chapter f<¡cttses on the link between events ancl perfor¡rance rnâIlâgelnent by sport NGIìs. Iclencifying NGBs'roles ancl challenges with r.spe.t to events (Täb1e 6.1) reveals fìve research questions that appear to have bcen largely overlooked in the literature'

116 7' he sport feclerations' persp ective r). The recluction in the The strategic tnnnøgement of a s ied the French soccer federation's event portþIio e French The organisation tearut imagea of andlor participatiorr in the four types of event identified al¡ove provicle when thcy build declicatecl events sbrâtegies. rrilt up and Ìrow evellt lrlallagenlent is opti_ wolk, which has mostly taken the form of

the wide rangc or evenrs vironmental irtrpact of rede¡arions can (international, tlationll, or regional ",r"iT:jï;,::,'o; "i-ffil,:lï,îäíl",TJäî 999, and sports boc.lies' federatiorr), the strategic ¡rix ofeve'ts federatio's choose is a rich field for research. Maltese (2009) participation irr sports applied the lesource-based view to sports events, ancl this seellls to be a prorrtising approach de altemacive ways for for analysing che criteria that goverl the success of event-bascd busiuess nrodels. As Guieu et al. (2010) , ancl new tools such as noted, resor,rrce lheory is ¡ow one of the lrrost frequerrcly applied i these tools by Nctss) theor'ies in the field of strategic managernert, and has allowed the development of a variety of apploaches rrdes (2013) and Bayle to explore fundamental årl..pr, such as knowledge aud competences' particular {GBs can deltonsttale of note are the l(nowledge-Based View, presentecl in a special issue of the strategíc Managen'tent lomain is essential in Journal editecl by sp.,ld"r and Granrl1996); rhe Dyna'ric capabilities approach, originally out of 100 federations proposed by Teece ct at. (1997) ancl rhe¡ gpdate¿ by Tèece (2007); and Competence-tlasecl Mana¡¡ement, .EP) measured its car_ first aclvocatect by Hamel a¡d prahalad (19g9) :OLEP and replised by Sanchez and Heene it1 numerous introdrrced an books and articies. M¿rltese and Veran (2009j applied this approach to sports evenfs, rrs' (Aderes), bascd on s.ch as solrre ATP ¡ennis tournamenls, which ¿o nor belong to a sport federation. UFOLEP's effor.rs ro rrtmenc¡l' conunittees rrd, introducecl at the OrganisationøI approach as a function of the type of event :nt organisers such as Auother key issue in sttategic management is how the organisation of an event should be approached' Federations can organise nexl sectiolt exarnines events internall¡ or they can partly or completely delegate the organisation to a third.party. Lrt of sport federation which of thcse oprions is the leastì.isky may differ according to the rype of event' The'right'way of ura'aging national delegations is olso ilteresring quesciorl that should shed "n iight on the conditions needed to pronlote sporting success. These qnestiors implicidy raise the issue of the professionalisation of the organisatiori of such events, as well as the larger issue of risk e management of mânaBeulent ('ranaging legal matteÀ, tax issues, control systems, i'sur- auce, etc'), especiaily in the case of very large and'one-off'events for NGtss that are noÈ used to nranaging this lype ofevent (Leopkey and parenr 2OO9a,20O9b). ¡anisation and sport upionships, interna- es, so relatively litle SocíøI (socíetøI) responsibility and sports eyents rised and exploired. Sustainal¡le clevelopment is a key issue fol rnost events. As noted rctut'es, above, sor-ne events have labellecl and profes_ themselves eco-events, eco-responsible, or sociaìly responsible (serving a cause). In rectly exaruine order to appear this responsible in the eyes of their stakel:olders and the general public, sport federations rxrst tâke oligins, forms, and ll1to account sustainable development when organising events, especially in lhe case of very large Slack ancl Hinings and very iDrportant events. In addition, sport can be a vehicle for promoting changes in p"opl.t ntis et al. 1995 on behaviours. To date, few rtsearchers have examined the question of the efficacy of r,r.t .u"rr, ¡anisational change slrâtegies in cert1ls of changing behaviours alron€, target groups (sportspeople, spectators, staff, çlish rugby union). etc'), ptoducing economic benefits, ancl builcling a positive image (Batiat ,,rJ wotf. zooe¡. nk between events This qr'restion can also be associated with the growing body of research into'rcsponsible,event rd challenges with sponsoring (Maltese 2oI1) and cotrsutner impact (Lec and Ferleira 2011). These oppro""lr., ,rrry have been largely also be associated with wider theories encornpassing cause-related marketing, ,, piorr.er.d by Varadarajan and Menon (1988),

r17 Emmanuel Bayle

Mea sur ing and exPlo itíng b enefit s

Since Baadc's seminal work, sports econonliscs have intensively researched the economic belrefìts to be gained from very iarge sports events (see Ilarget and Gottguet 2010, for a summary). In contrast, less work has been done to determiue the social and societal benefìts al'ising from these events, which âre ltlore diflìcult to nleasure even using qtralitative approaches þtlt see the work ar.rd tools cleveloped in the field of societ¿l perfomrance). lnterliâIly, the exPloitation of benefìts is related to associative sport orgarisations'capacities fot organisational learnirrg (Koenig 1997) and professionalisation (Chantelar 2O0t); excernally, it is relatecl to the legacy left to the host region (preuss 2007) and to the social capital that may be generated by the largest events, organised by international feclerations (Misener and Mason 2006).

