United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility

NATIONAL REPORT

on

The Stocks and of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

THAILAND

Mr. Pirochana Saikliang Focal Point for Marine Fisheries Research and Development Center 408 Moo 8, Paknum Sub-District, Muang District, Chumphon 86120,

NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table of Contents 1. MARINE FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT...... 2 / 1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE FISHERIES SECTOR ...... 2 1.1.1 Total catch by area, port of landing or province (by /species group).7 1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear (no. of fishing days, or no. of boats) ...... 7 1.1.2.1 Trawl ...... 10 1.1.2.2 Purse seine/ring net...... 10 1.1.2.3 net...... 12 1.1.2.4 Other gears...... 12 1.1.3 Economic value of catch...... 14 1.1.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment & dependence ...... 14 1.1.4.1 Contribution of the fisheries sector to GDP ...... 14 1.1.4.2 Contribution of the fishing to income and employment...... 18 1.1.4.3 Contribution of the fisheries sector to foreign exchange earning ...... 18 1.1.4.4 Contribution of the sector to domestic nutrition ...... 19 2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND/OR TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE...... 20

2.1 RANKING OF IMPORTANCE IN TERMS OF LANDINGS, VALUE, AND STATUS...... 22 2.1.1 Landings (by site or province) (mt) ...... 22 2.1.2 Local market value (Local currency, note year)...... 22 2.1.3 Status (endangered, threatened, rare etc. IUCN criteria)...... 22 2.1.4 Food security (locally)...... 26 2.2 BIOLOGY & ECOLOGY OF THE PRIORITY SPECIES (FROM AVAILABLE INFORMATION) ...... 26 2.2.1 Large (FAO)...... 26 2.2.2 Small pelagic fish species...... 35 2.2.3 species...... 39 2.2.4 Commercially exploited ...... 46 3. THREATS & CURRENT STATUS...... 51

3.1 STATUS OF FISHERY IN TERMS OF CPUES ...... 51 3.2 STATUS OF FISH STOCKS BASED ON HISTORICAL REVIEW OF LANDINGS AND CPUES...... 52 3.3 THREATS ...... 54 3.3.1 Current (e.g. destructive fishing practices, ) ...... 54 3.3.2 Potential (project market demand, increased coastal population)...... 56 4. HABITATS & AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS ...... 56

4.1 THE PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE .....56 4.1.1 Known spawning grounds...... 57 4.1.2 Known nursery areas...... 60 4.1.3 Known fishing grounds ...... 60 4.1.4 Seawater quality and pollutants...... 61 4.1.5 Biological parameters ...... 61 4.1.6 Bottom sediment...... 63 4.2 UNKNOWN ISSUES SUCH AS STOCKS WITH UNDEFINED SPAWNING GROUNDS ...... 64 4.3 THREATS, CURRENT AND POTENTIAL (COASTAL DEVELOPMENT, , OIL SPILLS) ...... 64 4.3.1 Coastal development ...... 64 4.3.2 Oil spills...... 64 4.3.3 Pollution ...... 64 4.3.4 blooms ...... 65 4.4 RANKING OF HABITATS ...... 67 4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security ...... 67 4.4.2 Association with high value species ...... 67 4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, threatened species...... 68

ii NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIME(S) ...... 68

5.1 LEGAL INSTRUMENTS ...... 68 5.2 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS (RESEARCH, MONITORING, CONTROL & SURVEILLANCE)...... 69 5.3 OVERVIEW OF PATTERNS OF RESOURCES OWNERSHIP AND TRADITIONAL UTILISATION ...... 70 5.4 HUMAN & INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY ...... 71 5.5 REVIEW OF STAKEHOLDERS (E.G. FISHERS, NATIONAL AND/OR PROVINCIAL/LOCAL MANAGEMENT BODIES, NGOS) ...... 72 6. PROBLEMS, CONSTRAINTS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS...... 78

6.1 PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS ...... 78 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 79 7. REFERENCES...... 80

APPENDEX 1 Rates of Exchange of Commercial Bank in Metropolis

APPENDEX 2 Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Vulnerable, and Threatened Marine Species in Thailand

APPENDEX 3 Found in Habitats of the Gulf of Thailand

APPENDEX 4 The Organisational Structure of the Department of Fisheries (DOF)

APPENDEX 5 The Organisational Structure of the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR)

iii NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 1

Fish Stocks & Habitats of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

Case Study: Gulf of Thailand

INTRODUCTION

The Gulf of Thailand (Figure 1) covers an area of approximately 350,000km2. The Gulf is a shallow arm of the South China Sea, adjoining it over a distance of 200 nautical miles. It is approximately 450 nautical miles long, 300 nautical miles wide, with a maximum depth, in the central portion, of slightly more than 80m. The central depression extends for 60 nautical miles near Cape Liant at the southeast corner of the Bangkok Bight. The northeast is slightly shallower and flatter than the southwest coast.

The deeper central Gulf is separated from the South China Sea by 2 ridges. The first has a depth of less than 25m and extends southwest for more than 60 nautical miles from the Cape of Camau (Robinson 1974). The other has a deeper ridge, less than 50 m, which extends northeast of Kota Bharu for a distance of 90 nautical miles. Subsequent to the Naga Expedition, a further regional bathymetric survey was conducted by the DODO expedition of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. In the narrow, deeper channel between the ridges, a still depth of 67 m was observed. These general features play an important role in regional oceanography. In general, the Gulf of Thailand is divided into 2 parts:

1. The Upper or Inner Gulf starts from latitude 12o30′N and extends up to the Chao Phraya , forming a U-shape. This 100x100km2 area, with an average water depth of 15m, can contain about 131km3 of water (calculated at the MSL). The northern part is shallow, gradually sloping to a depth of 25m near the opening between Sattahip, , and Hua Hin, Prachuap Khiri Khan province.

2. The Lower or Outer Gulf starts from latitude 12o 30′ N and extends down to Cape Camau and the Kotabaru Estuary, with an average water depth of 45m. A large number of ridges and shallow valleys dominate the continental shelf next to the Gulf of Thailand and southern Viet Nam coast, where water depth gradually increases to about 130m (Siripong, 1985).

The Gulf of Thailand is considered one of the most productive marine areas of the world, with a high level of primary production and diverse range of flora and fauna. It is abundant in marine fishery resources, typical of Indo-Pacific fish fauna. Thailand’s marine fish fauna includes some 1,337 species from 141 families. There are 618, 350, and 379 species of economically important marine fish, fish, and low-value fish known to occur in Thai waters, respectively (Sukhavisidth, 1996). The greatest species diversity exists within the demersal fish fauna. A high degree of intermixing is also common among the demersal species, such that no single species or group of species is observed to dominate catches. The pelagic species are somewhat less diverse than the demersal species, and are less likely to be so highly intermixed.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 2 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Figure 1 The Gulf of Thailand.

1. MARINE FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT

1.1 Overview of the fisheries sector 2/

Marine fisheries are an important contributor to Thailand’s economy. They are not only an important source of protein, but also a source of employment. Similarly, the export of fishery products is a major source of foreign exchange earnings for Thailand. Various types of fishing gear are used to exploit marine fish resources in the Gulf of Thailand, with at least 150 fishing gears being widely utilised by Thai fishers (Okawara et al. 1986). It is well known that there is no particular fishing gear used to catch one single species. Thai Fisheries have developed progressively, especially with regard to the adoption of fishing gears and techniques. Historically, the development of Thailand’s fisheries can be categorised into the following 3 periods:

2/ Data for the South China Sea coastline only.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 3

Pre 1960 – This was the initial development phase for Thailand’s fisheries. Most fishing gear was of the artisanal , including harpoons or spears, and stone block traps. Stationary fishing gear, including the bamboo stake trap, set bag net, and wing set bag, were introduced in 1897. Fishing gear were small-scale and operated with non-powered boats.

The use of the Chinese purse seine by 2 row boats was introduced to Thailand in 1925. This gear was rapidly accepted due to its efficiency in catching Indo-Pacific . By 1930, fishers had begun using the Chinese purse seine with boats powered by Japanese motors, and had redesigned their boats for the efficient capture of pelagic fishes.

In 1947, there were 2,615 units of fishing gear used in Thai waters. This number had increased to 11,560 by 1959 (Table 1). Set bag nets and bamboo stake traps were the main gears used. For seine nets, the total number of units increased from 177 in 1947 to 379 in 1959, and the total annual marine fish production ranged from 150,000 to 230,000 metric tonnes, or approximately 73 percent of total fisheries production (Table 2). Most of the marine fish caught were pelagic species for domestic consumption, including Indo-Pacific mackerel, Indian mackerel, , and .

1960 to 1980 - This period involved the rapid expansion of Thailand’s trawl fisheries, particularly during the early 1960s as a result of the introduction of German type otter board trawling. The total number of registered fishing gear units increased from 17,790 in 1960 to almost 20,000 in 1980, whilst the number of trawl gear units increased from 99 to 10,428 during the same period. Nylon was also introduced during this period as a material for fishing gear such as gill nets, push nets, and nets. The period involved a rapid decline in the total number of previously popular gears, including the bamboo stake trap and set bag net. This was largely due to the popularity and rapid uptake of trawl fishing gear and technology.

The development of fisheries in Thailand during this period focused on both demersal and pelagic species. The significant expansion of Thai fisheries during the period 1960-80 was mainly due to the: 1. Introduction of new technology and fishing gears, including the use of nylon nets in small scale fisheries, and otter board trawls in commercial fisheries; 2. Improved seaworthiness of both non-powered to engine powered fishing vessels; 3. Technical support from developed countries and international organisations; 4. Investment and/or financial support from industrial countries for the development of infrastructure, including , cold storage, and ice plant; 5. Exploration of new fishing areas, especially in the South China Sea; and 6. Government policy that supported the development of offshore fisheries.

All of these factors led to a significant increase in the total quantity of marine fish caught since 1960. According to fisheries statistics, total annual catch increased from about 150,000 metric tonnes in 1960 to more than 2 million metric tonnes in 1977, making Thailand one of the top 10 fishing nations since 1973. Furthermore, the contribution of marine fish production to Thailand’s total fisheries production increased from 66.87% to over 90%. Total production decreased slightly to 1.8 million metric tonnes in 1980, however, due to the country’s oil crisis. Pelagic fisheries also developed rapidly during this period. The uptake of luring purse seines in the 1970s, and the discovery of fishing grounds for round scads in the central part of the Gulf in 1973, were key contributing factors to this growth. The development of light luring fishing techniques to catch small pelagic fish has resulted in significant increases in landings of small pelagic fishes since 1978.

Panayotou and Songpol (1987, cited in Johnson 1997) identified 3 factors influencing the rapid rise of Thai fisheries since the early 1960s. These include the introduction of new technology, notably the trawl, the purse seine, and the motorised boat; a “laissez-faire attitude” of the Thai Government towards fisheries development, allowing private investors virtually a free-hand in resource exploitation; and the demand for fisheries products in global and domestic markets. Thailand has been one of the world’s most important producers and exporters of since 1972.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 4 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 1 Number of fishing gear units registered in Thailand from 1947 to 2000.

Year Trawlers Seine Gill Squid Bamboo Set Set net Hook & Push Other Grand Nets Nets Nets Stake Trap Bag Net Line Net Nets Total 1947 177 823 1,615 2,615 1948 222 1,177 3,682 5,081 1949 151 1,160 2,999 4,310 1950 181 1,047 3,379 4,607 1951 164 1,003 2,370 3,537 1952 253 1,263 4,247 5,763 1953 259 1,334 2,238 827 4,537 9,195 1954 346 1,460 2,318 988 5,819 10,931 1955 314 1,462 2,260 843 6,082 10,961 1956 381 1,579 2,390 764 7,218 12,332 1957 324 1,287 2,813 636 7,282 12,342 1958 182 1,344 2,505 977 6,429 11,437 1959 379 1,470 2,043 618 7,050 11,560 1960 99 345 2,064 3,429 1,234 10,799 17,790 1961 201 275 1,484 2,623 365 10,654 15,602 1962 1,103 220 1,319 2,318 747 15,694 21,401 1963 2,327 242 1,528 2,674 608 13,484 20,863 1964 2,457 215 863 2,323 730 10,742 17,330 1965 2,606 218 949 2,310 625 8,085 14,793 1966 2,870 243 869 2,034 6,377 7,079 13,732 1967 1,872 324 559 1,580 591 6,935 11,861 1968 2,926 400 516 1,684 516 6,299 12,341 1969 2,602 398 451 1,522 329 5,135 10,401 1970 3,082 976 569 632 1,296 313 354 5,065 12,287 1971 3,607 718 563 398 1,420 308 610 4,364 11,988 1972 4,487 759 582 288 1,368 291 1,327 81 9,183 1973 5,837 908 1,391 281 1,262 239 1,628 49 11,595 1974 5,271 854 1,104 189 - - 6 1,213 56 8,693 1975 4,961 812 1,050 229 - - 16 1,075 48 8,191 1976 5,204 952 2,198 44 262 - - 47 844 100 9,651 1977 6,288 1,020 2,611 0 222 - - 71 1,177 240 11,629 1978 6,576 1,112 3,281 34 242 - - 33 1,426 190 12,894 1979 8,747 1,038 4,526 12 250 - - 210 1,923 213 16,919 1980 10,428 1,058 4,926 230 258 - - 222 2,262 162 19,546 1981 7,525 1,091 3,893 470 264 - - 44 1,216 79 14,582 1982 11,475 1,078 4,522 1,274 - - - 33 1,899 111 20,392 1983 9,390 980 5,028 1,038 - - - 54 1,236 165 17,891 1984 9,131 1,206 3,767 1,064 - - - 46 960 364 16,538 1985 8,325 1,260 4,536 663 - - - 63 759 362 16,158 1986 7,407 1,199 5,654 654 - - - 51 664 287 15,916 1987 7,343 1,397 5,492 794 - - - 53 624 351 16,054 1988 6,950 1,602 4,932 1,171 - - - 142 531 222 15,550 1989 13,119 1,551 3,107 1,055 - - - 50 1,904 187 20,973 1990 12,905 1,730 3,702 1,088 - - - 48 1,879 195 21,547 1991 10,298 1,702 3,680 1,363 - - - 47 1,047 33 18,170 1992 9,465 1,524 3,307 1,591 - - - 68 818 47 16,820 1993 9,086 1,603 4,759 1,895 - - - 59 808 30 18,146 1994 8,346 1,610 4,980 2,059 - - - 36 651 74 17,657 1995 7,995 1,479 5,228 1,894 - - - 53 634 80 17,281 1996 8,972 1,456 4,966 1,747 - - - 48 722 39 17,950 1997 8,885 1,652 4,644 1,945 - - - 47 901 108 18,182 1998 9,161 1,445 5,035 1,545 - - - 41 861 351 18,439 1999 8,324 1,670 4,214 1,232 - - - 53 660 768 16,921 2000 8,008 1,585 3,686 2,096 - - - 65 638 1,217 17,295 Source : Saikliang (1995a, cited Department of Fisheries, Fisheries Statistics Sub-Division) DOF, 1995 to 2002. Note: 1947 to 1969 = Number of fishing gears registered 1970 to 2000 = Number of fishing boats registered by type of fishing gears

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 5

Table 2 The quantity and value of Thailand’s fisheries production from 1947 to 2000. Production (mt) Total % of total Value (million baht) Year Marine Freshwater (mt) Marine Marine Freshwater Total 1947 120,173 40,851 161,024 74.63 - - - 1948 151,380 44,460 195,840 77.30 - - - 1949 108,800 44,900 153,700 70.79 - - - 1950 115,600 42,200 157,800 73.26 - - - 1951 141,000 46,000 187,000 75.40 - - - 1952 138,500 53,000 191,500 72.32 428 324 752 1953 148,200 56,300 204,500 72.47 507 313 820 1954 166,400 63,400 229,800 72.41 581 347 928 1955 151,400 61,570 212,970 71.09 604 372 976 1956 152,240 65,720 217,960 69.84 684 462 1,146 1957 170,900 63,670 234,570 72.86 735 455 1,190 1958 145,000 51,300 196,300 73.87 725 428 1,153 1959 147,770 57,124 204,894 72.12 754 479 1,233 1960 146,471 72,574 219,045 66.87 832 580 1,412 1961 233,275 72,475 305,750 76.30 1,029 542 1,571 1962 269,709 70,079 339,788 79.38 1,106 537 1,643 1963 323,374 70,481 393,855 82.10 1,167 768 1,935 1964 494,196 82,790 576,986 85.65 1,835 655 2,490 1965 529,483 85,637 615,120 86.08 1,798 672 2,470 1966 635,165 85,117 720,282 88.18 1,903 675 2,578 1967 762,188 85,256 847,444 89.94 2,309 738 3,047 1968 1,004,058 85,245 1,089,303 92.17 3,251 786 4,037 1969 1,179,595 90,439 1,270,034 92.88 4,011 787 4,798 1970 1,335,690 112,714 1,448,404 92.22 4,097 906 5,003 1971 1,470,289 116,788 1,587,077 92.64 4,554 974 5,528 1972 1,548,157 131,383 1,679,540 92.18 4,936 1,371 6,307 1973 1,538,016 140,885 1,678,901 91.61 6,562 1,647 8,209 1974 1,351,590 158,876 1,510,466 89.48 4,094 1,890 5,984 1975 1,394,608 160,692 1,555,300 89.67 5,102 2,092 7,194 1976 1,551,792 147,294 1,699,086 91.33 5,969 2,152 8,121 1977 2,067,533 122,374 2,189,907 94.41 8,622 2,038 10,660 1978 1,195,785 141,496 2,099,281 93.26 11,459 2,369 13,828 1979 1,813,158 133,176 1,946,334 93.16 11,318 2,686 14,004 1980 1,647,953 144,995 1,792,948 91.91 10,508 3,560 14,068 1981 1,824,444 164,581 1,989,025 91.73 13,213 3,921 17,134 1982 1,986,571 133,562 2,120,133 93.70 14,246 4,685 18,931 1983 2,099,986 155,447 2,255,433 93.11 15,236 4,002 19,238 1984 1,947,019 161,819 2,108,838 92.33 14,541 3,796 18,337 1985 2,057,751 167,453 2,225,204 92.47 15,651 4,135 19,786 1986 2,352,204 187,763 2,539,967 92.61 18,883 4,005 22,888 1987 2,601,929 177,142 2,779,071 93.63 23,083 4,558 27,641 1988 2,446,100 183,600 2,629,700 93.02 28,039 4,383 32,422 1989 2,539,200 200,800 2,740,000 92.67 31,429 4,441 35,870 1990 2,555,400 231,000 2,786,400 91.71 35,492 5,904 41,396 1991 2,709,000 258,700 2,967,700 91.28 46,766 6,260 53,026 1992 2,965,700 274,100 3,239,800 91.54 59,068 6,477 65,545 1993 3,048,100 337,000 3,385,100 90.04 69,828 8,579 78,407 1994 3,150,200 373,000 3,523,200 89.41 77,299 9,702 87,001 1995 3,184,900 387,700 3,572,600 89.15 86,222 9,890 96,112 1996 3,112,100 437,100 3,549,200 87.68 88,845 11,781 100,626 1997 2,979,200 405,200 3,384,400 88.03 97,533 11,109 108,642 1998 3,076,700 429,200 3,505,900 87.76 109,907 14,640 124,547 1999 3,166,600 459,500 3,625,900 87.33 118,947 15,175 134,122 2000 3,240,700 472,500 3,713,200 87.28 132,004 15,457 157,462 Sources: DOF 1996; 2000a; Saikliang 1995a. Coastal were included.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 6 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1980 to present: during this period, the use of the otter board trawl has remained very popular among Thai fishers. Total production has increased dramatically, however, this has unfortunately taken place without efficient control strategies. As a result, it is believed that Thailand’s fisheries resources have been subjected to biological overfishing for more than 3 decades. During this time, the abundance of fish, as indicated by catch per unit effort (CPUE), has continuously declined, leading Thai fishing fleets to seek new fishing areas in the South China Sea, the , and other high sea areas. With the establishment of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, many of Thailand’s neighbouring countries declared an “Exclusive Economic Zone” (EEZ), including India (15 January 1977), (9 April 1977), Cambodia (15 January 1978), Philippines (11 June 1978), (21 March 1980), (25 April 1980), and Singapore (15 September 1980). Thailand declared its EEZ on 23 February 1981. The EEZ regime has had far-reaching impacts on Thailand’s fishing fleet, initially restricting the area of the fleets operations to Thai waters. However, some Thai fishing boats continued to operate in the EEZs of other coastal States under joint venture arrangements. This led to conflicts between commercial and small-scale fishers in neighbouring countries, including Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, Viet Nam, India, and Myanmar. This development caused a decrease in total fishing area of approximately 300,000 square nautical miles (Vetchakaran 1987), resulting in a 10% decrease in production after 1977 (Phasuk 1987).

Fisheries resources in the Gulf of Thailand have been overused in relation to their natural rate of regeneration. The number of fishing boats far exceeds existing resource capacity. The critical state of these resources is illustrated by the ongoing reduction in CPUE observed during surveys conducted by the research vessel of the Department of Fisheries. CPUE has declined from 294.92kg per hour in 1963 to 25kg per hour at present. Furthermore, approximately 40% of marine catch consists of low- value and . When demersal fish production declined, Thai fishers began targeting pelagic fish using light luring purse seine techniques. Since 1982, coastal and fisheries have expanded dramatically due to improvements in fishing gear and methods. Similarly, new large fishing boats installed with freezers have been built in to enable boats to stay at sea for extended periods. In other words, there has been a transition from coastal fisheries to offshore fisheries in Thailand during this period. The increasing production from offshore fisheries is derived mainly from areas of the Gulf of Thailand.

Table 2 shows Thailand’s marine fisheries production in terms of quantity and value from 1952 to 2000. Both quantity and value of production has increased markedly since 1980, despite some minor fluctuations in 1983 to 1984 due to increased fuel prices. Since 1986, marine fishery production has been maintained at above 2.5 million metric tonnes per annum. Thailand has also been the largest manufacturer and exporter of tuna since 1982 and since 1993. Fishery products are one of Thailand’s top 10 export products, representing 10% of Thailand’s export income. In 2000, production was 3,713,200 metrics tonnes, made up of 3,240,700 metric tonnes (87.28%) of marine fish and 472,500 metric tonnes (12.72%) of . In 2000, approximately 2,020,876 metric tonnes (72.86%) of the total production was derived from the Gulf of Thailand.

Of Thailand’s 76 provinces, 17 are located along the coast of the Gulf, providing good maritime access to Thai fishers. The Gulf of Thailand is divided into the Inner Gulf and the Outer Gulf as mentioned earlier. The Outer Gulf extends into the South China Sea, and the Gulf as a whole is divided into 7 areas for statistical data collection (Figure 2).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 7

E N

Figure 2 The statistical fishing areas in the Gulf of Thailand.

1.1.1 Total catch by fishing area, port of landing or province (by species/species group)

Marine fisheries production, as reported by the Department of Fisheries, has yet to be classified by species/species group and landing port. Marine fishing in the Gulf of Thailand is conducted from 37 major fishing ports and several hundred fishing villages scattered along the Gulf of Thailand coast. The catch of important species/species groups in the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000 is shown in Table 3. Catch of important pelagic and demersal fish, as well as invertebrates, in each fishing area by fishing gear type, is highlighted in Appendix 1 (Tables 1 to 3).

1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear (no. of fishing days, or no. of boats)

The rapid expansion of the Thai fishing fleet relates to the increase in the number of fishing boats, as well as their size and catching capacity. Most large registered fishing boats, especially those larger than 18 m in length, are equipped with advanced fishing and navigation technology, including sonar systems, echo sounders, radios, radar, and satellite navigation. There are at least 150 fishing gears that are widely utilised by Thai fishers in the Gulf of Thailand (Okawara et al. 1986). The fishing gears are classified into 2 main types, namely small-scale fishing gears and gears. Commercial fishing gears can be classified by type and by size of fishing boat. However, small-scale fishing gears, normally used by small boats in inshore waters, have not been classified by fishing boat size.

Data regarding fishing effort in terms of number of different sized fishing boats and type of fishing gear, including otter board trawl, pair trawl, luring purse seine, Thai purse seine, anchovy purse seine, gill net, push net, and other small fishing gears are presented in Tables 4 to 9.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 8 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 3 Catch of important marine fishes in the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000. Unit: Metric tonnes

Species group\Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Grand total 1,923,163 1,820,687 2,081,528 1,929,672 1,996,542 2,012,013 1,903,555 1,831,129 1,802,422 1,919,564 2,020,876

Sub-total fishes 1,552,050 1,430,115 1,643,683 1,605,030 1,612,501 1,695,892 1,589,603 1,515,889 1,435,786 1,560,720 1,581,754

Sub-total pelagic fishes 582,192 559,502 700,149 612,301 643,855 690,744 629,355 590,619 606,651 639,828 642,472

Indo-Pacific mackerel 78,279 64,156 96,598 76,997 82,021 112,280 92,765 91,622 107,083 125,175 120,882

Indian mackerel 22,176 17,849 31,577 35,986 50,898 45,338 21,328 19,276 19,393 26,912 21,902

King mackerel 9,995 7,549 8,414 11,085 9,904 10,660 9,360 8,875 9,480 9,826 8,566

Longtail tuna 101,397 79,227 72,277 39,396 32,006 38,824 32,347 29,127 34,805 45,818 53,407

Eastern little tuna+Frigate tuna 54,915 58,763 84,887 67,402 67,827 48,121 47,125 42,557 44,027 56,888 46,054

Round scads 10,676 22,747 42,525 46,186 38,394 54,641 52,648 47,498 57,893 56,461 67,902

Hardtail scad 13,884 12,335 18,067 18,581 20,809 9,723 5,217 4,027 7,981 7,374 7,433

Trevallies 38,841 35,928 42,531 42,224 55,616 47,456 44,365 41,356 35,599 35,668 30,831

Big- scad 19,972 15,451 21,851 19,581 37,080 36,449 24,533 22,188 24,931 25,966 29,075

Sardinellas 92,281 115,641 142,634 113,860 125,179 141,180 161,771 151,708 129,045 128,492 121,738

Anchovies 123,176 115,082 123,288 123,751 102,729 123,095 122,423 117,229 121,443 103,445 117,025

Other pelagics fishes 16,600 14,774 15,500 17,252 21,392 22,977 15,473 15,156 14,971 17,803 17,657

Sub-total demersal fishes 105,740 113,769 155,886 202,875 191,348 245,483 235,700 239,833 209,806 277,645 272,521

Treadfin breams 26,282 34,125 51,655 57,903 55,850 71,637 64,749 62,944 59,683 69,949 74,544

Lizard fishes 13,169 19,750 31,840 42,486 35,593 58,482 51,004 62,397 35,289 60,534 52,601

Snappers 3,447 2,878 5,300 10,815 8,105 8,796 9,180 8,469 11,559 8,961 5,242

Big- 21,219 25,269 36,221 49,710 44,680 57,723 67,411 62,675 64,873 71,127 65,168

Grouper 1,781 1,928 3,142 2,948 5,679 5,431 5,847 5,649 5,020 5,465 5,035

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 9

Table 3 cont. Catch of important marine fishes in the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Species group\Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Other demersal fishes 39,842 29,819 27,728 39,013 41,441 43,414 37,509 37,699 33,382 61,609 69,931

Other food fishes 89,244 96,481 127,439 123,128 116,218 109,437 122,017 123,923 104,078 159,838 148,433

Trash fishes 774,874 660,363 660,209 666,726 661,080 650,228 602,531 561,514 515,251 483,409 518,328

Sub-total & 93,848 103,598 96,270 97,709 103,244 103,096 102,600 96,323 73,474 62,248 69,673

Banana shrimp 8,649 7,733 7,486 8,130 9,928 9,226 7,132 7,169 7,648 8,206 10,385

Jumbo tiger prawn 121 223 274 277 488 373 631 572 341 1,043 1,580

Tiger shrimp 312 315 325 323 642 711 1,042 1,068 839 609 714

King prawn 1,364 1,271 1,624 1,399 1,304 1,486 1,600 1,838 1,775 2,546 3,400

Other shrimp 82,210 92,866 85,630 86,344 89,622 89,386 89,298 82,715 59,409 47,334 50,844

Flathead 903 807 766 1,067 861 1,730 2,716 2,785 3,005 1,760 2,289

Mantis shrimp 289 383 165 169 399 184 181 176 457 750 866

Sub-total 34,306 35,149 34,831 38,066 39,881 39,820 38,856 37,515 40,852 39,137 39,137

Swimming crabs 30,402 31,190 31,784 33,059 35,157 35,414 36,219 34,916 37,281 33,864 37,219

Mud crabs 2,358 3,159 2,463 3,555 2,530 2,313 1,716 1,610 1,848 3,763 3,426

Other crabs 1,546 800 584 1,452 2,194 2,093 921 989 1,723 1,510 788

Sub-total squid & cuttlefish 119,091 120,281 113,893 114,004 109,031 115,810 115,966 116,277 130,554 119,742 120,485

Squid 57,608 56,551 51,209 55,867 55,762 59,624 56,006 55,740 68,788 62,613 64,671

Cuttlefish 45,655 50,077 48,036 44,456 41,987 45,358 47,239 48,344 44,847 45,009 44,927

Octopus 15,828 13,653 14,648 13,681 11,282 10,828 12,721 12,193 16,919 12,120 10,885

Sub-total molluscs 109,873 76,137 90,672 65,006 53,577 40,727 38,574 42,700 62,591 53,163 70,974

Others 13,995 55,407 102,179 9,857 78,308 16,668 17,956 22,425 59,165 84,554 138,855

Source: DOF 1988 to 2002; 2003a.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 10 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1.1.2.1 Trawl

As mentioned above, there are 3 types of trawl used in Thai waters. These include the otter board trawl, pair trawl, and beam trawl. Beam trawls are mostly used to catch shrimp and the total number of units of this gear type is low. Table 4 shows the number of otter board trawls and pair trawls registered in key provinces along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. The number of pair trawlers varied little during this period. However, the number of otter board trawls decreased from 1980 to 1988 as some trawl boats began using squid light luring cast nets to catch squid. The development of this technique gained popularity due to the high price of, and the relative fuel efficiency of the methods. From 1989 to 1990, the number of trawlers increased due to consent being given to the registration of trawlers and push netters in 1989.

Table 4 Number of trawls registered along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000.

Otter board trawl Pair trawl Grand Year < 14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m > 25 m Total < 14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m > 25 m Total Total 1980 4,038 1,768 1,189 187 7,182 54 476 567 5 1,102 8,284 1981 2,762 1,479 866 171 5,278 53 358 489 10 910 6,188 1982 4,719 1,897 1,227 185 8,028 44 528 727 7 1,306 9,334 1983 3,636 1,773 1,274 165 6,848 38 498 636 8 1,180 8,028 1984 3,608 1,681 1,286 170 6,745 40 428 598 6 1,072 7,817 1985 3,099 1,603 1,235 171 6,108 35 469 615 3 1,122 7,230 1986 2,629 1,518 1,132 137 5,416 29 440 585 6 1,060 6,476 1987 2,514 1,542 1,155 132 5,343 30 427 617 4 1,078 6,421 1988 2,339 1,491 1,057 110 4,997 31 387 628 0 1,046 6,043 1989 3,571 2,691 2,455 117 8,834 70 563 1,312 0 1,945 10,779 1990 3,302 2,804 2,457 119 8,682 84 571 1,269 5 1,929 10,611 1991 2,613 2,134 2,063 129 6,939 77 534 1,199 12 1,822 8,761 1992 2,370 2,051 1,852 101 6,374 54 475 1,117 15 1,661 8,035 1993 2,231 2,184 1,745 82 6,242 37 439 1,054 9 1,539 7,781 1994 1,870 1,965 1,624 72 5,531 34 404 1,063 7 1,508 7,039 1995 1,890 1,972 1,529 72 5,463 31 372 983 6 1,392 6,855 1996 2,098 1,976 1,746 92 5,912 25 381 1,189 15 1,610 7,522 1997 1,970 2,165 1,761 140 6,036 29 466 1,051 15 1,561 7,597 1998 2,048 2,064 1,853 144 6,109 13 345 1,221 17 1,596 7,705 1999 1,761 1,918 1,751 138 5,568 17 320 1,159 18 1,514 7,082 2000 1,742 1,829 1,634 139 5,344 16 290 1,144 14 1,4640 6,796 Source: DOF 1982 to 2002.

1.1.2.2 Purse seine/ring net

Purse seines are the major fishing gear used to exploit pelagic fish resources. Table 5 highlights increased use of purse seines. Registered purse seines are classified as Chinese purse seines (CPS), anchovy purse seines (APS), Thai purse seines (TPS), and luring purse seines (LPS). Nowadays, CPS are not used in the Gulf of Thailand, however, APS are commonly used to catch anchovy. The purse seines used to catch mixed pelagic fish species in the Gulf of Thailand are the TPS and LPS. These 2 types of purse seine were combined after 1992. In the Gulf of Thailand, the registered number of purse seines (TPS and LPS) increased from 602 units in 1980 to 1,013 units in 1988, again peaking at 1026 units in 1991. During the 1990s, the total number of purse seine units gradually decreased. However, it is apparent that purse seine use is increasing, especially by larger boats (Table 5).

Purse seines are used to catch pelagic fishes such as the Indo-Pacific mackerel, sardines, trevallies, and scads. The Thai purse seine is used to catch free-swimming fishes that are usually small and form species-specific schools. The luring purse seine, operated in conjunction with coconut leaf fish aggregating devices (FADs) or artificial lights to attract fish, was also developed to catch small pelagic fish, and has become extremely popular amongst Thai fishers. The number of purse seines registered by the type and size of fishing boats in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000 is shown in Table 5.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 11

Table 5 Number of purse seines registered by type and size of fishing boat in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. Luring purse seine Thai purse seine Grand Year <14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m >25 m Total <14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m >25 m Total Total 1980 59 150 294 3 506 40 51 5 0 96 602 1981 75 189 330 8 602 9 28 3 0 40 642 1982 59 154 362 7 582 21 19 2 0 42 624 1983 42 124 377 13 556 20 17 3 0 40 596 1984 25 34 197 6 262 26 116 218 3 363 625 1985 19 33 159 5 216 27 144 270 7 448 664 1986 27 42 183 2 254 18 108 286 13 425 679 1987 16 61 274 2 353 19 108 333 8 468 821 1988 79 45 303 0 427 28 156 392 10 586 1013 1989 45 32 369 7 453 58 88 206 5 357 810 1990 29 30 271 3 333 69 112 459 17 657 990 1991 6 18 252 6 282 88 130 512 14 744 1026 1992 6 16 228 3 253 29 91 516 21 657 910 1993* 76 118 705 26 925 0000 0 925 1994* 45 132 704 33 914 0000 0 914 1995* 35 87 636 27 785 0000 0 785 1996* 29 76 579 23 707 0000 0 707 1997* 49 106 557 26 738 0000 0 738 1998* 68 92 590 24 774 0000 0 774 1999* 79 74 624 24 801 0000 0 801 2000* 62 68 569 34 733 0000 0 733 Source : DOF 1982 to 2002. 1993*-2000* = Luring purse seine and Thai purse seine were combined.

