.SIAK-Journal – Journal for Police Science and Practice

Gebhardt, Helmut (2015): The Military Organisation of the Habsburg Gendarmerie from 1849 to 1918 SIAK-Journal − Journal for Police Science and Practice (International Edition Vol. 5), 85-95.

doi: 10.7396/IE_2015_H

Please cite this articel as follows:

Gebhardt, Helmut (2015). The Military Organisation of the Habsburg Gendarmerie from 1849 to 1918, SIAK-Journal − Journal for Police Science and Practice (International Edition Vol. 5), 85-95, Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.7396/IE_2015_H.

© Federal Ministry of the Interior – Sicherheitsakademie / NWV, 2015

Note: A hard copy of the article is available through the printed version of the SIAK-Journal published by NWV (http://nwv.at). published online: 7/2015 2015 .SIAK-InternAtIonAl edItIon

The Military Organisation of the Habsburg Gendarmerie from 1849 to 1918

Austria had a gendarmerie for 156 years, from 8 June 1849 to 30 June 2005. The roots of that law enforcement agency lay in the French model, which became a global model for the maintenance of law and order. This paper looks at the first main period of the history of the Austrian gendarmerie, when the imperial-royal gendarmerie was still part of the army and therefore chiefly subject to military regulations. It can be seen that the gendarmerie, which was introduced following the serf emancipation of the revolution­ ary year of 1848, initially filled a law enforcement vacuum in the provinces, but soon become an instrument of the absolutist empire. The progressive democratisation of the Habsburg Empire and its transformation into the dual Austro-Hungarian monarchy gave rise to major changes in the 1860s. From that time, the gendarmerie was only responsible HELMUT GEBHARDT, for the Austrian half of the empire, and endured massive cuts. Moreover, many politi­ Professor at the University of Graz. cians called for its military influence to be largely abolished and for the gendarmerie to be turned into a civil law enforcement agency. Finally that did not gain a parliamentary majority. Nevertheless, the gendarmerie’s military character was reduced. However, a partial reversal occurred around the turn of the century, enabling the gendarmerie to be also deployed in the event of war, which proved to be of great importance during the First World War. Shortly after the establishment of the Republic in 1918, Austrian poli­ ticians decided to separate the gendarmerie from the army, marking a departure from the international gendarmerie model.

1. EsTABLisHMEnT in 1849/50 since the rule of Emperor Joseph II (1780– The establishment of the gendarmerie took 1790). They reported to the Imperial Police place during a period of great upheavals in and Censorship Office in Vienna.1 That the Austrian state system in the wake of central office was abolished immediately the Revolution of 1848. The police state after the outbreak of the revolution, and of Metternich, which was marked by ex- responsibility for law and order was trans­ tensive police surveillance and censor- ferred to the newly established Ministry of ship, was dismantled. The pillars of that the Interior.2 law enforcement system were the police The serf emancipation also took place departments that had been established in in the summer of 1848 on the initiative of the major cities of the Habsburg monarchy the Imperial Council, which necessitated