Learning caqacíty

Organisi¡g events provides NGBs with an opportunity to develop their strategic and organi- sational learning capacity, and to create a virtuous circle around the six lypes of perforlnauce. (Jlderstanding this Iearning rlynarnic opens interestìng research perspectives in terms of strategic analysis, organisational behaviour, and partnership dynamics. Senge (1990) defined a learning organisation as an organisation that learns from its experi- ence ancl extr.acls benefits fi'orn the corîpetcllces it acquircs. Heuce, knowledge manage111ent ancl transmission is a central element in federations' event ll1allagement expertise' The IOC's Olympic Ga¡res I(nowledge Management (OGKM) progrxm allows future Oiympic host cities to belefìt from thc latest knowledge and experience gained by recent Gantes' hosts.T Althor'lgh the IOC ser up the OGI(M prograrr cluring preparations for the 2000 Sydney Gantes, very few sport federations have followcd its lead,

Conclusion

This chapter shows that events are a key element in the nranageurettt of sport federation perfor- ¡rance. Based o¡ an eventls status, ancl the roles and challenges it involves for sport federations, spor.I events can be classified into four types: recurring official cotrPetitions, recurring international events, major, one-offevenrs att¡ibuted following a biddirrg process (world or continental champi- onship$, and promotional sport-for-a1l events. An NGllt position with rcspect to the organisation of a¡ event can also differ, as the NGB can be the event owner/organiser, an owner who partly or elltirely clelegates the organisation; a non-owner organiser (in the case of world or continental cha¡rpionships);or a simple pârticipant viâ the sportspeopie rcpresenting the NGts. Naturaily, these cliflere¡t positions result in difleren¡ apploaches to event rnanagenlent. The stakeholder approach can be used to analyse the impact organising and palticipating in evetrts has on the performance of sport feclerations and their nunagement. Finally, as relatively few sttrdies have investigated the links between events and sport federation performance, I have outlined fìve possible âvenues for futtlre research into how events câr1 contribute to spol't Íèderation perfornlance: strâtegic managetnent of a federation's eve¡ts portfolio, organisational approaches as a function of the fype of event, social (societal) responsibiiiry measuriug and exploiting benefits, and learning capa.ciry.

Suggested readings

Bayle,E.,Chappelet,J.-L.,Frauçois,A.,andMaltese,L, (2011) SportctRsE,Versunndndgctttctrtresponsable?, Ilruxelles: De tsoeck Editions.

118 T he sp ort federutions' persp ectitte

Fritz, P, Waller, S., Trendafìlova, E, and LeQuez S. (2012) 'social accoturrability and responsibiliry in sporr: ¡{tr exa¡rriuation of the n¿tional collegiate athletic association', Spolf Science Rcview,10: 111-135. C the economic bencfits doi: 70.247 8 / v10237 4 1 14050-7 110, for a sunrmary), In Leopkey, ts. and Parcnt, M. M. (2009) 'Risk managerrrent strategies by stakeholders in Canadian ¡rajor nefits arising fronr these sporting events', Eu c tt t Mafi age n cn t | 1 3 : 1 5 3- 17 0. aches þtrt see the work xploitation of ber.refits is Notes ning (I(oenig 7997) and