Previously, anchovy purse seine was operated only during the daytime. However, this gear type is now also operated during the night with artificial light to attract schools of fish. Fishing effort for this gear type increased markedly following the introduction of the light fishing technique in 1985. The number of anchovy purse seines in operation has increased steadily. However, the use of this gear type at night has been illegal since 1990, when the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives issued a regulation prohibiting the use of small mesh (less than 2.5cm) purse seines during the night. The number of anchovy purse seines registered by fishing boat size in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000 is shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Number of Anchovy purse seines registered by fishing boat size in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. Year Anchovy purse seine < 14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m > 25 m 1980 28 14 14 5 0 1981 13 6 4 3 0 1982 24 12 6 6 0 1983 37 21 11 5 0 1984 53 24 15 14 0 1985 118 51 22 40 0 1986 91 28 25 38 0 1987 47 21 13 13 0 1988 68 31 18 19 0 1989 76 35 25 16 0 1990 105 43 36 25 1 1991 237 93 90 51 0 1992 228 92 83 50 0 1993 255 90 84 81 0 1994 285 112 89 84 0 1995 323 193 74 54 4 1996 370 245 67 57 2 1997 419 285 91 43 0 1998 290 170 71 49 0 1999 333 177 91 64 0 2000 403 222 104 77 1 Source : DOF 1982 to 2002.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 12 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1.1.2.3 Gill net

Table 7 shows the number of gill nets registered by size of fishing boat in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. Thai fishers commonly use 2 types of gill net, namely the Spanish mackerel drift gill net and the mackerel encircling gill net. The Spanish mackerel drift gill net, which is usually 5 to 10km long, is used to catch Spanish mackerel and small tuna. The number of fishing boats using this gear has been relatively constant. The mackerel encircling gill net is popular for catching Indo-Pacific mackerel, and is operated in a similar to the purse seine, although without purse line. The use of this gear has declined since 1987.

1.1.2.4 Other gears

Most other fishing gears are small scale and operated in shallow coastal waters. These gears include push nets, trolled lures, hand lines, longlines, traps, and small gill nets. The number of push net units decreased from 1,644 in 1980 to 490 in 1988, although after consent was given to the registration of trawlers and push netters in 1989, total push net use increased significantly (Table 8). Table 9 contains information regarding the number of other small scale fishing gears, including gill nets, shrimp trammel nets, others gill nets, squid falling nets, anchovy falling nets, and longline. Interestingly, the use of shrimp trammel nets decreased, whilst that of squid and anchovy falling nets increased. Trap fisheries for squid and crab play an important role in the Gulf of Thailand’s small- scale fisheries, however, the registration of traps is not required under Thai fisheries law.

Table 7 Number of gill nets registered by size of fishing boat in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. Spanish mackerel drift gill net Mackerel encircling gill net Grand Year <14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m >25 m Total <14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m >25 m Total Total

1980 86 142 44 0 272 174 73 58 0 305 577 1981 53 166 82 0 301 125 76 56 0 257 558 1982 47 148 55 0 250 103 70 54 0 227 477 1983 40 134 60 0 234 36 57 48 0 141 375 1984 50 116 76 1 243 87 40 40 0 167 410 1985 45 135 75 1 256 113 48 49 0 210 466 1986 37 148 106 6 297 106 41 45 0 192 489 1987 36 152 138 1 327 97 36 86 0 219 546 1988 45 172 175 9 401 54 28 46 0 128 529 1989 29 116 71 0 216 52 33 25 0 110 326 1990 36 112 85 6 239 44 21 35 0 100 339 1991 45 119 105 10 279 41 21 26 0 88 367 1992 45 120 124 11 300 40 19 12 0 71 371 1993 32 86 77 3 198 43 25 24 0 92 290 1994 21 96 96 7 220 36 34 28 1 99 319 1995 26 88 155 18 287 29 21 27 0 77 364 1996 24 82 111 15 232 84 21 19 0 124 356 1997 51 91 81 11 234 86 28 30 0 144 378 1998 21 72 106 10 209 75 25 28 2 130 339 1999 23 62 90 6 181 41 35 37 1 114 295 2000 21 44 65 2 132 19 23 36 1 79 211 Source : DOF 1982 to 2002.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 13

Table 8 Number of push nets registered by size of fishing boat in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000.

Year < 14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m > 25 m Total 1980 1,579 64 1 0 1,644 1981 853 30 0 0 883 1982 1,209 35 0 0 1,244 1983 890 51 0 0 941 1984 750 27 0 0 777 1985 635 28 0 0 663 1986 536 32 11 0 579 1987 524 27 3 0 554 1988 458 30 2 0 490 1989 859 190 61 0 1,110 1990 868 193 58 0 1,119 1991 594 123 51 0 768 1992 436 96 30 0 562 1993 524 98 41 0 663 1994 451 68 24 0 543 1995 413 85 36 0 534 1996 488 93 39 0 620 1997 637 95 39 0 771 1998 590 125 61 0 776 1999 504 76 44 0 624 2000 493 81 39 0 613 Source: DOF 1982 to 2002.

Table 9 Number of other small scale fishing gears registered in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000.

Year Crab Shrimp Other Squid Anchovy Long line Total Gill Nets Trammel Nets Gill Nets Falling Nets Falling Nets

1980 868 2,175 770 115 0 222 4,150 1981 489 2,229 610 235 0 44 3,607 1982 734 2,364 423 637 0 33 4,191 1983 1,063 2,396 622 514 0 39 4,634 1984 879 1,658 445 521 0 44 3,555 1985 629 2,240 396 662 0 52 3,979 1986 1,266 2,044 823 652 0 48 4,833 1987 907 2,641 623 775 0 47 4,993 1988 995 1,903 684 1,102 0 115 4,799 1989 460 1,084 463 915 0 31 2,953 1990 911 1,141 549 1,027 0 30 3,658 1991 1,185 973 463 1,242 0 33 3,893 1992 731 937 467 1,435 0 57 3,627 1993 1,051 1,411 724 1,723 0 50 4,959 1994 1,261 1,099 688 1,881 0 27 4,956 1995 1,396 750 565 1,756 0 38 4,505 1996 1,318 755 577 1,584 0 37 4,271 1997 1,147 530 608 1,662 0 38 3,984 1998 975 624 605 1,356 358 34 3,952 1999 762 416 810 1,095 507 35 3,635 2000 816 528 1,231 1,880 778 32 5,265 Source: DOF 1982 to 2002.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 14 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1.1.3 Economic value of catch

The value of catch from commercial and small-scale fisheries has followed an increasing trend. This was especially the case during the 1990s, when total catch value increased by 105%. Commercial fishing contributes to about 90% of marine catch, with the balance flowing from small-scale/artisanal fisheries. In 2000, the percentage contribution to total catch value by key groups of marine fish was pelagic fish (28.69%), demersal fish (13.63%), other food fish (7.75%), trash fish (4.45%), (18.97%), crabs (6.63%), cephalopods (18.75%), and molluscs (0.22%) (Table 10). The species of main economic importance are Indo-Pacific mackerel and longtail tuna.

1.1.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment & dependence

1.1.4.1 Contribution of the fisheries sector to GDP

Thailand’s gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at 4,598 billion baht in 1996, of which the fishery sector contributed 87.8 billion baht or 1.9%, representing a decline from the 2% average observed from 1994 to 1996. The key factor driving the diminished contribution of the fisheries sector to GDP was rapid growth in the and service sectors. These factors were partially offset by increases in real fish prices. Although the fisheries sector makes a relatively small contribution to Thailand’s GDP, it makes an important contribution to export earnings and employment. Fish is also a central part of the diet of most Thai people (Table 11).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 15

Table 10 Value of production of important marine fishes from the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000. Value: 1,000 baht

Species group\Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Grand total 16,978,200 19,667,600 25,323,400 25,450,674 25,377,702 31,019,319 29,819,652 30,304,144 30,807,616 32,615,351 34,732,645

Sub-total fishes 9,373,500 10,176,000 15,624,500 16,039,783 13,984,172 17,058,748 16,537,016 16,061,191 16,880,065 19,412,177 18,936,415

Sub-total pelagic fishes 5,631,400 6,244,200 8,038,700 7,226,628 8,203,193 9,110,821 8,354,057 8,734,353 9,901,435 10,465,862 9,964,142

Indo-Pacific mackerel 1,032,900 759,000 1,425,700 1,124,009 1,638,035 2,341,053 2,178,558 2,528,946 3,392,963 3,327,371 3,032,544

Indian mackerel 228,400 141,900 338,700 369,353 897,246 716,346 418,439 330,464 347,620 491,934 467,949

King mackerel 353,100 299,600 372,200 545,590 438,122 509,769 522,453 641,813 601,352 698,370 608,466

Longtail tuna 1,618,100 1,877,800 1,589,600 1,194,876 415,882 582,360 646,380 757,746 973,679 1,170,055 1,204,216

Eastern little tuna+Frigate tuna 685,300 940,200 1,358,200 1,011,030 952,295 580,340 733,024 638,355 792,648 911,549 784,776

Round scads 64,500 255,900 415,000 461,865 392,754 597,776 611,245 618,255 824,978 832,235 804,643

Hardtail scad 111,400 104,600 178,900 191,954 225,923 135,353 97,616 69,283 136,080 126,322 154,469

Trevallies 283,000 574,900 566,600 517,132 727,948 676,728 694,325 639,483 578,409 572,608 463,714

Big-eye scad 136,900 100,700 160,100 130,664 363,445 337,880 245,330 199,904 174,503 253,549 290,690

Sardinellas 356,600 346,900 498,400 401,610 597,445 681,897 823,417 829,242 771,474 638,854 675,249

Anchovies 363,000 402,800 478,400 481,987 487,825 718,879 541,109 441,234 543,033 546,384 606,145

Other pelagics fishes 398,200 439,900 656,900 796,558 1,066,273 1,232,440 842,161 1,039,628 764,696 896,631 871,281

Sub-total demersal fishes 1,043,400 1,495,800 2,072,500 2,918,868 3,249,117 4,318,443 4,266,125 4,094,028 4,161,258 4,987,303 4,732,770

Treadfin breams 213,600 426,500 657,100 741,749 772,307 1,230,729 1,205,649 856,062 943,757 1,075,892 1,122,468

Lizard fishes 73,100 152,100 224,500 317,848 248,534 518,740 482,506 684,501 351,921 586,302 392,126

Snappers 100,000 122,800 225,900 473,263 389,988 472,251 526,294 462,981 677,911 515,427 286,138

Big-eyes 112,200 173,100 250,700 368,889 396,249 516,626 703,093 668,733 791,212 726,711 507,446

Grouper 67,700 98,600 200,500 202,689 490,088 458,000 409,290 441,374 446,547 502,858 449,440

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 16 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 10 cont. Value of production of important marine fishes from the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000. Value: 1,000 baht

Species group\Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Other demersal fishes 476,800 522,700 513,800 814,430 951,951 1,122,097 939,293 980,377 949,910 1,580,113 1,975,152

Other food fishes 632,000 771,800 4,033,500 4,094,427 1,051,659 2,003,807 2,169,473 1,800,653 1,324,253 2,499,315 2,692,976

Trash fishes 2,066,700 1,664,200 1,479,800 1,799,860 1,480,203 1,625,677 1,747,361 1,432,157 1,493,119 1,459,697 1,546,527

Sub-total shrimp & prawn 2,906,400 2,849,300 3,080,200 3,175,616 4,591,440 5,460,029 4,809,660 5,661,549 4,890,473 4,659,472 6,589,409

Banana shrimp 1,274,300 903,100 1,125,000 1,029,841 1,758,716 1,769,205 1,245,736 1,405,857 1,677,719 1,829,478 2,389,591

Jumbo tiger prawn 19,100 40,200 50,900 52,789 92,086 88,899 149,360 147,950 87,119 290,324 549,430

Tiger shrimp 57,100 47,500 50,000 49,009 141,609 155,606 232,689 267,281 232,403 181,543 254,453

King prawn 109,500 121,500 156,900 119,569 195,670 242,366 210,050 196,690 148,813 167,252 274,643

Other shrimp 1,382,300 1,637,600 1,622,400 1,817,504 2,319,616 3,035,584 2,692,477 3,371,045 2,443,166 1,969,421 2,816,882

Flathead Lobster 58,400 89,100 70,000 101,449 71,931 161,929 272,108 265,686 281,772 183,954 265,429

Mantis shrimp 5,700 10,300 5,000 5,455 11,812 6,440 7,240 7,040 19,481 37,500 38,981

Sub-total crabs 900,000 1,307,000 1,330,000 1,296,410 1,549,157 1,935,011 1,837,952 1,685,555 1,694,761 1,950,597 2,304,265

Swimming crabs 784,800 1,086,600 1,136,600 1,028,739 1,308,186 1,615,230 1,539,411 1,549,096 1,537,582 1,646,697 2,046,076

Mud crabs 94,300 208,400 184,900 240,147 202,458 277,560 275,000 107,485 100,809 253,018 237,295

Other crabs 20,900 12,000 8,500 27,524 38,513 42,221 23,541 28,974 56,370 50,882 20,894

Sub-total squid & cuttlefish 3,207,100 4,769,300 4,599,700 4,679,596 4,910,351 6,315,248 6,359,422 6,539,379 6,891,823 6,147,804 6,511,065

Squid 1,578,000 2,302,600 2,132,100 2,375,625 2,484,167 3,352,074 3,153,216 3,365,433 3,975,005 3,573,316 3,682,020

Cuttlefish 1,473,800 2,182,000 2,244,800 2,094,437 2,319,147 2,763,305 2,935,618 2,851,561 2,247,935 2,212,092 2,533,609

Octopus 155,300 284,700 222,800 209,534 107,037 199,869 270,588 322,385 668,883 362,396 295,436

Sub-total molluscs 584,700 538,900 637,500 251,134 283,193 225,908 249,123 304,805 343,252 287,909 287,909

Others 6,500 27,100 51,500 8,135 59,389 24,37526,479 51,665 107,242 157,392 77,762

Source : Source: DOF 1988 to 2002; 2003a. (rate of exchange; See Annex 1)

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 17

Table 11 Contribution of fisheries and other sectors to the GDP of Thailand from 1989 to 1996.

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Industrail Origin % % % % % % % % M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts

Gross Domestic Production (GDP) 1,620,882 100.0 1,895,034 100.0 2,506,635 100.0 2,830,914 100.0 3,170,258 100.0 3,630,805 100.0 4,188,929 100.0 4,598,288 100.0

Agriculture 279,094 17.2 273,973 14.5 317,085 12.6 348,127 12.3 329,878 10.4 390,233 10.7 464,171 11.1 507,339 11.0

Crops 174,809 10.8 159,992 8.4 181,918 7.3 197,058 7.0 166,564 5.3 206,264 5.7 258,432 6.2 289,570 6.3

Livestock 29,797 1.8 32,770 1.7 37,430 1.5 35,001 1.2 32,275 1.0 35,802 1.0 42,599 1.0 44,457 1.0

Fisheries 27,449 1.7 32,214 1.7 43,139 1.7 55,764 2.0 67,410 2.1 76,138 2.1 83,097 2.0 87,800 1.9

Forestry 8,181 0.5 6,665 0.4 7,110 0.3 6,705 0.2 6,443 0.2 6,145 0.2 6,098 0.1 6,291 0.1

Agricultural services 10,678 0.7 10,795 0.6 10,958 0.4 11,525 0.4 11,149 0.4 12,477 0.3 12,779 0.3 13,519 0.3 Simple agricultural and processing products 28,180 1.7 31,537 1.7 36,530 1.5 42,074 1.5 46,037 1.5 53,407 1.5 61,166 1.5 65,702 1.4

Source : NESDB.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 18 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1.1.4.2 Contribution of the to income and employment

Thailand’s labour force was estimated at 35.6 million in 1998, of which some 15.4 million (43%) were employed in the agricultural sector (including fisheries). Results from the 1995 Marine Fishery Census indicated that the total number of fishers and employees involved in Thailand’s marine capture fisheries was 111,479. There were 45,898 persons engaged in coastal aquaculture (Table 12).

Table 12 Thailand’s fisheries sector employment in 1995. Type of employment No. of Fishers, Fish farmers and Employees Marine capture 1/ 111,479 Coastal aquaculture 2/ 45,898 Inland aquaculture 3/ 404,334 Related fisheries industry 4/ 220,370 Total 782,091 Sources: 1/, 2/ The 1995 Marine Fishery census 3/ No. of farmer = (no. of fishfarm x 2 persons) 4/ Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare On the other hand, no fishery census has been conducted for Thailand’s inland fishery, thus no data has been compiled for reference. It is difficult to estimate employment in Thailand’s inland fisheries. However, most rice-growing farmers catch fish, and could potentially be categorised as part-time inland fishers. Millions of farmers catch freshwater fish for household consumption. A survey regarding freshwater fish farm production has been conducted since 1974. However, the number of aquaculturists and employees were not included in the survey, and information was not collected for many farms. The survey did indicate that the number of freshwater fish farms increased continuously from 61,980 farms in 1990 to 202,167 farms in 1995. On the basis that each farm provides employment for 2 people, approximately 404,334 persons were involved in freshwater aquaculture in 1995. Additionally, the fisheries sector supports substantial levels of employment in related industries, including fish processing, cold storage, fishmeal, ice making, and boat construction. Total employment in these industries was estimated at 211,682 in 1995. 1.1.4.3 Contribution of the fisheries sector to foreign exchange earning The contribution of Thailand’s fishing and fish-processing industries to export earnings has increased steadily in recent years (Table 13). The positive trade balance in fish and increased from 6,874 million baht in 1980 to 151,755 million baht in 2000. Although the industry relies on imported inputs such as diesel fuel and netting material, earnings remain substantial, particularly in relation to the level of employment in the industry. Fishery product exports in 2000 totalled 185,750 million baht, equivalent to 69% of total agriculture exports (200,795 million including fish), and 7.3% of total exports (1,898,276 million baht). Table 13 The trade balance of Thailand's fisheries sectors from 1980 to 2000. Import Export Trade balance Year Q (tonnes) (million baht) Q (tonnes) (million baht) Q (tonnes) (million baht) 1980 43,777 551.7 274,753 7,425.7 230,976 6,874 1981 47,174 550.0 320,325 9,102.3 273,151 8,552 1982 46,215 725.5 316,679 11,230.7 270,464 10,505 1983 58,942 1,093.2 344,899 12,677.2 285,957 11,584 1984 119,064 2,119.3 411,722 15,080.9 292,658 12,962 1985 152,707 3,857.5 466,219 18,527.7 313,512 14,670 1986 268,089 7,590.0 602,486 26,829.4 334,397 19,239 1987 227,327 7,016.9 663,650 32,654.3 436,323 25,637 1988 347,666 14,713.1 798,572 44,437.3 450,906 29,724 1989 455,755 19,066.7 875,293 53,704.9 419,538 34,638 1990 507,737 20,652.7 904,973 61,070.5 397,236 40,418 1991 724,668 27,352.9 1,087,395 78,463.2 362,727 51,110 1992 714,012 24,568.7 1,106,141 82,469.3 392,129 57,901 1993 760,919 21,629.4 1,115,078 910,18.3 354,159 69,389 1994 893,588 21,328.9 1,214,946 110,285.2 321,358 88,956 1995 872,818 21,924.7 1,192,560 116,577.8 319,742 94,654 1996 797,389 22,425.0 1,146,949 110,781.3 349,560 88,356 1997 710,115 27,438.9 1,181,255 138,624.0 471,140 111,185 1998 728,960 36,497.2 1,312,250 176,311.0 583,290 139,814 1999 930,885 33,289.3 1,394,104 165,718.1 463,219 132,429 2000 842,676 33,995.4 1,356,734 185,750.4 514,058 151,755 Sources: DOF, 1996; 2003a.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 19

1.1.4.4 Contribution of the fishery sector to domestic nutrition

The contribution of fish and other foods to the Thai diet in 1995 is shown in Table 14a. Fish is the primary source of animal protein for most Thai people, particularly in coastal provinces. From 1980 to 1997, the apparent annual per capita consumption of fish in Thailand averaged 24 kg, fluctuating between highs of 32.8 to 33.8kg in 1994 and 1995, and lows of 18.8 to18.9kg in 1987 and1988 (Table 14b).

Table 14a Thailand’s per capita food intake in1995. Items Whole country Urban area Rural area grams/day % grams/day % grams/day % Cereals, roots and tubers 305.7 41.4 281.4 37.4 312.3 42.4 Sugar and honey 13.7 1.9 14.6 1.9 13.4 1.8 Pulses, nuts and oil seeds 17.1 2.3 19.7 2.6 16.3 2.2 Vegetables 113.2 15.3 101.4 13.5 116.7 15.9 Fruits 76.8 10.4 93.9 12.5 72.0 9.8 Oils and fats 14.0 1.9 12.3 1.6 14.4 2.0 Meats 71.4 9.7 83.4 11.1 68.1 9.3 Fish 46.6 6.3 47.3 6.3 46.5 6.3 Eggs 21.4 2.9 17.2 2.3 22.5 3.1 Milk 29.3 4.0 44.6 5.9 25.1 3.4 Others 29.9 4.0 35.8 4.8 28.4 3.9

Total 739.1 100.0 751.6 100.0 735.7 100.0 Source: Department of Health, 1997.

Table 14b Apparent consumption of fish in Thailand from 1980 to 1997.

Year Total Fish used Trade Apparent consumption production for Import Export Total Population Consumption (1,000 tonnes) fishmeal (1,000 tonnes) (1,000 tonnes) consumption (million) per capita (1) (1,000 tonnes) (3) (4) (1,000 tonnes) (6) (kg) (2) (5)=(1)-(2)+(3)-(4) (7)=(5)/(6)

1980 1,792 773 140 227 932.3 47.0 19.8 1981 1,989 797 152 269 1,076.1 47.6 22.6 1982 2,121 813 128 338 1,098.4 48.4 22.7 1983 2,255 803 116 405 1,162.4 49.5 23.5 1984 2,135 758 166 547 996.4 50.5 19.7 1985 2,225 776 207 639 1,015.8 51.5 19.7 1986 2,536 976 362 847 1,074.2 52.5 20.4 1987 2,779 1,106 220 881 1,012.7 53.5 18.9 1988 2,630 956 343 993 1,023.8 54.6 18.8 1989 2,740 980 436 1,095 1,100.7 55.2 19.9 1990 2,786 978 475 1,174 1,108.7 56.1 19.8 1991 2,958 982 664 1,359 1,281.0 56.9 22.5 1992 3,240 1,001 637 1,393 1,482.6 57.6 25.7 1993 3,385 1,027 788 1,438 1,708.5 58.5 29.2 1994 3,523 930 883 1,535 1,940.5 59.1 32.8 1995 3,573 916 864 1,510 2,010.7 59.5 33.7 1996 3,500 900 737 1,438 1,899.5 60.1 31.6 1997* 3,460 900 728 1,645 1,642.7 60.8 27.0 Avg. 2,684 903 426 911 1,295.4 53.5 24.0 Source: Department of Fisheries, 1982 to 1999. Note: * Preliminary data.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 20 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND/OR TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE

According to the National Fisheries Statistics collected by the Fisheries Economics Division of the Department of Fisheries, catches are sorted by species and species group. The quantities and values of 11 pelagic fish groups, 5 groups of demersal fish, 7 groups of shrimps and , 3 groups of crabs, and 3 groups of cephalopods are shown in Tables 3 and 10. The important landing ports of the Fish Market Organization (FMO) are shown in Figure 3. However, there are many private landing ports scattered along the Gulf of Thailand coast.

In terms of transboundary significance, a joint Thai-Malaysian-German trawl survey was conducted off the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular in 1967. The survey area extended from the Thai- Malaysian border to the southernmost tip of the Malaysian Peninsular. The results of the survey indicated that catches declined as the survey moved northward to the Thai border. Throughout the survey, a total of 380 species were collected, of which 42 species (including Chiloscyllium griseum, Carcharinus spallanzani, and Rhinobatus ligonifer) were caught only in Thai waters, whilst another 42 species (including Dasyatis brocki, Sardinella melanura, Batrachphalus mino, and Lutianus rangus) were caught only in Malaysian waters. The rest of the species were caught in both regions (Wongratana 1968). However, in both Thai and Malaysian waters the most prevalent group of fish included species of , inhabiting depths from 10 to 50m. Next to this, in terms of abundance, were fish of Trygonidae, which were found mainly in Malaysian waters in depths ranging from 10 to 40m. In Thai waters, Nemipterus spp. was the next most prevalent group. During the survey, tagging of some important demersal fish was also conducted. 23 Nemipterus hexodon, 2 N. furcosus, 85 Priacanthus spp., 342 Scolopsis cancellatus, and Lutianus malabaricus were tagged and released in Malaysian waters (Marine Fisheries Laboratory and Fisheries Research Institute 1967). However, there are no reports of these fish being recaptured. The results of acoustic surveys conducted by the Exploratory Fishing Division of Thailand’s Department of Fisheries in the southern part of the Gulf in 1979, very clearly showed that the pelagic traces consisted of a mixture of Rastrelliger kanagurta, Caranx crumenophthalmus, Decapterus resselli, and Sardinella sp. (SEAFDEC 1981a). Rastrelliger spp., Scomberomorus spp., Decapterus spp., Sardinella spp., spp., Megalaspis cordyla, Selar spp. and Selaroides spp. are economically important in both Thailand and Malaysia. It is also well known that (Rastrelliger spp.) and round scads (Decapterus spp.) are widely distributed in areas of the South China Sea.

In 1993, a joint survey was carried out in the Joint Development Area (JDA) between Thailand and Malaysia by research trawlers of both countries at depths from 40 to 70m. More than 8 species of Nemipterus were found, including Nemipterus mesoprion, N. hexodon, N. marginatus, N. nematophorus, N. nemuerus, N. peronii, N. tolu and Nemipterus spp. The most common species was N. mesoprion, followed by N. nematophorus and N. marginatus (Uraiwan and Boonvanich 1993).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 21

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

14°N BANGKOK Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

13° Phetchaburi Rayong Chanthaburi

Hua Hin Trat

Pran Buri 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

Langsuan 10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla

Pattani Narathiwat Landing Port 6°

Figure 3 The important fish landing ports (FMO) along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand.

A joint fishery resources survey in the former overlapping jurisdictional area between Thailand and Viet Nam was conducted in 1997 and 1998 using bottom trawl and bottom vertical longline. The survey showed clear evidence of transboundary significance for many dominant species/species group that are distributed throughout Thai and Vietnamese waters. The dominant economically important species in waters of both countries included Selar ctuminophthalmus, Rastrelliger kanagurta, Saurida elongata, S. undosquamis, Priancanthus macracanthus, P. tayenus, Nemipterus nematophorus, Upeneus sulphurus, Siganus oramin, Seriolina nigrofasciata, Lutjanus sanguineus, Pristipomoides multidens, Ophisurus crocodilinus, Loligo chinensis, L. duvauceli, and Sepia spp.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 22 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

2.1 Ranking of importance in terms of landings, value, and status

2.1.1 Landings (by site or province) (mt)

Data regarding economically important species/groups of species landed by site or province, as well as by major fishing port for the year 2000 are provided in Table 15. The ranking of importance is based on the magnitude of catch. In terms of quantity, threadfin bream, Indo-Pacific mackerel, coastal tuna, bigeye snapper, , sardines, round scad, and anchovies are important. In terms of both quantity and value of landings, Songkhla, Pattani, Samutprakan, Nakorn Si Thammarat, Trat, and Samut Sakhon are the most important landing ports. It is usually clear that Thai fishing boats landing their catch in these ports have been fishing in transboundary areas.

2.1.2 Local market value (Local currency, note year)

The identification of species or species groups of economic importance involves consideration of wholesale value and export potential. Some resources have not yet been exploited commercially, however, may have potential for future development; they are also included in the list of commercially important species or species groups in Thailand. According to the 2000 National Fisheries Statistics, squid, cuttlefish, Indo-Pacific mackerel, shrimps, coastal , and threadfin bream were important in terms of local market value (Table 16).

In 2000, marine capture fishery production accounted for 85.6% of the total marine fishery production, which amounted to 3.24 million metric tonnes with a value of 142,004 million baht. The utilisation of marine fishery products included fresh consumption (18.8%), fresh, chilled and frozen (23.8%), canned (19.7%), steamed or smoked (0.4%), (3.2%), (0.1%), salted (5.7%), dried (2.0%), fish meal (25.8%), and other (0.5%). The important marine fish species with relatively high prices at major landing ports in 2000 are shown in Table 17.

2.1.3 Status (endangered, threatened, rare etc. IUCN criteria)

Several species of marine resources in the Gulf of Thailand are becoming rare, endangered, and perhaps threatened with extinction, due to increased human use, the resultant changes in the environment, and ineffective conservation and/or enforcement measures.

Assessment of the potential yields of fish stocks in the Gulf of Thailand has clearly shown that demersal fishery resources, particularly those in coastal areas, have been overexploited since 1973. Populations of dominant demersal species in the area, namely Nemipterus hexodon, Priacanthus tayenus, Saurida undosquamis and S. elongate, all show signs of overexploitation. Among the pelagic fish species, Indo-Pacific mackerel, sardines, anchovies, round scad, and coastal tuna stocks have been fully exploited since the early 1980s. However, from a survey conducted in 1995, it is unclear whether the reduction in catches of a number of species collected during the survey indicates that those species are becoming endangered or vulnerable.

Regarding threatened species of marine fauna, even though only higher groups of such as and mammals have been listed as rare or threatened species, it is believed that several species of marine fish and invertebrates are becoming rare, particularly those inhabiting coral reefs that are being destroyed by intense or destructive fishing practices.

The marine fauna officially listed as being threatened is highlighted in Appendix 2. This list is based on IUCN criteria. There is a paucity of information regarding the life history and population dynamics of threatened species, which hinders the formation, and implementation of effective conservation programmes.

Marine mammals: including whale, dolphin, and dugong. 3 species are critically endangered. 18 species are endangered.

Dugong: due to their gentle nature and slow movement, they may be accidentally caught by fishing nets. This species is considered very rare. One of these is a critically endangered species.

Reptiles: among them, marine turtle are considered important. The 5 species of are critically endangered species.

In the Gulf of Thailand, the abundance of many fish species has declined. 3 species are endangered, 36 species are vulnerable, and 3 species are threatened.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 23

Table 15 Landings in metric tonnes for main species/group of species in each province in 2000. Unit: Metric tonnes

Province-port Total Indo- Indian King Coastal Round Hardtail Trevallies Sardinellas Anchovies Threadfin Lizard Snapper Big-eye Banana School Other Crabs Squid Cuttlefish Octopus Others Species (mt) Pacific mackerel mackerel tuna scads scads bream fish shrimp prawn shrimps mackerel Trat 95,228 603 225 174 126 8 224 309 41 45,636 4,552 58 0 2,033 80 332 1,651 503 1,095 1,408 1,076 35,094 (5) (9) (8) (9) (9) (9) (10) (8) (10) (1) (5) (9) (7) (8) (7) (6) (6) (8) (7) (4) (6) Chanthaburi 2,931 45 19 11 00027 06684 60 12 400 53 84 75 19 113 105 39 1,107 (14) (13) (9) (11) (11) (5) (9) (8) (8) (9) (10) (11) (16) (13) (12) (13) (12) (15) Rayong 78,501 4,603 6,880 456 11,981 2,701 716 13 2,309 6,051 3,487 1,770 267 2,659 16 11 81 102 2,701 375 215 31,107 (7) (7) (2) (7) (2) (2) (5) (12) (6) (2) (6) (5) (6) (6) (12) (15) (15) (11) (6) (10) (10) (7) Chonburi 25,657 159 0 0 481 0 256 3,730 733 1,496 60 0 0 100 307 525 5,798 492 1,886 1,608 585 7,441 (10) (10) (7) (9) (3) (7) (3) (14) (10) (4) (4) (1) (7) (7) (6) (7) (11) Chachoengsa 2,247 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 97 199 327 019 17 0 1,588 o (15) (7) (8) (12) (15) (16) (14) Samut 213,944 1,323 1,076 2,215 2,554 1,382 987 3,236 0 0 17,032 11,924 2,807 13,626 12 662 611 1,084 10,657 8,881 1,104 132,771 prakan (3) (8) (7) (1) (4) (3) (4) (4) (2) (2) (1) (2) (13) (3) (9) (2) (3) (3) (5) (2) Samut 87,489 8,214 1,163 911 0171,519 2,664 605 1,215 1,327 759 4,465 12 65 1,038 544 11,969 9,746 5,126 36,130 sakhon (6) (3) (5) (5) (8) (2) (5) (8) (7) (6) (5) (4) (13) (12) (7) (5) (2) (2) (1) (5) Samut 5,357 121 0 1 00096246 4 73 0627 58 106 403 118 429 179 132 3,358 songkram (12) (12) (12) (10) (9) (6) (12) (9) (12) (9) (10) (11) (10) (10) (11) (11) (12) Phetchaburi 1,543 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 59 000039205 19 14 125 14 1,068 (16) (13) (14) (13) (13) (16) (12) (14) (16) Prachuap 43,936 9,859 1,102 387 944 148 385 2,544 8,129 0 174 00970 0 2,315 11 59 44 0 17,738 Khiri (9) (2) (6) (8) (6) (7) (7) (6) (4) (11) (11) (4) (15) (14) (14) (9) Khan Chumphon 61,328 7,917 1,480 623 274 816 363 2,017 10,949 0 1,001 347 31 1,619 433 449 2,290 278 851 569 295 28,726 (8) (4) (4) (6) (8) (5) (8) (7) (2) (8) (7) (7) (8) (3) (5) (5) (9) (9) (9) (9) (8) Surat Thani 18,616 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 218 00031971 4,827 661 348 658 410 10,492 (11) (10) (11) (2) (2) (4) (11) (8) (8) (10) Nakhon Si 170,695 6,306 0 1,841 2,464 0 448 0 21,487 0 5,767 9,358 1,156 8,568 1,398 1,441 3,784 1,590 6,326 5,036 4,186 89,539 Thammarat (4) (5) (4) (5) (6) (1) (3) (3) (3) (3) (1) (1) (3) (1) (4) (4) (2) (4) Songkhla 296,733 5,225 2,585 1,873 10,667 955 3,090 9,783 8,254 102 36,226 18,324 767 26,918 870 50 962 1,081 18,691 10,159 3,784 136,367 (1) (6) (3) (3) (3) (4) (1) (1) (3) (4) (1) (1) (4) (1) (2) (13) (8) (3) (1) (1) (3) (1) Pattani 280,108 22,765 10,720 2,212 35,733 47,427 1,411 5,153 4,567 0 5,289 1,897 1,912 2,678 274 360 610 458 4,099 3,734 872 127,937 (2) (1) (1) (2) (1) (1) (3) (2) (5) (4) (4) (2) (5) (5) (6) (10) (8) (5) (5) (6) (3) Narathiwat 3,764 144 0 110 61 185 114 101 1 0 33 2 0 0 112 109 135 44 70 26 17 2,500 (13) (11) (10) (10) (6) (11) (9) (11) (15) (10) (6) (9) (14) (12) (13) (15) (13) (13)

TOTAL 1,388,077 67,284 25,250 10,814 65,285 53,639 9,513 29,673 57,321 53,295 75,870 45,067 7,717 63,190 3,753 5,403 25,112 7,004 59,327 42,670 17,855 663,035 Source: DOF 2003b.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 24 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 16 Ranking of local species market value by species/group of species for each province in 2000. Unit: 1,000 baht