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re-organisation of the lower level of state as simple as that. A highly capable man, administration in order to fill the vacuum Johann Franz Kempen Freiherr von Fichten- left by the abolition of the manorial es­ stamm (1793–1863), one of the most in­ tates. For that reason, new state organisa­ fluential generals of the imperial army, tions were established in 1849/50 such as was entrusted by Emperor Franz Joseph on local authorities, district commissions, tax 17 September 1849 with establishing and offices and district courts.3 organising the Austrian gendarmerie. He became the actual founder and first head On 8 June 1849 Emperor Franz Joseph of the Austrian gendarmerie and was be­ decreed that the gendarmerie be established stowed the official title “Inspector General “throughout the Austrian empire” as an of the Gendarmerie”.8 executive agency for law enforcement in the provinces of the monarchy.4 That meant 2. LEGAL fRAMEwoRk the choice of the French organisational However, before the new force was estab­ model. The French National Gendarmerie lished, a legal framework for it was created was established in France following the first.9 French Revolution through the reforms of The Gendarmerie Act of 18 January 1850 1791 and 1798 as a military law enforce­ is also notable in terms of the rule of law, ment agency for security in the provincial since at that time there was no binding areas.5 legal foundation for the police, which had The French gendarmerie model was first already existed for decades, nor would brought to many parts of Europe in the there be for a long time. That deficit was course of the Napoleonic Wars. Yet it was not remedied until the Police Act of 1991. also adopted as a model by a number of In addition to the Gendarmerie Act, which states that were not occupied by Napoleon. governed the gendarmerie’s structure and Many German states, such as Prussia, duties, there were also very extensive in­ Bavaria and Hanover, therefore had a gen­ ternal service instructions written in the darmerie even before 1848. There were style of a notebook and textbook.10 The also gendarmerie corps in the Netherlands, gendarmes were expected in particular to Sicily, Greece and Spain, though some conduct themselves in an exemplary manner were given their own designations.6 and make a fitting impression. The gen­ The Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, a darmes were expressly called upon to “ab­ then crown land of the Austrian empire, stain from all disreputable and brutal acts”. had a gendarmerie even before 1849. A special property of the gendarmerie When Lombardy was incorporated into was its military structure, which was adopt­ the Habsburg Monarchy following the ed from the French model. That meant Congress of Vienna, the gendarmerie, the gendarmerie was part of the imperial which had existed since the time of army, and therefore reported to the war Napoleon, was retained. It was given a minister. The Ministry of the Interior could new statute in 1817 and had a force of only avail itself of the gendarmerie’s ser­ 1,030 men, who were commanded by an vices in matters directly concerning law inspector general.7 enforcement. Sixteen gendarmerie regi­ To be exact, we could say that the gen­ ments, which were spread across the whole darmerie of Lombardy was extended in state territory and covered one or more 1849 to the whole territory of the Habs­ provinces, reported to the inspector gen­ burg Monarchy, though it was not quite eral, who headed the gendarmerie. Those

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regiments in turn were divided at the lower principles and had to be capable of produc­ levels into wings, platoons, sections and ing written reports independently. finally the individual gendarmerie posts. Kempen-Fichtenstamm was adamant Since the gendarmes were effectively sol­ that only the most capable army soldiers diers, they were essentially subject to the be recruited. That was in marked contrast full set of military regulations, including to the police stations in the towns and the duty to live in barracks. In addition to cities at the time, which made use of so the official premises, separate gendarmerie called “half-invalid soldiers”, i.e. soldiers barracks had to be set up at all the bases, that were no longer fully fit for combat. It which were to be equipped as rank-and-file might almost be said the gendarmerie was barracks.11 intended to be an elite corps. That status was further underlined by the impressive The gendarmerie could either intervene uniforms, with a spiked helmet featur­ of its own accord or on request of the state ing the imperial eagle as headgear. The offices, i.e. the governor’s offices, the intention was to emphasise the particular district commissions, the public prosecu­ authority of the gendarmerie. tors, the courts or the local authorities. The That was in fact necessary, since the content of the order was always given by stationing of the gendarmerie was of the respective institution, but the gendar­ massive importance for the establishment merie could decide freely on how to ex­ of state authority. After all, the gendarmes ecute the order, so the gendarmerie officers acted as representatives of the state and had considerable influence as military emperor. It was the first time in centuries commanders. that the population at large came into contact with state agencies. Military uni­ Kempen-Fichtenstamm proved a brilliant form and weaponry were necessary above organiser of the new law enforcement all in order for the gendarmes to assert apparatus. In the face of considerable ad­ their authority effectively. The various versities and problems, a total of 15,600 gendarmerie posts were often manned by gendarmes were stationed in all corners just three to five gendarmes, who could of the Danubian Monarchy of the time not count on immediate reinforcement in within a year, i.e. by the summer of 1850, the case of major threats to law and order, from Vorarlberg in the west to Hungary given the absence at that time of modern and Transylvania in the east, and from communications devices such as telephone Bohemia in the north to Dalmatia in the or radio. Those few gendarmes had to be south. The new gendarmes were recruit­ able to defend against any possible threat ed from the imperial army, with each unit to law and order and their authority. It having to provide a certain quota of sol­ should also be borne in mind that the diers. These first gendarmes aged between gendarmes had to perform their duties 24 and 36 received very brief training that on foot for the most part. Though some lasted between around four to six weeks. horses were available, in general the gen­ It was not until three years later, in 1853, darmes had to make themselves visible that a separate “training regulation” was by performing lengthy foot patrols. Each published that set out the principles of tract of land and village had to be patrolled the six-month training. The emphasis was regularly according to a precise plan to on military subjects, but the prospective guarantee the safety of residents. gendarmes were also trained in basic legal