¡ left to the host region 1 wwwp clr. g c. c¡ / ft a / 1 3 583 47 824597 / 1 3 SB3 4BO2OO29 2 See wwwplaythegame.orglnews,/detailed/rnega-events-do-not-have-a-trickle-dow¡-eflect-on-sports- ;est events, organisecl by participation-.569 1. htnil 3 www econonriematin. frltout-en-chiflres/ì tet'n/5372-c¡ravalle-to11r-de-fiance-etapes-business 4 Every uronth siuce the suurmer of 2010, Kantar Média carries otrt an opinion poll for the FFF irr orcler to assess the public's image of'Les l3leus'. ,tlthough the results of this sui.vey are not intencled for pLrbli- cation, L'Equipe managed to obtain a copy The French tearn is râred out of 10. If their rating is beiween ir strategic arrd organi- 5 and 6.5, their sporlsors pay their usual rates. Ifthis rating drops below 5 (in 2010 it was 2.01!), the fFF reiurburses some of the sponsors'ntoney. Howerær, if their rating is above 6.5, the . rypes sponsors pay the FFF of perforurance. a l¡onus. ves in terms of strategic 5 wwwevenemerltresponsable.org ó www3-{.fr / ¡ct¡/Lt-Methode-ASSER learns from its experi- 7 www olyrnpic.orglnews/ogkm-cirer-les-leco's-de-1-exper ience-acquise / 17 0562 ûowieclge nlanagenlent t expertise, The IOC's References rre Olympic host cities ames'hosts,T Although Anris,J.,Slack,T,,andBerrett,T (1995)'Thestructuralantecedentsofconflictinnationalsportorganizatio¡s,, l-cisurc Studics, 14: 1-16. ydney Games, very few Arciorri, S. arrd tsayle, E. (2012)'La gouvernance des oNG: Le cas des féclérations sporrives inter¡atio¡ales', in E Roth (ed.) La gouucrnante des entrepriscs, paris: Lavoisier. Babiak,K, arrd Wolfe,R. (2006)'More thau just a game? Corporate social responsibiliry and Super Bowl Xt, Sport Marketing Quarteþ, t5:214-222. Barget, E. and Gouguet, J'-J. (2010) Epèrcments sportß: ¡mpdcß économiquc cf soriøl, l3rtxelles: I)e Boeck. B.y]"11. (2000a)'La clyrramique de la professionnaiizntiottà.r port federation perfor- rpo.r. coliectifs :les cas cln football,du basket- _ ball et du rugby' , Reuue lnlunationale das Scienccs du sport ct de l'Eclucation Pltysique,52: 33-60, rs for sport federations, Bayle, E, (2000b) 'La mesure de la perforrurnce des organizations à but lrou lrr"r.,ùf; Le c¿us des fédérations recurring internationâl sportives', Gcs tio n, 5 / 00 : 35-5 4, or continental champi- Bale,E. (2007)Larechercheenmanagenlentclesorganizationssportives:objet,chanrp,niveauxd'a¡alyseet sPécifìcités rect to the organisation des pratiques de management,Reuuc IntcrndÍ.ionalc en Scicnre iu sport ct de l'éducation physique, No75l1, Bruxelles: De Iloeck Eclitions, 59-81. ì all owtrer who pardy Bayle, E, (2009)'Lt stratégie de développement de la FFT sous la présic'lence de P Charrier: ljn ',modèle >f world or continental stratégique" pour le tuouvement sportif français et intcrnational', in P Clastres and P l)ietschy (eds.), Dc : NGts. Naturally, these la paurnc au tennis tlu 2C"," slàde, Nouveau Monde éditions, 15g-179, tsayle, e stakeholder approach E., Clrappelet, J.-L,, François,4., and Maltese, L . (2011) Sport ct RSE,Vcrs urt nranagenrcnt rcsponsdblc?, on the performance of Bruxelles: De tsoeck Editions. tsale' E' and François, A' (2011)'La responsabilité ¡e investigated the links sociétale des fédérations sportives nationales', in E. tsayle' J-L. Chappelet, A. François, and L, M¿1tese (eds.), Sporl et RSE. Ven nnnagenrcnt ;ible avenues iu responsablc?, for future pp. 55-80, tsruxelles: I)e [loeck Editions. rategic rrranagernent of Baf]e, E. and Robinson, L. (2007)'A framework for unclerstarrding the performance of national govemi¡g le type of event, social _ bodies of sport', Ë,uropean Sport Managenent euarterly,T:249-26g. rciry. tlernardeau-Moreau, D (2004) sociologie dcs.fédórations iportiucs,paùs:LHarmartar. Crttty, J' (2014) Société sportive et "sport power": la fanille régnanre Al-Thany er le système sporrif clu Qatar, in E' Bayle (ed.),bs grands rlirigeanß du sport.23 portraits ct stratóßic dc ntanagcnrent,tsruxelles: l)e tsoeck Eclitions, 295-312. Clrantelat, P' (2001), (textes réunis et présentés par) La professionnalization des organizations sportives, t fttan\{eftrcn t responsablc?, nouveaux enjeux, nouveaux débats, Paris, Ed, I_lHarnuttan, Clrappelet, J.-L' (ed,) (2006) ks politiqucs puttlir ¡1'accucil tl'óuènentenîs sporrß,PùrisilHar¡rarran.

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publics/ 1 04000380/0000.Pdf I)overg¡e M. L. ancl Desborcles, M. (2013) La responsabilité sociétale des orgatrisateurs d'événetrrents sportifs: étucle cles spécifìcitós de la RSE d:rns le charup cle l'óvéncrnentiel sportif français, Revue européenne cle rnln:rgerrrent du sport n 39, wwwactetrrsdusport.frl199-rems.htm Ferlr¡c1,.{. a¡cl Cha¡arvat, N. (200ó) GLride de managenrent des volout¿rircs ponrl'orgarrization cl'évèneureuts sportifs: coml.ì1ent nlanager cles homes? SENTEDALPS, Ch:wattnes-Latrs¡nnc: Il)HEAP totrtist arrivals','lhuritn F.r.,ii", 1, and Santana-Ga1lego,M, (2011)'The impact of ruega-sport evcnts on

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t20 'l'he spor t federations' perspectite

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