Province-port Total Indo- Indian King Coastal Round Hardtail Trevallies Sardinellas Anchovies Threadfin Lizard Snapper Big-eye Banana School Other Crabs Squid Cuttlefish Octopus Others Species mackerel mackerel tuna scads scads bream fish shrimp prawn shrimps (mt) Pacific mackerel Trat 863,870 6,415 2,369 6,823 1,911 71 2,335 3,230 205 232,155 56,597 290 0 20,701 19,124 57,380 36,360 9,688 46,736 53,132 24,607 285,652 (8) (11) (8) (10) (9) (9) (10) (9) (10) (1) (5) (9) (8) (8) (5) (7) (9) (8) (6) (6) (6) Chanthaburi 64,062 680 450 500 0 0 0 480 03611,143 878 777 5,504 11,955 13,111 3,484 364 3,621 3,219 821 5,200 (15) (13) (9) (11) (11) (5) (9) (8) (8) (9) (10) (11) (14) (15) (12) (13) (13) (16) Rayong 1,000,791 81,207 102,325 22,886 198,514 27,529 4,870 203 9,985 36,293 38,734 13,233 11,548 23,893 3,421 1,086 1,839 4,288 120,858 13,125 5,172 279,782 (6) (6) (2) (6) (3) (2) (7) (12) (6) (2) (6) (5) (6) (6) (12) (15) (16) (11) (6) (10) (10) (7) Chonburi 569,390 6,452 0 0 8,658 0 2,830 42,148 4,347 6,735 624 0 0 384 78,214 89,815 157,562 16,826 75,744 45,630 11,017 12,404 (10) (9) (7) (8) (4) (7) (3) (13) (11) (5) (3) (2) (6) (7) (7) (7) (12) Chachoengsao 65,994 00 0 0000000 00021,95020,598 13,740 0 380 510 0 8,816 (14) (7) (8) (11) (16) (16) (15) Samut prakan 4,978,271 34,927 21,305 67,454 50,569 16,377 11,611 52,457 0 0 199,276 185,708 126,315 109,008 2,605 219,044 182,430 65,944 597,317 499,450 43,135 2,393,339 (3) (8) (5) (2) (4) (3) (3) (3) (2) (1) (1) (2) (14) (1) (1) (1) (2) (1) (4) (3) Samut sakhon 2,252,016 167,732 18,307 59,215 0 238 10,633 39,960 4,143 16,258 11,282 44,022 44,650 3,060 9,550 58,858 21,508 533,065 419,505 179,979 610,051 (5) (3) (7) (4) (8) (4) (5) (7) (7) (6) (5) (4) (13) (12) (6) (5) (3) (2) (1) (5) Samut 99,869 4,414 0 21 0 0 0 920 1,500 21 891 0 540 355 14,875 14,303 8,727 4,663 20,635 8,531 3,790 15,683 songkram (13) (12) (12) (10) (9) (6) (13) (9) (12) (9) (10) (12) (10) (10) (11) (11) (14) Phetchaburi 34,208 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 590 0 0 0 0 3,967 2,761 1,024 472 4,977 380 20,037 (16) (14) (14) (15) (13) (15) (12) (14) (13) Prachuap Khiri 632,200 288,998 19,779 15,394 22,528 2,582 4,904 30,644 56,595 0 2,088 0 0 970 0 0 32,467 495 2,456 1,254 0 151,046 Khan (9) (2) (6) (8) (6) (7) (6) (6) (4) (11) (10) (8) (14) (14) (14) (9) Chumphon 916,385 164,492 23,653 22,361 5,484 12,188 5,151 30,634 59,915 0 13,462 4,659 1,854 22,397 90,831 39,802 151,727 12,303 35,155 23,226 8,909 188,182 (7) (4) (4) (7) (8) (4) (5) (7) (2) (8) (7) (7) (7) (3) (7) (3) (7) (9) (8) (9) (8) Surat Thani 265,217 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,880 0 0 0 6,402 99,751 81,496 11,867 7,586 13,797 9,347 30,091 (11) (10) (11) (2) (4) (8) (11) (9) (8) (11) Nakhon Si 2,421,618 51,981 0 66,208 23,050 0 1,792 0 82,663 0 62,950 80,233 76,677 75,988 304,285 86,460 77,787 30,521 333,325 238,636 104,921 724,141 Thammarat (4) (7) (3) (5) (11) (1) (4) (3) (3) (3) (1) (4) (5) (3) (4) (4) (3) (4) Songkhla 5,811,274 111,828 57,890 39,333 396,879 5,700 67,735 219,376 57,778 513 315,767 145,745 46,908 235,180 198,096 5,800 24,018 57,597 809,064 387,317 108,657 2,517,093 (2) (5) (3) (5) (2) (5) (1) (1) (3) (4) (1) (2) (4) (1) (2) (13) (9) (2) (1) (3) (2) (2) Pattani 6,126,522 641,687 263,864 200,773 802,662 408,948 29,966 110,845 45,256 0 150,213 14,253 148,144 44,145 90,675 50,396 22,011 27,407 226,014 187,084 28,830 2,633,349 (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (2) (2) (5) (3) (4) (1) (5) (4) (6) (10) (4) (5) (5) (5) (1) Narathiwat 140,308 6,425 0 11,692 1,620 3,178 2,587 3,617 7 0 1,348 20 0 0 34,087 19,158 7,676 1,497 3,334 1,085 1,053 41,924 (12) (10) (9) (10) (6) (9) (8) (11) (12) (10) (6) (9) (13) (12) (13) (15) (12) (10)

TOTAL 26,241,995 1,567,238 509,942 612,660 1,511,875 479,811 144,414 534,442 322,394 275,753 874,821 456,301 456,785 583,175 879,580 730,221 862,943 265,992 2,815,762 1,900,478 530,618 9,926,790 Source: DOF 200b.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 25

Table 17 Average price of important marine fishes landed at major landing ports along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand by species/species group in 2000. Unit: baht/kg

Province-port/ Indo-Pacific Indian King Coastal Round Hardtail Trevallies Sardinellas Anchovies Threadfin Lizard Snapper Big-eye Banana School Other Crabs Squid Cuttlefish Octopus Others Species mackerel mackerel mackerel tuna scad scads bream fish shrimp prawn shrimps Trat 10.64 10.53 39.21 15.17 8.88 10.42 10.45 5.00 5.09 12.43 5.00 … 10.18 239.05 172.83 22.02 19.26 42.68 37.74 22.87 8.14

Chanthaburi 15.11 23.68 45.45 … … … 15.11 … 6.00 16.29 14.63 64.75 13.76 225.57 156.08 46.45 19.16 32.04 30.66 21.05 4.41

Rayong 17.64 14.87 50.19 16.57 10.19 6.80 15.62 4.32 6.00 11.11 7.48 43.25 8.99 213.81 98.73 22.70 42.04 44.75 35.00 24.06 8.99

Chonburi 40.58 … … 18.00 … 11.05 11.30 5.93 4.50 10.40 … … 3.84 254.77 171.08 27.18 34.20 40.16 28.38 18.83 3.01

Chachoengsao … … ………… … … … … ………226.29 103.51 42.02 … 20.00 30.00 0.00 5.55

Samut prakan 26.40 19.80 75.60 19.80 11.85 11.76 16.21 … … 11.70 15.57 45.00 8.00 217.08 330.88 298.58 60.83 56.05 56.24 39.07 18.03

Samut sakhon 20.42 15.74 65.00 … 14.00 7.00 15.00 6.85 … 13.38 8.50 58.00 10.00 255.00 146.92 56.70 39.54 44.54 43.04 35.11 16.88

Samut songkram 36.48 … 21.00 … … … 9.58 6.10 5.25 12.21 … 90.00 13.15 256.47 134.93 21.66 39.52 48.10 47.66 28.71 4.67

Phetchaburi … … ………… … … …10.00 …………101.72 13.47 53.89 33.71 39.82 27.14 18.76 Prachuap Khiri 29.31 17.95 39.78 23.86 17.45 12.74 12.05 6.96 … 12.00 … … 10.00 … … 14.02 45.00 41.63 28.50 … 8.52 Khan Chumphon 20.78 15.98 35.89 20.01 14.94 14.19 15.19 5.47 … 13.45 13.43 59.81 13.83 209.77 88.65 66.26 44.26 41.31 40.82 30.20 6.55 Surat Thani … … ………… … … …22.39 ………206.52 102.73 16.88 17.95 21.80 20.97 22.80 2.87 Nakhon Si 8.24 … 35.96 9.35 … 4.00 … 3.85 … 10.92 8.57 66.33 8.87 217.66 60.00 20.56 19.20 52.69 47.39 25.06 8.09 Thammarat Songkhla 21.40 22.39 21.00 37.21 9.11 21.92 22.42 7.00 5.03 8.72 7.95 61.16 8.74 227.70 116.00 24.97 53.28 43.29 38.13 28.71 18.46 Pattani 28.19 24.61 90.77 22.46 8.62 21.24 21.51 9.91 … 28.40 7.51 77.48 16.48 330.93 139.99 36.08 59.84 55.14 50.10 33.06 20.58 Narathiwat 44.62 … 106.2926.56 17.18 22.69 35.81 7.00 … 40.85 10.00 … … 304.35 175.76 56.86 34.02 47.63 41.73 61.94 16.77

Average 19.99 10.35 39.13 13.06 7.01 8.99 12.52 4.27 1.99 14.64 6.17 35.36 7.87 211.56 131.24 49.15 36.37 41.59 38.51 26.16 10.64

Source: DOF 2003b.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 26 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

2.1.4 Food security (locally) The fisheries sector provides an important supply of animal protein to Thai people. From 1980 to 2000, the average yearly increase in per capita fish consumption was about 2 percent. In 2000, per capita fish consumption was 32.7kg, which is relatively high compared to consumption of other main animal protein commodities, including pork, beef, and chicken. Price is a decisive factor influencing Thai consumer choice, and prices of fish are generally lower than other sources of animal protein. However, the level of per capita fish consumption varies among Thai people. This could be due to variations in household income, species preference, and geographic location, not failing to mention that fish is not a homogenous commodity (Day 2000; Smith et al. 1998; Westlund 1995). Piumsombun (2003) reported that demand for fish amongst Thailand’s highest income earners has almost no variation relative to their incomes. However, the lowest income group has high income elasticity, especially for shrimp and high value fish. Therefore, increased purchasing power of low-income groups may lead to increased demand for fish. In order to increase fish consumption amongst higher income groups, it is necessary to improve fish quality, develop more innovative products (such as those that are easy to prepare, serve, and consume), and to promote the health benefits of seafood.

2.2 Biology & ecology of the priority species (from available information) Marine fisheries resources in the Gulf of Thailand can be divided into 2 categories, i.e., pelagic and demersal resources. Pelagic fish are those that dwell and feed at the surface or in the water column. They are usually fast swimming with a fusiform body and fork or lunate tail. The species typically form species-specific schools in the upper part of the water column, which usually has, a range from 26 to 30oC. It is well known that coastal pelagic species frequently inhabit -rich inshore and shelf waters, whilst oceanic species are usually observed in deep, clear, offshore waters.

Small pelagic fish are exploited frequently with shallow-water purse seines (i.e., Thai, Chinese, and luring purse seines), surface and mid-water gillnets, lift nets, and other surrounding nets. Shallow-water fishing grounds are generally highly productive and account for much of the Gulf’s total pelagic catch.

The commercially important pelagic fish species classified by the Department of Fisheries’ taxonomist include 48 species of the family, 30 species of Engraulidae, 28 species of , 19 species of Scombridae, and 14 species of Mugilidae (Sukhavisidth 1996). There are 17 economically important species/groups of species of pelagic fish in Thai fisheries statistics. However, the most common groups of small pelagic fish species with substantial catch volume and value are Indo-Pacific mackerel, Indian mackerel, sardines, anchovies, round scads, bigeye scad, and trevallies.

Information regarding the geographical distribution, fishing grounds, abundance, spawning grounds, egg/larvae surveys, and migratory patterns of known small pelagic fish are shown in Figures 4 to 13. Migratory pattern information is only available for Rastrelliger brachysoma/neglectus in the Gulf of Thailand. Figure 4 indicates that the 2 main spawning grounds for this species are offshore from and Prachuap Khiri Khan province. Young fishes migrate from these spawning grounds to the inner Gulf of Thailand for feeding, moving back inshore early in the year. The results of intensive tagging experiments carried out by the Department of Fisheries from 1960 to 1965 (26,864 fish released vs. 4,191 recaptured), highlighted that there were 3 types of movement, i.e., feeding, spawning and seasonal migration (Somjaiwong and Chullasorn 1974). The results are presented in Figure 5. 2.2.1 Large pelagic fish (FAO) Mackerels There are 5 main species of mackerels in the Gulf of Thailand (Sukhavisidth 1996). These include the Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus), Indian mackerel (R. kanagurta), Faughn’s mackerel (R. faughni), shortbody mackerel (R. brachysoma), and slender mackerel (Rastrelliger sp.1). The first and fourth species are abundant in coastal waters, whilst the second, third, and fifth species are ubiquitous in the Gulf’s offshore waters. They are mainly caught by purse seine, encircling gillnet, and occasionally pair trawl. These 5 species are combined in Thai fisheries statistics as coastal mackerel (R. neglectus/brachysoma) and offshore mackerel (R. kanagurta/faughni/sp.1). Fishing grounds extend from inshore waters to the central part of the Gulf (Figures 4, 5a, b, and 6a, b).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 27

RAYO

Figure 4 Life cycle of Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus) in the Gulf of Thailand (courtesy of the Marine Fisheries Division)

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 28 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12°

Prachuap hiri khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Position of release Pattani Narathiwat Position of recapture Route of migration 6°

Figure 5a The migratory route of tagged Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus) in the Gulf of Thailand (Somjaiwong and Chullasorn 1974).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 29

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

14°N BANGKOK Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

13° Phetchaburi Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11°

Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Position of release Pattani Narathiwat Position of recapture Route of migration 6°

Figure 5b The migratory route of tagged Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus) in the Gulf of Thailand (Somjaiwong and Chullasorn 1974).

Neritic tunas

Neritic tunas in the Gulf Thailand include longtail tuna (Thunnus tonggol), kawakawa (Euthynnus affinis), and frigate tuna (Auxis thazard). They are widely distributed throughout the Gulf. When demersal fish production declined, Thai fishers turned to pelagic fish species with the use of seine nets and artificial light to attract schools of fish. Stimulated by strong demand for canned tuna, fishing for neritic tunas has become an important commercial activity in Thailand (Figure 6c).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 30 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Figure 6a Fishing grounds for Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus) in the Gulf of Thailand (Tantisawetrat et al. 1994).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 31

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 6b Fishing grounds for Indian mackerel (R. kanagurta) in the Gulf of Thailand (SEAFDEC 1981b).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 32 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 6c Fishing grounds for neritic tuna in the Gulf of Thailand (Klinmuang 1981).

Bigeye scad

Bigeye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) is a species of the family Carangidae. It is abundant and widely distributed in offshore waters (Figure 7a). It is often caught with round scads in purse seines, and substantial quantities have been caught by trawl nets. Due to the rapid increase in the catch of bigeye scad associated with the development of luring purse seine fisheries, collection of information on this species has been carried out by the Department of Fisheries species since 1980.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 33

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12 Prachuap Khiri Khan

11 Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani

Narathiwat

6°

Figure 7a. Fishing grounds for bigeye scad (Selar crumenopthalmus) in the Gulf of Thailand (SEAFDEC 1981b).

Carangids

The carangids are fish of the family Carangidae, excluding Decapterus spp., Megalaspis cordyla and Selar crumenophthalmus, which have already been dealt with separately. The 39 species in Thai waters represent a number of genera such as Atule, Carangoides, , Selar, and Selaroides. This group of fish is considered important in terms of volume of landings, and information regarding this species is usually collected on a combined-species basis due to the difficulties associated with identifying individual species in the field. Therefore, research conducted thus far has been limited by this situation. However, some biological research activities regarding important species such as Atule mate (yellowtail scad), Selaroides leptolepis (yellow stripe scad), and Megalaspis cordyla (hardtail scad) have been carried out to some extent. The fishing grounds for Atule mate are shown in Figure 7b.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 34 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 7b Fishing grounds for yellowtail scad (Atule mate) in the Gulf of Thailand (SEAFDEC 1981b).

Round scads

Round scads found in the Gulf of Thailand are represented by 8 species of the Decapterus. The most common species was formerly identified as Decapterus maruadsi (white tip round scad), however, Thai taxonomists confirm that D. maruadsi is found only in Japanese waters. The most common round scads found in the Gulf of Thailand are Decapterus dayi and D. killiche. Another species of round scad commonly caught in the Gulf is the shortfin or slender round scad (D. macrosoma).

Round scads are widely distributed in offshore waters and they are very abundant in the central part of the Gulf (Figure 7c). They are mainly caught by purse seine, especially the luring purse seine type. Catch statistics for round scad are complied on a species-combined basis as Decapterus spp.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 35

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

14°N BANGKOK Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 7c Fishing grounds for round scads (Decapterus spp.) in the Gulf of Thailand (Chullasorn and Yusuksawad 1978) (Lined areas are the main fishing grounds)

2.2.2 Small pelagic fish species

Sardines

Sardines are composed of various genera of clupeoids. There are 4 main genera found in the Gulf of Thailand, including Sardinella spp., Amblygaster spp., Dussumieria spp., and Herklotsichthys spp. Among these, goldstriped sardine (Sardinella gibbosa), fringescale sardine (S. fimbriata), and spotted sardinella (Amblygaster sirm) are most common. However, they are grouped together in Thai fisheries statistics as sardines (Sardinella spp.). Sardines are widely distributed throughout the Gulf, with high in coastal areas (Figure 8). They are mainly caught by purse seines and encircling and drift gillnets.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 36 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 8 Fishing grounds for sardines (Sardinella spp.) in the Gulf of Thailand (SEAFDEC 1981b).

Anchovies

The fish of family Engraulidae are represented by several genera, including Coilea, , , Thrissina and Stolephorus. Among them, 12 species of Stolephorus spp. are most abundant. In the Gulf of Thailand, the shorthead anchovy (Stolephorus heterolobus) and (S. indicus) are considered important and are very abundant in inshore waters (Figure 9). Recently, Stolephorus heterolobus has been reidentified and named heteroloba (Whitehead et al. 1988). Therefore, Encrasicholina heteroloba is a of Stolephorus heterolobus.

As anchovies are very small-sized pelagic fish and commonly distributed in inshore waters, small-meshed purse seines (so-called anchovy purse seine), lift nets, falling nets, set bag nets, push nets, trawl nets, and bamboo stake traps are commonly used to catch them.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 37

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani Narathiwat Heavy exploited fishing ground 6°

Figure 9 Fishing grounds for anchovy in the Gulf of Thailand (Saikliang 1995b; Supongpan et al. 2000).

Biological features and parameters of important pelagic fishes collected from previous and ongoing studies is summarised in Table 18.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 38 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 18 Key biological features and parameters for small pelagic fish species in the Gulf of Thailand. (Body size refers to total length unless specified as FL: fork length or SL: standard length; sexes are combined unless specified as M: male or F: female) Vertical Body size Size at Area Spawning Recruitment Sex Growth Life distribu- captured first Mortality Food Length-weight Species (country) tion Fecundity ratio (rate or span Mean Maximum Season Size Season maturity (coefficient) organisms relationship surveyed range Area (M:F) coefficient) (year) (cm) (cm) (month) (cm) (month) (cm) (m) FAMILY SCOMBRIDAE Rastrelliger Gulf of 20-40 15.0 20.95 10-40 mi 2-4, egg = 9x10-8 10.25 1-3, 17.5 1:1 0.33 z=1.06 2-3 Phyto-, W =0.006138L3.215 4.8356 brachysoma Thailand 21.5 off 6-8 L 7-9 zoo-planktons M : W = Prachuap 20,000-30,000/ 0.000005732L3.1235 Surattani batch F : W = 0.000006578L3.1235 R. kanagurta Gulf of 30-60 16.0 22.9 - 2-4 200,000 7.5 5-6 18.6 1:1 k=2.76 M=3.75 2-3 Phyto-, M : W = Thailand 7-8 F=4.973 zoo-planktons, 0.0000001958L3.7653 Z=8.733 diatoms, F : W = copepods 0.000009454L3.0375 Auxis thazard Gulf of 20 35.0 - - 4-6 - 19.0 8-11 34.1 1:1 - - 3-4 Fish W = 0.00002L2.99 Thailand 8-9 27.0 2, 4-5 Euthynnus Gulf of 20 37.0 - - 1-3, 1,730,000 21.0 2-4, 37.5 1:1 - - - Fish W = 0.000015L2.979 affinis Thailand 6-7 26.0 6.12 crustacean Thunnus Gulf of 20 38.5 - - 3-5 1,400,000 22.0- 1-2, 39.6 1:1 1.5 cm/ - 4 Fish W = 0.000021L2.979 tonggol Thailand 7-12 26.0 4-6 month crustacean Scomberomorus Gulf of 20-60 50.0 92.0 - 2-3, 6-9 500,000-3,800,000 11.0-21.0 3-5, 58.6 1:1.6 0.12 - 4-5 Fish, molluses, W=0.01302L2.8843 commerson Thailand 7-10 3.4 cm/month FAMILY ENGRAULIDAE Stolephorus Gulf of 5-50 4.5 8.89 30 mi 3-4, 2,000-4,000 2.8-4.0 All 5.5 - 6.0 1:1 k=0.198 Z=13.50 1-1.5 Phyto- M:W = heterolobus Thailand off 7-9 around k=1.8/ year M=3.54 planktons 2.064x10-6L3.2494 Prachuab 4-12 F:W =7.089x10-6L2.932 FAMILY CLUPEIDAE Sardinella Gulf of 15-40 10.0 18.4 entire coastal All around - 12.9 - - - 0.33 - 1-2 Phyto-plankton W=9.28*10-6 * L3.0047 gibbosa Thailand zone 3-4, 7-8 FAMILY CARANGIDAE Decapterus Gulf of 30-40 13.2 23.1 Central Gulf. 2-3, 7-8 38,000-515,000 5.5-6.5 1-2, 6-8 16.1 1:1.2 0.11 - 2-3 crustaceans, W=0.00005L2.811 maruadsi Thailand 1-2 cm/month copepods D. Gulf of 30-60 - - - 12-5 - - - 16.5 1:0.9 - - - - - macrosoma Thailand Atule mate Gulf of 15-45 16.0 25.8 30 mi off 3-4 - 5.5-6.5 1-3, - - 0.8 cm/ - 2-3 - - Thailand Chumporn 6-9 k=0.107 Nakorn Si Thammarat Selar Gulf of 30-60 20-25 28.4 - - - 10.0 - 19.4 1:1.3 k=2.4 Z=9.7 - - - crumenophthal Thailand M=3.3 mus F=6.5 Selaroides Gulf of 20-50 12 19.2- - All - 4.0-5.5 6, 11 F:15.4 1: k=0.128 - - Zooplanktons, M: Log W = 3.257Log leptolepis Thailand 21.0 around 3, 1.02 phytoplanktons, L-5.567 7-8 molluscs F: Log W = 3.629Log L-6.369 Megalaspis Gulf of 20-50 22.0 28.8 - 12-5, - 10.5-11.5 5, 9 - 1:0.8 1.2cm/month - - Fish, crustacean W=0.144L2.9785 cordyla Thailand 8-11 0.2 Source: Chullasorn and Martosubroto, 1986.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 39

2.2.3 Demersal fish species

Demersal fish species live at or near the bottom of the sea, although some groups may also inhabit the middle or upper layers of the water column. They may by divided into 2 groups: (1) demersal fish; and (2) invertebrates, including crustaceans and molluscs. They are caught by bottom trawl nets, bottom gill nets, push nets, longlines, and traps.

Fishing grounds for demersal fish are generally located in coastal waters of the Gulf of Thailand. Otter board trawls are highly effective in catching demersal fish. Otter board trawls, pair and beam trawls, and push nets are most commonly used to catch demersal fish. However, otter board trawls are the most important gear type in demersal fisheries. The areas fished using otter board and pair trawls by various sizes of fishing boats are depicted in Figures 10a to d and 11.

There are a large number of demersal fish species in Thai waters. More than 500 species have been caught and commercially utilised, however, demersal fish catches usually contain more than 50% low- value fish. These low-value fish include 3 groups: (1) non-edible species; (2) edible species of low commercial value or low quality; and (3) juveniles of commercially important species.

Based on trawl surveys conducted in the Gulf of Thailand, there are 7 species of lizardfish. The two most commonly found species are brushtooth lizardfish (Saurida undosquamis) and S. elongata. Sirapakavanich (1990) reported that brushtooth lizardfish was found along the coast of the Gulf, and that the length frequency distribution of catches vary according to depth. Generally, small fish are caught in shallow water, whereas the capture of larger fish occurs further offshore. S. elongata has been shown to be very abundant at depths from 10 to 20m.

Threadfin bream are demersal fish distributed throughout coastal waters to depths of 60 m. The most common species are Nemipterus hexodon, N. mesoprion, N. japonicus, N. nematophorus, and N. peronii. N. hexodon is most common at depths from 10 to 40m, N. mesoprion and N. japonicus are abundant from 15 to 50m, and N. mesoprion and N. peronii are commonly found in deeper areas from 30 to 60m.

Bigeye (Priancanthus tayenus) is a ubiquitous demersal species in the Gulf of Thailand (Prachuab Khiri Khan and Chumphon provinces) at depths greater than 40m. It is carnivorous, feeding mostly on fish, shrimps, and squids (Jiraphanpiphat 1987).

Information regarding important demersal fishes collected from previous and ongoing studies is summarised in Table 19.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 40 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 10a The fishing grounds of otter board trawl (boat length <14 m) (FAO 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 41

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 10b The fishing grounds of otter board trawl (boat length 14 to 18 m) (FAO 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 42 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 10c The fishing grounds of otter board trawl (boat length >18 m) (FAO 1996).

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99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 10d The fishing grounds of pair trawls (boat length >18 m) (FAO 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 44 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat Fishing ground of otterboard 8° Trawler Heavy fishing ground of OBT

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 11 The fishing grounds of commercial trawls (otter board and pair trawl) in the Gulf of Thailand (FAO 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 45

Table 19 Key biological features and parameters of demersal fish in the Gulf of Thailand. (Body size refers to total length unless specified as FL: fork length or SL: standard length; sexes are combined unless specified as M: male or F: female) Vertical Body size Size at Area Spawning Recruitment Sex Growth Life distribu- captured first Mortality Food Length-weight Species (country) tion Fecundity ratio (rate or span Mean Maximum Season Size Season maturity (coefficient) organisms relationship surveyed range Area (M:F) coefficient) (year) (cm) (cm) (month) (cm) (month) (cm) (m) FAMILY Lutjanus Gulf of 20-50 13.9 M:18.0 - 10-6 - 8.0 1-4 - 1:1 1-2 cm - - Fish,Shrimps, M:W=0.0263L2.754 lineolatus Thailand F:19.0 /month squids F:W=0.0668L2.412 FAMILY NEMIPTERIDAE Nemipterus Gulf of 10-40 M:16.46 M:27.3 - All around - 11.0, 5, 9, 11 - 1:0.97 (1-2) - - Fish M:W=0.1161L3.04 hexodon Thailand F:15.12 F:24.4 1-4, 6-8 12.0 Crustaceans F:W=0.0176L2.924 Nemipterus Gulf of 25-50 - M:25.6 - - - 10.0 - - - M:k=0.1599 M:Z=5.482 - - - japonicus Thailand F:23.3 F:k=0.1207 F:Z=4.814 Nemipterus Gulf of 15-50 - M:13.34 - 1-4, 8, 11 - - - 11.7 1:0.85 M:k=0.1436 - - - - nematophorus Thailand >40 F:17.8 F:k=0.2275 Nemipterus Gulf of 30-60 M:13.0 M:19.51 - 2-4 - 6.5-7.0 3, 5, 6 - 1:1.1 M:k=0.179 - - Fish, M:W=0.18*10-5L2.93 mesoprion Thailand F:11.1 F:15.52 (1.08) molluscs, F:W=7.8*10-5L3.10 F:k=0.224 crustaceans (0.85) Nemipterus Gulf of M:22.9 M:27.5 - 2-4 - 15.2, 15.5, 3, 7, 9, - 1:0.84 - - - , M:W=0.0122L2.988 peronii Thailand 30-40 F:21.6 F:27.0 15.7 12 fish, squid F:W=0.0199L3.004 crustaceans Scolopsis Gulf of 10-40 M:21.7 M:27.0 - All around - - 6-7, 11- - 1:0.8 - - - Crustaceans, M:W=1.08*10-4L2.6201 taeniopterus Thailand F:14.6 F:25.0 12-1, 4-8 12 fish F:W=6.17*10-5L2.718 FAMILY PRIACANTHIDAE Priacanthus Gulf of 40-50 M:27.0 - - All around 56,000- 11.0, 3, 5, 10, 14.0 1:1 2.0 cm/month - - Crustaceans M:W=3.16*10-6L2.919 tayenus Thailand F:25.0 1-3 152,00 12.0, 10.5 12 Fish, squid F:W=2.606*10-6L2.891 0 FAMILY Fish, Crustaceans - Gulf of 20-70 ------Molluscs, sexfasciatus Thailand polychaetae FAMILY M: k=0.103 SYNODONTODAE 1.4 cm/ month Saurida Gulf of 10-20 M:26.3 M:37.7 -< 30 1-3, 8-9 - - 5-7, 11 - - F:k=0.099 M:Z=5.622 - - M:W=5.644*10-6L3.054 elongata Thailand F:30.6 F:41.6 mi 1.5 cm/ month F:Z=5.278 F:W=6.565*10-6L3.024 Saurida Gulf of - M:26.31 M:34.0 - 1-3 - - 5-7, 12 - 1:1 - - - - - tumbil Thailand F:30.56 F:40.0 Saurida Gulf of 41-50 M:17.8 M:36.5 - 12-1, 5-9 - 12.0-14.0 6, 12, 2 - 1:0.57 2.0cm/ month - - - W=0.00000292L3.163 undosquamis Thailand F:18.31 F:26.5 Source: Chullasorn and Martosubroto, 1986.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 46 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates

Thailand’s marine resources are highly valuable. They include shrimps (economically important penaeid shrimps and miscellaneous penaeid shrimps), cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, and octopus), swimming crab, sergestid shrimp, jellyfish, and others.

Shrimps

More than 50 species of shrimp are found in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea (Chaitiamvong and Supongpan 1993). The economically important species are those of the penaeid group, with 9 important species (Penaeus merguiensis, P. monodon, P. semisulcatus, P. japonicus, P. latisulcatus, P. longistylus, Metapenaeus affinis, M. intermedius, and M. ensis) and more than 10 miscellaneous species (including Metapenaeopsis spp., Trachypenaeus spp., Parapenaeopsis spp., M. lysianassa, and M. brevicornis).

Vibhasiri (1984) reported that Ban Don Bay off Surat Thani province is considered one of the most productive shrimp fishing areas. M. affinis is the most abundant species of large-sized shrimp in this area. Thubthimsang (1981) noted that this species is found in this area all year round.

The economically important penaeid shrimps are sold in a wide variety of forms in domestic and export markets. Wild caught penaeid shrimp are mostly consumed domestically in the fresh or dried form, although some are frozen, or processed and canned as cocktail shrimp, for important export markets.

Shrimps are mainly caught by trawl nets of various types. Subsistence fishers use gill nets and push nets in inshore waters. Small trawls and beam trawls are used to catch shrimp in coastal waters of the Gulf of Thailand. The main species caught are white shrimp (Penaeus merguiensis), green tiger shrimp (P. semisulcatus), and Metapenaeus spp. Penaeid shrimp catch from the Gulf of Thailand fluctuated between 16,000 to 19,000 metric tonnes from 1985 to 1991. The major fishing gears are otter board trawls and shrimp gill nets, which are used to catch about 78% and 10% of the total shrimp production, respectively (Vibhasiri 1993).

Cephalopods

The 3 major groups of cephalopod caught for commercial utilisation are squid (Loligo chinensis, L. duvauceli, L. sumatrensis, and Sepioteuthis lessoniana), cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis, S. aculeata, S. recurvirostra, S. lycidas, S. brevimand, and Sepiella inermis) and octopus (Octopus membranaceous, O. doffusi, and Octopus spp.). These species are distributed in coastal waters of both the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, except for S. lycidas, which is only distributed in the Andaman Sea and the lower part of the Gulf of Thailand.

Cuttlefish are economically important in the Gulf of Thailand. There are 7 species of the Family Sepiidae found in the Gulf of Thailand, including Sepia aculata, S. kopiensis, S. recurvirostra, S. pharaonis, S. brevimana, S. lycidas, and Sepiella inermis (Chotiyaputta et al. 1992). Cuttlefish are generally distributed in inshore areas, spending much of their lives on or near the seabed (Voss 1973, cited in Bakhayokho 1983). Therefore, cuttlefish are mostly caught by traps, push nets, and trawls operated in inshore areas. All species are widely distributed in the Gulf of Thailand, except for S. lycidas, which is only found in the southern part of the Gulf up to Chumphon province (Supongpan 1988). Results of a resource survey conducted in the Upper Gulf of Thailand with an otter board trawl from 1999 to 2000 indicate that the distributions of S. lycidas and S. kopiensis may not extend to these waters (Anugul 2002).

Supongpan (1988) reported that the distribution and abundance of cuttlefish varies by water depth. Sepiella inermis and S. lycidas were abundant in depths ranging from 10 to 20m. S. aculata was most abundant at a depth of 10 to 30 meters, whereas S. pharaonis and S. recurvirostra were most abundant from 20 to 30m. Nabthitabhata (1997) reported that Sepiella inermis is abundant in shallow estuarine areas at a depth of approximately 20m.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 47

Jindalikit and Sereeruk (2004) report that the habitats of cuttlefish species are related to distance from shore and bottom depth. High abundances of S. aculata were observed between 3 and 7 nautical miles offshore at a depth from 20 to 25m. S. recurvirostra was highly abundant more than 7 nautical miles offshore at a depth between 21 and 40m, whilst Sepiella inermis was found 3 to 5 nautical miles offshore at a depth of 10 to 15m. S. aculata was abundant at 3 nautical miles from shore at a depth of 10 to 20m, S. recurvirostra at more than 7 nautical miles offshore and a bottom depth from 31 to 40 m, and Sepiella inermis at 3 nautical offshore and a bottom depth of 10 to 15m.

The total production of cephalopods during 1991 was 154,402 metric tonnes, comprised of squid, cuttlefish, and octopus at 69,367, 65,029, and 20,006 metric tonnes, respectively. Squids are mainly caught by trawls, light luring cast nets, and squid traps. The fishing grounds where these gears are used are presented in Figures 12a and b.

Shortnecked clam

The fisheries for shortnecked clam differ from other fisheries, especially in relation to species and gear selection. Fishers group together to harvest this resource on an intensive basis until either catch rates decline or the resource is depleted. The fishers then move onto other areas. Previously harvested fishing grounds usually require 4 to 5 years to recover. Shortnecked clam fishing grounds are distributed throughout the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea. The productive areas are concentrated on the eastern, upper, and western of the Gulf. A problem that usually occurs is the inundation of shortnecked clam fishers to new inshore areas, often leading to conflicts with local fishers due to the use of small meshed dredges in the inshore waters assigned for the use of small- scale fishers only. Production of shortnecked clam from the Gulf ranged from 18,300 to 130,000 metric tonnes between 1985 and 2000. Peak production was observed in 1987, after which catches followed a decreasing trend until reaching the lowest recorded production in 1996. Harvests have since recovered, and a total production of 25,964 metric tonnes was recorded in 2000. The clams are mostly exported in a range of forms, including fresh and frozen whole clams, fresh and frozen meat, and boiled and canned product.

Sergestid shrimp

Sergestid shrimp include 5 species of Acetes (A. erythreus, A. japonicus, A. indicus, A. vulgaris, A. sibogae) and 2 species of shrimp-like (Mesopodophsis orientalis, Rhopalopthalmus phyllodus), and Lucifer hanseni. Acetes sibogae is found only in the Andaman Sea. Total production in 1991 was 21,753 metric tonnes, with a value of 108.7 million baht. Sergestid shrimp and shrimp-liked are mostly utilised for domestic consumption in the form of shrimp paste and small dried shrimp. Production derived from the Gulf of Thailand represents approximately 87% of Thailand’s total production of this group. From 1985 to 2000, Gulf of Thailand production ranged between 6,400 and 21,400 metric tonnes.

Jellyfish

There are 2 economically important species of jellyfish in Thai waters, Rhopilema hishidum and Lobonema smithi. Rhopilema is treated with local wood and dried for export, whereas Lobonema is treated with salt and dried for local consumption. Production from both the Gulf and Andaman Sea fluctuated between 6,500 and 138,600 metric tonnes between 1985 and 2000.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 48 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Number of fishing boats 7° Songkhla 20 of small size Pattani 20 of medium size Narathiwat 20 of large size

Fishing ground 6°

Figure 12a Area of light luring fishing for squid in the Gulf of Thailand (Supongpan 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 49

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Fishing ground Pattani 50 of fishermen

Narathiwat 25 of fishermen 12.5 of fishermen 6° Figure 12b Area of squid trap fishing in the Gulf of Thailand (Supongpan 1996).