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3. CHAnGEs BETwEEn 1850 AnD system in the 1850s, with long-lasting re­ 1867 percussions. When Emperor Franz Joseph Despite a range of initial setbacks, the was forced to resume democratisation of gendarmerie got off to an excellent start. the state in 1859/60, not least because of The public response was extremely posi­ events abroad, the gendarmerie was also tive and crime rates fell rapidly. That led to caught in the political crossfire. Kempen- the further expansion of the gendarmerie in Fichtenstamm had to stand down as chief the early years. In addition to the reinforce­ of police and the gendarmerie in 1859, and ment of gendarmerie posts, the number of the law enforcement apparatus which he gendarmerie regiments was also increased had been involved in founding was also from 16 to 19.12 a bone of contention. Some even called Thanks to their presence (as described for the abolition of the gendarmerie. That above), the gendarmes managed to estab­ extreme step was not taken, however, lish direct relations and an excellent rap­ and instead an organisational reform was port with the public. That was extremely prescribed in the summer of 1860. The useful for inquiries and solving crimes. In right of the civil authorities to make use addition, the gendarmes acted as helpers of the gendarmerie was notably increased. and rescuers in any kind of emergency, The gendarmes now had to submit regular such as icy winter weather, floods and reports to the district authorities and local fires. authority agencies were now primarily However, that initially positive recep­ responsible for local law enforcement tion changed for the worse within just a matters.15 few years. The gendarmes were increas­ The gendarmerie was also affected by ingly given secret police tasks. Emperor drastic austerity measures. The number of Franz Joseph had made a radical change gendarmerie regiments was reduced from of political course almost at the same time 19 to ten, and there were also swinge­ that the gendarmerie was established. The ing cuts to the gendarmerie posts and the democratisation steps introduced in 1848 number of gendarmes.16 This austerity poli­ were forcibly stopped; the monarch pro­ cy was, however, stopped after a few years. gressively returned to the absolutist state By imperial decree of 28 January 1866, the form, with no parliament or concessions number of commands was again increased to the nationalities.13 To secure that state from ten to 15, and the military term “regi­ system internally, the emperor needed ment command” was replaced by the civil a powerful law enforcement apparatus, term“ regional gendarmerie command”.17 which was expanded and reinforced to that end. Moreover, in April 1852 respon­ 4. ConsEqUEnCEs of THE sibility for law and order was transferred AUsTRo-HUnGARiAn CoM­ to the newly established “Supreme Police pRoMisE of 1867 Authority”, which Kempen-Fichtenstamm The next pivotal event for the state also had was appointed to head. Immense power direct repercussions for the gendarmerie. was concentrated in his person, since he In 1867 the Habsburg Monarchy was di­ commanded not only the gendarmerie, but vided into the Austrian and Hungarian halves also the police departments in the cities.14 as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Com­ promise.18 These two sovereign states, aside That meant the gendarmerie became a from having a joint ruler, now only had power instrument of the absolutist state foreign policy and defence in common.

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Law enforcement was to be managed sepa­ 5. GEnDARMERiE ACT of 1876 rately in the two halves of the empire from Many politicians called subsequently for a that time onwards. By imperial decree of further reduction to the gendarmerie, with 23 March 1867, the gendarmerie in the the local authorities in rural areas being Kingdom of Hungary was separated from expected to set up their own law enforce­ the joint gendarmerie organisation and ment agencies like in Hungary instead. discontinued, which meant that there were However, it soon became clear that the five fewer gendarmerie commands.19 Law local authorities were overstrained. That enforcement was placed under the autho­ idea was therefore abandoned, and the re­ rity of the Hungarian authorities, in parti­ organisation of the gendarmerie was the cular the local authorities, though that so­ subject of much discussion in Parliament on proved ineffective. In 1881 the Royal (the Imperial Council). A particular point Hungarian Gendarmerie was therefore es­ of debate was the military nature of the tablished, whose competence extended to gendarmerie. Many liberal representatives the whole of the Hungarian state territory, called for the gendarmerie to be separated aside from the cities of Budapest and from the army, and for the gendarmerie Fiume/Rijeka.20 From 1879 Bosnia-Herze­ to be run in future as a civil law enforce­ govina also had a gendarmerie, which was ment agency instead. Reference was made run jointly by Austria and Hungary.21 in particular to the Kingdom of Saxony, Just a year after the separation of the which had had a civil gendarmerie since Hungarian gendarmerie, further far-reach­ 1809. The expectation, in particular, was ing changes were made to the Austrian that the gendarmerie’s conduct would have gendarmerie in 1868, partly as a conse­ a stronger legal framework.24 quence of the Austro-Hungarian Com­ The opponents, by contrast held up the promise. In addition to the joint Royal Prussian and Bavarian gendarmerie corps, and Imperial Army, separate territorial which were organised militarily, as ex­ troops were established in the two parts amples. In any case, the majority of the of the empire, the Royal Hungarian Hon­ representatives advocated retaining the véd for the Kingdom of Hungary and the military structure. It was argued that in Royal-Imperial Landwehr for the western many regions of the monarchy, only the half of the empire. A separate ministry of military nature of the gendarmes would national defence and public security was ensure that they were held in sufficient re­ established in January 1868. The affairs of spect by the population. The most impor­ both the Landwehr and the gendarmerie tant argument, however, was a financial were transferred as a result from the im­ one: A civil gendarmerie would have been perial war ministry to the new one, which considerably more expensive. was provisionally also responsible for law The re-organisation was not concluded enforcement. Two years later, in February until the Gendarmerie Act of 1876.25 The 1870, the Ministry of the Interior was gendarmerie was no longer part of the definitively put in charge of law enforce­ regular army, but formed an entirely sepa­ ment matters.22 The gendarmerie inspector rate corps from that time onwards instead. was also expressly made subordinate to the The gendarmerie now had much closer ties Defence Ministry in August 1868. He re­ with the civil authorities. The influence of mained responsible above all for military the Ministry of the Interior at the highest command, discipline, recruitment and in­ level and of the governor in the provinces spection of the gendarmerie.23 were greatly increased. The commands

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no longer extended across several crown It now consisted of six months of basic lands. Instead, there were 14 regional gen­ theoretical training, followed by a further darmerie commands, which were typically six months of practical training at the gen­ responsible for one crown land each.26 darmerie posts. The focus of the training was clearly on the military disciplines of The district gendarmerie commands now drill, sabre fencing, bayonet fencing and played a key role in the everyday life of shooting. The basic training period involved the gendarmerie. The given district com­ strict quartering with furlough restrictions mander had to receive the instructions of and military drill.28 the district commissioner directly and for­ The gendarmerie officers, however, did ward them to the subordinate gendarmerie not have to undergo any special training. posts. That gave the district commissioner They were recruited from the officer rank direct command over the gendarmes in his of the army. They merely had to spend six district and the right to deploy them. The months in gendarmerie service first and approval of the military gendarmerie com­ then take an examination on military and manders no longer needed to be sought. legal subjects. They were expected to ac­ The rights of the courts and state prosecu­ quire the necessary knowledge through tors were also increased. self-study. In other words, the gendarmerie This increased legal integration was also was commanded by officers who largely outlined externally by the fact that the had military training only and barely any gendarmes had to add the phrase “In the experience of law enforcement. name of the law” in the language of the Internally the gendarmerie continued given country during official acts. That was to operate strictly according to military of great significance in the monarchy with rules, with all that entailed. That meant its many different nationalities. Previously many disadvantages for the rank-and-file the gendarmes had regularly been de­ gendarmes in particular. The gendarmes ployed across the empire, without paying were quartered, i.e. typically had to live in attention to which languages they spoke. It the post barracks. In addition, prospective was now expressly specified in the Act that gendarmes could not be married, and per­ the gendarmes had to speak the language of mission for marriage was difficult to ob­ the region where they were posted. How­ tain even later in their career.29 ever, German continued to be used inter­ The regular inspections performed by nally for reports, blotters and forms. the gendarmerie officers at the gendarme­ rie posts were also focused on military 6. MiLiTARy RULEs matters. Impeccable uniform and the The sidelining of the military dimension drill were far more important than the was also apparent in the new uniforms, proper and zealous performance of law which had a more civil appearance. Instead enforcement tasks. The same disciplinary of the military spiked helmet, the gen­ and penal rules applied to the gendarmes darmes now wore the so-called huntsman’s until 1918 as for the army. That meant hat. The gendarmes were supposed to give that corporal punishment in the form of the impression of hunting down criminals, being beaten with a stick was allowed rather than of being soldiers.27 until 1868. Punishments including con­ finement to the barracks or room and fur­ The training of the gendarmes was also lough restrictions could be imposed by re-regulated by the Gendarmerie Act. the military courts.30