Swimming crab

The swimming crab (Portunus pelagicus) is distributed throughout the Gulf and Andaman Sea. The areas in which this species is abundant include the eastern, upper, and western coasts of the Gulf. From 1985 to 2000, total production of this species from the Gulf ranged between 19,000 and 37,300 metric tonnes. The species is thought to have been overexploited. It is mostly consumed locally, in the fresh and boiled form. The major fishing gears used to catch swimming crabs are trawls, push nets, and gill nets. Conflicts usually arise between gill net and trawl fishers targeting this species in the same areas. Another problem involves the catch of immature crabs by push nets and small mesh trawl fishing gear operated in inshore waters.

The key biological features and parameters of important invertebrates collected during previous and existing studies are summarised in Table 20.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 50 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 50

Table 20 Key biological features and parameters of small invertebrates in the Gulf of Thailand. (Body size refers to total length unless specified as FL: fork length or SL: standard length; sexes are combined unless specified as M: male or F: female) Species Area (country) Vertical Body size Spawning Recruitment Size at Growth Mortality surveyed distribu- captured Fecundity first Sex (rate or (coefficient) Life Food Length-weight tion Mean Maximum Area maturity ratio coefficient) span organisms relationship range (cm) (cm) Season Size Season (cm) (M:F) (year) (m) (month) (cm) (month) FAMILY Polychaetae M:W= 2.963 PENAEIDAE - - - 1-3, 9-12 129 650-960 950 - - 13.0-14.2 - - - - Fish larvae, 0.000010L Penaeus Gulf of 15-30 Copepods F:W= Thailand1 euphausis 0.0000049L3.113 merguiensis Penaeus Gulf of 10-19 12.9 20.9 All 257 889- 1 009 459 7.0 Shrimps M:W= 1 2.5703 japonicus Thailand - around - 14.0 1:1 - - - larvae, 0.0000712L 1-3, 7-8 crabs F:W= larvae, 0.0000149L2.9018 cephalopod s larvae, molluscs larvae Loligo duvauceli Gulf of Shallow 6-30 30 Prachuap All 1,500-10,000 0.5-5.0 1,3-6,9 6.5-7.0 F>M M:0.0083 1 Fish, M:W= Thailand2 to depth Khiri Khan- around day-1 molluse and 0.9594L1.73509 :East over 50 m Chumphon 1, 3-4, 6- or 2.52 year shrimp F:W= coast 7, 12 0.1829L2.16290 F:0.0069 day-1 L. chinensis Gulf of >30 6-42 42 South of All 3,000-11,000 0.5-6.5 1, 3-6, 10 8.5 - M:0.0072 1 Fish, M:W= Thailand2 Ko Chang, around day-1 mollusce 0.2134L2.11948 :East off shore of 3-4, 6-7, Or 2.62 yr-1 and shrimo F:W= coast Chumphon 11-12 0.051L2.42078 and F:2.704 Pracuap day-1 Khiri Khan or 2.70 yr-1 Sepia aculata Gulf of 1-7 nmi 5-16.9 - - 3-4,7-8 4,547 - - 8.1 - Crustacean, M:W= Thailand or fish 0.00099L2.5032 Upper3 20-25 m F:W= 0.000722L2.5919 S. recurvirostra Gulf of >7 nmi ------Crustacean, M:W= Thailand or fish 0.00191L2.3579 Upper4 21-40 m F:W= 0.001984L2.3579 S. pharaonis Gulf of 10- - - 1-2,7-8 1,400 - - M:13.7 - - - - Crustacean, W= Thailand 24.5 (900-2,700) F:14.2 fish 0.4118ML2.4233 Upper5

1 Chullasorn and Martosubroto, 1986. 2 Chotiyaputta. 1995b.

3 Chotiyapunta, 1977; 1978. 4 Chotiyapunta, 1977. 5 Chotiyapunta, 1980; 1982; Nabthitabhata, 1997. Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 51

3. THREATS & CURRENT STATUS 3.1 Status of fishery in terms of CPUEs A commonly used indicator of changes in abundance of fisheries resources is catch rate, or the quantity of catch per unit of fishing effort (CPUE). From 1966 to 1996, the Marine Fisheries Division, using Research Vessels Pramong 2 and 9, conducted monthly surveys of demersal fisheries resources in the Gulf of Thailand. Prior to 1966, a catch rate of 297.80kg/hr was reported in 1961. In 1966, the sampling protocol survey of demersal resources was initiated. The fixed stations in the Gulf of Thailand were designed by separating the area into grids, leading to the establishment of more than 700 grid stations. From survey data collected in 1966, catch rate was 177.42kg/hr. Primarily, a codend mesh size of 4cm was used for the surveys, although in 1971 the codend was covered with an additional net of 2.5cm mesh, which is a mesh size commonly used by fishers. This modified method has been followed to the present day, however, the number of stations have been reduced due to budget limitations. The surveys were conducted on a bi-monthly basis. The results show that catch rate declined from 177.42 kg/hr in 1966 to 77.51kg/hr in 1976. It is noteworthy that the oil crises of 1973 and 1975 resulted in some trawl fishers suspending their fishing activities. During this period, catch rates fluctuated from 60 to 80kg/hr (Figure 13).

Catch rate of RV 2&9 (kg/hr)

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 Year

Figure 13 The catch rate (CPUE) for demersal resources caught in the Gulf of Thailand from 1966 to 1991 during surveys conducted from Research Vessels Pramong 2 and 9 (National Seminar 1999).

As mentioned above, catch rates have continuously declined since the introduction of trawl fishing in Thai waters. The catch rate of 177.42kg/hr observed in 1966 fell to 17.9kg/hr in 1998 (National Seminar 1999). It is likely that catch rate may fall to near zero if there is no proper management. In recognition of this situation, DOF has introduced many management measures aimed at regulating and controlling the exploitation of fish resources. However, significant difficulties have been experienced in taking action to enforce regulations due to concerns regarding potential socioeconomic impacts and political intervention.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 52 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

3.2 Status of fish stocks based on historical review of landings and CPUEs

Marine catches in recent years have been dominated by pelagic species, including mackerel, round scads, anchovies, sardines, and neritic tunas, as well as some demersal fish species such as threadfin bream, lizard fish, and big-eye, and invertebrates, including shrimp, squid, and swimming crabs (DOF 1996).

The present level of exploitation of demersal fisheries resources in the shallow (less than 50m) coastal waters of the Gulf of Thailand is higher than the estimated Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for this area. It is clear that this overfishing is a result of intensive trawl fishing in the area. The current situation is clearly reflected in the index of abundance or CPUE, which has declined significantly during the past 3 decades. At the same time, the amount of low value fish in demersal catches has increased significantly. On the other hand, catches of a number of other species, particularly demersal resources, have declined. Catches of both pelagic and demersal stocks have long surpassed their estimated MSYs. In 2000, catches were nearly twice the estimated MSY levels (Table 21). Actual catch may be, for many reasons, higher than that reported.

Table 21 Maximum Sustainable Yields and actual catches in Thai waters during 2000.

Fish Category Maximum Sustainable Yields1/ Actual Catches (2000)2/ Pelagic fishes 624,318 metric tonnes 642,472 metric tonnes Demersal fishes 970,905 metric tonnes 939,282 metric tonnes Total Gulf. 1,595,223 metric tonnes 1,581,754 metric tonnes Source: 1/Kongprom et al in press and 2/DOF 2003a.

A review of the status of small pelagic fisheries resources in the Gulf of Thailand highlights that the development of pelagic fisheries has occurred since 1973. It shows a marked (almost 4 fold) increase in pelagic fish production from 141,608 metric tonnes in 1973 to 614,814 metric tonnes in 1994. However, almost all species of pelagic fish are fully exploited, whilst some species, including the round scads, have been depleted. This situation has mainly arisen due to the efficacy of new fishing methods, involving the use of artificial light and FADs to attract fish during both the night and day. Large scale purse seine operations have been modernised and most boats are equipped with colour echo-sounder or sonar for fish school detection; power saving devices (e.g. purse line winch, power block) that enable vessels to reduce man power; radar; wireless communication equipment; satellite navigation; and refrigeration. Purse seine boats may now travel further and stay at sea longer. These may lead to the rapid depletion of resources. Nevertheless, the Gulf of Thailand’s pelagic fish resource is comprised of a multitude of species. This enables fishers to redirect fishing effort from heavily to less fished species. Therefore, the problem of resource depletion for pelagic resources is not as serious as it should be.

Of the 17 species/groups of species of pelagic fish that appear in national fisheries statistics, 6 species/groups of species of small pelagic fish are considered important, and various aspects of their populations have been studied. The results of these studies will now be briefly summarised.

Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma/neglectus)

The Indo-Pacific mackerel is one of the most economically important pelagic fish in the Gulf of Thailand. The main fishing grounds for this species are located in coastal waters, especially between Chonburi to Surattani provinces. This area provides approximately 80% of the total catch taken from the Gulf.

The annual catch of Indo-Pacific mackerel in the Gulf of Thailand ranged from 26,129 metric tonnes in 1971 to 99,638 metric tonnes in 1994. A stock assessment conducted for this species indicated that its MSY in the Gulf is about 104,000 metric tonnes, equivalent to approximately 146,600 days of Thai purse effort (Tantisawetrat 1994). It indicated that Indo-Pacific mackerel has been fully exploited in the Gulf of Thailand since 1984. An increase in fishing effort beyond the maximum level of 146,600 fishing days is inadvisable, especially in light of the potential for effort creep.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 53

Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) The fisheries for Indian mackerel have been significant since 1973, mostly due to the development and expansion of luring purse seine fisheries in offshore areas. Since then, substantial quantities of Indian mackerel have been caught, with catches increasing from 12,690 metric tonnes in 1973 to a peak of 50,574 metric tonnes in 1983. After that, catch has followed a fluctuating and slightly decreasing trend. Tantisawetrat (1996) estimated MSY for the Indian mackerel using data relating to catches made from 1984 to 1993 in waters adjacent to the western coast of the Gulf of Thailand (areas II, III and VI). MSYs estimated from the use of virtual population analysis and the surplus production model, were 32,866 and 32,533 metric tonnes, respectively. The analysis indicated an optimum fishing effort level of 112,500 days of luring purse seine fishing. No definite sign of overfishing has been observed for this species yet. However, it is suggested that an increase in luring purse seine mesh size from 2.5 cm to 3 cm would increase yield per recruit by approximately 20%. Sardines (Sardinella spp.) Sardines are mainly caught by purse seines, particularly luring purse seine in both coastal and offshore areas. The development of large-scale fishing for sardines has followed a trend similar to that for Indian mackerel. Fishing effort levels increased significantly after 1973, resulting in a peak landing of 203,364 metric tonnes in 1977. After that, catches declined gradually to 68,447 metric tonnes in 1985, which then slowly recovered to a range from 110,000 to 140,000 metric tonnes per annum. From 1983, the number of purse seines increased, although the production of sardines did not increase accordingly. The estimated MSY for sardines in the Gulf of Thailand is 104,000 metric tonnes, with an optimum fishing effort level of approximately 190,000 days of luring purse seine fishing. It is clear that fishing effort levels for sardine have exceeded the optimum since 1988. Hence, sardine stocks have shown signs of overfishing. It is recommended that fishing effort levels be reduced by 14% in order to prevent further stock depletion. Round scads (Decapterus spp.) It is well known that the development of purse seine fisheries in Thailand depended significantly on the discovery of new fishing grounds for round scads in the middle of the Gulf of Thailand in 1973. This resulted in the abrupt increase in the catch of these species from 660 metric tonnes in 1972 to 12,690 metric tonnes in 1973, which then increased steadily to reach a maximum catch of 129,800 metric tonnes in 1977. Catches then declined gradually and have fluctuated between 20,000 and 40,000 metric tonnes for the past 15 years. Although the number of luring purse seines increased from 505 units in 1977 to 730 units in 1981 and 1982, catches were extremely low during this latter period when compared to the high catches observed in 1977 and 1978. Anchovies (Stolephorus spp.) Anchovies are very small pelagic fish that are widely distributed in inshore waters. In the Gulf of Thailand, 12 species are observed in catches, although the most dominant is Stolephorus heterolobus (or Encrasicholina heteroloba). This species constitutes about 87% of the total anchovy catch. The main fishing gears used in anchovy fisheries include the small-meshed purse seine (or anchovy purse seine), push net, bamboo stake trap, and luring lift net or luring falling net. However, the most important fishing gear is the anchovy purse seine, which is utilised both during the day and night time. The catch of anchovies increased markedly after 1981, mostly in response to the use of artificial light to attract schools of fish at night and a redirection of fishing effort to offshore waters. These factors contributed to increases in catch levels from approximately 15,000 metric tonnes to 103,101 metric tonnes in 1985. Catches of anchovies have been maintained at a level from 110,000 to 120,000 metric tonnes for the past 5 years. The estimated MSY for anchovies in the Gulf is 104,000 metric tonnes. This means that anchovy resources have been heavily exploited since 1985 and that any increases in fishing effort should be carefully considered. Bigeye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) Bigeye scad is a member of the Carangidae family. Previously, fishery statistics for bigeye scad were compiled at the species combined level due to mixed catches and the difficulties associated with species identification at-sea. After the development of luring purse seine fisheries and the redirection of fishing effort to offshore waters, bigeye scad have been caught in large quantities. Since 1980, statistics for bigeye scad have been compiled at the species level and some research into the species has been conducted. The catch of bigeye scad from 1980 to 1993 ranged between 15,000 and 26,000 metric tonnes. However, catches increased significantly in 1994, peaking at 37,080 metric tonnes. Assessment of the status of this species indicates that it is fully exploited in the Gulf, with an

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 54 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

estimated MSY of 18,500 metric tonnes and optimal fishing effort level of 125,000 days of luring purse seine fishing (Isara 1993).

Neritic tunas (Thunnus tonggol, Euthynnus affinis and Auxis thazard) Prior to the 1980’s, neritic tuna catches in the Gulf of Thailand were relatively low, ranging from 3,298 to 19,929 metric tonnes. However, fisheries for these species developed rapidly after 1982, mostly in response to strong demand for tuna for canning. Expansion has also been driven by improvement in fishing gear and methods, including purse seine technology, new larger fishing boats, and use of refrigeration. Accordingly, catches increased from 39,368 metric tonnes in 1982 to 157,163 metric tonnes in 1992, which also depended on promoting fisheries outside Thai waters through joint ventures or fisheries agreements with neighbouring countries, and the exploration of new fishing grounds. The MSY for neritic tuna has been estimated at 86,000 metric tonnes (Chuenpun 1996).

Demersal fish Attempts have been made to assess the state of demersal fish and trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand. Gulland (1972) estimated the total potential of the waters along the coast of Thailand as 500,000 metric tonnes. Boonyubol and Pramokchutima (1982) estimated the potential yield at 750,000 metric tonnes per year at 8.6 million hours of fishing effort. Boonwanich (1993) estimated a maximum sustainable yield of demersal resources at 893,000 metric tonnes, with optimal fishing effort levels of 22 million hours. However, total catch and effort in 1989 was 843,300 metric tonnes and 34 million hours, respectively. The results of these studies indicate that demersal fisheries resources have been overexploited.

Shrimps The potential yields and optimal fishing effort levels (otter board trawl boat <18 m) for economically important and miscellaneous penaeid shrimp from 1971 to 1990 were estimated to be 22,000 metric tonnes at 25 X 106 hrs and 110,000 metric tonnes at 44 X 106 hrs, respectively. The overexploitation of shrimps has taken place since 1981 (Vibhasiri 1993).

Cephalopods In the Gulf of Thailand, squid production increased from 21,000 metric tonnes in 1971 to 72,000 metric tonnes in 1983. This increased production relied on the use of artificial light to attract squid for capture, as well as a highly developed fishing practice known as “light luring squid fishing”. At present, 4 types of net are used to catch squid, including cast nets, stick-held dip nets, stick-held cast nets, and stick-held box nets, among which the stick-held cast net is the most popular (Supongpan et al. 1992). From 1984 to 1991, production ranged between 57,000 and 68,000 metric tonnes (Supongpan 1993). It was estimated that Loligo duvauceli has been fully exploited since 1984 (Supongpan 1988; FAO 1993) and Loligo chinensis was overexploited around 20% of the present catch of the year 1984 (Supongpan 1988). The production of cuttlefish from the Gulf of Thailand from 1971 to 1991, ranged from 12,000 to 50,000 metric tonnes. The highest recorded production was 50,077 metric tonnes in 1991. Cuttlefish are thought to be overexploited (Supongpan 1995). According to statistics, cuttlefish production increased annually from 1985 to 1991. This was mainly a result of the development and expansion of squid traps, which catch bigfin reef squid and cuttlefish. The statistical records for cuttlefish include bigfin reef squid due to the similarity in appearance between it and cuttlefish. Octopus production from the Gulf of Thailand ranged between 500 and 16,000 metric tonnes from 1971 to 1991. The highest recorded production was 15,828 metric tonnes in 1991. Octopus is thought to be overexploited (Supongpan 1993). The statistical records show increases in production from 1985 to 1990. This was mostly due to improved utilisation and processing of octopus, which resulted in fishers sorting octopus from catches of trash fish. 3.3 Threats 3.3.1 Current (e.g. destructive fishing practices, overfishing) The rapid development of both pelagic and demersal fisheries has resulted in reduced abundances of fisheries resources. Many of the coastal and inshore fisheries resources are fully utilised, and some groups, especially demersal species, have been depleted due to intense exploitation and the use of destructive fishing gears and methods, including trawls, push nets, shortnecked clam dredges,

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dynamite blasting, and chemical poisoning. These fishing methods have direct and indirect implications for living resources and their habitats.

The use of destructive fishing gears and illegal fishing methods are problems that require law enforcement. As the use of various types of fishing gear has increased, conflicts have arisen between commercial and small-scale fishers, and even among small-scale fishers themselves. These conflicts have revolved around competition for scarce resources in inshore and coastal waters. Trawls and mechanised push nets often damage small-scale fishing gears, such as gill nets and traps. Such occurrences exacerbate conflict situations.

Thailand’s marine capture fisheries face many problems associated with law enforcement in the EEZs of neighboring countries. Many of these areas were fishing grounds for Thai fishers prior to the adoption of the EEZ regime, which has resulted in a reorientation/realignment of their traditional fishing grounds and decreases in available fishing areas and resources.

The impacts of human and economic activities on the coastal zone are visible in the form of resource degradation or depletion either by direct exploitation or indirectly through pollution. , which serve as nurseries for marine juveniles and protect shorelines, have been reduced to less than half of their area in 1961. This has mainly been due to their use for charcoal making, and destruction for road and port construction, human settlements, agriculture, fishing gear, and aquaculture. Coral reefs and seagrass beds have also been extensively damaged in many areas by fishing activities, however, inadequate data makes estimation of exact losses difficult. Beaches have also been degraded by development activities, notably . The expansion of industrial, urban, tourism, agriculture, and aquaculture activities in coastal areas have all contributed to intensified resource use and pollution.

The agents of coastal resource degradation are not confined to coastal areas themselves. The rapid industrial, urban, and agricultural growth experienced during the economic boom of the last decade, has resulted in increased pollution loads entering the sea via river runoff. Deforestation in upper watersheds has increased sediment loads in river discharge, causing sedimentation and the clogging of harbours and , requiring frequent . Some 70% of pollution in the Gulf of Thailand is attributed to land-based activities (OEPP 1995). Pollution was implicated as one of the main factors responsible for the shrimp production crash in the upper Gulf of Thailand area during 1989 and 1990 (Briggs 1994). Nutrient-rich agricultural and domestic waste may also play a major role in the frequent algal blooms (red ) and fish mortalities observed along the eastern and southern Gulf coasts.

As most shrimp farms are located on sites, the highest rates of mangrove destruction occurred from 1979 to 1986. During this period, many mangrove areas were converted to shrimp farms, with mangrove losses averaging almost 13,000 ha/year (Tongchai and Jirawan 1997 cited Aksornkoae 1998), or 4.5% annually (Isvilanondas and Tokrisna 1994). As much as 93% of the mangrove destruction observed during this period has been attributed to conversion to shrimp farms (Aksornkoae 1989).

Time series trends for a number of industry indicators have raised increasing concerns about the sustainability of the sector. These include: • Rapidly declining catch rates (CPUE), which are now only 7% of the levels in the early 1960s; • Fish catches from the Gulf of Thailand are well above the estimated MSYs, and catch rates (CPUE, kg/hr) have declined significantly; • Nearly 40% of the catch from Thai waters consists of low value fish; the demand from a heavily protected local fishmeal industry is at least partly responsible for the continued exploitation of an otherwise uneconomical fishery. A significant portion of the trash fish catch consists of juveniles of important species, indicating non-compliance with mesh size regulations; • The actual numbers of boats fishing is much higher than that registered, since many boat owners tend to avoid registration and fish illegally. Annual fluctuations in the number of registered boats are due to many factors, including termination of licences for old boats, new licences issued to ageing vessels, licences being revoked for violators, and reluctance of some boat owners to renew licences; • An unknown quantity of fish caught illegally by commercial operators in coastal waters reserved for small-scale fisheries, generating conflict within coastal fishing communities; and

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 56 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

• The degradation of coastal and marine environments associated with the development of infrastructure, urbanisation, industry, land-based agriculture, and aquaculture.

Declines in marine fisheries resources can be attributed to a number of factors. These include: excessively high fishing effort levels; use of destructive fishing gear (e.g. trawl, push nets) and methods (e.g. large scale trawling in near shore areas, use of push nets near coral reefs); violation of regulations (e.g. fishing in fish spawning grounds during periods of temporary fishing bans); destruction of fish habitats, such as mangroves, seagrass meadows, and coral reefs; and inappropriate or uncoordinated policies (e.g. the protection of the fishmeal industry has a direct impact on fisheries, since it has encouraged capture of small trash fish, often leading to high catches of juveniles of other important species).

3.3.2 Potential (project market demand, increased coastal population)

Fish and fish products are particularly important to Thai people as a primary source of animal protein. With a wide range of species and products available to choose from, and rising purchasing power of consumers, demand for fish products has grown in recent years.

The domestic demand for fish is predicted to increase at an average of 1 to 2% per annum. International demand for fish products is expected to increase with a wide range of products available. However, growth in international demand substantially relies on product quality and safety.

Recently, market demand for live marine resources has increased significantly, especially in coastal areas frequented by tourists. Consumer preferences are also shifting to smaller sizes of specially prepared fish, shrimps, crabs, and squids. Accordingly, fishers have begun to supply these smaller fish to markets as much as possible, with little attention paid to the potential impacts of such actions on fish populations and their environments.

4. HABITATS & AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS

4.1 The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the Gulf of Thailand

The Gulf of Thailand may be characterised as a classical two-layered, shallow water estuary. Low water, diluted by heavy precipitation and runoff, flows out of the Gulf at the surface. There is inflow of high salinity, relatively cool water from the South China Sea into the Gulf. This high salinity water fills the deep, central depression below a depth of approximately 50 m. Superimposed on this 2-layered system is a complex circulation system, which is established by wind- driven currents related to monsoon winds and tidal currents. Neither the northeast nor the southwest monsoon winds are observed to have a constant direction or velocity over the Gulf as a whole. The interplay of variable winds, tidal currents, fresh water runoff, and excessive precipitation gives rise to localised areas of divergence where low temperature, high salinity water, usually of low oxygen content, is upwelled. These forces also establish areas of convergence where high temperature, low salinity, and highly oxygenated water sinks. All of these characteristics make the Gulf of Thailand one of the most productive areas in Southeast Asia.

Takahashi et al. (1985) observed that regions of relatively steep horizontal gradients in surface water properties, such as salinity, nutrient salts, and phytoplankton, were located in the vicinity of Samui , where oceanic fronts form due to the convergence of water masses from coastal areas and the central Gulf that originate from the South China Sea. This indicates that water areas adjacent to Samui Island are potentially good for fishing.

The combined effects of topographical features, tidal regimes, monsoonal water circulation, freshwater runoff, coastal , and offshore water intrusions govern the oceanography of the Gulf of Thailand. The annual surface water temperature varies very little. Gulf waters are well mixed before the NE monsoon, after which a thermocline becomes more distinct.

From fish egg and larval surveys, it is apparent that pelagic and demersal fish during both the NE and SW monsoon, with a peak in spawning after the NE monsoon. More species probably spawn in the area during the SW monsoon season (SEAFDEC 1999).

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There are 12 species or groups of species with known spawning and fishing grounds. Marine environmental conditions are also known. These include: bathymetry and coastal geomorphology; water circulation and tide; meteorological parameters, i.e., wind, monsoon season, air temperature, , and air ; seawater parameters, i.e., salinity, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), , total suspended solids, and turbidity; phytoplankton and zooplankton; primary production, benthos, and bottom sediment characteristics. 4.1.1 Known spawning grounds Describing the spawning and fishing grounds of 12 species/species groups is complicated. Here, the characteristics reviewed are similar to the environmental characteristics of the spawning grounds. The spawning grounds of some marine fauna in the Gulf of Thailand have been surveyed intensively. The results of the surveys, conducted since 1963, indicate that the larvae of Rastrelliger spp. concentrate in an area 10 to 40 nautical miles off the western coast of the Gulf of Thailand (Figure 14) (Boonprakob 1965; Matsui 1970). Phytoplankton and zoophankton were abundant in this area during the spawning season (Suvapepun and suwanrampha 1970).

99° 100° 101102 103 104 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° 1-100 / 1000 m3 Pattani 101-500 / 1000 m3 Narathiwat >500 / 1000 m3

6°

Figure 14 The abundances of Indo-Pacific mackerel larvae (R. neglectus) observed at various surveys stations in the Gulf of Thailand (Boonprakob 1965).

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The spawning grounds and season for Decapterus maruadsi and D. macrosoma in the Gulf of Thailand was determined from observations of seasonal changes in the stage of gonad development. Spawning was believed to occur from February to August, with peaks from February to March and from July to August in the deeper area of the Gulf (Figure 15) (Chullasorn and Yusukswad 1978). Spawning grounds of neritic tuna are located along the Gulf’s western coast, with concentrations in the middle of the Gulf (Figure 16). The spawning grounds for anchovy are depicted in Figure 17.

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

Jan-Mar Jul-Aug 11° Chumphon

Jan-Mar Jul-Aug

10°

9° Surat Thani Feb-Mar Feb-Mar Jul-Aug Jul-Aug

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 15 The spawning grounds of round scads (Decapterus spp.) in the Gulf of Thailand (Chullasorn and Yusuksawad 1978).

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99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10° Stations were found neritic larvae in 1987

Stations were found neritic larvae in 1975, 1983

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 16 The stations where the eggs and larvae of neritic tunas have been observed to be abundant during surveys conducted in the Gulf of Thailand (Chamchang and Chayakul 1990).

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99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11°

Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani

Narathiwat

6°

Figure 17 The spawning grounds for anchovy in the Gulf of Thailand (Vatanachai 1978; Chansakul 1988; Chayakul 1990 cited in Saikliang 1995b).

4.1.2 Known nursery areas Many studies have shown that the distribution and abundance of pelagic and demersal fish larval are related to plankton densities. Plankton production rates are higher in near shore areas and decrease vertically with depth. The nursery areas of important marine fauna in the Gulf of Thailand are mostly located in inshore areas, including mangrove areas, seagrass meadows, and coral reefs. The feeding grounds of most fished species are generally the same as the areas in which they are fished.

4.1.3 Known fishing grounds The fishing grounds for important marine fish species in the Gulf of Thailand were depicted in Figures 6 to 12 of this report.

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4.1.4 Seawater quality and pollutants Seawater Quality Seawater quality has been studied since 1956. The data vary widely in response to spatial and seasonal fluctuations. Low DO, high biological oxygen demand (BOD), and elevated nutrient concentrations characterise coastal water areas adjacent to river and human settlements (Sitthichokpan 1977; Tharnbubpa 1977; Tharnbubpa and Jusiripongkul 1984; Sanguansin et al. 1999). These characteristics may be influenced by waste disposal from human, agricultural, and industrial activities into the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong Rivers. These rivers also receive organic wastes from human activities and carry them toward the sea, often resulting in poor estuarine water quality (Table 22). The Pollution Control Department (PCD) (1999) studied water quality at 218 sampling stations located 100 m and 500 m offshore during dry and rainy seasons in 1998. The study identified DO lower than 4 mg/l in some inner Gulf stations adjacent to the estuaries of the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, and Bang Pakong Rivers, as well as the Taboon canal at Petchaburi. The nutrient enrichment of coastal waters has also caused low water quality, eutrophication, and phytoplankton blooms (Suvapepun 1984).

Table 22 Water quality parameters recorded in lower parts of the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong Rivers.

DO BOD NH – N Coliform bacteria Area 3 Reference (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (MPN/100 ml)

- Lower Chao Phraya 0.5 3.0 1.3 46,000 PCD (1998) - Lower Tha Chin 1.0 2.1 0.7 24,000 PCD (1998) - Lower Mae Klong 6.0 1.3 - 3,200 PCD (1998) - Lower Bang Pakong 4.3 0.9 - 500 PCD (1998) - Chao Phraya and 1.1-3.5 - 0.005-0.099 32-54,000 PCD (1999) Tha Chin River - Mae Klong and 2.4-8.3 - 0.006-0.25 8-2,300 PCD (1999) Bang Pakong River mouth Source: PCD, 1998; 1999.

4.1.5 Biological parameters

Phytoplankton Piromnim (1985) studied phytoplankton in the central Gulf of Thailand from Chumphon to during the southwest monsoon in 1984. The area surveyed covered a wide range of depths (13 to 77m), grouped into the depth ranges of 17 to 48, 50 to 61, and 65 to 77m. The results indicated that the average density of phytoplankton was 96,674, 17,689, and 8,729 cells/m3 at each of the 3 depth ranges, respectively. Of the 36 genera identified, there were 28 genera of diatoms, 7 genera of dinoflagellates, and 1 genus of green algae. Trichodesmium thiebauti dominated all stations and depths. The species confined to the deepest waters were Planktonella sol, Gosslerriella tropica, and Biddulphia sinensis. The density of some species varied significantly by water depth. These include Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii, Cossinodiscus spp., Rhizosolenia calcaravis, Ceratium dens, C. trichoceros, and Thalassiosira subtilis. Moreover, Cerataulina compacta, C. bergonii, and Guinardia flaccida were mostly coastal species. Asterolampra marylandica, Asteromphalus sp., Dactyliosolen antarcticus, and Planktonella sol were observed offshore.

Boonyapiwat (1999) studied phytoplankton in the Gulf of Thailand from the upper part of the Gulf to the eastern coast of Malaysian Peninsular. Seawater samples were collected from 81 stations during the pre-northeast monsoon season (4 Sept. to 4 Oct. 1995) and the post-northeast monsoon season (23 Apr. to 23 May 1996). The study observed 260 taxa, composed of 2 species of blue green algae, 133 species of diatoms, and 107 species of dinoflagellates. A blue green algal species and 17 species of diatoms were dominant. The species most frequently observed were Ocillatoria erythraea, Thalassionema flauenfeldii, Chaetoceros lorenzianus, and C. compressus. Cell densities in the study area ranged from 178 to 113,336 cells/l, and were generally higher in coastal waters than those offshore.

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Phytoplankton observations were carried out during joint surveys of fisheries resources and oceanography by Thai and Vietmanese researchers in the area from latitude 07°40′ to 09°30′N and longitude 101°50′ to 103°10′E in the middle of the Gulf of Thailand. 2 sampling cruises were conducted from 16 Nov. to 18 Dec. 1997 and 11 Aug. to 2 Sep. 1998. 320 taxa, composed of 2 species of blue green algae, 154 species of diatom, and 144 species of dinoflagellates were identified. 8 species of phytoplankton were dominant during the southwest monsoon. Chaetoceros diversus and C. lorenzianus dominated the surface flora, whilst C. messanensis and Proboscia alata dominated mid depths. Coscinodiscus jonisianus was the dominant species at the bottom. The species with highest cell densities at all sampling depths were Oscillatoria erythraea, Thalassionema frauenfeldii, and T. nitzschioides. The relative abundance of these species during the southwest monsoon was low. During the northeast monsoon, O. erythraea and T. frauenfeldii dominated. The first species occurred with highest relative abundance from surface to mid-depths, whilst the second dominated the bottom layer of all stations. The densities observed during this period were relatively high (Department of Fisheries 1999).

Musikasung et al. (1998) studied primary production in the Gulf of Thailand and the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular. The rates of primary production observed, ranged from 0.20 to 0.61 and 0.29 to 0.47gC/m2/day for the Gulf of Thailand and the eastern Malaysian Peninsular waters, respectively. In nearshore areas, highest rates of primary production were observed near the surface, which declined gradually with depth. However, in offshore areas, the production rate increased in the layers where subpycnocline chlorophyll was found. Moreover, variability in daily primary production was observed to be closely related to changes in phytoplankton biomass.

Zooplankton Jivaluk (1999) studied the distribution, abundance, and composition of zooplankton in the Gulf of Thailand from the upper Gulf to the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular. Samples were collected at 81 stations from 4 Sept. to 4 Oct.1995 for the pre-northeast monsoon and from 23 Apr. to 23 May 1996 for the post-northeast monsoon. This study observed 34 groups of zooplankton. Copepods were most abundant during both periods, followed by Chaetognatha in during the pre- monsoon period and Ostracod in the post-monsoon period. Biomass and density varied from 0.069 to 20.172ml/m3 and 36 to 3,413no/m3 during the pre-monsoon period, and 0.18 to 2,589ml/m3 and 91 to 1,514no/m3 during the post-monsoon period, respectively. There was significant difference in abundance between pre and post monsoon periods, although there was no significant difference between biomass for both periods. Generally, abundance was higher at nearshore stations, especially near Pattani Bay, Samui Island, and Sattahip, than offshore stations. Moreover, fish larvae and eggs occurred near Samui Island, Pattani Bay, and nearshore stations adjacent to the lower part of the Malaysian Peninsular during pre-monsoon periods. During the post-monsoon period, fish larvae were abundant near Samui Island, whilst fish eggs were observed near Prachuab Khiri Khan Bay.

The Department of Fisheries (1999) studied zooplankton in the central Gulf of Thailand between latitude 07°40’ to 09°30’N and longitude 101°50’ to 103°10’E from 16 Nov. to 18 Dec. 1997 and 11 Aug. to 2 Sept. 1998. 8 phyla of zooplankton, composed of Coelenterata, Chaetognatha, Annelida, Branchiopoda, Arthropoda, , Echinodermata, and Chordata, were collected. The most abundant phylum was Arthropoda. The average biomass and density were 0.79ml/m3 and 4,300.39no/m3 during the first cruise, and 0.45ml/m3 and 751no/m3 during the second cruise, respectively.

Fish larvae Termvichakorn (1999) reported that 73 families and 97 species of fish larvae were found from the upper part of the Gulf to the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular during the pre-northeast (4 Sept. to 4 Oct. 1995) and post-northeast (23 Apr to 23 May 1996) monsoon seasons. The most abundant fish larvae retained in horizontal surface hauls were Stolephorus spp., Sardinella spp., , and Upeneus spp. Those from the oblique hauls included Gobiidae, Stolephorus spp., Bregmaceros rasisguamosus, and Nemipterus spp. Moreover, larvae were more abundant in coastal waters and adjacent to , than deeper or offshore waters. The observed abundances of Sardinella spp. and Stolephorus spp. larvae indicate that spawning peaks in the post monsoon.

Fish larvae in the central Gulf of Thailand were surveyed by the Department of Fisheries (1999) from 16 Nov. to 18 Dec. 1997 and 11 Aug. to 2 Sept. 1998. 50 families of fish larvae were found during this study. The Gobiidae were most abundant, followed by Monacanthidae, Carangidae, Scombridae, , and Bregmacerotidae, respectively.

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Surveys conducted in the western Gulf of Thailand from Surat Thani to Narathiwat during February to August 1984 yielded 47 families of pelagic fish larvae (Chamchang 1986). Family Gobiidae was observed to dominate in terms of distribution and abundance. Family Engraulidae was the most dominant group of economically important pelagic fish larvae. Total density of fish larvae was highest during the inter-monsoon period (April). Densities declined in the month of June and August during the southwest monsoon period. Lowest densities were recorded in February during the northwest monsoon period. Most fish larvae were widely distributed throughout the study area, although were concentrated in the area from Samui Island to Songkhla province. Larvae were most concentrated along the coast of in April. Similarly, the highest and lowest densities of fish eggs were recorded in February and June, respectively.

Pornpatimakorn and Chayakul (1986) found 24 families of fish larvae in the central Gulf of Thailand. Englaulidae were dominant and represented by several Stolephorus species, followed by Hemirhamphidae, Theraponidae, Clupeidae, Eisterlaridae, Mullidae, Bothidae, and Carangidae.

Benthos Sanguansin (1986) studied the benthic macrofauna of the central Gulf of Thailand from 16 May to 9 June 1984. 102 species were found with an average biomass of 9.67g/m2 and average density of 68no/m2. Callianassa sp. was the dominant crustacean species, whilst the fauna was dominated by Terebellides sp. Both were very abundant. biomass was the highest. Fishes, molluscs, nemerteans, echiurans, sipunculids, oligochaetes, nematodes, and anthozoans were also recorded. The benthic macrofauna was concentrated in shallow areas, especially near Samui and Pha-ngan Island.

The ecology of macrobenthic fauna in the Gulf of Thailand, from the upper part of the Gulf to the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular, was studied during pre-northeast monsoon (4 Sept. to 4 Oct. 1995) and post-northeast monsoon (23 Apr. to 23 May 1996) periods. This study identified 6 groups of macrobenthic fauna in the study area, including , crustaceans, molluscs, , fishes, anthozoans, nemerteans, sipunculids, and amphioxus. The polychaetes dominated the benthic fauna. The average density of the benthic macrofauna was 88no/m2 in the pre- northeast monsoon period, and 97no/m2 in the post NE monsoon period. Moreover, species abundance and diversity was higher in inshore rather than offshore areas. Polychaetes, crustaceans, and echinoderms displayed marked changes in abundance by monsoon period, and the diversity index varied during the pre and post-northeast monsoon periods (Piamthipmanus 1999).

Benthic macrofauna in the central Gulf of Thailand from latitude 07o40’ to 09o30’ N and longitude 101o 50’ to 103o 10’ E was surveyed by the Department of Fisheries (1999). The survey identified 7 groups of benthic animals from 16 Nov. to 18 Dec. 1997 and 11 Aug. to 2 Sep. 1998. Polychaetes and crustaceans dominated the first and second cruises, respectively. Echinoderms, oligochaetes, nemerteans, fishes, and sipunculids were also observed. Average density and biomass was 22.5no/m2 and 3.79g wet weight/m2 for the first cruise, and 37.86no/m2 and 3.47g wet weight/m2 for the second cruise, respectively.

4.1.6 Bottom sediment

Reports of bottom sediment studies conducted by Charoenruay (1984) in the Gulf of Thailand indicate that Gulf sediments are mostly mud or silt. There are only two locations characterised by , namely the Sattahip coast and the Pattani Province coast. The thickness of sediments range from 5 to 75cm, with mud sediments being thicker than sandy sediments. Hard clay is usually found beneath the soft substrates.

The mud sediments of the central Gulf of Thailand can be subdivided into 3 types, according to mud content. The finest particle sediments (mud content >90%) are located adjacent to Samui Island. Medium sized particle sediments (mud content 70 to 90%) characterise the inner central Gulf, whereas the coarsest sediments (mud content <70%) are distributed on Gulf’s outer sides (Takahashi et al. 1985).

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4.2 Unknown issues such as stocks with undefined spawning grounds There are many unknown issues regarding fishery resources in Thai waters. Geographical distributions and spawning grounds of many economically important species/species groups are not clearly known. Similarly, it is a known fact that marine resources in tropical areas are multi-species in nature and may be composed of several different stocks for each species. Information regarding the migratory routes of pelagic and semi-pelagic resources is also lacking, except for Indo-Pacific mackerel that has formed part of an extensive tagging program for many years. Therefore, basic information relating to significant transboundary stocks is usually not available. Strengthened cooperation amongst scientists and research institutes should be pursued. The 1985 FAO/SEAFDEC Workshop on Shared Stocks in Southeast Asia (FAO/SEAFDEC 1985) aimed to provide some guidance for improved regional utilisation and management of stocks. There are now at least 40 stocks being shared by 2 or more regional countries. A key action in identifying shared stocks is to determine the location and timing of spawning. Genetic studies are now an effective method to identify stocks, with the implementation of such activities requiring the close cooperation of the coastal States concerned. 4.3 Threats, current and potential (coastal development, pollution, oil spills) 4.3.1 Coastal development A number of changes have occurred in Thailand’s coastal areas during the past 40 years. These include the establishment of human settlements and urban expansion, infrastructure development, tourism and industry development, agriculture and tree plantations, and coastal aquaculture. Perhaps the most widely recognised impacts of these changes in land usage include the large (approximately 50%) loss of mangrove forest cover since the early 1960s, and the dereliction of land following shrimp pond failures in a number of coastal provinces. Land rights are one of the most complicated and politically sensitive issues in Thailand. Like their inland counterparts, coastal communities often do not have adequate land rights. However, land ownership is frequently transferred through informal and illegal deals. Increased agricultural and industrial activities, as well as urbanisation further inland, have created a number of externalities in the form of hydrological changes, and the land-based pollution of coastal waters. 4.3.2 Oil spills Numerous oil spills have occurred in both Thai river mouths and the Gulf. Oil can be discharged into the Gulf not only from routine transportation activities, but also from accidents. Although large oil spill accidents are infrequent (Table 23), they usually release a large quantity of oil each time they occur. Consequently, oil spills contribute to 12% of the total volume of oil pollution in Thai waters (Yindepit 1993). Along the coast of , oil spills have occurred frequently since 1986. In fact, there are 3 to 5 oil spills annually. Most spills involve crude oil, which pollutes beaches and inshore waters. Typically, the length of beach affected ranges from 5 to 15km, and the spills are thought to have had negative impacts on capture fisheries and aquaculture in this area. 4.3.3 Pollution Chareonpanich and Seurungreong (1999) reported that coarse material, including sand and gravel, usually settles in the nearshore zone of Peninsular Malaysia, whilst fine-grained particles, including silt and clay, are usually deposited in areas with restricted current in the central Gulf of Thailand and near Samui Island. The coastal and marine environment of the Gulf of Thailand has been degraded by a combination of land and marine-based pollutants. Land-based pollutants are transported via major rivers to the Gulf of Thailand. They are derived from municipal, agricultural, and industrial activities in river catchments. Several land-based activities near coastal areas, including deforestation, urban development, tourism, and the human aggravation of erosion and siltation, have a high potential to pollute the Gulf either directly or indirectly. Increased marine-based activities in the Gulf of Thailand threaten to exacerbate pollution problems. These activities include dredging, shipping, and hydrocarbon exploration and production.

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Major sources of land-based pollution are domestic sewage, solid waste, agricultural waste, industrial waste, and toxic and hazardous waste. Land-based sources contribute approximately 70% of , whilst marine-based sources account for the remaining 30%. The pollutants threatening the marine environment include organic matter, nutrients, sediments, litter and plastics, metals, radionuclides, and hydrocarbons. They are prioritised differently from country to county. Many of them are of particular concern, as they may be biomagnified in aquatic food chains (Jala and Aziz 1986).

Table 23 Large oil spill accidents in the Gulf of Thailand during the last 25 years.

Date Oil type Volume Location Cause (tonnes) 1973 J.P. 4 Unknown Sriracha Fire tanker Chonburi Province 1979 Crude oil 300 Srichung Island Fire tanker Chonburi Province 6 Mar.1994 Diesel 400 Srichang Island Collision of tanker And container 30 Oct.1996 Crude oil 160 Oil loading station, Leaking during Rayong Province Loading

4.3.4 Plankton blooms

The most conspicuous and widespread effect of pollution on the marine environment of the Gulf is perhaps eutrophication associated with nutrient enrichment, especially compounds of N and P, leading to accelerated growth of plankton, algae, and higher forms of plant life (Brodie 1996). Nutrient enrichment is a key contributor to large phytoplankton blooms, which can harm and even kill other marine organisms and humans.

Algal blooms have been studied in Thailand since the 1950s (Charoenpol 1957). This early work included the development of a map illustrating the distribution of phytoplankton blooms and their causes. Noctiluca sp. and Trichodesmium sp. were identified as species that often bloomed in the Gulf of Thailand. In the past, such blooms were considered a natural phenomena and harmless to the marine environment. However, the frequency of blooms has increased significantly. During the last 3 decades, algal blooms have occurred between January and August. During the rainy season, algal blooms have often occurred at the river mouth areas of the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong Rivers (Tamiyavanich 1984). The most common blooming species are the blue green algae Trichodesmium erythraem and Noctiluca scintillans (Suvapepun 1989). Furthermore, Coscinodiscus sp., Rhizosolenia sp., Hemidiscus sp., Chaetoceros sp., Bacteriastrum sp., Ceratium sp., and Nitzschia sp. bloom occasionally. The major cause of algal blooms may be excessive nutrient and organic pollution from major rivers.

From 1981 to 1987, there were 43 large phytoplankton blooms, mostly involving Trichodesmium erythraeum (21 blooms), Noctiluca scintillens (17 blooms), and Diatom (5 blooms). A bloom caused by Trichodesmium erythraeum was observed in eastern and central parts of the Gulf of Thailand from May to June 1983. It covered an area of 7,000km2, causing anoxic conditions that subsequently led to massive mortalities of demersal fishes, shellfish, crabs, and benthos, and crippled many aquaculture activities. The estimated economic losses associated this bloom are in excess of US$1.16 million (Suvapepun 1984). From 1991 to 1998, the 2 species of phytoplankton highlighted above caused 13 blooms along the eastern coast of the Gulf (Chonburi, Rayong, and Chantaburi provinces). Noctiluca sp. has bloomed in coastal waters from Ang Sila to Sri Racha, Chonburi province, every year during July and August, causing mass mortalities of fish and damage to aquaculture operations. Normally, algal blooms caused by common species, i.e., Trichodesnium sp. and Noctiluca sp., have no direct effects on fish. Bloom-related fish mortalities are mostly driven by sudden reductions in dissolved oxygen and high concentrations. A bloom of Ceratium furca was observed at the mouth during early January 2000. Figure 18 highlights areas in which phytoplankton blooms occurred in the Gulf of Thailand from 1982 to 2000.

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99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6° Figure 18 Areas in which phytoplankton blooms occurred in the Gulf of Thailand from 1982 to 2000 (after Suvapepun 1997).

Studies conducted since 1981 indicate that no phytoplankton bloom has involved a toxic species. In May 1983, paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) was recorded in green at Pranburi Estuary, Prachaub Kiri Khan. Despite the problem occurring at the same time as a phytoplankton bloom, its cause was unclear. At the time, phytoplankton was dense and comprised of various species. In particular, the water was rich in blue green algae, and the diatom community was dominated by Chaetoceros spp., Skeletonema costatum, Thalassiosira spp., and Cyclotella sp. Densities of dinoflagellates were also above normal. The most abundant species was Protoperilinium qinguecorne, and Prorocentrum micans, Peridinium spp., and Dinophysis spp. were abundant. Alexandrium sp. was present, albeit in very low densities (Suvapepun et al. 1984). Following the bloom, human consumption of toxic green mussels (PSP) led to the loss of 1 human life and another 62 seriously ill patients. This event led to many studies on phytotoxicology. Subsequently, the toxic phytoplankton, Alexandrium cohoticula, was found in the Gulf of Thailand. These algae are rare and in very low concentrations, and have most likely never caused a bloom. In conclusion, the effects of phytoplankton blooms in the Gulf of Thailand have related to visual amenity, and the health of aquatic organisms and perhaps humans.

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4.4 Ranking of habitats

Among coastal ecosystems, mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs are the most important habitats. Physically, they play an important role in land protection by trapping sediments and reducing erosion from various physical forces. Ecologically, they are characterised by high primary productivity, which may enhance coastal production and fishery yields. Their environmental characteristics are suitable for extensive assemblages of a vast variety of aquatic organisms, ranging from autotrophs to heterotrophs, from tiny invertebrates to mammals, from juveniles to adults, from sedentary inhabitants to highly migratory ones, or from dependent residents to transitory ones. More specifically, these habitats have frequently been referred to as important nursery areas. In a socioeconomic sense, these habitats provide significant economic benefits to local fishers and fish product traders. However, seagrass beds are damaged directly by intense fishing with destructive fishing gears, i.e., beach seines, mechanised push nets, and trawlers, and indirectly from sediment loads derived from tin and land development. The marine fauna that are officially listed as being found in any of these habitats are shown in Appendix 3.

Coral reefs are economically important because they provide sanctuary and feeding grounds for higher order fish, which form the basis of small-scale fisheries. Similarly, they play a vital role in supporting ecological balance. Furthermore, they are important in attracting tourists to the country. In the Gulf of Thailand, Mu Koh Chang in , Ang Thong Archipelago, and Koh Tao in Chumphon province have been declared as National Marine Parks.

4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security

Fish is an important component of the diet of Thai people. Thailand is one of the top fish-producing nations in the world. Geographical advantage is a factor attributed to the relatively high annual fish production. Thailand has a total land area of about 540,000km2 and a coastline of 2,614km. Marine fishing grounds that fall within Thailand’s EEZ are located partly in the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea, with a total area of about 350,000km2. The area of inland waters is approximately 3,750km2. Furthermore, over 1 million hectares of the Kingdom’s coastal areas have coastal aquaculture potential.

In 2000, the gross domestic production (GDP) of the fisheries sector was 123.2 billion baht, which accounted for about 2.5% and 27.6% of national GDP and agricultural GDP, respectively. The fishing industry has contributed to the development of other related industries, including fish processing, cold storage, ice production, and . The number of people engaged in this sector was estimated at approximately 826,980, of which 161,670 were engaged in marine capture fisheries, 77,870 in coastal aquaculture, 404,340 in freshwater fish culture, and 183,100 in other related activities.

The fish produced are consumed domestically and exported for foreign exchange earnings. It is one of the most important sources of protein. This is reflected in the per capita fish consumption rates of 25 to 32 kg per annum observed during the past decade. The export value of fish and fishery products has increased significantly.

More than 200 fishing villages are in or near the area of coastal habitats along the Gulf of Thailand. More than 80% of fishers engage in traditional or small-scale fisheries. The production from their fishing activities has played an important role as a source of food and income for their families and communities.

The Thai Government has recently introduced a project named the “Seafood Bank”, which aims to guide the allocation of approximately 284,000 rai (1,817.60km2) of inshore waters to small-scale fishers and their communities for the development of aquaculture and sea farming. This project will be of importance to food security and export promotion.

4.4.2 Association with high value species

Thailand’s fisheries demonstrated marked growth over the last 3 decades. The total production of 2.77 million tonnes of fisheries products from Thailand’s marine capture fisheries in 2000 was comprised of food fish (52.0%), shrimps (3.2%), crabs (2.1%), squids (6.4), and cuttlefish and shellfish (3.4%). These high value species/groups of species have mostly been derived from capture fisheries conducted in coastal waters.

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Coastal habitats of the Gulf of Thailand play critical roles in the life cycles of many important species, especially in terms of spawning, nursery, and feeding areas. The most recent figures from 2000 show a marine catch of 2.77 million tonnes, valued at THB 49,401.7 million. Fishing grounds that fall within Thailand’s EEZ are in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea. It is estimated that, of the total average marine catch, 70% is caught in Thai waters (60% from the Gulf and 10% from the Andaman Sea), whilst the remainder is derived from international waters or foreign EEZs. 4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, threatened species Several species of marine resources in the Gulf of Thailand are becoming rare, endangered, and perhaps threatened with extinction, due to increased human use, the resultant changes in the environment, and ineffective conservation and/or enforcement measures. Dense and increasing human populations in coastal areas, use of destructive fishing practices, intensive industrial activities, and waste disposal are all exacerbating this problem. It is believed that several species of marine fish and invertebrates are becoming rare, particularly those inhabiting coral reefs, which are being destroyed by intense fishing or other unwise practices. Furthermore, many groups of endangered species, including marine turtles, dugong, and dolphins, spend part of their life cycle in coastal habitats, especially for feeding and nursing areas. 5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIME(S) Regarding current management regimes relating to fish stocks and their habitats, the following subtopics will now be discussed. 5.1 Legal instruments Thailand is currently implementing several key legal instruments in order to conserve, preserve, protect, and manage fish stocks and their habitats. These legal instruments include the: (a) Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand relating to natural resources management; (b) Fisheries Act 1947 (B.E. 2490) and related regulations and notifications, especially concerning transboundary stocks - Articles 19 and 20 of the Fisheries Act 1947 relate to environmental aspects of fishing grounds, including aquatic animal habitats; (c) National Environmental Quality Act 1992 (B.E. 2535); (d) Act Determining Plan and Process of Decentralisation of Power to Local Government Organisation 1999 (B.E. 2542); (e) Navigation in Thai Waters Act 1913 (B.E. 2456) - Dumping of ballasts in a river, port area or anchoring location, Section 119: No person is allowed to dump, discard or ballast articles or any waste except for oil and chemical in a river, canal, marsh, reservoir or lake used for public traffic or common use or a sea with Thai waters which will cause shoal, sediment or filth therein unless permitted by the harbour master. Any person violating this provision must be subject to an imprisonment not exceeding six months or a fine not exceeding ten thousand bath or both and must also reimburse the costs paid for disposal thereof. And Section 119 bis: No person shall be allowed to dump, discard or otherwise act so as to allow oil and chemical or any thing in a river, canal, marsh, reservoir or lake used for public traffic or common uses or a area within Thai water which may be toxical to living organisms or environment or harmful to navigation in said river, canal, marsh, reservoir or lakes. Any person violating these provisions must be subject to an imprisonment not exceeding three years or a fine not exceeding sixty thousand bath or both and must also reimburse the costs paid for rehabilitation of such toxic or pay damages therefore; (f) The Act Governing the Right to Fish in Thai Fisheries Waters B.E.2484 (1939); (g) Wildlife Reservation and Protection Act 1992 - This Act empowers the Department of Fisheries to protect all animals and their products listed as for reservation and protection, which include all endangered species such as marine mammals, turtles, coral, and seashells. The recent fisheries regulations that have been issued and implemented in Thai waters are summarised in Table 24.

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Table 24 Marine fisheries management measures in Thailand.

Period of prohibition Management measures Type of gear Whole year 1. The distance of 3,000 m from shoreline and 400 m Motorised fishing gears, i.e., trawls, out off the stationary gear push net, shortnecked clam dredge 2. Songkhla lake 3. Phang-nga Bay (Phang-nga to ) Whole year 1. The distance of 3,000 m in some area of Prachuab Trawls, push net, purse seine, Khiri Khan and Chumphon province influenced by shortnecked clam dredge, fishing gear typhoons used with light Whole year Some areas in Trat province (within 15 km from shore) Purse seine with light luring Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Purse seine mesh less than 2.5 cm (in night time operation) Whole year 1. The distance of 3,000 m from shoreline. The dredge Shortnecked clam dredge used should be: a. The mouth width not less than 3.5 m b. The sieve size not less than 1.2 cm c. The boat length not more than 18 m d. The number of dredge not more than 3 per one boat 2. The distance of 8,000 m from shoreline in Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Squid light luring with mesh not less than 3.2 cm Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Set bag net Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Drive in net and in the coral and artificial reef areas Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Mine equipment for shell collection Whole year 1. Sea turtle and turtle eggs All gears 2. Sea Dugong 3. Sea Corals 4. Dolphin 5. No fishing in the preservation areas 5.1 A certain area in 5.2 A certain area in Chumphon province 5.3 A certain area in Trat province 5.4 A certain area in Phang-nga province Whole year The distance of 3,000 m from shoreline in certain areas Trawl, push net, purse seine, clam in Prachuab Khiri Khan to Chumphon province for pilot dredge and light luring nets CBFM project 6 months A certain areas in Chonburi province Motorised fishing gears (1 Sep – 28 Feb) (Historical Bay) 3 months Protection of fish spawners and larvae in certain areas Pair trawl, otter board trawl, purse seine, (15 Feb-15 May) in Prachuab Khiri Khan, Chumphon and Surat Thani mackerel encircling gill net, except the provinces otter-boom and beam trawl fishing at night time during 15 Feb-31 Mar and fishing at both night and day time 1 Apr- 15 May 3 months No fishing of female eggs-barriers of mud crab, All gears (Oct-Dec) swimming crab and Charybdis feriatus 3 months Protection of Horse Shoe crab in Phang-nga Bay All gears (1 Dec-28 Feb) including in the rivers around Phang-nga Bay 2 months Protection of fish spawners and larvae in the Phang-nga All trawlers, Purse seine, Gill net with (15 Apr-15 Jun) Bay, from Krabi to Phuket provinces mesh size not less than 4.7 cm

5.2 Institutional arrangements (research, monitoring, control & surveillance)

At present, the lead government organisation with direct responsibility for fisheries, marine resource, and management is the Department of Fisheries, as part of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. Other governmental organisations, including the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources and the Office of Environment Policy and Planning, as part of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, also play very important roles in conserving Thailand’s marine resources and environments.

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The Marine Fisheries Research and Development Bureau conduct research regarding marine fisheries and resource management. The Bureau’s Marine Fisheries Research and Development Centre has locations in 4 regions of the Gulf of Thailand, namely Rayong, Samut Prakan, Chumphon, and Songkhla. Marine and coastal research is also conducted by a newer organisation, the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, through its regional research centres.

A number of other government organisations contributed to various aspects of marine resource and environmental management. They can be considered as supporting research agencies for the Department of Fisheries. They include many organisations under the Department of Pollution Control, Department of National Park Conservation and Management, Department of Marine Transportation and Commerce, Burapha University, Kasetsart University, Chulalongkorn University, Songkhla University, and Walailuk University.

Monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS), is a very important mechanism for fisheries and resource management in the Gulf of Thailand. The Fisheries Administration and Resource Management Bureau of the Department of Fisheries is the leading organisation responsible for MCS, and is supported by various Provincial Fisheries Offices and other organisations empowered by the Fisheries Act and Ministerial Notifications of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

When the government agencies reform program took place in October 2002, the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) was established under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. The DMCR was given the mandate to develop relevant regulations in order to achieve effective managerial action relevant to vulnerable resources, including resource preservation and conservation for sustainable use. The MCS activities for the conservation of marine and coastal resources and habitats are under the mandate of the office of Marine and Coastal Conservation and Enforcement. The transfer of some authority for enforcement of the Fisheries Act has taken place in order to empower the DMCR to act in an enforcement capacity.

The organisational structure of the Department of Fisheries (DOF) and the Department of Marine Coastal Resources (DMCR) is highlighted in Appendices 4 and 5.

5.3 Overview of patterns of resources ownership and traditional utilisation

- Section 290 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand states that “For the purpose of promoting and maintaining the quality of the environment, a local government organisation has powers and duties as provided by law. The law under paragraph 1 shall at least contain the following matters as its substances:- (1) The management, preservation and exploitation of the natural resources and environment in the area of the locality; (2) The participation in preservation of natural resources and environment outside the area of the locality only in the case where the living of the inhabitants in the area may be affected; and (3) The participation in considering the initiation of any project or activity outside the area of the locality which may affect the quality of the environment, health or sanitary conditions of the inhabitant in the area.”

It is very clear that fisheries resources in the coastal areas of the Gulf of Thailand have been degraded and some groups are depleted. This has led to escalating conflict among resources users competing for the same scarce resources. Conflicts between small-scale and commercial fishers are increasing in occurrence on a daily basis. This conflict situation is perhaps not only due to overfishing, but also due to a lack of clear policies pertaining to the conduct of fisheries and their management.

It is well known that Thailand’s marine capture fisheries are open access in nature. Prior to the introduction of fisheries management, Thai fishers operated when, where, and how they pleased. However, this situation resulted in unsustainable fisheries. The only areas of non-open access include permitted areas for coastal aquaculture and the prohibition of active fishing gear use within 400m of the permitted areas for bamboo stake traps.

In response to the problems of open access, the Thai Department of Fisheries has attempted to revise the Fisheries Act in order to limit access in Thailand’s marine capture fisheries. A proposal has been submitted to parliament for their consideration and approval. Some Articles of the present

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Fisheries Act provide a pathway for the limitation of access to fisheries resources. For example, Article 32 indicates that Provincial Governors, with the permission of the Minister, have the authority to fix the type, size, and number of fishing gears to be operated at the provincial level. Nevertheless, this does not provide for the prevention of fishers from other provinces applying for a fishing licence.

Recently, the Department of Fisheries has implemented a pilot project on community based fisheries management across a range of areas, including Bangsapan District, Prachuab Khiri Khan Province, Phang-nga Bay, Phang-nga Province, Pathew District, and Chumphon Province. These pilot projects aim at developing the concept of community level ownership and participation in management of fisheries resources. The participation of the local community in natural resources and environmental management is supported by the present constitution, and the future may see fishing communities being provided with ownership of resources in an attempt to curb the tendency for overexploitation in Thai fisheries.

5.4 Human & Institutional Capacity

The Marine Fisheries Research and Development Bureau of the Department of Fisheries is responsible for marine fisheries resource surveys/research, restoration of fisheries resources and the environment, professional development of fishers, fishing gears/methods research and development, and other duties as required. There are 4 Marine Fisheries Research and Development Centres under the Marine Fisheries Research and Technology Development Institute, and 4 MCS centers under the Marine Fisheries Administration and Conservation Bureau of the Department of Fisheries along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand. However, there are many institutions, including universities and colleges that conduct research into fisheries of the Gulf of Thailand. The locations of these institutions are highlighted in Figure 19.

In order to conduct research and development, and effectively implement management strategies, the provision of additional and training for officers of the Department of Fisheries in areas such as resource assessment, conservation of fishery resources, and fisheries management is very necessary. This type of education and training has been made available to fishers and other fishing industry representatives in response to government policy aimed at promoting the participation of all stakeholders in the planning and implementation of various fisheries management measures. In doing so, the Fisheries Technology Development and Transfer Bureau of the Department of Fisheries have collaborated with relevant research institutes and universities involved in fisheries training.

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99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon λ Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi λ Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

z 11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani Marine Fisheries Research and Development Center

Patrol Office Center

Fishery Radio Station Nakhon Si Thammarat Marine and Coastal Resources 8° λ Research and Development Center

λ Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6° Figure 19 Marine Research Centres and Monitoring, Control, and Enforcement Sites along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand.

5.5 Review of stakeholders (e.g. Fishers, National and/or provincial/local management bodies, NGOs) The importance of community participation in natural resource and environmental management has become increasingly recognised, particularly since the Eight National Economics and Social Development Plan (1997 to 2001). Creating opportunities and an enabling environment to support the participation of all sectors in the development process is one of the main strategies for the national plan. In providing more opportunity for local communities and people to participate actively in natural resource and environmental management, the following guidelines at the national policy level include: • Providing opportunities for people and communities to participate in decision-making, monitoring and evaluation of public development projects likely to have an impact on natural resources and the environment. The government should facilitate continual public discussion at every stage of those projects such as initiation, preparation and implementation.

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• Providing legal quarantines of the rights of local communities and small-scale fishers to participate in coastal resource management, as well as the conservation, rehabilitation and maintenance of mangrove forests, seagrass and coral reefs, to ensure sustainable use of coastal resources, especially those related to the fishing industry.

As such, in order to achieve the sustainable utilisation of coastal resources, upgrading the capacities of rural communities for economic and social development and for conservation of natural resources and environment has become the key element.

Existing Fisheries and Coastal Community-Based Management Programs

The private sector working for public interests in the area of natural resources and environmental protection and conservation can be found in the form of foundations, associations, projects, clubs, or other formal groups. In general, they can be categorised as follows: • Non-government organisations (NGOs) registered with the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment (MOSTE); • Non-government organisations not registered with the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment (MOSTE); • Business firms; and • People’s organisations (PO).

At present, there are more than 60 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working for natural resources and environmental protection and conservation registered with the MOSTE (Office of Environmental Policy and Planning 1996). Under the Enhancement and Conservation of the National Environmental Quality Act of 1992 (Section 8), registered NGOs can obtain support from government agencies, including loans from the environmental fund. In this respect, they will have to submit the proposals, by stating the objectives, plans, project duration, and proposed budget, and then apply for them from the environmental fund. The committee under the Department of Environmental Promotion, MOSTE will review the proposals accordingly.

Fisheries and coastal community-based management in Thailand are mainly carried out with the support of NGOs, particularly in (Table 25). Informal people’s organisations may exist before they work in association with NGOs, but with encouragement of NGOs and university lecturers working as activists, the organisations become more recognised and they may establish a formal people’s organisation, sometimes registered with MOSTE. The Southern Small-Scale Fishermen Association is a good example following its establishment in September 1993, which resulted from a seminar of NGOs, local fishers, and university activists who realised the problems of coastal resource degradation that adversely affects societal well-being.

Although fishery and coastal management programs in Thailand are carried out by governmental, non-governmental, and people’s organisations, they normally share the following goals or objectives: 1. Create awareness of local communities in the sustainable management of coastal resources; 2. Build up and strengthen local capacities in the conservation and rehabilitation of coastal resources; and 3. Encourage the coordination among local communities, local government agencies, and NGOs.

Concerning fishery and coastal resource protection and conservation, the main NGOs working in these areas are the Volunteer for Society Fund, Lae Tai Project, Southern Small-Scale Fisheries Association, Yad Fon Association, and Wildlife Fund Thailand. Acting as the supporting and facilitating organisations in various mechanisms, financially and/or academically, there are various NGOs and POs working in association with them. The programs can be implemented as sub-projects in which the above key NGOs are the executing agencies. Examples of this case are illustrated in Table 25.

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Table 25 Non-government organisations (NGOs) involved in coastal resource management in southern Thailand.

Name of the Organisation Address Type of Activities Working Area/Site Coordinating Committee for Non- 65 Srisuda Road Acting as coordinating Provinces in southern government Organizations, Amphur Muang Center for NGOs in the Thailand Southern Thailand Songkhla 90000 south of Thailand Tel: 074 311821 Small-scale Fisheries 57/216 Kehasathan Solving problems facing Songkhla Lake area Community Development Khrutai Village Tambol small-scale fisheries, (Amphur Hat Yai), Pawong pressure group, resource Amphur Muang, Amphur Muang and environmental Amphur Jana, Amphur Songkhla 90000 management Ranode, Songkhla Tel: 074 333 114 Lae Tai Project to Rehabilitate 68 Mu 4 Tambol Ku Management of natural Songkhla Lake Songkhla Lake Khud, Amphur resource and the (Songkhla and Pattalung Satingpra, Songkhla environment areas) 90190 or 56/9 Soi Pian Phiboon Apai Boriruk Road Tambol Kuha Sawan Amphur Muang Pattalung 93000 Wildlife Fund Thailand 57/6 Paknam Road, Management of natural Pattani Bay and Nongjik (Under the Royal Patronage of Tambol Sabarang, resource and environment area of Pattani H.M. the Queen, Wetland and Amphur Muang, concerning small-scale Coastal Conservation Pattani 94000 fisheries’ problems Project Tel: 333 227 The Ruk Kukhud Committee 61/1 Mu 3 Tambol Management of local Tambol Kukhud Jatigpra, Amphur Natural resource and Amphur Satingpra of Satingpra, Songkhla Environment (15 local Songkhla and area 90190 volunteers fully Surrounding Songkhla Lake participating in resource protection Small-scale Fishery n.a. Nine groups supported by Villages as they settle Development Group the Department of Fisheries and Provincial Authority in facilities and budget for improving livelihoods Study Center and Development of Prince of Songkhla Providing knowledge on Pattani Bay Pattani Bay University, Pattani legal aspects and fishery Campus, Amphur management Muang, Pattani 94000 Tel: 334 871 Small-scale Fishery Network 57/6 Paknam Road, Working on fishery Pattani Project under Earth Island Tambol Sabarang, resources and Association Amphur Muang, environment problems in Pattani 94000 cooperation with the Tel: 333 227 Wildlife Fund Thailand Strengthening Capacity of Non- 693 Department of Working on fishery Amphur Ta Chana of government Organizations under Medical Science, resource and environment Surat Thani, Amphur the Bamrung Muang problems Sichol and Pak Phanang of Local Community Development Road, Pomparb, Nakon Sri Institute Bangkok 10100 Thammarat Tel: 2236713, 2257293 Small-scale Fisheries 57/6 Pak Nam Road, Working as coordinating Southern provinces Association of Southern center for groups of small- Thailand scale fishing communities Tambol Sabarang, in the southern provinces Amphur Muang, Pattani 94000 Tel: 333 227 Source: Department of Fishery and Lae Tai magazine (various issues) Note: District = Amphur, Sub-district = Tambol

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There are also various businesses and private organisations working directly with collective activities, and indirectly through provision of financial support. Private organisations dealing with coral reefs include the Siam Diving Association, the Thai Diver Company, and other local business groups. Their activities are conducted along Thailand’s coasts, often in collaboration with the Tourism Authority of Thailand, National Park officers from the Royal Department, and local academic institutions (Table 26).

Table 26 Natural resources and environmental protection and conservation programs under the Wildlife Fund Thailand and corresponding activities.

Name of the Project/Program Activities Thailand Coastal Wetland Resources Project, program Short-necked clam conservation at Tambol Pana Reh, Pattani for conservation of wetland and coastal zone (Pattani Community mangrove reforestation at and Phuket) Nongjik, Pattani and Thlang, Phuket Coastal zoning for seagrass conservation at Nonjik, Pattani and surrounding areas Program for village conservation of sea turtle Promotion of sea turtle conservation program (Mai Khao Beach at Phuket) Through media, exhibition, and youth camp, in collaboration with education institutes Study visit of youth group from Mai Khao, Phuket to observe a sea turtle conservation program at Thlang, Phuket Program for conservation of wetland areas (Samut Survey of base map on land use developing, flora and fauna at Songkram) the site where the site where the center is located Program for rehabilitation of coastal resources and Community training on seaweed conservation small-scale organization (Tamblo Pha Klog, project, Tambol Pah Klog Amphur Talang, Phuket) Community training on mangrove conservation project, Tambol Pah Klog Placement of signs for conservation zoning of coastal resources Meeting of small-scale fishing community leaders (Pattani, Songkhla, Trang, and Pattalung) Program for strengthening capacity of local communities Data gathering on socioeconomic, ecological system, and in wetland and coastal resource management natural resources of the community, NGOs in collaboration with local scholars and lectures at Prince of Songkhla University, Pattani Campus Formulation of local groups to further formulate network of small-scale fishermen in other provinces including Pattani, Trang, Songkhla, Surat Thani, Phang Nga, Krabi, Phuket, Pattalung, Nakorn Si Thammarat, Chumphon, and others. Source: Wildlife Fund Thailand1996 (unpublished documents) and Lae Tai magazine (various issues).

Case Study

The following cases are reviewed from published and unpublished documents, mostly obtained from NGOs. Additional information is obtained from personal communication with NGO staff. The cases include Pattani Bay and Amphur Pana Reh of Pattani.

Case study: Pattani Bay and Amphur Pana Reh, Pattani

Pattani Bay covers a total area of 74km2 facing the Gulf of Thailand to the west. With its estuarine area for the Yaring and Pattani Rivers, the bay is rich with natural resources, abundant mangrove forests and nursery areas for fishery resources. The community at Pattani Bay is mostly living at Tambol Lam Pho of the Bay in 4 villages, including Bang Dato, Ban Talo Samilae, Ban Kampong Budee, and Ban Pata Budee. The community is mainly Moslem and their main livelihood is small- scale fishing.