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The duties of the gendarmes were ex­ made to increase the attractiveness of serv­ tremely tough, and largely consisted of ing in the gendarmerie, since at that time highly exhausting foot patrols, which had the gendarmes typically remained in ser­ to be performed at all times of day, regard­ vice for just three to eight years. However, less of the weather conditions. There were owing to various social improvements and few horses, and even those were only at an increase in pay, a considerable increase the disposal of the gendarmerie officers. in the years of service could be achieved.35 The patrols typically lasted 24 hours with It should also be mentioned that the gen­ only short rests, since only that could ensu­ darmerie was expanded significantly in the re the continuous presence of the executive two decades leading up to the First World even in remote areas.31 War. Between 1894 and 1914, the number of gendarmes rose from 9,209 to 14,215, 7. GEnDARMERiE ACT of 1894 and the number of gendarmerie posts in­ The organisational structure of the gen­ creased from 2,337 to 3,644.36 darmerie was essentially retained until the end of the monarchy. In 1894 a new Gen­ 8. RADiCAL CHAnGE foLLow­ darmerie Act was passed, which inciden­ inG THE fiRsT woRLD wAR tally stayed in force in part until the definitive In the autumn of 1918, just a few days abolishment of the Austrian gendarmerie in after the end of the First World War and 2005.32 However, the Act in question ba­ the establishment of the First Republic, rely changed the fundamental structure of the Provisional National Assembly passed the gendarmerie. Pursuant to Section 1, the a new Gendarmerie Act on 27 November gendarmerie remained a “militarily run, 1918. In the debate of the time, represen­ unified law enforcement body for mainte­ tative Paul Freiherr von Hock37 noted: nance of public order, calm and security”. “[…] there are few establishments and Many organisational details such as pay, institutions that we have adopted from the training, uniform and equipment were no old Austria that are as well recognised all longer laid down in the Act and could in­ round and have always been recognised stead be governed by separate regulations. as the gendarmerie.”38 With the new legal The Act, however, now included pro­ framework, the former “Imperial-Royal visions for the event of war, pursuant to Gendarmerie” become the “Gendarme ­ which the gendarmerie could be entrusted rie of the German-Austrian State”. That with special military duties. That proved meant more than just a new name; a key to be of importance during the First World aspect of the gendarmerie was changed. War. Gendarmerie units engaged in direct The previous military structure was aban­ combat, especially, but not only, on the doned and the gendarmerie was turned into Eastern Front.33 a civil law enforcement agency. This partial return to military structures From 1918 onwards, the gendarmes was reflected from 1899 in the new uni­ were public servants, rather than soldiers. forms, which again featured the spiked That essentially marked Austria’s depar­ helmet instead of the huntsman’s hat.34 ture from the international gendarmerie Overall it can be said that from the end of model, since military structure is a core the 19th century, the gendarmerie focused feature of a gendarmerie. France and some more on demonstrating authority and other states still have a gendarmerie that is rigour in order to win respect than on close part of the army and reports accordingly to relations with the public. Efforts were also the defence ministry.