The coastal area of 15km2, about 2,000 m from the coastline of Amphur Phanare, Pattani is abundant with short-necked clams. The Department of Fisheries (DOF) estimated that the available resources could be valued up to 500 million baht (Lae Tai 12). In March 1992, concessions for short-necked clam fisheries in Amphur Pana Reh were given by the DOF to 30 fishing boats. However, the concessionaire boats entered into the 3-km zone reserved for small-scale fisheries. As such, in April 1992 local people, religious leaders, and village leaders protested and requested the governor not to allow the concession of short-necked clam fisheries in Amphur Pana Reh. As a result, the concession was successfully stopped.

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On 28 July 1992, the Pana Reh Coastal Fisheries Association was established as a people’s organisation with the objective of conserving and rehabilitating coastal resources in Amphur Pana Reh. Its ultimate goal is to improve the living conditions of the small-scale fishers in Pana Reh in a sustainable manner.

Problem: Declining fishery resources in the Bay caused by large-scale fishing, including trawlers and push nets operated within the 3-km zone.

Involvement of local organisations: The Association of Small-scale Fishermen was established in March 1993 through the exchange of information and discussion among villagers in solving problems regarding the degradation of fishery resources. The sub-district leader of Tambol Lam Pho chairs the association with members from 4 villages of Lam Pho. The Pattani Bay Rehabilitation Organisation was later established in September 1993.

Programmes and activities: • The “Pattani Bay Conservation” Day was established on 11 May 1993. The activities for this day, in collaboration with government agencies, included the placement of conservation zones for fishery resources and seaweed, and for the release of shrimp and fish juveniles into the Bay. • A study visit of 850 member representatives was organised from 14 to 16 June 1993. The trip to Pattalung, Trang, Phang Nga, and Phuket was aimed at representatives observing, discussing, and exchanging information with local people who were actively working on coastal conservation programmess. • Survey of coastal resources at Lam Tachi bay was conducted from 21 to 25 June 1993 by fishers and divers from the Wildlife Fund of Thailand. The data collected were prepared to support government agencies in planning for future coastal resource development and management of the bay. • Mangrove planting was arranged by the association with close collaboration of the regional forestry office of Pattani in August 1993. The objective was to rehabilitate the existing mangrove area to become the community forest area for the villagers of Ban Dato and Ban Talo Samilae. • A seminar on “Past, Present, and Future of Pattani Bay” was convened from 5 to 6 September 1993 in order for the concerned parties, government, non-government, and local communities to discuss future plans for sustainable coastal resource management in Pattani Bay. On 6 September, the Pattani Bay Rehabilitation Organisation was established as the result of the seminar.

Fisher Associations and Non-Government Organisations

There are 47 registered fisher associations in the Gulf of Thailand region. 44 associations are members of the National Fisheries Association of Thailand, which acts as a central organisation for stakeholders concerned with marine fisheries, including fisheries officials, private sector representatives, fisher organisations, and fishers themselves. The aims of these organisations are to guide the development of the fishing industry. Fishers associations have been categorised as follow:

- National organisations: 7 - Provincial organisations: 12 - Local organisations: 25

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At present small-scale fisher groups have been established to monitor coastal resources and promote responsible fishing. The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries has been introduced to fishers. Hence, in 2002, the National Fisheries Association of Thailand encouraged fishers to become members of the association. This association can be used to build the capacity of fishers to become stewards of their resources.

National Fisheries Association of Thailand

Objective: 1. Promote fishing and standard of living of fishers 2. Promote unity among fisher associations in Thailand 3. Promote fishing extension and technologies 4. Train fishers 5. Promote public activities 6. Non-political activities

Activities of the National Fisheries Association of Thailand 1. Fishing extension • Conduct joint projects with neighboring countries for fishing group extension • Conduct co-operative projects with the government sector to provide discounted fuel to fishers • Conduct co-operative projects with the government sector to ban destructive fishing gears, including pushnet, and control the number of some fishing gears such as trawls, anchovies lift net/falling net 2. Comment on fisheries • Comment to the government sector regarding fishing regulations relating to fishing zones and fishing seasons 3. Focal point for fisheries association • Disseminate fisheries information to fisheries associations • Arrange committee meetings • Promote knowledge and fishing technology • On-site meetings for solving fisheries problems

National Organisations 1. Oceanic Fisheries Association of Thailand 2. Fishmeal Producer Association of Thailand 3. Nakorn Si Thammarat Trawler Association 4. Fisheries Export and Aquaculture Extension Association of Thailand 5. Central Gillnet Association 6. Southern Gillnet Association 7. Frozen Food Association of Thailand

Provincial Organisations 1. Cholburi Fisheries Association 2. Nakorn Si Thammarat Fisheries Association 3. Paknam Chumphon Fishermen Association 4. Pattani Fisheries Association 5. Petchaburi Fishermen Association 6. Rayong Fisheries Association 7. Samut Prakan Fisheries Association 8. Samut Sakorn Fisheries Association 9. Samut Songkram Fisheries Association 10. Surat Thani Fishermen Association 11. Songkhla Fishermen Association 12. Trat Fisheries Association

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Local Organisations

1. Kanom District Fisheries Association Nakorn Si Thammarat Province 2. Klongyai Fisheries Association Trat Province 3. Klongwan Fisheries Association PrachupKiri Khan Province 4. Fishermen Association Surathani Province 5. Dansawi Fishermen Association Chumporn Province 6. Thamai District Fishermen Association Chantaburi Province 7. Banleam District Fishermen Association Petchaburi Province 8. Banphe Fisheries Association Rayong Province 9. Paktago Fishermen Association Chumporn Province 11. Paknam Prasae Fishermen Association Rayong Province 12. Pakpanang Fishermen Association Nakorn Si Thammarat Province 13. Pranburi Fisheries Association PrachupKiri Khan Province 14. Sunthornpu Fisheries Association Rayong Province 15. Sichon District Fishermen Association Nakorn Si Thammarat Province 16. Hua Hin Fishermen Association Prachup Khiri Khan Province 17. Leamsing Fisheries Association Chantaburi Province 18. Angsila Fisheries Association Chonburi Province 19. Paknampangrad Fishermen Association Rayong Province 20. Bangjakreng Fisheries Cooperative Samutsongkram Province 21. Banleam Fisheries Cooperative Petchaburi Provin ce 22. Pattani Fisheries Cooperative Pattani Province 23. Maeklong Fisheries Cooperative Samut songkram Province 24. Samutsakorn Fisheries Cooperative Samut sakorn Province 25. Bangsalae Fishing Group Chonburi Province

6. PROBLEMS, CONSTRAINTS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS

6.1 Problems and Constraints

The rapid development of marine fisheries in Thailand has mainly been a result of intensive exploitation of marine fisheries resources, without systematic management and rehabilitation of the resources, often leading to conflicts between resource users. Marine fisheries resources, which had once served as key contributing factors to national economic prosperity, have now become constraints for future development that must be carefully taken into consideration. In particular, demersal and many groups of pelagic resources are rapidly being degraded, resulting in decreases in their distribution and abundance. Similarly, coastal habitats, particularly mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs have also been damaged by natural phenomena, human activities, and economic factors, particularly fisheries and tourism.

It is clear from this review that marine fisheries resources have been overexploited for more than 3 decades. Therefore, appropriate management actions at various levels need to be taken. Fisheries management has been contained as one of the most important strategies since the Fourth (1977 to 1981) to the Ninth (2002 to 2006) National Economic and Social Development Plans. The main policy is to reduce excessive fishing effort levels to that appropriate toward achieving optimal sustainable yields from resources, and to protect and rehabilitate important habitats and environments. The Standing Committee on National Fisheries Policy, chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister, has approved these strategies. This reflects the Government’s policy commitment to overcome these problems.

Although fisheries management has existed for some time, the government has not yet been able to ban destructive fishing gears and reduce excessive fishing effort, mostly due to potential economic, social, and political implications. Moreover, the MCS system has not been effective, mainly due to the lack of understanding and participation by the fishing community and fishers themselves. Many fishers have little awareness of resource conservation, concentrating mainly on immediate income needs associated with their socioeconomic situations. Coordination among the Department of Fisheries, fishing communities/associations, and the various other governmental agencies concerned is also considered poor. These problems require solving.

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6.2 Recommendations

In order to conserve and manage marine fisheries resources and their habitats, it is urgent that the government express strong political will and commitment through implementing the approved action plans contained in the National Fisheries Policy. There are a number of other recommended actions at national and regional levels requiring attention, these include: 1. Development of strategic plans of studies and utilisation of living resources; studies on biology and dynamics of important fish stocks; conservation and protection of marine environment against pollution from any sources; fishery resources investigation service; fishing activities research and development; management and conservation of living resources; development of regulations of fisheries and alternative use strategies for living resources. 2. Periodical determination of the total allowable fishing effort and catch of fish in the respective fishing areas, or from respective fish stocks, based on the best scientific evidence, provisions set forth in international agreements and resolutions of international organisations where Thailand is a member State. 3. To undertake a review and expedite amendment of laws, rules, and regulations concerned with the conservation and management of fishery resources and environment and to ensure that they are compatible with relevant regional and international instruments as well as to ensure promoting more coordination for active participation of other department in fisheries management. 4. Improvement of fisheries information and catch and effort statistics in the fishing grounds both inside and outside Thai waters and to strengthen socio-economic information, which will be of value in supporting improved fisheries management measures. 5. To promote awareness building and the participation of fishers, fisher associations, and fishing industry stakeholders in the planning process and implementation of fisheries management measures; education and training for the people concerned must be provided and regular meetings for evaluation and improvement are needed. 6. In order to reduce the problem of open access in fisheries, demarcation of fishing zones for various sizes and type of fishing boats/gears, zones, seagrass meadows, and conservation zones should be established with agreement among stakeholders concerned. The introduction of right-based fisheries, community-based fishery management, as well as resource enhancement programs through installation of artificial reefs should be created and strengthened for the optimal use of inshore waters as agreed at the ASEAN-SEAFDEC Conference: Fish for People. 7. Fisheries MCS is a vital mechanism for strengthening fisheries management. It needs to be modernised and strengthened, and training for the officers concerned is necessary. 8. One of the problems in tropical multi-species fisheries is the by-catch and discards that require reduction, the development and introduction of appropriate selective fishing gear, as well as technologies for at sea fish processing should be considered in order to reduce by-catch and waste.

Considering the geographical distribution and migration of fisheries resources, it is being increasingly recognised that effective management of the resources has to be conducted at 2 levels, national and regional. National management should be concerned with the actual implementation of the various policies created for instituting sustained development, while regional management should seek to identify common issues and facilitate resolution for the benefit of the coastal States of the region as a whole.

It is evident that a number of fish stocks, both pelagic and demersal resources in the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea, move freely from EEZs of one country to another, or straddle the boundaries of 2 or more countries. The exploitation of those resources may be shared by the neighbouring countries. Therefore, improved understanding of the biology, dynamics, and the state of stocks is required to facilitate the establishment of appropriate management plans.

For evolving regional level management measures, the following actions may be necessary: i) formation of a strong regional body to design regional policies; ii) development of a mechanism to strengthen national management measures; iii) identification of the regional changes in fisheries, especially the shared stocks and periodically advising the member countries; iv) provision of strong scientific support for fisheries development by imparting training on technological changes; v)

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development of a system for communication, exchange of data and interaction on management experiences among the member countries; vi) promotion of compatibility and consensus among the countries in sharing the stock assessment studies; and vii) generation of adequate funds for implementing the management program.

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APPENDIX 1

Rates of Exchange of Commercial Bank in Bangkok Metropolis (Baht per currency unit)

Year Baht per one U.S. dollar Baht per one U.S. dollar Reference rate 1/ Buying Selling

1982 22.9000 23.0500 23.0000 1983 22.9000 23.0500 23.0000 1984 23.5392 23.6892 23.6393 1985 27.0593 27.2093 27.1594 1986 26.1991 26.3491 26.2992 1987 25.6359 25.7859 25.7353 1988 25.1941 25.3441 25.2940 1989 25.6020 25.7520 25.7020 1990 25.4960 25.6360 25.5854 1991 25.4157 25.5657 25.5166 1992 25.3203 25.4553 25.3999 1993 25.2197 25.3697 25.3196 1994 25.0498 25.1998 25.1498 1995 24.8151 24.9651 24.9151 1996 25.2439 25.3939 25.3439 1997 31.1542 31.4817 31.3723 1998 41.0276 41.5850 41.3709 1999 37.6172 37.9618 37.8405 2000 39.9535 40.2694 40.1621 1/ Prior to July 1997, the figures were the rate of the Exchange Equalization Fund (EEF) Source : Bank of Thailand

Table 1a Indo-Pacific mackerel caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 69,866 5,141 12,259 29,238 11,752 3,780 3,837 3,859 1991 55,169 1,494 1,091 17,722 23,929 0 9,865 1,068 1992 88,308 4,126 24,924 38,254 4,972 214 7,510 8,308 1993 68,025 2,553 824 44,944 5,048 360 3,613 10,683 1994 73,944 3,679 19,595 33,230 6,989 14 7,441 2,996 1995 105,323 1,269 34,261 36,530 9,624 74 9,126 14,439 1996 86,617 4,825 32,677 26,525 2,760 0 15,267 4,563 1997 84,620 4,273 31,442 24,105 6,637 0 13,600 4,563 1998 91,943 2,130 25,569 38,459 13,719 0 6,699 5,367 1999 111,366 1,450 27,253 37,336 2,196 0 15,006 27,125 2000 107,667 1,524 21,509 38,699 1,445 0 11,716 32,774 Avg. 85,713 2,951 21,037 33,186 8,097 404 9,425 10,522

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Table 1b Indian mackerel caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 20,922 5,577 1,550 8,120 1,549 3,658 419 49 1991 16,269 8,011 969 6,523 757 0 1 8 1992 29,353 9,639 132 8,156 436 10,506 337 147 1993 33,882 7,633 1,303 4,887 1,094 16,018 979 1,968 1994 49,235 31,645 316 5,188 2,073 9,913 100 0 1995 43,697 7,017 42 4,287 1,643 28,511 1,055 1,142 1996 19,934 3,080 505 4,802 2,607 6,635 2,228 77 1997 18,352 2,748 482 4,519 2,525 5,972 1,994 112 1998 18,475 2,519 2,176 7,437 4,539 0 1,474 330 1999 25,984 1,856 5,446 10,707 3,805 1,011 1,775 1,384 2000 20,561 1,737 1,484 9,953 2,532 657 2,516 1,682 Avg. 26,969 7,406 1,310 6,780 2,142 7,535 1,171 627

Table 1c Spanish mackerel caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 9,223 1,507 393 2,780 2,212 1,379 692 260 1991 6,118 670 205 1,886 1,675 0 1,235 447 1992 6,711 1,017 229 1,271 1,545 104 1,172 1,373 1993 9,568 1,275 212 1,572 1,733 150 1,642 2,984 1994 8,537 2,288 109 947 727 604 1,482 2,380 1995 9,258 1,603 231 1,121 1,174 376 2,513 2,240 1996 8,205 885 370 2,170 1,834 29 2,243 674 1997 7,654 794 358 1,962 1,661 26 1,942 911 1998 7,516 440 767 1,384 3,193 0 807 925 1999 7,922 303 702 1,024 2,430 339 1,180 1,520 2000 6,516 135 607 1,232 1,418 248 1,590 1,539 Avg. 7,930 992 380 1,577 1,782 296 1,500 1,387

Table 1d Longtail tuna caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 101,293 2,642 1,869 5,413 15,416 67,284 4,658 4,011 1991 79,186 4,754 6,521 2,327 2,053 0 63,531 0 1992 72,276 617 2,145 569 3,466 398 3,467 61,614 1993 39,395 1,261 1,300 2,095 3,140 2,131 8,561 20,907 1994 31,767 10,457 14,428 1,900 1,655 865 1,495 967 1995 38,746 7 1,537 850 2,256 351 18,359 15,386 1996 32,235 111 1,732 764 2,795 285 17,672 8,876 1997 29,016 100 1,560 688 2,516 256 15,906 7,990 1998 34,715 1,463 1,102 2,077 4,215 0 12,135 13,723 1999 45,736 339 1,497 1,232 3,290 329 11,710 27,339 2000 52,978 44 1,490 1,280 1,442 219 6,342 42,161 Avg. 50,668 1,981 3,198 1,745 3,840 6,556 14,894 18,452

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Table 1e Little tuna caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 54,915 5,150 1,089 2,777 20,628 14,599 9,799 873 1991 58,763 6,134 270 2,087 3,876 0 46,396 0 1992 84,887 6,707 25 3,827 2,125 7,425 15,074 49,704 1993 67,402 5,691 0 2,895 2,086 9,286 13,784 33,660 1994 67,817 38,960 0 4,224 1,588 15,561 7,272 212 1995 48,117 3,568 0 382 2,781 17,819 9,458 14,109 1996 47,125 926 341 2,643 2,118 8,324 27,569 5,204 1997 42,557 833 307 2,380 2,049 7,491 24,814 4,683 1998 43,930 548 303 592 4,655 0 20,211 17,621 1999 56,681 137 35 712 3,171 1,209 12,947 38,470 2000 43,988 109 80 1,110 1,897 830 11,538 30,424 Avg. 56,017 6,251 223 2,148 4,270 7,504 18,078 17,724

Table 1f Round scad caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 10,676 232 218 997 1,418 72 7,739 0 1991 22,747 53 4 448 898 0 21,344 0 1992 42,525 3,266 795 577 1,297 3,722 32,868 0 1993 46,186 1,380 0 2 892 5,947 37,884 81 1994 38,394 4,753 0 204 0 1,696 31,741 0 1995 54,633 502 0 948 0 7,744 35,755 9,684 1996 52,640 239 0 0 34 2,541 37,370 12,456 1997 47,379 215 0 0 31 2,287 33,634 11,212 1998 57,893 0 0 279 0 0 37,051 20,563 1999 56,461 0 102 2,207 0 2,643 51,071 438 2000 67,902 470 8,321 5,608 0 1,605 51,733 165 Avg. 45,221 1,010 858 1,025 415 2,569 34,381 4,964

Table 1g Hardtail scad caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 13,663 1,447 707 3,451 4,074 806 3,168 10 1991 11,941 5,537 1 383 2,171 0 3,424 425 1992 17,775 530 449 917 1,299 1,915 12,665 0 1993 18,345 1,282 15 241 1,214 3,665 7,053 4,875 1994 20,532 4,707 5 61 1,737 1,843 8,716 3,463 1995 9,474 1,002 3 243 1,096 3,710 2,309 1,111 1996 4,412 858 81 0 929 817 1,421 306 1997 3,947 750 69 0 837 736 1,279 276 1998 7,499 260 471 2,906 391 0 3,172 299 1999 6,232 37 259 1,168 409 340 4,019 0 2000 6,185 35 194 932 0 139 4,885 0 Avg. 10,910 1,495 205 937 1,287 1,270 4,737 979

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 1 PAGE 4

Table 1h Bigeye scad caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 21,548 2,823 311 6,715 3,415 512 7,670 102 1991 15,462 692 166 1,315 2,394 0 10,895 0 1992 21,851 876 45 1,920 974 1,340 16,660 36 1993 19,581 1,295 51 540 1,190 2,960 13,544 1 1994 37,080 4,532 87 963 2,347 708 28,427 16 1995 36,449 2,376 77 1,395 2,144 4,388 20,158 5,911 1996 24,533 152 98 6,439 2,156 1,276 10,676 3,736 1997 22,188 136 96 5,799 1,946 1,149 9,495 3,567 1998 24,931 487 406 2,074 1,640 0 18,302 2,022 1999 26,029 103 4,093 9,093 2,274 548 8,206 1,712 2000 29,075 342 6,971 6,518 1,259 535 11,273 2,177 Avg. 25,339 1,256 1,127 3,888 1,976 1,220 14,119 1,753

Table 1i Trevallies caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 36,186 3,007 15,582 9,911 5,154 1,136 887 509 1991 34,574 2,847 21,478 5,254 4,470 0 501 24 1992 41,281 3,416 26,566 2,521 3,590 2,232 2,670 286 1993 40,913 1,498 14,782 13,750 4,963 329 2,347 3,244 1994 54,546 5,711 27,375 8,564 6,734 33 4,798 1,331 1995 46,485 2,657 18,993 1,646 6,942 5,917 7,386 2,944 1996 43,643 3,586 15,729 9,093 6,221 1,142 5,577 2,295 1997 40,731 3,167 14,239 8,193 6,718 1,028 4,805 2,581 1998 33,346 3,818 7,159 6,831 5,851 0 7,495 2,192 1999 35,217 1,743 9,715 8,824 4,705 83 7,224 2,923 2000 30,744 573 12,064 6,007 2,968 62 6,245 2,825 Avg. 39,788 2,911 16,698 7,327 5,301 1,087 4,540 1,923

Table 1j Sardines caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 90,789 14,555 9,276 26,428 20,356 11,746 8,428 0 1991 114,472 7,941 3,120 49,214 7,911 0 46,286 0 1992 141,422 8,689 12,966 66,568 5,699 1,944 45,556 0 1993 112,620 4,558 1,456 67,309 5,503 7,114 19,974 6,706 1994 123,700 5,375 4,785 98,939 7,533 2,195 4,873 0 1995 137,965 1,534 7,239 116,703 6,687 5,517 0 285 1996 159,071 928 5,686 131,712 11,769 862 6,087 2,027 1997 149,177 836 5,742 118,541 15,978 776 5,479 1,825 1998 124,907 1,997 2,447 98,376 12,248 0 8,925 914 1999 126,040 349 17,898 89,088 9,921 220 8,564 0 2000 120,571 412 38,233 78,232 2,528 276 890 0 Avg. 127,339 4,289 9,895 85,555 9,648 2,786 14,097 1,069

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Table 1k Anchovies caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 118,707 107,072 2,493 9,063 39 40 0 0 1991 110,013 52,675 2,579 54,719 1 0 0 39 1992 120,211 72,600 1,978 43,634 86 1,551 156 206 1993 116,648 61,282 5,575 49,119 56 1 80 535 1994 97,343 33,156 1,666 58,812 138 0 1,145 2,426 1995 116,180 62,137 1,214 48,654 39 2 881 3,253 1996 115,217 45,396 3,030 59,858 3,819 0 1,529 1,585 1997 111,482 42,880 2,767 59,149 3,607 0 1,430 1,649 1998 115,747 44,391 3,956 60,541 4,631 0 843 1,385 1999 96,877 37,831 1,017 50,964 5,780 0 466 839 2000 113,665 51,503 2,216 51,967 5,694 0 1,195 1,090 Avg. 112,008 55,538 2,590 49,680 2,172 145 702 1,182

Table 2a Threadfin breams caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 23,583 5,765 829 5,237 4,583 658 4,373 2,138 1991 33,044 12,125 1,030 5,360 8,621 0 220 5,688 1992 51,259 13,187 1,481 5,089 4,451 25 9,661 17,365 1993 57,452 13,007 1,656 3,683 9,192 825 8,334 20,755 1994 55,551 17,610 2,056 3,963 12,167 303 4,785 14,667 1995 71,064 8,671 1,865 5,104 15,306 1,352 22,280 16,486 1996 64,077 7,663 1,055 1,205 5,737 0 27,515 20,902 1997 62,441 6,896 1,006 1,086 5,226 0 24,125 24,102 1998 59,225 5,928 2,833 2,423 7,947 0 17,827 22,267 1999 69,866 5,740 2,011 3,087 6,181 0 22,207 30,640 2000 73,892 6,838 1,552 4,487 6,661 0 19,392 34,962 Avg. 56,496 9,403 1,579 3,702 7,825 288 14,611 19,088

Table 2b Lizard fishes caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 12,985 1,985 492 3,846 2,056 528 3,068 1,010 1991 19,994 3,992 504 4,101 4,842 0 217 6,338 1992 30,789 3,617 458 5,037 2,564 8 8,774 10,331 1993 42,485 4,430 1,206 4,828 4,351 463 12,063 15,144 1994 34,973 5,828 861 3,751 4,715 121 8,741 10,956 1995 58,482 2,643 1,096 5,012 5,094 1,574 9,607 33,456 1996 51,004 2,870 1,471 626 7,673 0 18,704 19,660 1997 62,397 2,610 1,404 572 6,934 0 12,295 38,582 1998 35,289 1,832 945 1,323 9,083 0 8,536 13,570 1999 60,534 2,224 541 2,374 6,998 0 8,966 39,431 2000 52,601 1,826 561 1,131 4,079 0 7,327 37,677 Avg. 41,958 3,078 867 2,964 5,308 245 8,936 20,560

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Table 2c Snappers caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 3,154 196 210 113 1,105 138 609 783 1991 2,633 397 256 195 1,014 0 0 771 1992 4,977 517 162 205 67 0 704 3,322 1993 10,676 448 194 248 573 41 619 8,553 1994 7,977 606 8 296 1,420 69 513 5,065 1995 8,658 391 165 244 2,035 54 991 4,778 1996 8,962 221 235 181 3,284 2 2,360 2,679 1997 8,383 206 226 165 2,970 2 1,720 3,094 1998 11,360 725 193 373 1,974 0 5,586 2,509 1999 8,470 155 121 600 2,409 0 1,451 3,734 2000 5,207 151 227 331 1,228 0 887 2,383 Avg. 7,314 365 182 268 1,644 28 1,404 3,425

Table 2d Big-eyes caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 19,438 4,618 954 4,350 6,509 622 1,876 509 1991 24,899 8,213 882 4,335 6,380 0 327 4,762 1992 36,221 9,062 323 4,165 2,504 153 10,745 9,269 1993 49,710 10,994 759 2,918 11,560 971 8,600 13,908 1994 44,674 13,607 843 2,797 12,696 281 4,686 9,764 1995 57,723 7,807 672 3,895 12,048 1,396 15,809 16,096 1996 67,411 7,445 810 1,558 21,173 0 26,418 10,007 1997 62,673 6,695 770 1,426 19,249 0 23,521 11,012 1998 64,871 4,095 2,052 1,847 20,995 0 16,417 19,465 1999 71,065 4,610 1,774 3,080 16,111 0 19,223 26,267 2000 65,166 5,629 1,102 3,238 12,586 0 15,800 26,811 Avg. 51,259 7,525 995 3,055 12,892 311 13,038 13,443

Table 2e caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 1,156 163 84 247 156 100 341 65 1991 1,537 348 107 339 452 0 11 280 1992 2,666 510 129 277 162 0 1,171 417 1993 2,742 448 152 209 613 63 479 778 1994 5,598 721 34 193 2,015 35 572 2,028 1995 5,257 352 136 310 1,677 51 798 1,933 1996 5,662 277 201 153 2,721 0 1,463 847 1997 5,515 253 194 140 2,475 0 1,130 1,323 1998 4,904 196 166 304 1,501 0 1,148 1,589 1999 5,420 228 140 586 1,028 0 1,260 2,178 2000 4,843 233 225 258 708 0 1,169 2,250 Avg. 4,118 339 143 274 1,228 23 867 1,244

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Table 3a Banana prawn caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 1,652 271 465 162 248 0 494 12 1991 1,494 542 307 290 328 0 20 7 1992 2,089 154 441 338 372 0 181 603 1993 1,734 341 632 365 354 15 27 0 1994 2,431 1,247 328 449 365 0 36 6 1995 2,445 88 623 384 307 0 1,022 21 1996 1,429 48 558 297 302 0 204 20 1997 1,354 48 532 267 300 0 187 20 1998 2,342 47 418 154 644 0 1,023 56 1999 2,339 135 769 219 401 0 89 726 2000 3,651 91 983 936 728 0 130 783 Avg. 2,087 274 551 351 395 1 310 205

Table 3b Jumbo tiger prawns caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 59 10 23 25 0 0 0 1 1991 135 29 49 41 15 0 1 0 1992 154 0 37 73 44 0 0 0 1993 167 4 35 59 45 19 5 0 1994 363 61 34 140 124 0 3 1 1995 317 3 12 189 101 0 12 0 1996 527 13 50 201 153 0 92 18 1997 495 13 50 180 149 0 85 18 1998 253 7 73 73 31 0 22 47 1999 829 60 37 64 104 0 15 549 2000 1,096 32 59 371 63 0 43 528 Avg. 400 21 42 129 75 2 25 106

Table 3c Tiger prawns caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 245 83 7 118 6 0 31 0 1991 319 159 2 121 18 0 19 0 1992 283 168 0 79 0 0 36 0 1993 308 185 0 70 13 0 40 0 1994 543 230 0 81 85 0 78 69 1995 670 139 0 45 61 0 215 210 1996 1,041 159 3 75 68 0 579 157 1997 1,023 144 3 73 68 0 406 329 1998 839 81 2 118 60 0 176 402 1999 587 156 0 20 136 0 146 129 2000 713 124 18 35 187 0 188 161 Avg. 597 148 3 76 64 0 174 132

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Table 3d King prawns caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 644 187 71 192 166 0 28 0 1991 1,029 212 84 371 350 0 12 0 1992 592 114 16 425 24 0 13 0 1993 400 109 15 267 6 0 3 0 1994 308 9 109 170 7 0 10 3 1995 368 61 0 167 94 0 3 43 1996 498 10 47 232 95 0 71 43 1997 500 10 47 216 89 0 59 79 1998 440 5 133 49 153 0 18 82 1999 287 20 74 134 46 0 4 9 2000 948 11 93 717 53 0 27 47 Avg. 547 68 63 267 98 0 23 28

Table 3e Other shrimps caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 58,110 1,772 7,589 11,115 36,418 39 1,069 108 1991 69,486 950 11,067 24,305 32,084 0 723 357 1992 61,195 647 13,032 17,536 27,782 82 1,382 734 1993 63,815 1,619 13,509 21,919 23,758 305 1,165 1,450 1994 64,314 547 12,570 19,089 29,423 0 1,195 1,490 1995 65,774 240 17,437 10,449 34,077 0 1,787 1,784 1996 68,639 371 12,528 11,496 35,844 0 7,984 416 1997 65,140 353 11,753 10,210 34,765 0 7,167 892 1998 43,078 659 9,794 7,537 21,356 0 1,601 2,131 1999 32,908 971 9,054 5,463 14,846 0 250 2,324 2000 36,891 1,022 9,399 5,969 15,548 0 2,462 2,491 Avg. 57,214 832 11,612 13,190 27,809 39 2,435 1,289

Table 3f Flathead lobsters caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 853 103 94 179 260 17 166 34 1991 923 20 170 56 436 0 11 230 1992 766 11 27 48 82 0 369 229 1993 1,053 119 55 262 167 5 163 282 1994 858 47 33 52 201 0 162 363 1995 1,669 10 117 20 311 0 113 1,098 1996 2,629 57 328 167 1,156 0 357 564 1997 2,687 57 311 152 1,050 0 285 832 1998 2,957 29 368 109 1,038 0 491 922 1999 1,746 3 12 66 646 0 83 936 2000 2,254 2 61 157 575 0 289 1,170 Avg. 1,672 42 143 115 538 2 226 605

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Table 3g Mantis shrimps caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 314 66 72 107 45 0 15 9 1991 382 17 9 305 37 0 0 14 1992 165 10 2 117 6 0 16 14 1993 166 25 8 109 9 0 2 13 1994 296 77 20 180 8 0 3 8 1995 184 63 37 64 11 0 6 3 1996 181 26 65 46 37 0 7 0 1997 176 25 65 45 34 0 7 0 1998 427 2 163 1 60 0 57 144 1999 750 4 387 269 76 0 12 3 2000 866 17 223 609 4 0 13 0 Avg. 355 30 96 168 30 0 13 19

Table 3h Swimming crabs caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 9,993 595 4,213 1,609 3,035 169 302 70 1991 6,532 683 731 2,576 2,052 0 132 358 1992 5,942 497 1,155 1,841 1,176 168 803 302 1993 6,733 559 756 2,043 2,522 61 524 268 1994 8,709 539 834 2,094 4,243 0 552 447 1995 9,321 425 889 997 4,852 4 726 1,428 1996 12,285 569 1,229 1,998 6,360 0 1,517 612 1997 11,408 515 1,166 1,804 5,875 0 1,330 718 1998 9,183 213 707 1,243 5,273 0 1,250 497 1999 7,008 163 588 998 4,311 0 605 340 2000 8,577 187 669 1,236 5,368 0 710 407 Avg. 8,699 450 1,176 1,676 4,097 37 768 495

Table 3i Common squids caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 35,048 6,775 2,064 8,367 12,877 1,759 2,463 743 1991 33,915 5,826 1,910 9,752 14,413 0 338 1,676 1992 29,243 4,707 2,056 6,258 7,893 706 3,207 4,416 1993 35,257 6,084 1,782 5,157 13,078 1,272 2,910 4,974 1994 33,166 5,842 1,771 4,780 12,957 241 2,520 5,055 1995 38,431 4,427 1,759 4,314 12,393 2,165 5,607 7,766 1996 37,802 4,556 2,002 3,473 10,551 0 8,883 8,337 1997 35,773 4,092 1,879 3,168 9,677 0 7,799 9,158 1998 34,442 2,839 2,205 4,207 10,342 0 5,681 9,168 1999 40,246 3,592 3,012 3,875 9,422 0 7,276 13,069 2000 48,911 3,722 5,339 9,235 8,190 0 9,532 12,893 Avg. 36,567 4,769 2,344 5,690 11,072 558 5,111 7,023

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Table 3j Cuttlefish caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 37,352 3,924 2,036 10,039 16,085 725 3,620 923 1991 41,645 5,680 4,449 11,125 15,334 0 464 4,593 1992 39,321 7,767 2,866 7,831 7,853 282 6,780 5,942 1993 36,574 5,673 1,766 7,505 10,938 645 5,141 4,906 1994 34,342 4,963 1,433 6,317 12,229 81 4,146 5,173 1995 37,190 3,296 2,006 5,344 11,874 778 4,385 9,507 1996 37,640 2,787 2,271 2,905 9,643 0 9,232 10,802 1997 37,439 2,494 2,138 2,643 8,840 0 7,655 13,669 1998 36,928 2,310 2,039 2,992 10,699 0 5,762 13,126 1999 37,945 2,594 2,417 2,366 8,716 0 6,498 15,354 2000 35,841 2,345 2,201 2,470 7,154 0 6,413 15,258 Avg. 37,474 3,985 2,329 5,594 10,851 228 5,463 9,023

Table 3k Octopus caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 15,729 883 2,050 3,704 7,857 294 866 75 1991 13,960 1,192 1,952 6,045 3,949 0 249 573 1992 14,646 1,034 1,673 6,264 1,942 211 1,992 1,530 1993 13,681 1,089 1,883 4,489 2,478 120 1,870 1,752 1994 11,145 1,012 947 3,856 2,572 32 1,295 1,431 1995 10,795 690 1,600 1,933 1,841 372 1,266 3,093 1996 12,718 578 1,790 2,242 3,291 0 3,090 1,727 1997 12,112 520 1,695 2,049 3,043 0 2,621 2,184 1998 12,949 843 1,626 2,104 3,296 0 1,845 3,235 1999 11,961 1,048 1,697 1,209 3,370 0 1,646 2,991 2000 10,866 449 1,900 1,081 4,015 0 1,877 1,544 Avg. 12,778 849 1,710 3,180 3,423 94 1,692 1,830

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APPENDIX 2 Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Vulnerable, and Threatened Marine Species in Thailand No. Type Scienticific name Common name Local name Status (Thai name) 1 Mammal Orcaella brevirostris Irrawady dolphin Loma erawadee CR 2 Mammal Dugong dugon Sea cow, Dugong Payoon CR

3 Mammal Mesoplodon ginkgodens Ginkgotoothed beaked whale Wal fun khaew CR

4 Mammal Peponocephala electra Melonheaded whale Wal hua tang mo EN

5 Mammal Steno bredanensis Roughtoothed dolphin Loma fun hang EN

6 Mammal Delphinus capensis Longbeaked common dolphin Lonma pak yoa EN

7 Mammal Balaenoptera physalus Fin whale Wal fin EN

8 Mammal Balaenoptera edeni Bryde's whale Wal sit tang EN

9 Mammal Physeter macrocephalus Sperm whale Wal hua tui EN

10 Mammal Kogia breviceps Pigmy sperm whale Wal hua tui lex EN

11 Mammal Kogia simus Dwarf sperm whale Wal hua tui kak EN

12 Mammal Orcinus orca Killer whale Wal pet cha kart EN

13 Mammal Globicephalus macrorhynchus Pigmy killer whale Wal num rong krep sun EN

14 Mammal Stenella coeruleoalba Striped dolphin Loma tab EN

15 Mammal Stenella attenuata Spotted dolphin Loma jud EN

16 Mammal Feresa attenuata Pygmy killer whale Wal petchakart lex EN

17 Mammal Neophocaena phcaenoides Finless porpoise Loma hua baht lan leab EN

18 Mammal Sousa chinensis Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin Loma perk EN

19 Mammal Stenella longirostris Spinner dolphin Loma kadod EN

20 Mammal Tursiops aduncus/truncatus Bottlenose dolphin Loma pakkhod EN

21 Mammal Pseudorca crassidens False killer whale Wal petchabart dum EN

22 Fishes Macrochirichthys macrochirus Dab loas EN

23 Fishes Tetraodon baileyi Pukpult khon EN

24 Fishes Sphyrna blochii Wing hammerhead Chalam hua korn yao EN

25 Fishes Chiloscyllium plagiosum Whitespot bambooshark Chalammalayoo chalamhin VU

26 Fishes Carcharhinus brachyurus shark Chalamkeepdang VU

27 Fishes Carcharhinus obscurus Dusky shark Chalamtow VU

28 Fishes Rhizoprionodon acutus Milk shark Chalamhualeam VU

29 Fishes Rhina ancylostoma Bighead quitarfish Ronin krabentongnum VU

30 Fishes Rhinobatos granulatus Rough-backed guitarfish Ronun emud VU

31 Fishes Rhinobatos thouini Bottlenosed guitarfish Emod emud VU

32 Fishes Narcine brunnea Brown electric ray Krabenfirefahseenumtan VU 33 Fishes Narcine maculata Blotched electric ray Krabenfirefajudkem VU

34 Fishes Narke dipterygia Electric ray Krabenfirefa VU

35 Fishes Dasyatis brevicaudatus Smooth stingray Krabenhangsun VU

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APPENDIX 2 cont. Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Vulnerable, and Threatened Marine Species in Thailand.