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1 On the establishment of the police departments On the establishment of the gendarmerie cf. at the time, cf. Oberhummer 1938, 47 et seqq.; Hopfner 1999, 28 et seqq.; Kepler 1974, 82 et Mayer 1986, 81 et seqq.; Jäger 1990, 23 et seqq.; seqq.; Wagner 1987, 237 et seq. Gebhardt 1992, 41 et seqq.; idem 2006, 31 et 9 Provisional Organic Act of the Gendarmerie seqq.; idem 2011, 46 et seqq.; Neumann 2006, in the Austrian Empire, Imperial Law Gazette 18 et seqq. No. 19/1850. On the content of the Act, cf. Esterle 2 This organisational change took place by im­ 2013, 23 et seqq.; Hinterstoisser/Jung 2000; 19 perial decree of 23 March 1848. Political Acts et seqq.; Hirschfeld 1989, 12 et seq.; Metzinger and Regulations of His Royal­Imperial Highness 2004, 18 et seqq.; Freie Gewerkschaft [Free Ferdinand I, Volume 66, Vienna 1851, No. 36, 55. trade union] 1924, 17 et seqq.; Gebhardt 1997, On the organisational structure of the Imperial 37 et seqq. Police and Censorship Office and the end of the 10 These “service instructions for the gendar­ police state, cf. Chvojka 2010, 31 et seqq.; ibid., merie” consisted of 222 sections. Cf. Esterle 338 et seqq. 2013, 27 et seqq.; Gebhardt 1997, 45 et seq. 3 On these reforms to the state administration, cf. 11 There were detailed rules for the estab­ Baltl/Kocher 2008, 200 et seqq. lishment of such quarters, which barely 4 “Imperial regulation of 8 June 1849, whereby differed from those for the rest of the military. the establishment of a gendarmerie throughout For details, cf. Mayerhofer 1854, 3 et seqq. Cf. the Austrian empire is approved according to the Gebhardt 1997, 58; Esterle 2013, 59 et seq. proposed outlines”, Imperial Law Gazette No. 12 New gendarmerie regiments were stationed in 272/1849. Cf. Hirschfeld 1989, 9 et seqq; Jäger Krakow, Pressburg and Ödenburg in 1854. 1990, 63 et seq. 13 On this period of neo­absolutism, cf. Baltl/ 5 An elite unit of the French army termed the Kocher 2008, 204 et seqq. “gendarmerie” existed from the beginning of 14 The relevant imperial decree of 25/04/1852 the modern era. In addition there was also the was only made known to the relevant authorities “maréchaussée”, a law enforcement agency that and was not made public. Partially reprinted in was re­organised in 1791 and adopted the more Dehmal 1926, 249 et seqq. widely used term of gendarmerie. Cf. Emsley 15 AVA (= General Administrative Archive of 1999, 37 et seqq. the Austrian State Archive), M.d.I. Allg. IV M.I. 6 On the development of the gendarmerie in the Kart. 177 b – No. 26.211/1860. Imperial Decree Europe of the time, cf. Emsley 1999, 173 et seqq. of 27/06/1860. Reprinted in Neubauer, 1924, 7 Organizzazione della Gendarmeria nella 567. This decree was also promulgated by the Lombardia, Milan 1817. The statute was also Ministerial Regulation of 16/07/1860. Cf. Kepler promulgated in the Provincial Statute Book of 1974, 87; Hesztera 1994, 20. Tyrol and Vorarlberg for 1817, Volume 4, Part 2, 16 On the then organisational status of the gen­ 1013 et seqq. Cf. Hinterstoisser/Jung 2000, darmerie, cf. Petrossi 1865, 45 et seqq. 7 et seq.; Neubauer 1924, 28; Kepler 1974, 80; 17 Circular Regulation of 18 February 1866, Mayer 1999, 22 et seq. Imperial­Royal Army Regulatory Gazette No. 8 Kempen­Fichtenstamm (1793–1863) had 29/1866. Cf. Hesztera 1994, 21; Kepler 1974, 88; been in the imperial army since 1803 and Gebhardt 1997, 89 et seqq.; Wagner 1987, 239. previously served as field marshal lieutenant 18 On the Austro­Hungarian Compromise, cf. and military district commander in Budapest. Baltl/Kocher 2008, 212 et seq. On his person, cf. Schmidt­Brentano 1977, 19 Promulgated by circular regulation of 8 May 484 et seq.; Österr. Akademie der Wissen­ 1867, Imperial­Royal Army Regulatory Gazette schaften 1965, 293. On his appointment as head No. 88/1867. There were two further national of the gendarmerie, cf. Mayr 1931, 152 et seq. gendarmerie commands – for Croatia and Tran­