No. Type Scienticific name Common name Local name Status (Thai name) 36 Fishes Himantura gerrardi White spotted whipray Krabenjudkao krabenma VU

37 Fishes Aetomylaeus maculatus Mottled eagle ray Krabennokjudkao VU 38 Fishes Aetomylaeus nichofii Nieuhof's eagle ray Krabennokbung VU

39 Fishes Chiloscyllium griseum Grey bambooshark Chalamtookkae chalamkob VU

40 Fishes Stegostoma fasciatum Nurseshark, zebrashark Chalamsuar suartalay VU 41 Fishes Carcharhinus albimarginatus Silvertip shark Chalamplaykeebkao VU

42 Fishes Carcharhinus amboinensis Greyreef shark Chalamtalek VU

43 Fishes Carcharhinus plumbeus Sandbar shark Chalamkradonqsung VU 44 Fishes Rhizoprionodon oligolinx Sharpnose shark Chalamhualeam VU

45 Fishes Rhychobatus australiae White-spotted shovelnose ray Ronunjudkao VU

46 Fishes Rhinobatos schlegelii Brown quitarfish Ronumhuasai VU 47 Fishes Rhinobatos typus Giant shovelnose ray Ronumyak VU

48 Fishes Narcine indica Large spotted numbfish Krabenfirefa indea VU

49 Fishes Narcine prodorsalis Tonkin numbfish Krabenfirefa judlek VU 50 Fishes Temera hardwickii Smooth electric ray Krabenfirefa, plaseal VU

51 Fishes Himantura uarnak Reticulate whip ray Krabenpakleam VU

52 Fishes Aetomylaeus milvus Ocellate eage ray Krabennok VU 53 Fishes Rhinoptera adspersa Rough cownose ray Krabenjamookwua VU

54 Fishes Chirocentrus nudus Smooth wolf Dablaosun VU

55 Fishes Setipinna melanochir Duskyhairfin anchovy Meawhudum VU 56 Fishes Narcine brunnea Brown electric ray Krabenfirefaseenumtan VU

57 Fishes Epinephelus coioides Orange spotted grouper Karangjudnumtan VU

58 Fishes Lobotes surinamensis Brown tripletail Kapongkeesao VU 59 Fishes Gymuura poecilura Longtail butterfly ray Krabenpesuar VU

60 Fishes Tetraodon suvatti Puffers fish Pukpao VU

61 Fishes Aetobatus narinari Spot eagle ray Krabenkangkao TH 62 Fishes Carcharhinus leucas Bull shark Chalamhuamart TH

63 Fishes Cromileptes altivelis Humpback grouper Karangnangon TH

64 Fishes Epinephelus lanceolatus Queensland grouper, Brindle bass Mortalay TH 65 Fishes Triaenodon obesus Whitetip reef shark Chalam keepkao TH

66 Reptile Dermochelys coriacea Leathery turtle Taomaphaung CR

67 Reptile Caretta caretta Loggerhead turtle Tao huakon CR 68 Reptile Chelonia mydas Green turtle Tao tanu EN

69 Reptile Eretmochelys imbricata Howksbill turtle Taokra EN

70 Reptile Crocodylys porosus Estuarine crocodlie, Salt water Jarakaenumkem EN crocodile Remarks : EX = Extinct CR = Critically endangered species EN = Endangered species VU = Vulnerable species TH = Threatened species

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APPENDIX 3 Fishes Found in Habitats of the Gulf of Thailand

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 1 mata (Cuvier, 1829) Elongate surgeonfish x 2 Acanthuridae Naso lituratus x 3 Acropomatidae Malakichthys wakiyae Temperate Ocean-bass x 4 Akysidae Akysis macronemus Stream x 5 Ambassis buruensis Bleeker, 1857 Buru Glass Perchlet x x 6 Ambassidae Ambassis commersoni Commerson's Perchlet x 7 Ambassidae Ambassis dayi Perchlet x 8 Ambassidae Ambassis gymnocephalus (Lacepede, 1802) Bald Glassfish x 9 Ambassidae Ambassis interruptus Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1828 Longspined perchlet x x x 10 Ambassidae Ambassis kopsii Bleeker, 1858 Freckled Hawkfish x x x 11 Ambassidae Ambassis macracanthus Bleeker, 1849 Bleeker's wasp fish x x 12 Ambassidae Ambassis ranga Indian Glassy Fish x 13 Ambassidae Ambassis siamensis Glassfish x 14 Ambassidae Ambassis sp. 1 x x 15 Ambassidae Ambassis urotaenis Bleeker, 1852 Bunded-tail Glassy x Perchlet 16 Ambassidae Ambassis vachellii Richardson, 1846 x x 17 Ambassidae Ambassis wolffii Perchlet x 18 Amblyceps sp. x 19 Anabantidae Anabas testudineus Common Climbing Perch x 20 Anabatidae Osphronemus goramy Giant Gourami x 21 Anguillidae Anguilla bicolor bicolor McClelland, 1844 Freshwater x x 22 Apochelidae Apocheilus panchaxDay, 1875 Blue Panchax x x 23 Apogon aureus (Lacepede, 1802) Ring-tailed cardinalfish x 24 Apogonidae Apogon cf. hyalosoma x 25 Apogonidae Apogon cookii x 26 Apogonidae Apogon cyanosoma x 27 Apogonidae Apogon exostigma x 28 Apogonidae Apogon fasciatus Shaw, 1790 x x 29 Apogonidae Apogon hyalosoma Bleeker, 1853 x x 30 Apogonidae Apogon kallopterus x 31 Apogonidae Apogon kalosoma x 32 Apogonidae Apogon Leptacanthus x 33 Apogonidae Apogon nigrofasciatus x 34 Apogonidae Apogon novemfasciatus x 35 Apogonidae Apogon sangiensis Sangi Caardinalfish x 36 Apogonidae Apogon semilineatus Temmink & Schelgel, 1843 Black-tipped cardinalfish x 37 Apogonidae Apogon septemstriatus x 38 Apogonidae Apogon sp.1 x x 39 Apogonidae Apogon spp. Cardinalfish x x 40 Apogonidae Apogon taeniophorus x 41 Apogonidae Apogon thermalis Valenciennes, 1829 Thermal Cardinalfish x 42 Apogonidae Apogon trimaculatus x 43 Apogonidae artus x 44 Apogonidae Cheilodipterus macrodon Eightlined Cardinal x x 45 Apogonidae Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus Toothed Cardinal x x 46 Apogonidae Cheiloprion labiatus x 47 Apogonidae Fowleria variegata (Valenciennes, 1832) x 48 Ariidae Apogon ventrifasciatus Allen, Kuiter & Randall, x 1828 49 Ariidae Archamia fucata x 50 Ariidae Archamia goni x 51 Ariidae Arius caelatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1840) Engraved catfish x x 52 Ariidae Arius gagora Seacatfish x 53 Ariidae Arius maculatus(Thunberg, 1792) Spotted catfish x 54 Ariidae Arius sagor(Buchanan, 1822) Sagor catfish x 55 Ariidae Arius sp. Seacatfish x 56 Ariidae Arius spp. Seacatfish x 57 Ariidae Arius thalassinus(Ruppell, 1837) catfish x 58 Ariidae Batrachocephalus mino Frog Seacatfish x 59 Ariidae Hemiarius stormi Seacatfish x 60 Ariidae Hemipimelodus borneensis Sea Catfish x 61 Ariidae Hemipimelodus sp. Sea Catfish x 62 Ariidae Ketengus typus Typus Catfish x 63 Ariidae Osteogeneiosus nilitaris Seacatfish x 64 Atherinidae Hypoatherina temminckki x 65 Atheriniidae Atherinomorus duodecimalis (Cuvier, 1835) x x x 66 Bagroides siamensis Bagrid Catfish x 67 Bagridae Batasio tengana Bagrid Catfish x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 68 Bagridae Hemibagrus bocourti Bagrid Catfish x 69 Bagridae Hemibagrus nemurus Yellow Mystus x 70 Bagridae Hemibagrus wyckii Bagrid Catfish x 71 Bagridae Heterobagrus bocourti Bocourt's River Catfish x 72 Bagridae Leiocassis poecilopterus Bagrid Catfish x 73 Bagridae Leiocassis siamensis Siamese Rock Catfish x 74 Bagridae Mystus cavasius Long-fatty Finned Mystus x 75 Bagridae Mystus gulio (Hamliton, 1822) Long Whiskers Catfish x x 76 Bagridae Mystus micracanthus Twospot Catfish x 77 Bagridae Mystus mysticetus Catfish x 78 Bagridae Mystus planiceps Catfish x 79 Bagridae Mystus sp. Catfish x 80 Bagridae Mystus vittatus Iridescent Mystus x 81 Bagridae Mystus wolffi Catfish x 82 Bagridae Mystus wyckii Bagrid Catfish x 83 Balistidae Balistoides viridescens x 84 Balitoridae Homaloptera orthogoniata River Loach x 85 Balitoridae Homaloptera septemfasciata River Loach x 86 Balitoridae Homaloptera smithi River Loach x 87 Balitoridae Homaloptera sp. River Loach x 88 Balitoridae Homaloptera zollingeri River Loach x 89 Allenbatrachus grunniens (Linnaeus, 1758) Grunting toadfish x 90 Batrachoididae Batrachus grunniens Toad Fish x 91 Batrachoididae Batrichthys grunniens (Linnaeus, 1758) x 92 Belonidae Strongylura strongylura (Van Hassch, 1823) Spottail needlefish x x 93 Belonidae Strongyrura incisa x 94 Belonidae Tylosurus acus melanotus x 95 Belonidae Tylosurus crocodilus crocodilus (Peron et Le Hound needlefish x x x Sueur, 1821) 96 Belonidae Tylosurus sp. x 97 Belonidae Xenenthodon cancilla Round-tailed x 98 Belonidae Xenenthodon sp. Freshwater Garfish x 99 Beloniformes Ablennes hians(Valenciennes, 1846) Flat needlefish x 100 Blenniella Istiblennius dussumieri x 101 Blenniella Istiblennius edentulus x 102 Blenniidae Blenniella bilitonensis x 103 Blenniidae Cirripectes filamentosus x 104 Blenniidae Enchelyurus kraussi x 105 Blenniidae Laiphognathus multimaculatus x 106 Blenniidae Omobranchus fasciolatus Erhenberg, 1839 x 107 Blenniidae Omobranchus ferox (Herre, 1927) x 108 Blenniidae Omobranchus punctatus (Valenciennes, 1836) x 109 Blenniidae Omox biporos x 110 Blenniidae Parenchelyurus hepburni x 111 Blenniidae Petrocirtes variabilis Cantor, 1850 x 112 Blenniidae Salarias fasciatus x 113 Bothidae Arnoglosus sp. x 114 Bothidae Pseudorhombus arsius (Hamilton, 1822) Largetooth x x x 115 Bothidae Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogilby, 1912 Deepbody flounder x 116 Bothidae Pseudorhombus malayanus Bleeker, 1866 Roughscale flounder x 117 caerulaurea x 118 Caesionidae Caesio coerulaureus Lacepede, 1801 Blue and gold fusilier x 119 Caesionidae Caesio cuning Redbelly yellowtail fusilier x x 120 Caesionidae Caesio lunaris x 121 Caesionidae Caesio xanthonotus Fusilier x 122 Caesionidae Pterocaesio chrysozona x 123 Caesionidae Pterocaesio tile x 124 Callionymidae Callionymus enneactis x 125 Callionymidae Callionymus filamentosus x 126 Callionymidae Callionymus hindsi Richardson, 1844 x 127 Callionymidae Callionymus sagitta Arrowhead Dragonet x 128 Callionymidae Callionymus schaapii Bleeker, 1852 Dragonet x x 129 Callionymidae Callionymus spp. x 130 Carangidae Alectis indicus (Ruppell, 1828) Indian threadfin x x 131 Carangidae Alepes djedaba (Forsskal, 1775) Djedaba crevalle/Solar x x sacd 132 Carangidae Alepes kleinii (Bloch, 1793) Bonded scad x x 133 Carangidae Alepes vari (Cuvier, 1833) Herring scad x x 134 Carangidae Atule mate (Cuvier, 1833) Yellowtail scad x x x 135 Carangidae Carangoides armatus (Ruppell, 1830) Longfin trevally x x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 136 Carangidae Carangoides bajad x 137 Carangidae Carangoides ferdau (Forsskal, 1775) Blue trevally x 138 Carangidae Carangoides praeustus Bennett, 1830 Brownback trevally x x 139 Carangidae Caranx djedaba Shrimp scad x 140 Carangidae Caranx kalla Shrimp scad x 141 Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 Bigeye trevally x x x 142 Carangidae Caranx sp. Shrimp scad x 143 Carangidae Chorinemus lysan Doublespotted Queenfish x 144 Carangidae Chorinemus tol Needlescaled Queenfish x 145 Carangidae Gnathanodon speciosus x 146 Carangidae Scomberoides commersonianus Laccpede, 1801 Talang queenfish x x 147 Carangidae Scomberoides lysan Double-spotted queenfish x x 148 Carangidae Scomberoides tol (Cuvier, 1832) Needlescales queenfish x x 149 Carangidae Selaroides leptolepis (Cuvier, 1833) Yellow-stripe scad x x 150 Carangidae Selaroides sp. Yellowstripe Scad x 151 Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus melanopterus x 152 Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus sp. Requien x 153 Centriscidae Aeoliscus strigatus(Gunther, 1860) Blacklined razorfish x 154 Centropomidae Chanda baculis x 155 Centropomidae Chanda siamensis Siamese Glassfish x 156 Centropomidae Chanda sp. Asiatic Glassfishes x 157 Centropomidae Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1790) Giant seaperch x x x 158 Centropomidae Indian Glassy Fish x 159 Centropomidae Parambassis siamensis Indian Glassy Fish x 160 Centropomidae Psamoperca waigiensis x 161 Chaetodontidae octofasciatus Eight-banded x x 162 Chaetodontidae Chaetodon sp. x 163 Chaetodontidae Chaetodon wiebeli x 164 Chaetodontidae Chelmon rostratus Long-nosed Butterflyfish x x 165 Chaetodontidae Coradion chrysozonus(Cuvier, 1831) Orange-banded coralfish x x 166 Chaetodontidae Heniochus acuminatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Featherfin Butterflyfish x x x x 167 Chaetodontidae Parachaetodon ocellatus (Cuvier, 1831) Ocellated Butterflyfish x x x x 168 Chaetodontidae Pomacanthus annularis Six-ined Anglefish x x 169 Chaetodontidae Pomacanthus sexstriatus Six-banded Anglefish x x 170 Channidae Chanda wolffii x 171 Channidae Channa limbata Red-tailed Shakehead x 172 Channidae Channa lucius Blotched -head Fish x 173 Channidae Channa micropeltes Giant Snake-head Fish x 174 Channidae Channa siamensis x 175 Channidae Channa sp. x 176 Channidae Channa striatus Striped Snake-head Fish x 177 Channidae Chanos chanos (Forsskal, 1775) Milk fish x x 178 Chirocentridae Chirocentrus dorab (Forsskal, 1775) Dorab wolf herring x x 179 Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambica Java x 180 Cichlidae Oreochromis nilotica Nile Tilapia x 181 Clariidae Clarias batrachus Batrachian Walking x Catfish 182 Clariidae Clarias macrocephalus Gunther's x 183 Clariidae Genus prophagorus Nieuhof's Walking Catfish x 184 Clupeidae Amblygaster sirm (Walbaum, 1792) Spotted sardinella x 185 Clupeidae chacunda (Hamilton, 1822) Chacunda gizzaard shad x x x 186 Clupeidae Clarias meladerma Catfish x 187 Clupeidae atricauda Bleeker's Blacktip x Sardinella 188 Clupeidae Clupeichthys aesarnensis Thai River x 189 Clupeidae Clupeichthys goniognathus Sumatran River Sprat x 190 Clupeidae Clupeoides lile x 191 Clupeidae Clupeoides sp. x 192 Clupeidae Dussumieria elopsoides Bleeker, 1849 x 193 Clupeidae thoracata (Valenciennes, 1847) White sardine x x 194 Clupeidae Herklotsichthys dispilonotus Two Spot Herring x 195 Clupeidae Herklotsichthys qradrimaculatus x 196 Clupeidae Hilsa kelee (Cuvier, 1829) x x 197 Clupeidae Sardinella albella (Valenciennes, 1847) White sardinella x x 198 Clupeidae Spratelloides gracilis (Temminch & Schlegel, 1846) Striped Roundherring x x x x 199 Cobitidae Acanthopsis choirorhynchos Horseface Loach x 200 Cobitidae Botia beauforti Botia x 201 Cobitidae Botia eos Red-tail Botia x 202 Cobitidae Botia helodes Botia x 203 Cobitidae Botia modesta Yellow-tail Botia x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 204 Cobitidae Botia sidthimunki Aree Botia x 205 Cobitidae Botia sp. Botia x 206 Cobitidae Cobitophis anguillaris Loach x 207 Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys sp. Loach x 208 Cobitidae Lepidocephalus octocirrhis Loach x 209 Cobitidae Pangio anguillaris Loach x 210 Cobitidae Pangio kuhlii Khuli Loach x 211 Cobitidae Pangio myersi Loach x 212 Cobitidae Pangio pangia Java Loach x 213 Coiidae Coius microlepis Siamese Tiger Fish x 214 Coiidae Coius quadrifasciatus , Rock Bass x 215 Cynoglossidae arel (Schneider, 1801) Largescale tonguesole x 216 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus bilineatus (Lacepede, 1802) Fourlined tongue x 217 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus lida (Bleeker, 1851) Twonostrils tongue sole x x 218 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus lingua Hamilton & Buchanan, 1822 Long tongue sole x x 219 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus macrolepidotus Largescale tongue sole x 220 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus microlepis Freshwater x 221 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus oligolepis Tonguesole x 222 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus puncticeps (Richardson, 1846) Speckled tonguesole x x x 223 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus semifasciatus Day, 1878 - 1888 x x 224 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus sp. Tonguesole x 225 Cynoglossidae Paraplagusia blochi Two Lined Tongue Sole x 226 Albulichthys albuloides x 227 Cyprinidae Amblyrhynchichthys truncatus Minnow x 228 Cyprinidae Balantiocheilos melanopterus Black-tipped Silver Shark x 229 Cyprinidae behri x 230 Cyprinidae Barbichthys laevis Golden x 231 Cyprinidae Barbodes altus Red-tail x 232 Cyprinidae Barbodes goninotus Common Silver barb x 233 Cyprinidae Barbodes schwanenfeldi Schwanenfeld's Barb x 234 Cyprinidae Barillius guttatus Barillius x 235 Cyprinidae Barillius nanensis Barillius x 236 Cyprinidae Barillius ornatus Barillius x 237 Cyprinidae Boraras micros x 238 Cyprinidae Catlocarpio siamensis Siamese gisnt carp x 239 Cyprinidae Chela caeruleostigmata Leaping Barb x 240 Cyprinidae Chela laubuca Indian Glass Barb x 241 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus chinensis Mud Carp x 242 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus cryptopogon Mud Carp x 243 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus jullien Jullien's Mud Carp x 244 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus macrosemion Mud Carp x 245 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus microlepis Smallscale Mud Carp x 246 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus prosemion Smallscale Mud Carp x 247 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus spiropleura Jullien's Mud Carp x 248 Cyprinidae Crossocheilus oblongus Siamese Flying Fox x 249 Cyprinidae Crossocheilus reticulatus Loach x 250 Cyprinidae Crossocheilus siamensis Hying Fox x 251 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys apogon Indian River Barb x 252 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys armatus River Barb x 253 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys enoplos Soldier River Barb x 254 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys heteronema River Barb x 255 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys repasson River Barb x 256 Cyprinidae carpio x 257 Cyprinidae albolineatus Danio x 258 Cyprinidae Danio regina Blue Danio x 259 Cyprinidae Discherodontus schroederi x 260 Cyprinidae Epalzeorhynchos bicolor Red-tailed Black Shark x 261 Cyprinidae Epalzeorhynchos frenatus Red-finned Black Shark x 262 Cyprinidae Epalzeorhynchos kallopterus Flying Fox x 263 Cyprinidae Epalzeorhynchos sp. Black Shark x 264 Cyprinidae Esomus metallicus Flying x 265 Cyprinidae cambodgiensis Stonelapping Ninow x 266 Cyprinidae Garra fuliginosa Loach x 267 Cyprinidae Garra sp. Loach x 268 Cyprinidae Garra taeniata Stonelapping Ninow x 269 Cyprinidae Hampala diapar Eye-spot Barb x 270 Cyprinidae Hampala macrolepidota Transverse-bar-barb x 271 Cyprinidae Henicorhynchus caudimaculatus x 272 Cyprinidae Henicorhynchus cryptopogon x 273 Cyprinidae Henicorhynchus siamensis Mud Carp x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 274 Cyprinidae Hypophthalmichthys molitrix x 275 Cyprinidae Hypophthalmichthys nobilis x 276 Cyprinidae Hypsibarbus wetmorei x 277 Cyprinidae Labeo behri Carp x 278 Cyprinidae Labeo bicolor Redtail Sharkminow x 279 Cyprinidae Labeo dyocheilus x 280 Cyprinidae Labeo erythrurus x 281 Cyprinidae Labeo rohita Rohu x 282 Cyprinidae Labeo sp. x 283 Cyprinidae Labiobarbus burmanicus Barb x 284 Cyprinidae Labiobarbus lineatus Carp x 285 Cyprinidae Labiobarbus sp. x 286 Cyprinidae Labiobarbus spilopleura Barp x 287 Cyprinidae Leptobarbus hoeveni Hoeven's Slender Carp x 288 Cyprinidae Lobocheilus gracilis x 289 Cyprinidae Lobocheilus quadrilineatus Barb x 290 Cyprinidae Lobocheilus rhabdoura Barb x 291 Cyprinidae Lobocheilus sp. x 292 Cyprinidae Luciosoma bleekeri Appllo Shark x 293 Cyprinidae Luciosoma setigerum x 294 Cyprinidae Macrochirichthys macrochirus Carp x 295 Cyprinidae Morulius chrysophekadian Black Shark x 296 Cyprinidae Morulius sp. Barb x 297 Cyprinidae Mystacoleucus argenteus Barb x 298 Cyprinidae Mystacoleucus atridorsaliss x 299 Cyprinidae Mystacoleucus marginatus x 300 Cyprinidae Mystacoleucus sp. x 301 Cyprinidae Neolissochilus stracheyi x 302 Cyprinidae Osteochilus hasselti Barb x 303 Cyprinidae Osteochilus lini Barb x 304 Cyprinidae Osteochilus melanopleura Greater Bony Lipped Barb x 305 Cyprinidae Osteochilus microcephalus x 306 Cyprinidae Osteochilus prosenion Mud Carp x 307 Cyprinidae Osteochilus schlegeli x 308 Cyprinidae Osteochilus sp. Barb x 309 Cyprinidae Osteochilus spilopleurus Mud Carp x 310 Cyprinidae Osteochilus vittatus Bony Lipped Barb x 311 Cyprinidae Osteochilus waandersii Waander's Bony Lipped x Barb 312 Cyprinidae Oxygaster maculicauda x 313 Cyprinidae Oxygaster oxygastroides Glass Fish x 314 Cyprinidae Oxygaster pointoni x 315 Cyprinidae Oxygaster siamensis Glassfish x 316 Cyprinidae Oxygaster sp. x 317 Cyprinidae Parachela sp. x 318 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca barroni Carp x 319 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca harmandi x 320 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca riveroi Siamese River Abramine x 321 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca sp. x 322 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca typus x 323 Cyprinidae Probarbus jullieni Jullien's Golden Price x Carp 324 Cyprinidae Puntioplites proctozysron Barb x 325 Cyprinidae Raiamas guttatus Minnow x 326 Cyprinidae Rasbora argyrotaenis Silver Rasbora x 327 Cyprinidae Rasbora borapetensis Blackline Rasbora x 328 Cyprinidae Rasbora caudimaculata Graeter Scissortail x 329 Cyprinidae Rasbora dusonensis Yellowtail Rasbora x 330 Cyprinidae Rasbora lateristriata Yellow Rasbora x 331 Cyprinidae Rasbora myersi Myer's Silver Rasbora x 332 Cyprinidae Rasbora retrodorsalis Pale Rasbora x 333 Cyprinidae Rasbora sumatrana Giant Scissor-tail x 334 Cyprinidae Rasbora trilineata Three-lined Rasbora x 335 Cyprinidae Sikukia stejnegeri Carp x 336 Cyprinidae Systomus beasleyi x 337 Cyprinidae Systomus binotatus Spotted Barb x 338 Cyprinidae Systomus leiacantus Golden Little Barb x 339 Cyprinidae Systomus orphoides Red-cheeked Barb x 340 Cyprinidae Systomus partipentozona x 341 Cyprinidae Systomus somphongsi x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 342 Cyprinidae Systomus sp. x 343 Cyprinidae Systomus stolitczkae x 344 Cyprinidae Systomus vernayi x 345 Cyprinidae Tor soro Soro Brook Carp x 346 Cyprinidae Tor tambroides Greater Brook Carp x 347 Dasyatidae Dasyatis bleekeri Freshwater Stingray x 348 Dasyatidae Himantura chaophraya Ray x 349 Dasyatidae Himantura gerrardi (Gray, 1851) x 350 Dasyatidae Himantura imbricata (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) x x 351 Dasyatidae Taeniura lymma(FORSSKAL, 1775) Blue-spotted Fantail Ray x x 352 Diodontidae Chilomycterus orbicularis (Bloch, 1785) Birdbeak burrfish x 353 Diodontidae Diodon holocanthus(Linnaeus, 1758) Freckled porcupine fish x 354 Diodontidae Diodon hystrixLinnaeus, 1758 Porcupine fish x 355 Diodontidae Diodon liturosus Shortspine Ballonfish x x 356 Drepanidae Drepane longimana (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Band sicklefish x 357 Drepanidae Drepane punctata (Linnaeus, 1758) x 358 Echeneidae Echenius naucratesLinnaeus, 1758 Slender suckerfish x 359 Ophiocara porocephala (Valenciennes, 1837) Spangled gukgeon x x 360 Eleotridae Prinobutis koilomatodon x 361 Eleotridedae Bostrychus sinensis (Lacepede, 1801) x 362 Eleotridedae Butis butis (Hamilton, 1822) Crimsontip flathead x x gudgeon 363 Eleotridedae Butis koilomatoton (Bleeker, 1849) x 364 Eleotrididae melanosoma Bleeker, 1852 x 365 Eleotrididae Odonteleotris macrodon (Bleeker, 1583) x 366 Elopidae Elops machnata (orsskal, 1775) x 367 Engraulidae borneensis x 368 Engraulidae Goldspotted Grenadier x 369 Engraulidae Coilia macrognathus Moustached Taper-tail x 370 Engraulidae Coilia sp. x 371 Engraulidae grayi Hamilton's thryssa x 372 Engraulidae Engraulis mystax Moustached Thryssa x 373 Engraulidae Engraulis sp. x 374 Engraulidae Stolephorus baganensis Hardenberg, 1933 x 375 Engraulidae Stolephorus commersonii Anchovy x 376 Engraulidae Stolephorus indicus (Van Hasselt, 1823) Indian anchovy x x x 377 Engraulidae Stolephorus insularis Hardenberg, 1933 x 378 Engraulididae (Valenciennes, 1848) Hairfin anchovy x 379 Engraulididae (Gray, 1835) Hanilton's thryssa x x 380 Engraulididae Thryssa kammalensis (Bleeker, 1849) Madura thryssa x 381 Engraulididae Thryssa setirostris (Broussonet, 1782) Longjaw thryssa x 382 Ephippidae Ephippus orbis (Bloch, 1787) Round spadefish x x 383 Ephippidae Platax orbicularis Round Batfish x 384 Ephippidae Platax teira (Forsskal, 1775) Longfin batfiah x x x 385 Fistulariidae Fistularia commersonii Ruppell, 1838 Serrated flutemouth x 386 Gerreidae Gerres abbreviatus Bleeker, 1850 Deepbody silverbiddy x x x 387 Gerreidae Gerres acinaces (Bleeker, 1854) Longtail silverbiddy x 388 Gerreidae Gerres filamemtosus Cuvier, 1829 Whipfin silverbiddy x x 389 Gerreidae Gerres lucidus x 390 Gerreidae Gerres oblongus (Cuvier, 1830) Elongated silverbiddy x x x 391 Gerreidae Gerres oyena (Forsskal, 1775) Slender silverbiddy x x x 392 Gerreidae Gerres poieti (Cuvier, 1829) Strongspine silverbiddy x x 393 Gerreidae Gerres sp. x 394 Diademichthys lineatus x 395 Gobiesocidae Lepadichthys sp. x 396 Gobiidae Acentrogobius audax Smith, 1959 x 397 Gobiidae Acentrogobius caninus (Cuvier & Valenciennes, Dogtooth goby x x 1837) 398 Gobiidae Acentrogobius janthinopterus (Bleeeker, 1852) x 399 Gobiidae Acentrogobius viridipunctatus (Valenciennes, Triangle Goby x x 1837) 400 Gobiidae Amblyeleotris fontanesii (Bleeker, 1852) x 401 Gobiidae Amblyeleotris gymnocephalus (Bleeker, 1853) x 402 Gobiidae Amblygobius nocturnus (Herre, 1945) x 403 Gobiidae Amblygobius phalaena (Valenciennes, 1837) x 404 Gobiidae Amoya moloanus (Herre, 1927) x 405 Gobiidae Apocryptodon madurensis (Bleeker, 1849) x x 406 Gobiidae Aulopareia cyanomos (Bleeker, 1849) x 407 Gobiidae (Ruppell, 1830) Brown goby x x x 408 Gobiidae Boleophthalmus boddarti (Pallas, 1770) x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 409 Gobiidae Boleophthalmus pectinirostris Jumping Goby x 410 Gobiidae Brachygobius sp. Goby x 411 Gobiidae Brachygobius sp.1 x 412 Gobiidae Brachygobius sp.2 x 413 Gobiidae sp.1 x 414 Gobiidae Callogobius sp.2 x 415 Gobiidae Cristatogobius lophius Herre, 1927 x 416 Gobiidae Cristatogobius sp.1 x 417 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus caeruleomaculatus x 418 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus cinctus x 419 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus fasciatus x 420 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus leptocephalus Bleeker, 1876 Eightband goby x x 421 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus pavaninoides x 422 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus sp. x x 423 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus sp.1 x 424 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus strigilliceps (Jordan & Seale, 1906) x x 425 Gobiidae Ctenogobiops pomastictus x 426 Gobiidae Ctenogobius cephalopadus Goby x 427 Gobiidae Ctenogobius driengmainensis Goby x 428 Gobiidae Dasson variabilis Scabre Toothed Blenny x 429 Gobiidae Drombus key (Smith, 1947) x x 430 Gobiidae Drombus sp.1 x 431 Gobiidae Drombus triangularis (Weber, 1909) x 432 Gobiidae Eviota prasina x 433 Gobiidae Eviota qreenslandica x 434 Gobiidae Glossogobius bicirrbosus (Weber, 1894) x 435 Gobiidae Glossogobius biocellatus (Valenciennes, 1837) x x 436 Gobiidae Glossogobius circumspectus (Macleay, 1883) x 437 Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton, 1822) Flathead goby x x 438 Gobiidae Glossogobius sp. Goby x 439 Gobiidae Gobiodon citrinus Acroporal x x 440 Gobiidae Gobiodon micropus x 441 Gobiidae Gobiodon quinquestrigatus x 442 Gobiidae Gobiopsis aporia x 443 Gobiidae Gobiopsis macrostoma Steindachner, 1861 x 444 Gobiidae Gobiopsis quinquecincta x 445 Gobiidae Gobiopsis woodsi x 446 Gobiidae Gobiopterus brachypterus (Bleeker, 1855) x 447 Gobiidae Gobiopterus panayensis (Herre, 1944) x 448 Gobiidae Gobiopterus sp.1 x 449 Gobiidae Istigobius ornatus(Ruppell, 1830) Ornate goby x 450 Gobiidae Mahidolia mystacina x 451 Gobiidae Mangarinus sp.1 x 452 Gobiidae Mangarinus waterousi Herre, 1943 x 453 Gobiidae Mugilogobius rambaiae x 454 Gobiidae Mugilogobius sp.1 x 455 Gobiidae Oxyurichthys microlepis (Bleeker, 1849) Smallscale goby x x 456 Gobiidae Oxyurichthys tentacularis (Valenciennes, 1837) Eyebrow goby x 457 Gobiidae Pandaka lidwilli (McCulloch, 1917) x 458 Gobiidae Papillogobius cf punctatus Gill & Miller,1990 x 459 Gobiidae Papillogobius reichei (Bleeker, 1853) x 460 Gobiidae Parachaeturichthys polynema (Bleeker,1853) Eyetail goby x 461 Gobiidae argentilineatus Valenciennes, x 1837 462 Gobiidae Periophthalmus barbarus Atlantic x 463 Gobiidae Periophthalmus cantonensis Mud Skipper x 464 Gobiidae Periophthalmus chrysospilos Bleeker, 1852 x 465 Gobiidae Periophthalmus minutus Eggert, 1935 x 466 Gobiidae Periophthalmus sp. Mud Skipper x 467 Gobiidae Priolepis nuchifasciatus x 468 Gobiidae Priolepis semidoliatus x 469 Gobiidae Redigobius bikolanus Herre, 1927 x 470 Gobiidae Redigobius chrysosoma (Bleeker, 1875) x 471 Gobiidae Rhinogobius baliuroides x 472 Gobiidae Rhinogobius sp. Goby x 473 Gobiidae Scartelaos cantoris (Day, 1871) x x 474 Gobiidae Scartelaos histophorus (Valenciennes, 1837) x 475 Gobiidae Stigmatogobius javanicus Goby x 476 Gobiidae Stigmatogobius oligactis Goby x 477 Gobiidae Stigmatogobius sadanundio (Hamiton, 1822) Spot goby x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 478 Gobiidae Taenioides cirratus (Blyth, 1860) Yellow tapering goby x 479 Gobiidae Trypauchen microcephalus Bleeker, 1860 x 480 Gobiidae Trypauchen vagina Pink Burrowing Goby x 481 Gobiidae Valenciennea linicola x 482 Gobiidae Valenciennea muralis (Valenciennes,1837) x x 483 Gobiidae Valenciennea puellaris x 484 Gobiidae Valenciennea sexguttata x 485 Gobiidae Valenciennea wardii x 486 Gobiidae Yongeichthys nebulosus(Forsskal, 1775) x x 487 Grammistidae Diploprion bifasciatum(kuhl & van Hasselt, 1928) Yellow emperor x x 488 Gyrinocheilidae Gyrinocheilus aymonieri Siamese Gyrinochellid x 489 Haemulidae Diagramma pictum (Thunberg, 1792) Painted sweetlip x x 490 Haemulidae Plectorhinchus albovittatus Ruppell, 1838 Giant sweetlips x 491 Haemulidae Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides Lacepede, 1801 Harlequin Sweetlip x x 492 Haemulidae Plectorhinchus unicolor x 493 Haemulidae Plectorhynchus gibbosus (Lacepede, 1802) Harry hotlips x x x 494 Haemulidae Plectorhynchus orientalis Oriental Sweetlip x 495 Haemulidae Plectorhynchus picus (Tortonese, 1936) Spotted Sweetlip x 496 Haemulidae Pomadasys kaakan (Cuvier, 1830) Javelin grunter x x 497 Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus dispar Wrestling x 498 Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus far (Forsskal, 1775) Spotted halfbeak x x 499 Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus gaimardi Gaimardi's Halfbeak x 500 Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus melanurus Black-tailed Halfbeak x 501 Hemiramphidae Hyporamphus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1846) x x 502 Hemiramphidae Hyporhamphus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1846) x x 503 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus disper (Valenciennes, 1847) x x 504 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus kampei Sepile River Halfbeak x 505 Hemiramphidae Dermogenys pusillus Wrestling Half-beak x 506 Hemiscylliidae Chiloscyllium griseum Muller & Henle, 1839 Grey bambooshark x 507 Hemiscylliidae Chiloscyllium indicum (Gmelin, 1789) Slender Bambooshark x 508 Hemiscylliidae Chiloscyllium plagiosum (Bennett, 1830) Whitespot Bambooshark x 509 Hemiscylliidae Chiloscyllium punctatumMuller & Henle, 1818 Brown-band catshark x 510 Heteropneustidae Heteropneustes fossilis Scrobranch Catfish x 511 Holocentridae Myripristis botche x 512 Holocentridae Myripristis hexagona x 513 Holocentridae Myripristis murdjan x 514 Holocentridae Myripristis violaceus Lattice Soldierfish x x 515 Holocentridae Sagocentrom rubrum Redcoat x 516 Holocentridae Sargocentron rubrum x 517 Kyphosidae Kyphosus cinerascens x 518 Kyphosidae Kyphosus vaigiensis x 519 Labridae Anampses caeruleopunctatus x 520 Labridae Cheilinus chlorourus x 521 Labridae Cheilinus fasciatus Scarlet-breasted x x 522 Labridae Cheilinus trilobatus Triple-tailed Wrasse x x 523 Labridae Choeredon sp. Tuskfish x 524 Labridae Choerodon anchorago(Bloch, 1791) Orange-dotted tuskfish x 525 Labridae Choerodon schoenleinii x 526 Labridae Diproctacanthus xanthurus x 527 Labridae Epibulus insidiator Slingjaw Wrasse x x 528 Labridae Halichoeres argus x 529 Labridae Halichoeres bicolor (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) x x 530 Labridae Halichoeres chlropterus Green Spot Wrasse x x 531 Labridae Halichoeres dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1839) x 532 Labridae Halichoeres hoeveni Three Eye Wrasse x 533 Labridae Halichoeres hortulanus x 534 Labridae Halichoeres margaritaceus x 535 Labridae Halichoeres marginatus Speckle Rainbow Wrasse x x 536 Labridae Halichoeres melanurus x 537 Labridae Halichoeres nebulosus x 538 Labridae Halichoeres nigrescens Dusky Rainbow Wrasse x x 539 Labridae Halichoeres poecilopterus Blackline Wrasse x 540 Labridae Halichoeres purpurascens x 541 Labridae fasciatus Barred Thicklip Wrasse x x 542 Labridae Hemigymnus melapterus Blackeye Thicklip Wrasse x x 543 Labridae Labroides dimidiatus(Valenciennes, 1839) Bluestreak Wrasse x x 544 Labridae Oxychelinus digrammus x 545 Labridae Stethojulis bandanensis x 546 Labridae Stethojulis interrupta x 547 Labridae Stethojulis sp. x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 548 Labridae Stethojulis strigiventer (Bennett, 1832) Silver ribbon rainbow x 549 Labridae Stethojulis trilineata x 550 Labridae Thalassoma lunare Crescent Grunter x x 551 Leiognathidae minuta (Bloch, 1797) Toothed ponyfish x x x 552 Leiognathidae Leiognathus bindus (Valenciennes, 1835) Orangefin slipmouth x 553 Leiognathidae Leiognathus brevirostis Shortnose Slipmouth x 554 Leiognathidae Leiognathus daura (Cuvier, 1829) Goldstripe slipmouth x 555 Leiognathidae Leiognathus decorus (De Vis, 1844) x x 556 Leiognathidae Leiognathus equula (Forsskal, 1775) Common slipmouth x x x 557 Leiognathidae Leiognathus fasciatus Striped Slipmouth x 558 Leiognathidae Leiognathus insidiator Pugnose Pongfish x 559 Leiognathidae Leiognathus leuciscus (Gunther, 1860) Whipfin slipmouth x 560 Leiognathidae Leiognathus lineolatus Line Slipmouth x 561 Leiognathidae Leiognathus oblongus (Valenciennes, 1835) x 562 Leiognathidae Leiognathus pan (Wongratana, 1988) x 563 Leiognathidae Leiognathus smithursti (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886) Smithurst's slipmouth x 564 Leiognathidae Leiognathus splendens (Cuvier, 1829) Splendid slipmouth x x 565 Leiognathidae Leiognathus stercorarius (Everman & Seale, 1907) x x 566 Leiognathidae Secutor insidiator (Bloch, 1787) Slender slipmouth x x 567 Leiognathidae Secutor ruconius (Hamilton, 1822) Deeppug nose slipmouth x x 568 Lethrinidae Gymnocraniius grandoculis x 569 Lethrinidae Lethrinus erythropterus x 570 Lethrinidae Lethrinus lentjan (Lacepede, 1802) Redspot emperor x x x 571 Lethrinidae Lethrinus mebulosus Spangled Emperor x 572 Lethrinidae Lethrinus ornatus (Balenciennes, 1830) Ornate emperor x x 573 Lethrinidae Lethrinus sp. x 574 Lobotidae Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch, 1790) Browm tripletail x x 575 Lutjanidae Lutjanas argentimaculatus Mangrove Redsnapper x 576 Lutjanidae Lutjanas carponotatus x 577 Lutjanidae Lutjanas decussatus Crossband Snapper x 578 Lutjanidae Lutjanas vaigiensis x 579 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskal, 1775) Mangrove red snapper x x 580 Lutjanidae Lutjanus biguttatus (Valenciennes, 1775) Twospot banded snapper x 581 Lutjanidae Lutjanus bohar x 582 Lutjanidae Lutjanus carponotatus x 583 Lutjanidae Lutjanus decussatus x 584 Lutjanidae Lutjanus erythropterus x 585 Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulviflamma (Forsskal, 1775) Blackspot snapper x x x 586 Lutjanidae Lutjanus johnii (Bloch, 1792) John's snapper x x x x 587 Lutjanidae Lutjanus kasmira x 588 Lutjanidae Lutjanus lemniscatus x 589 Lutjanidae Lutjanus lunulatus Lunartail Snapper x 590 Lutjanidae Lutjanus lutjanus Bigeye snapper x x x 591 Lutjanidae Lutjanus madras (Valenciennes, 1831) x 592 Lutjanidae Lutjanus monostigmus One spot Snapper x x 593 Lutjanidae Lutjanus quinquelineatus x 594 Lutjanidae Lutjanus russelli (Bleeker, 1849) Russell's snapper x x x x 595 Lutjanidae Lutjanus sebae Emperor Redsnapper x x 596 Lutjanidae Lutjanus timorensis x 597 Lutjanidae Lutjanus vitta x 598 Lutjanidae Lutjanus vittus Brownstripe Snapper x 599 Lutjanidae Symphorus nematophorus (Bleeker,1860) Chinamanfish x 600 Mastacembelidae Macrognathus aculeatus Siamensis Lesser Spiny x Eel 601 Mastacembelidae Macrognathus circumcinctus Lesser Spiny Eel x 602 Mastacembelidae Macrognathus siamensis Spotted Spiny Eel x 603 Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus armatus Armed Spiny Eel x 604 Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus favus Spiny Eel x 605 Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus sp. x 606 Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet, 1782) Indo-Pacific tarpon x x 607 Microdesmidae Parioglossus formosus x 608 Microdesmidae Parioglossus philippinus x 609 Microdesmidae Parioglossus sp. x 610 Microdesnidae Ptereleotris microlepis x 611 Microdesnidae Ptereleotris monoptera x 612 Microdesnidae Ptereleotris sp. x 613 Monacanthidae Aluterus monoceros(Linnaeus, 1758) Unicorn leatherjacket x 614 Monacanthidae Monacanthus chinensis (Osbeck, 1765) Chinese leatherjacket x x x x 615 Monacanthidae Paramonacanthus choirocephalus (Bleeker, 1852) x x x 616 Monacanthidae Pseudomonacanthus macrurus (Bleeker, 1857) x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 617 Monodactylidae Monodactylus argenteus (Linnaeus, 1758) Butter fish x x x 618 Mugilidae Atherina valenciennesi Sumatran Silverside x 619 Mugilidae cunnesius (Valenciennes, 1836) x x 620 Mugilidae Moolgarda engeli (Bleeker, 1858) x 621 Mugilidae Moolgarda pedaraki (Valenciennes, 1836) x x x 622 Mugilidae Moolgarda seheli x 623 Mugilidae borneenis Largescale x 624 Mugilidae Mugil dussumieri Greenback Mullet x 625 Mugilidae Mugil kelaartii Longarm Mullet x 626 Mugilidae Mugil seheli Bluespot Mullet x 627 Mugilidae Mugil sp. Mullet x 628 Mugilidae Mugil subviridis Greenback Mullet x 629 Mugilidae Mugil tado Tade Mullet x 630 Mugilidae Mugil vaigiensis Squaretail Mullet x 631 Mugilidae Oedalechilus labiosus x 632 Mugillidae macrolepis (Smith, 1849) x 633 Mugillidae Chelon parmata (Cantor, 1849) x 634 Mugillidae Chelon parsia (Hamilton, 1822) x 635 Mugillidae Chelon spp. x 636 Mugillidae Chelon subviridis (Valenciennes, 1836) x x 637 Mugillidae Ellochelon vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard) x x x 638 Mullidae Mulloidichthys flavolineatus (Lacepede, 1802) Slender goatfish x 639 Mullidae Mulloidichthys sp. Goatfish x 640 Mullidae Parupeneus heptacanthus (Lacepede,1801) x 641 Mullidae Parupeneus indicus (Shaw,1803) Indian goatfiah x x 642 Mullidae Upeneus sp. Goatfish x 643 Mullidae Upeneus sulphureus Cuvier, 1829 Yellow goatfish x x x 644 Mullidae Upeneus sundaicus (Bleeker, 1855) Ochreband goatfish x 645 Mullidae Upeneus tragula (Richarson, 1846) Freckled goatfish x 646 Mullidae Upeneus tragula Richardson, 1846 Freckle goatfish x x x 647 Muraenidae Congresox talabon(Cuvier, 1829) Yellow Pike-conger x 648 Muraenidae Gymnothorax boschii (Bleeker, 1853) x 649 Muraenidae Gymnothorax sp. x 650 Muraenidae Gymnothorax undulatus x 651 Muraenidae Siderea delicatula x 652 Muraenidae Siderea thyrsoidea x 653 Myliobatidae Aetobatus narinari(Euphrasen, 1790) Spooted eagle ray x 654 badis Badis x 655 Nandidae Nandus nandus Gangetic Leaffish x 656 Nandidae Nandus nebulosus Bornean Leaffish x 657 Nandidae Pristolepis fasciatus Striped Tiger Nandid x 658 Nemipteridae Nemipterus hexodon x 659 Nemipteridae Nemipterus peronii (Valenciennes, 1830) Rosy threadfin bream x 660 Nemipteridae Pentapodus setosus Blue Banded Whip Tail x x 661 Nemipteridae Scolopsis bilineatus (Bloch, 1793) Twolined monoclebream x x x 662 Nemipteridae Scolopsis ciliatus (Lacepede, 1802) Sawjawed monoclebream x x x x 663 Nemipteridae Scolopsis dubiosus Yellowstreak x Monoclebream 664 Nemipteridae Scolopsis lineatus x 665 Nemipteridae Scolopsis margaritifer x 666 Nemipteridae Scolopsis monogramma (Kuhl & van Hasselt, Monogrammed x x 1830) monoclebream 667 Nemipteridae Scolopsis sp. Threadfin Bream x 668 Nemipteridae Scolopsis taeniopterus (Valenciennes, 1830) Lattice monoclebream x x 669 Nemipteridae Scolopsis vasmeri x 670 blanci Blanc'a Atriped Feather x 671 Notopteridae Chitala lopis Indonesian Featherback x 672 Notopteridae Chitala ornata Spotted Featherback x 673 Notopteridae Notopterus notopterus Grey Featherback x 674 Ophichthidae Pisodonophis sp. Snake Eel x 675 Ophichthidae Pisoodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson, 1844) x 676 Ophidiidae Dinematichthys ilucoeteoides Yellow Brotula x x 677 Oryziidae Oryzias javanicus(Bleeker, 1854) x 678 Oryziidae Oryzias minutillus Dwarf Medaka x 679 Oryziidae Oryzias sp. Ricefish x 680 Osteoglossidae Scleropages formosus Asian Bonytongue x 681 Ostraciidae Ostracion cubicusLinnaeus, 1758 x x 682 Ostraciidae Ostracion nasus x 683 Ostracoiidae Lactoria cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) Longhorned cowfish x x x x 684 Ostracoiidae Lactoria diaphana (Bloch, 1785) x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 685 Ostracoiidae Rhynchostracion nasus Small-nosed Boxfish x 686 Pangasiidae Pangasius larnaudii Black Ear Catfish x 687 Pangasiidae Pangasius nasutus x 688 Pangasiidae Pangasius pangasius Pangas Catfish x 689 Pangasiidae Pangasius polyuranodon x 690 Pangasiidae Pangasius sanitwongsei Chao Phraya Gian Catfish x 691 Pangasiidae Pangasius sutchi Striped Catfish x 692 Pangasiidae Pterois miles (Bennett, 1828) x 693 Pangasiidae Pteropangasius cultratus x 694 Pangasiidae Pteropangasius micronema x 695 Pangasiidae Pteropangasius pleurotaenis Shark Catfish x 696 Pempheridae Pempheris adusta x 697 Pempheridae Pempheris moluca x 698 Pempheridae Pempheris oualensis Catalufa Sweeper x x 699 Pempheridae Pempheris sp. Sweeper x 700 Pinguipededae Parapercis alboguttata (Gunther, 1872) Grubfish x 701 Pinguipededae Parapercis cf. kamoharai x 702 Pinguipededae Parapercis sp. x 703 Pinguipededae Parapercis xanthozona x 704 Cociella crocodila (Tilesius, 1812) Crocodile flathead x 705 Platycephalidae Grammoplites scaber (Linnaeus, 1758) Thorntyscales x 706 Platycephalidae Hoplichthys sp. Ghost Flathead x 707 Platycephalidae Inegocia japonica (Tilesius, 1812) x x 708 Platycephalidae Inegocia sp. Flathead x 709 Platycephalidae Platycephalus indicus (Linnaeus, 1758) Bartail flathead x x x 710 Platycephalidae Platycephalus scabar Round Flathead x 711 Platycephalidae Platycephalus spp. Flathead x 712 Platycephalidae Thysanophrys carbunculus (Valenciennes, 1833) Carbuncle flathead x x 713 Plectorhynchidae Gaterin diagrammus Silver-banded Sweetlip x 714 Plesiopidae Plesiops coeruleolineatus x 715 Plotosidae Plotosus canius Hamilton, 1822 Lagoon eel catfish x x 716 Plotosidae Plotosus lineatus (Thunberg, 1791) Striped Eel Catfish x x x 717 Polynemidae Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw, 1804) Fourfinger threadfin x x 718 Polynemidae Polydactylus microstoma (Bleeker, 1851) x 719 Polynemidae Polydactylus plebeius (Broussonet, 1782) x 720 Polynemidae Polynemus longipectoralis Threadfin Bream x 721 Polynemidae Polynemus paradiseus Paradise Threadfin x 722 Polynemidae Polynemus tetradactylus Threadfin, Tessel Fish x 723 Pomacanthidae Pygoplites diacanthus Roysl Anglefish x x 724 Abudefduf bengalensis (Bloch, 1787) Sergeant Major x x 725 Pomacentridae Abudefduf coelestinus Black-banded x Demerselfish 726 Pomacentridae Abudefduf notatus (Day, 1869) x 727 Pomacentridae Abudefduf septemfasciatus (Cuvier 1830) x 728 Pomacentridae Abudefduf sexfasciatus Lacepede, 1802 x 729 Pomacentridae Abudefduf sordidus Forsskal, 1775 Blackspot sergeant major x 730 Pomacentridae Abudefduf vaigensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) Fivebar Sergeant x x 731 Pomacentridae curacao (Bloch, 1787) Blacknout x x 732 Pomacentridae Amblyglyphidodon leucogaster (Bleeker, 1847) x 733 Pomacentridae Amphiprion clarkii (Bennett, 1830) Whitetip anemone x 734 Pomacentridae Amphiprion perideraion Bleeker, 1855 Whiteline Anemone x x 735 Pomacentridae Amphiprion polymnus (Linnaeus, 1758) Saddleband Anemone x x 736 Pomacentridae Amphiprion sebae Bleeker, 1853 x 737 Pomacentridae Chromis atripectoralis Welander and Schultz, 1951 x 738 Pomacentridae Chromis cinerascens (Cuvier, 1830) x 739 Pomacentridae Chromis fumea (Tanaka, 1917) x 740 Pomacentridae Chromis sp. Damselfish x x 741 Pomacentridae Chromis viridis (Cuvier, 1830) x 742 Pomacentridae biocellata x 743 Pomacentridae Chrysiptera hemicyanea x 744 Pomacentridae Chrysiptera leucopoma x 745 Pomacentridae Chrysiptera unimaculata x 746 Pomacentridae Dascyllus aruamus Band Puller x 747 Pomacentridae Dascyllus reticulatus x 748 Pomacentridae Dascyllus trimaculatus Whitespot Puller x x 749 Pomacentridae Dischistodus melanotus x 750 Pomacentridae Hemiplyphidodon plagiometopon x 751 Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon melas x 752 Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon nigroris x 753 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus anabatoides x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 754 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus azysron x 755 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus bankieri x 756 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus cyanomua Violet Damsel x x 757 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus filamentosus x 758 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus nemurus x 759 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus taeniurus x 760 Pomacentridae Paraglyphidodon melas Zulu Damselfish x 761 Pomacentridae Paraglyphidodon nigroris Black damsel x 762 Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus Whitespotted Devil x x 763 Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon leucozonus x 764 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus albimaculus x 765 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus alexanderea x 766 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus amboinensis x 767 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus chrysurus x 768 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus coelestis Yellow-tailed Damselfish x x 769 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus cuneatus x 770 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus hardi Damselfish x 771 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus littoralis x 772 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus moluccensis Yellow Damselfish x x 773 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus philippinus x 774 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus rhodonotus Whitetail Damsel x 775 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus sp. x 776 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus tripunctatus x 777 Pomacentridae Stegaster apicalis Australian Gregory x 778 Pomacentridae Stegastes fasciolatus x 779 Pomacentridae Stegastes nigricans x 780 Pomacentridae Stegastes obreptus x 781 Pomadasyidae Pomadasys argyreus (Valenciennes, 1833) Silver grunt x x 782 Pomadasyidae Pomadasys hasta Silver Spotted Grunt x 783 Pomadasyidae Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch, 1797) Saddle grunt x x x 784 Pomadasyidae Pomadasys sp. x 785 Pristigasteridae kampeni (Weber & Beaufort, 1913) x x 786 Pristigasteridae Ilisha megaloptera (Swainson, 1839) Bigeye ilisha x 787 Pristigasteridae Ilisha melastoma (Schneider, 1801) Indian ilisha x 788 Pristigasteridae Opisthopterus tardoore (Cuvier, 1829) Tardoors x 789 Pristigasteridae Pellona ditchela (Valenciennes, 1847) Indian pellona x 790 Pristigasteridae Pellona sp. Herring x 791 Pseodochromidae subducens x 792 Psettodidae Psettodes erumei (Schnerder, 1801) Indian x 793 Psettodidae Pseudochromis xanthochir x 794 Rachycentridae Rachycentron canadum (Linnaeus, 1766) Kingfish, Cobia x x 795 Scaridae Chlorurus sordidus x 796 Scaridae Scarus frenatus x 797 Scaridae Scarus ghobban Forsskal, 1775 Yellow-scale parrot x x x 798 Scaridae Scarus niger x 799 Scaridae Scarus prasiognathos x 800 Scaridae Scarus rivulatus Rivulated Parrot Fish x x 801 Scaridae Scarus rubroviolaceus x 802 Scaridae Scarus sp. Parrotfish x x 803 Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus, 1758) Spade fish, Spotted butter x x 804 Schibeidae Eutropiichthys vacha Schilbid Catfish x 805 Schibeidae Laides hexanema Catfish x 806 Schibeidae Platytropius siamensis x 807 Sciaenidae Boesemanis microlepis Boeseman Coaker x 808 Sciaenidae Dendrophysa russelli (Cuvier, 1830) Goatee croaker x x 809 Sciaenidae Johnius belangerii (Cuvier, 1830) Belanger's croaker x x 810 Sciaenidae Johnius spp. Croaker x 811 Sciaenidae Johnius trachycephalus Leaftail Croaker x 812 Sciaenidae Nibea soldado (Lacepede, 1802) Soldier Croaker x x 813 Sciaenidae Otolithes aeneocorpus Slender Croker x 814 Sciaenidae Otolithes cuvieri (Trewavas, 1974) Lessertigertooth croaker x 815 Sciaenidae Otolithes ruber Tigertooth Croaker x 816 Sciaenidae Pennahia anea (Bloch, 1773) x 817 Sciaenidae Pseudosciana soldado White Soldier Croaker x 818 Sciaenidae Pseudoscians sp. Croaker x 819 Sciaenidae Sciaena russelli Russell's Jew Fish x 820 Sciaenidae Sciaena sp. x 821 Scombridae Rastrelliger feaughni Faughn's Mackerel x 822 Scombridae Rastrelliger kanagurta (Cuvier, 1816) Indian mackerel x x 823 Scombridae Rastrelliger neglectus /brachysoma Indo-Pacific Mackerel x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 824 Scombridae Scomberomorus commerson (Lacepede, 1800) Narrow-barred Spanish x x x mackerel 825 Scorpaenidae Parascorpaena picta x 826 Scorpaenidae Pterogobius sp. x 827 Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis cirrhosa x 828 Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis diabolus x 829 Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis venosa x 830 Scorpaenidae Trachicephalus uranoscopus (Bloch & Schneider, x 1801) 831 Scorpaenidae Vespicula trachinoides (Cuvier & Valenciennes, Globinfish x x 1829) 832 Serranidae Aethaloperca rogaa (Forsskal, 1775) Redmouth grouper x 833 Serranidae Anyperodon leucogrammicus(Valenciennes, 1828) Slender grouper x 834 Serranidae Cephalopholis argusBloch&Schneider, 1801 Peacock grouper x x 835 Serranidae Cephalopholis boenackBloch, 1790 Chocolate hind x x 836 Serranidae Cephalopholis cyanostigma x 837 Serranidae Cephalopholis microprion x 838 Serranidae Cephalopholis miniata(Forsskal, 1775) Coral grouper x 839 Serranidae Cephalopholis pachycentron Brown hind-banded x seabass 840 Serranidae Cephalopholis sammana Seabass x 841 Serranidae Cephalophotis formosa(Shaw $ Nodder, 1812) Bluelined hind x 842 Serranidae Cromileptes altivelis(Valencienes, 1828) Polkadot grouper x 843 Serranidae Epinephelus areolatus Areolated Grouper x x 844 Serranidae Epinephelus bleekeri (Vaillant & Bocourt, 1877) Duskytail grouper x x x x 845 Serranidae Epinephelus brunneus(Bloch, 1793) Mud grouper x 846 Serranidae Epinephelus caeruleopunctatus White-spooted grouper x 847 Serranidae Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton, 1822) Duskytail grouper x x x x 848 Serranidae Epinephelus corallicola x 849 Serranidae Epinephelus epistictus(Temminch & Schlegel, Broken-line grouper x 1842) 850 Serranidae Epinephelus erythrurus x 851 Serranidae Epinephelus erythrurus (Valenciennes, 1828) x 852 Serranidae Epinephelus fasciatus(Forsskal, 1775) Black-tipped grouper x 853 Serranidae Epinephelus fuscoguttatus(Forsskal, 1775) Brown-marbled grouper x 854 Serranidae Epinephelus heniochus x 855 Serranidae Epinephelus lanceolatus x 856 Serranidae Epinephelus latifasciatus x 857 Serranidae Epinephelus malabaricus(Bloch & Schneider, Malabar grouper x 1801) 858 Serranidae Epinephelus merraBloch, 1793 Dwaft-spotted grouper x 859 Serranidae Epinephelus ongus(Bloch, 1790) White-streaked grouper x 860 Serranidae Epinephelus quoyanus (Valenciennes, 1830) Barred-chest grouper x x 861 Serranidae Epinephelus sexfasciatus (Valenciennes, 1828) Six-banded rockcod x x x 862 Serranidae Epinephelus sp. x x 863 Serranidae Epinephelus tauvina(Forssakal, 1775) Greasy grouper/Reef x 864 Serranidae Plectropomus leopardus x 865 Serranidae Plectropomus maculatus Spot Coral x x 866 Siganidae Siganus canaliculatus (Park, 1797) White-spotted Spinefoot x x x x 867 Siganidae Siganus corallinus x 868 Siganidae Siganus fuscescens (Houttuyn, 1782) x 869 Siganidae Siganus guttatus (Bloch, 1787) Golednlined spinefoot x x x 870 Siganidae Siganus javus (Linnaeus, 1766) Streaked spinefoot x x x x 871 Siganidae Siganus lineatus x 872 Siganidae Siganus punctatissimus Peppered Spinefoot x 873 Siganidae Siganus punctatus x 874 Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus x 875 Siganidae Siganus virgatus Doublebarred Spinefoot x x 876 Sillago aeolus (Jordan & Evermann, 1902) x x x 877 Sillaginidae Sillago lutea (McKay, 1985) x 878 Sillaginidae Sillago sihama (Forsskal, 1775) Common whiting x x x 879 Sillaginidae Sillago sp. x 880 Ceratoglanis scleronema Sheatfish x 881 Siluridae Kryptopterus apogon Common Sheatfish x 882 Siluridae kryptopterus bleekeri Whisker Sheatfish x 883 Siluridae Kryptopterus cryptopterus Sheatfish x 884 Siluridae Kryptopterus limpok Whisker Sheatfish x 885 Siluridae kryptopterus sp. x 886 Siluridae Ompok bimaculatus Butter Catfish x 887 Siluridae Ompok eugeneiatus Sheatfish x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 14