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sylvania – that were not placed under the charge 31 Even patrols of up to 35 hours could be re­ of the Hungarian defence minister until a year quired before 1890, Hesztera 1999, 41. later. Cf. Hesztera 1994, 22. 32 Act of 25 December 1894 on the Gendarmerie 20 On the further organisation of the gendarmerie of the Kingdoms and Countries Represented on in the Kingdom of Hungary, cf. Hinterstoisser/ the Imperial Council, Imperial Law Gazette No. Jung 2000, 41 et seqq.; Márkus 1912, 326 et 1/1895. On the content, cf. Freie Gewerkschaft seqq. On the comprehensive history of the Hun­ 1924, 32 et seq.; Metzinger 2004, 81 et seqq.; garian gendarmerie, cf. Csaba 1999. Gebhardt 1997, 145 et seqq. The gendarmerie was 21 Fojan 1999, 112–121; Schmid 1908, 34; abolished by the amendment to the Police Act of Hinterstoisser/Jung 2000, 44 et seqq. 2005, Federal Law Gazette No. 151/2004. 22 Promulgated by Regulation of the Minis­ 33 In addition to the regular gendarmerie units, try of National Defence and Public Security from the beginning of the war there was also a field of 18 September 1868, Imperial Law Gazette. gendarmerie, which had police duties in the com­ No. 11/1868. The transfer of responsibility to bat zones, Hinterstoisser/Jung 2000, 56 et seqq., the Interior Ministry was promulgated by Re­ ibid. 74 et seqq.; Schmid 1908, 32 et seqq. gulation of 15/02/1870, Imperial Law Gazette 34 Hinterstoisser/Jung 2000, 38 et seqq. No. 12/1870. On the powers of the ministry, cf. 35 Emsley 1999, 228 et seq.; Hesztera 1999, 41 et Ulbrich 1883, 150 et seq. Organisation of the seqq.; Gebhardt 1997, 156 et seqq. Landwehr and conscription were governed by 36 On these aspects, cf. Gebhardt 1997, 151 et the Military Service Act of 05/12/1868, Imperial seqq. On the statistics, cf. Neubauer 1924, 97 Law Gazette No. 151/1868. et seq. In the same period, the population in the 23 Proclamation of the Ministry of National Austrian crown lands of the monarchy rose from Defence and Public Security dated 20 September 24 to 28.5 million. 1868, Imperial Law Gazette. No. 132/1868. 37 Paul Freiherr von Hock (1857–1924), Repre­ 24 On the debates in the Imperial Council at the sentative of the German National Party, pre­ time, cf. Gebhardt 2013, 264 et seqq. viously Imperial Council Representative and 25 Act of 26 February 1876 on the Imperial­Royal Court Councillor at the Supreme Administrative Gendarmerie for the Kingdoms and Countries Re­ Court. Brief biography at http://www.parlament. presented on the Imperial Council, Imperial Law gv.at/WWER/PAD_00607/index.shtml. Gazette No. 19/1876. On the content of the Act, cf. 38 Stenographic Transcript, 6th Session of the Freie Gewerkschaft 1924, 27 et seqq.; Neubauer Provisional National Assembly for the Republic 1924, 71 et seqq.; Metzinger 2004, 57 et seqq.; of German­Austria on 27 November 1918, 185. Kepler 1974, 90; Gebhardt 1997, 117 et seq. 26 They were numbered as follows: 1 Lower Sources of information Austria, 2 Bohemia, 3 Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Baltl, Hermann/Kocher, Gernot (2008). Öster­ 4 Moravia, 5 Galicia, 6 Styria, 7 Austrian reichische Rechtsgeschichte. Unter Einschluss Littoral, 8 Upper Austria, 9 Dalmatia, 10 Silesia, sozial­ und wirtschaftsgeschichtlicher Grund­ 11 Salzburg , 12 Carniola, 13 Bukovina, züge. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart, 14 Carinthia. Graz. 27 The changes to the uniforms were essentially Chvojka, Michal (2010). Josef Graf Sedlnitzky made in two stages, in 1860 and 1868. Cf. als Präsident der Polizei­ und Zensurhofstelle in Hinterstoisser/Jung 2000, 29 et seqq. Wien (1817–1848). Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte 28 On the training, cf. Hesztera 1999, 40 et seq. der Staatspolizei in der Habsburgermonarchie, 29 Hesztera 1999, 45 et seq.; Emsley 1999, 231. Frankfurt a.M. 30 On military service law, cf. Dohr 2014, 44 et Csaba, Csapó (1999). A Magyar Királyi seqq.; Hesztera 1999, 43. Csendörség Története 1881–1914, Pécs.

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