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 888 Siluridae Ompok hypophthalmus Sheatfish x 889 Siluridae Silurus cochinchinensis x 890 Siluridae Wallago dinema x 891 Siluridae Wallago leerii x 892 Siluridae Wallagonia attu Great White Sheatfish x 893 bagarius Sisorid Catfish x 894 Sisoridae Bagarius yarrelli Giant Bagarius x 895 Sisoridae Bagroides macropterus Catfish x 896 Sisoridae Glyptothorax fuscus Catfish x 897 Sisoridae Glyptothorax lampris Catfish x 898 Sisoridae Glyptothorax sp. Catfish x 899 Sisoridae Glyptothorax trilineatus Catfish x 900 Sisoridae Oreoglanis siamensis Freshwater Batfish x 901 Pardachirus pavoninus (Lacepede, 1802) Broad sole x x 902 Soleidae Solea ovata Richardson, 1849 Ovate sole x 903 Soleidae Zebrias quagga Kaup, 1858 Fringefin zebra sole x 904 berda (Forsskal,1775) Picnic seabream x 905 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena baracuda (Walbaum, 1792) Great barracuda x x 906 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena forsteri x 907 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena jello (cuvier, 1829) Pickhandle barracuda x x x 908 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena obtusata (cuvier, 1829) Striped barracuda x x x 909 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena qenie (Klunzinger, 1870) x x 910 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena sp. x x 911 Sphyraenidae Sphyrna blochii Winghead Shark x 912 Stromateidae Pampus argenteus Silver Pomfret x 913 Stromateidae Pampus chinensis Chinese Pomfret x 914 Stromateidae Pampus sp. x 915 Synbranchidae Macrotrema caligans x 916 Synbranchidae Monopterus albus Swamp Eel x 917 Synbranchidae Ophisternon bengalense Onegilled Eel x 918 brachysoma x 919 Syngnathidae amplexus x 920 Syngnathidae Cosmocampus investigatoris x 921 Syngnathidae Doryrhamphus excisus excisus x 922 Syngnathidae Doryrhamphus janssi x 923 Syngnathidae grayi x 924 Syngnathidae Hippichthys cyanospilus (Bleeker, 1854) x 925 Syngnathidae Hippichthys heptagonus (Bleeker, 1853) x 926 Syngnathidae Hippichthys penicillus (Cantor, 1849) x 927 Syngnathidae Hippichthys spicifer (Ruppell, 1840) x 928 Syngnathidae Phoxocampus belcheri x 929 Syngnathidae Syngnathoides biaculeatus (Bloch, 1875) x 930 Syngnathidae Trachyrhamphus bicoarctatus (Bleeker, 1857) x 931 Synodontidae Saurida micropectoralis Shindo & Yamada, 1972 Shortpectoral fin x 932 Synodontidae Saurida nebulosa Valenciennes, 1849 x x 933 Synodontidae Synodus variegatus x 934 Tachysuridae Tachysurus sp. x 935 Teraponidae Pelates quadrilineatus (Bloch, 1797) or 1790 check Fourlined terapon x x 936 Teraponidae Terapon farbua x 937 Teraponidae Terapon jarbua (Forsskal, 1775) Crescent grunter x x 938 Teraponidae Terapon puta Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829 Smallscale terapon x x 939 Teraponidae Terapon theraps Cuvier, 1829 Threelined terapon x x x 940 hispidus (Linnaeus, 1758) Bristly puffer x 941 Tetraodontidae Arothron immaculatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Innaculate blowfish x x x 942 Tetraodontidae Arothron reticularis (Bloch & schneider, 1801) Reticulated blowfish x 943 Tetraodontidae Arothron sp. x 944 Tetraodontidae Arothron stellatus(Bloch&Schneider, 1801) Star puffer x x 945 Tetraodontidae Lagocephalus lunaris (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Spotrugh back blowfish x 946 Tetrodontidae Chelonodon patoca (Hamilton, 1822) Gangetic Blowfish x x x 947 Tetrodontidae Chelonodon sp. Puffer x 948 Tetrodontidae Sphoeroides lunaris x 949 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon fluviatilis Green Pufferfish x 950 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon leiurus Green Blowfish x 951 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon nigroviridis Proce, 1822 x x 952 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon sp. x 953 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon suvatti Puffer x 954 Theraponidae Therapon jarbua Jabua Terapon x 955 Toxotidae Toxotes chatareus Common Archer Fish x 956 Toxotidae Toxotes jaculatrix (Pallas, 1766) Fourspined archer x x 957 Toxotidae Toxotes microlepis Fiveblotched Archer x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 15

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 958 Triacanthidae Triacanthus biaculeatus (Bloch, 1786) Shortnosed tripodfish x x x 959 Triacanthidae Triacanthus bicoarctatus (Bleeker, 1757) x 960 Trichiuridae Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758 Largehead hairtail x x 961 Tripterygiidae Helcogramma obtusirostris x 962 Tripterygiidae Tripterygion bapturum x 963 Tripterygiidae Tripterygion fasciatum x 964 Tripterygiidae Tripterygion sp. x

WL = Wetland CR = Coral MG = Mangrove SG = Seagrass

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 4 PAGE 1

APPENDIX 4 The Organisational Structure of the Department of Fisheries (DOF)

Department of Fisheries

Director of General

Deputy Director-General (3) Office of Fisheries Technical Advisor (12)

Administration Internal Auditing Office of Inspector Development Group Group General (7)

Office of Department Fishery Technological Inland Fisheries Research Coastal Fisheries Marine Fisheries Research Fisheries Development Fisheries Administration Secretary Development Division and Development Bureau Research and and Development Bureau and Technology Transfer and Management Development Bureau Bureau Bureau Personnel Division Fishery Inspection and Administrative Administrative Administrative Administrative Administrative Quality Control Division Research group Research group Research group Research Group Finance Division Fisheries Research and National Institute of Far Sea Marine Fisheries Permission and Inland Aquaculture Development Technology Coastal Aquaculture and Technology Transfer Group Fisheries Administrative Planning Division Aquatic Animal Genetic Research Institute Development Institute Section Research and Coastal Aquatic Fisheries Development Institute Animal Health Marine Fisheries Research Dissemination Section Foreign Fisheries Inland Aquatic Animal Fish Trade Inspection Research Institute and Technology Affairs Division Health Research Institute Section Development Institute Coastal Aquatic Bangkok Fisheries Inland Fisheries Fishery Information Animal Feed Section Administrative Section Technology Center Inland Aquatic Animal Research Institute Marine Fisheries Research Feed Research Institute and Development Center (5) Royal Project Section Inland Fisheries Control Marine Shrimp Culture and Surveillance Center Inland Fisheries Research Institute (7) Resources Research and Development Fishery Technology Institute Kung Krabaen Bay Transfer Section Marine Fisheries Royal Development Administration and Study Center Management Division Ornamental Aquatic Fishery Engineering Animal and Aquatic Plant Section Research Institute Pak Panang Basin Marine Fisheries Control Royal Fisheries and Surveillance Center Development Center Inland Fisheries Fishery economics (5) Research and Section Development Center (31) Coastal Fisheries Research and Development Center Fisheries Provincial (13) Office (75)

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 5 PAGE 1

APPENDIX 5 The Organisational Structure of the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR)

Structure and Function

Department of Marine and Coastal

Resource

Office of Public Sector Office of Law Department Commission

Office of Secretarial Division of Policy and Planning

Institute for Research and Office of Mangrove Office of Marine and Coastal Development of Marine and Conservation Conservation and Coastal Resources (Phuket Enforcement Marine Biological Center

(PMBC)

Regional Offices

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand