Onchocerciasis Control Programme Area Proceedings of a Ministerial Meeting

WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBEH 310 /Vw./97 SERhES ON RIVER BLINDNESS CONTROL IN WEST AFRIK.A Sustainable Settlement and Public Disclosure Authorized Development of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme Area Proceedings of a Ministerial Meeting

Edited by John Elder and Laura Cooley Public Disclosure Authorized

Atlantic Ocean Public Disclosure Authorized

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Sustainable Settlement and Development of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme Area

Proceedings of a Ministerial Meeting

Edited by John Elder and Laura Cooley

All riights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing November 1995

Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncom- mercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to copy portions for classroom use is granted through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., Suite 910, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, U.S.A. The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications, which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Distribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'I6na, 75116 Paris, France.

ISSN: 0253-7494

John Elder is a sociologist in the West Central Africa Department of the World Bank. He was formerly a sociologist in the Onchocerciasis Unit of the Sahelian Department. Laura Cooley is a sociologist in the Onchocerciasis Unit of the Westem Africa Department at the World Bank.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sustainable settlement and development of the onchocerciasis control programme area: proceedings of a ministerial meeting / edited by John Elder and Laura Cooley. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494; 310. Series on river blindness control in West Africa) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-3515-4 1. Land settlement-Africa, West-Congresses. 2. Sustainable agriculture-Africa, West-Congresses. 3. Sustainable development- Africa, West-Congresses. 4. Onchocerciasis-Africa, West Congresses. 5. Migration, Internal-Africa, West-Congresses. I. Elder, John, 1955- . II. Cooley, Laura, 1961- . III. World Bank. IV. Series: World Bank technical paper; 310. V. Series: World Bank technical paper. Series on river blindness control in West Africa. HD1010.S87 1995 333.3'166-dc2O 95-45681 CIP ft Contents

Foreword vii Abstract ix Acknowledgments xi Acronymsand Initials xiii Introduction 1 Session1: OpeningSession 3 Welcomeby the Committee of SponsoringAgencies 3 EllenJohnson Sirleaf, Africa Bureau,United Nations Development Programme EdwardV. K. Jaycox,Africa Region,World Bank OpeningRemarks 6 P.V. Obeng,Presidential Advisor on GovernmentalAffairs, Ghana BlaiseCompaore, President, Burkina Faso AbdouDiouf, President, Republic of Senegal TheChallenges of Success 11 BernhardLiese, Committee of SponsoringAgencies Session2: NaturalResource Management in SettlementAreas 19 Community-BasedLand Management Inthe Onchocerciasis Control Zones 20 JeffreyLewis, WorldBank EmmanuelNikiema, Officenational d'amenagement des terroirs,Burkina Faso SamidouPale, Programme national de gestiondes terroirs,Burkina Faso MarimantiaDiarra, Programme national de gestiondes ressources naturelles, Mali Capitaizingon Success: The Onchocerciasis Control Programme and Resource Management Options 29 U.S.Agencyfor International Development Discussion 34

iii Session 3: Land Tenure in New Settlement Areas 37 LandTenure Policy In OnchocerciasisControl ProgrammeAreas 38 Foodand AgricultureOrganization LandTenure and the Developmentof Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas in NorthemGhana 41 GeorgeBenneh, University of Ghana,Legon Land Tenureand Settlementin the Onchocerciasis-FreedZones of Burkina Faso 44 Clubdu Sahel Discussion 49 Session 4: Policy on Administrative Structures and the Provision of Services 51 The Rehabilitationof Onchocerciasis-ControlledAreas 52 Ministry of EnvironmentalProtection, Senegal AdministrativeStructures and Servicesfor SustainableSettlement 56 Ministry of Foodand Agriculture,Ghana HealthAspects of Settlementin OnchocerciasisControl ProgrammeAreas 60 Hans Verhoefand Rudi Slooff,World Health Organization Discussion 69 Session 5: Policy on Settler Participation in the Settlement Process and Selection of Settlement Areas 71 Viewsof the Peopleon the SustainableDevelopment of Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas in Mali 72 Aminata D. Traore,United Nations Development Programme Capitalizingon Diversity:Women's Issues and SustainableDevelopment in the OCP River Basins 78 DellaE. McMillan,University of Florida,Gainesville Sethementand Developmentof Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas in Mali 96 Ministry of Rural Developmentand the Environment,Mali Discussion 98 Session 6: Sustainable Agricultural Production 99 SustainableAgricultural Production: Issues and PolicyRequirements in the OnchocerciasisControl Programme Areas 100 Foodand AgricultureOrganization Settlementand Developmentin GanzourgouProvince, Burkina Faso 105 RobertoCogno, Institut de rechercheset d'applicationsde methodesde developpement and Ministry of Cooperation,France StrategicGuidelines for SustainableResettlement of Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas 113 Ministry of Agricultureand Animal Resources,Guinea SustainableSettlement and Developmentof the OnchocerciasisControl Area in SierraLeone 117 Lt. Col.Abdul Sesay,Secretary of State,Department of Agricultureand Fisheries, SierraLeone Discussion 119

iv Session 7: Closing Session 121 Closing Remarks Ellen Johnson Sirleaf Africa Bureau, United Nations Development Programme 121 Katherine Marshall, Africa Region, World Bank 123 Hartwig de Haen, Agriculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization 126

Guiding Principlesfor SustainableSettlement and Development in the OnchocerciasisControl ProgrammeArea 128 Annex 1: Background papers 135

SustainableSettlement and Developmentof the OnchocerciasisControl ProgrammeArea in Benin 135 People's Republic of Benin Experienceof BurkinaFaso in SelectingSettlement Sites and Settlers 143 Burkina Faso The LandTenure Systemin the SettlementAreas of Burkina Faso 147 Burkina Faso SustainableSettlement in the OnchocerciasisControl Programme Areas of Guinea-Bissau 150 Republic of Guinea-Bissau Resettlementand Developmentin Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas in Niger 153 Republic of the Niger

Annex 2: Agenda 157 Annex 3: Participants 161

v ft Foreword

This volume contains the proceedingsfrom the Ministeri- The ministerial meeting was part of the CSA'songoing al Meeting on Sustainable Settlement and Development effort to promote discussion of settlement and develop- of the OnchocerciasisControl Programme (OCP)Area, ment in the OCP area. The outstanding feature of the held in Paris, April 12-14, 1994.The meeting brought meeting was the quality of the discussions.The African together heads of state, government ministers, high-level participants led the various debates, determining which officials,and members of the donor community to review, issues were given priority,commenting on the guiding revise,and adopt a set of guiding principlesin support of principles,relating their own country experiences,and sustainable settlement and development in the areas freed raising issues they felt had been ignored. There was par- of onchocerciasisby the OCP. ticular interest in land tenure issues and considerable The OCP is one of the most successfulhealth projects in debate over the balance between individual and state Africa.Since its inceptionin 1974,it has had the twin needs. Gender issues were a strong concern, and objectivesof controllinga debilitatingdisease and promot- women's differing accessto land and other resources were ing socioeconomicdevelopment in areas where the disease problems brought forward by the participantsin every has been controlled.The program was launched by seven session.An additional,very pertinent, concern that sur- West Africancountries and nine donors, includingthe faced frequentlywas the issue of transhumant popula- World Bank,and has expanded to includeeleven countries tions and the growing level of conflictbetween these and and twenty-three donors. Thirtymillion people are now other groups. A strong consensus emerged that the guid- protectedfrom the disease,and 25 millionhectares of ing principles, modifiedaccording to the discussion,pro- arableland have been made availablefor settlement. vided a clear and sensible set of policiesto address the While the OCP is not directly involved in socioeco- rapid settlement occurring in the OCP area. nomic development, the Committee of Sponsoring The ministerial meeting was a criticalstep in an ongo- Agencies (CSA,comprising the Food and Agriculture ing process of how best to ensure sustainable settlement Organization,the United Nations Development Pro- and development of the OCP area. The proceedings of the gramme, the World Health Organization, and the World meeting are being published because sustainable settle- Bank), the statutory body that oversees the OCP, has ment and development of the OCP area are vital to the worked to facilitatedevelopment in the OCP area. As part long-term development prospects of the OCP countries. of this process, the CSAexecuted the Land Settlement Moreover, the issues discussed at the meeting-land Review,which examined land settlement experiencesin tenure, community management of natural resources, the OCP area and developed policyrecommendations to gender roles and identity, the role of transhumant popu- support sustainable settlement. The central recommenda- lations-have wider relevanceto sustainable development tion of this study was that assisted, spontaneous settle- throughout Africa. ment-a process involvinggovemment support to existing settlement patterns-was the most suitable Katherine Marshall, Director for the massivepopulation movements occurring Sahelian Department, Africa Region in the OCP area.

vii ft Abstract

The Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) was initi- area. Out of these studies was developed a draft set of ated in 1974 to control river blindness in seven countries guiding principles for sustainable settlement. In April in West Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, C6te d'lvoire, Ghana, 1994, the CSA organized a ministerial meeting in Paris to Mali, Niger, and Togo. Later, the program was expanded provide a forum for African policymakers to discuss and to include Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Sierra modify these guidelines. The meeting was attended by Leone. Today, twenty years after the inception of control, ministers of planning, agriculture, environment, and the OCP is widely regarded as one of the most effective health from the eleven African countries participating in regional health programs ever launched. River blindness the OCP, as well as by representatives of OCP donors and is no longer a public health threat in the original control of agencies working on settlement and environmental zone, and many of the river basins are being resettled. issues in West Africa. The Committee of Sponsoring Agencies (CSA), a This volume contains the papers and speeches deliv- statutory body of the OCP, consisting of the Food and ered at the meeting, summaries of the substantive discus- Agriculture Organization, the United Nations Develop- sions that took place at the meeting, and the guiding ment Programme, the World Health Organization, and principles for sustainable settlement and development of the World Bank, has supported a series of studies to pro- the OCP area, as revised and adopted by the participants mote sustainable settlement and development in the OCP of the meeting.

ix ft Acknowledgments

This volume contains the proceedings of the Ministerial meeting preparations, a task that included visitingmany Meeting on Sustainable Settlement and Development of of the participatingcountries to discuss the meeting with the OnchocerciasisControl Programme (OCP)Area held government officialsand to emphasize the importance the in Paris, April 12-14, 1994.While the meeting was orga- sponsoring agencies placed on the issues to be discussed. nized by the Committee of Sponsoring Agencies of the The World Bank's Paris officedid a superb job of man- OCP, the success of the meeting stemmed from the aging the difficultlogistical and administrativearrange- contributions of a large number of people outside ments for the meeting. Paris staff worked long hours both these agencies. in preparing for the meeting and in accommodatingthe We would like to thank President Diouf of Senegal, diverse requirements of the more than 100 participants. President Compaore of BurkinaFaso, and Mr. P. V. We would like to thank Dr. David Baldryand Dr. Obeng, PresidentialAdvisor on GovernmentalAffairs, Davide Calamari,authors of a study on the environmental Ghana, for their contributions in the opening session of impact of settlement, for attending the meeting and for the meeting. The importance they placed on the issues allowing their data to be used in the CSApresentation. We being discussedwas evident from their participationand would also like to thank Dr. George Benneh,University of served to highlight the critical nature of these issues to Ghana, Legon, for presenting some of his work on land those not familiarwith West Africa. tenure and land settlement and Dr. Della McMillanfor The key to the success of the meeting was the quality sharing her work on the impact of settlement on women. of the discussion,led by the participants from the African The representatives from ORSTOM (Institutfrancaisde countries in the OCP: Benin, BurkinaFaso, C6te d'Ivoire, recherchescientifique pour le ddveloppemnenten cooperation) Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,Mali, Niger, Senegal, and the Cub du Sahel added greatly to the discussion, Sierra Leone, and Togo. These participants presented sharing their extensivefield experiencein West Africa. papers analyzing experienceswith settlement in their own We would also like to thank the OCP donors, many of countries, carefullyreviewed, critiqued, and amended the which sent representatives to the meeting. Since the guiding principles for sustainable settlement and develop- beginning of the program, the donors have insisted that ment prepared by the sponsoring agencies, and main- the control of onchocerciasisbe followed by sustainable tained the discussion at a constructiveand challenging settlement and development of the OCP area. level throughout the meeting. Funding for the meeting was very generouslyprovided The high quality of the discussionwas also due to the by the Food and AgricultureOrganization, the French Min- effortsof the chair, Mr. Lambert Konan, Minister of Agri- istry of Cooperation,the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic culture and Animal Resources,C6te d'lvoire, who worked Development,the Netherlands Ministryfor Development hard to produce a focused and constructive debate. In Cooperation,the United KingdomOverseas Development addition, he ensured that the participants' modifications Administration,the United Nations DevelopmentPro- and additions to the guiding principleswere incorporated gramme, the World Bank OnchocerciasisUnit, and the into the final document. World BankResearch Support Budget (RPO 678-85). Mr. Warren Furth was responsible for supervising

xi 0 ft Acronyms and Initials

AFRO WHO RegionalOffice for Africa OMVG Organisation pour la mise en valeur du AGRHYMET Agrometeorologyand Operational fleuve Gambie HydrologyCentre (Niger) ONAT Officenational d'amenagement des AW Autorit6 d'am6nagement des vallees des terroirs (BurkinaFaso) Voltas (BurkinaFaso) ORD Organisme regional de developpement CBLM Community-based land management (BurkinaFaso) CFA Communaute financiere africaine ORSTOM Institut francaisde RechercheScientifique CMDT Compagniemalienne pour pour le Developpementen Cooperation le developpement des textiles PNNK Parc national du Niokolo Koba (Senegal) CMFL Community microfilarialload RAF Reorganisationagraire et fonciere CNCA Caissenationale de credit agricole (BurkinaFaso) (BurkinaFaso) RMA Recruitment/migrationagent CRPA Centre r6gionalde promotion agro- (BurkinaFaso) pastorale (BurkinaFaso) STN Soci6t6des terres neuves (Senegal) CSA Committee of SponsoringAgencies UNCED United Nations Conferenceon of the OCP Environmentand Development DFN Domaine foncier national (BurkinaFaso) UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human EAC ExpertAMvisoryCommittee of the OCP Settlements (Habitat) ECOWAS EconomicOrganization of West UNDP United Nations Development Programme African States UNEP United Nations EnvironmentProgramme FAC Fonds d'aide et de coop6ration (France) UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, FAO Food and AgricultureOrganization of the and Cultural Organization United Nations UNFPA United Nations Fund for Population HIA Health Impact Assessment Activities IDA Institute for DevelopmentAnthropology UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund IFPRI Intemational Food PolicyResearch UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Institute Organization JPC Joint ProgrammeCommittee of the OCP WFP World Food Programme LSR Land Settlement Review WHO World Health Organization NGO Nongovernmentalorganization WMO World MeteorologicalOrganization OCP OnchocerciasisControl Programme VRA Volta RiverAuthority (Ghana) (in West Africa)

XII a ft Introduction

The OnchocerciasisControl Programme(OCP) is one of the Programme Committeerequested the CSA to organizea most successfulhealth programsin Africa:it has virtually high-levelmeeting involvingthe ministersof agriculture, eliminatedriver blindnessas a public health problem in the environment,planning, and health of the eleven participat- eleven-countryarea in which it operates.1 The programme ing countries and representativesof the donor community. is a model of intercountrycooperation and of long-term The main objectivesof the meetingwere to create aware- commitmentby donors to achievean importantdevelop- ness at the highest levelof the developmentpotential of ment objective.Started in 1974in seven countrieswith the the OCP area and the relationshipbetween rapid settle- support of nine donors, the program now coverseleven ment and environmental change,to build a constituency countriesand has support from twenty-threedonors. for effectivepolicies for sustainableland settlement, and to One of the primary justificationsof the Onchocerciasis adopt a set of guidingprinciples for sustainablesettlement Control Programme has alwaysbeen the removal of a and developmentof the OCP area. major constraint to the economic development of the OCP The importance which the eleven Africar.countries area. The participatingAfrican countries and the major participating in the OCP place on the issues of sustainable donors to the OCP have emphasizedtheir concern that settlement and development of the OCP area was the economic potential of this vast area be tapped once the demonstrated by the fact that each country sent ministeri- disease had been brought under control. It is estimated al-level representation to the meeting. The meeting was that successfulcontrol of onchocerciasisis opening up 25 opened by President Diouf of Senegal,President Com- million hectares of arable land that had been uninhabit- paore of BurkinaFaso, and Mr. P. V. Obeng, SpecialAdvi- able because of the severityof the disease. The Joint Pro- sor to President Rawlingsof Ghana. In addition to gramme Committee (UPC,representing the African high-level representation from the four sponsoring agen- countries and donors participatingin the OCP) acts as the cies of the OCP, ten other donors to the program sent executivesecretariat of the program.At the JPC's request, representatives, as did Institut francais de Recherche Sci- the Committee of SponsoringAgencies (CSA, represent- entifique pour le D6veloppement en Coop6ration ing FAO, UNDP, WHO, and the World Bank) has actively (CRSTOM)and Club du Sahel, both of which have done promoted socioeconomicdevelopment of this area since extensive work on settlement and environmental issues in 1987.The CSAhas completed two regional studies in sup- West Africa. port of development in the area. The first, the Hunting A strong consensus emerged from the discussions at report, examined the area's natural resource endowment the meeting that the guiding principlesprovided a clear and development potential. The second, the Land Settle- and sensible set of policies to address the rapid settlement ment Review,examined land settlement experiencein the in the OCP area. The speeches, papers, and discussions OCPparticipating countries and developed policyrecom- included in this volume indicate the diversity of situations mendations to support sustainable settlement and devel- in the OCP area and the broad spectrum of issues that opment of the onchocerciasis-freedareas. affect the sustainablesettlement and development of the To encouragefollow-up policy reformns and investments onchocerciasis-freedriver valleys. to support sustainablesettlement and development,and to ensure that the policy recommendationsof the Land Set- 'Benin,Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea- tlement Reviewreached the appropriateaudience, the Joint Bissau,Mali, Niger,Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo . SESSION 1

Ot Opening Session

This session included welcomingspeeches by the two co- ty-yeareffort that has liberated vast areas of the West chairs of the Committee of Sponsoring Agencies, followed Africansubregion from the scourgeof river blindness.We by opening presentations by President Diouf of Senegal, are also here to find ways to exploit,on a sustainablebasis, President Compaore of BurkinaFaso, and Mr. P. V. the development dividend resulting from this success. Obeng, PresidentialAdvisor on GovernmentalAffairs of I would like to pay tribute to the foresight, dedication, Ghana. All the presentations emphasized the OCP's and commitment of the African leaders, the scientists,the extraordinarysuccess in controlling a debilitatingdisease health professionals,and the planners who have worked and the importance of regional and international coopera- together to rid large areas of this dreaded disease. I wish tion in achieving that success. also to pay homage to RobertMcNamara (of the World The final presentation in this session, prepared by the Bank) and Paul Hoffman (of the UNDP).In the early Committee of Sponsoring Agencies,outlined the rationale 1970s,these visionarydevelopment leaders saw in the for the meeting. Control of onchocerciasishas prompted OnchocerciasisControl Programme clear links between rapid migration to sparsely populated but fertile river val- health, the productivityof people and land, environmen- leys throughout the OCP area. Drawing on data from an tal protection, and growth-all basic elements of what we environmental impact assessment executed by the CSA now refer to as a sustainable development strategy. and on regional demographicstatistics, the paper shows The OCP renews our optimismabout the potential for the relation between settlement and the environment, progress in human developmentin Africa.It provides valu- and outlines the potential environmental consequences of able guidancefor further development cooperation.It pro- uncontrolled settlement. The speed with which settlement vides a strategyfor addressing a short-term health problem is occurringand its potential impact on the environment within the contextof a long-term development perspective reinforcedfor the meeting participants the importance of and specific,measurable outputs. Perhaps more important, the issues being discussed. under its director,Dr. EbrahimSamba, it demonstrates what excellentleadership and managementcan do. WelomeSponbthencmmittee Settlement and sustainable development, the theme of SponsoringAgencies of this meeting are central to the UNDP's mission to EllenJohnson Sirleaf forge a development strategy around human concerns.In Africa Bureau, United Nations Dcz'elopnmentProgramme the paradigm of sustainable human development, the Co-chair, Committee of SponsoringAgencies success of a national economy is measured by its soul-by the improvementsit brings to the lives of the great masses Too often meetings are convened to address economic, of the poor. Equally,it is measured by its vision, by its political,and socialcrises or to consider where our devel- restoration of the environment for future generations, and opment strategieswent wrong. This meeting is an excep- by its empowerment of the people to participatein the tion. We are here today to recognize the achievementsof decisions that affect their lives.Sustainable human devel- perhaps the most successfulprogram of technicalcoopera- opment is thus people-centered and gender-sensitive, tion between donors and governments in Africa-a twen- environmentallysound and participatory.

3 Settlement is a dynamic process that involves uncertain- addressing today is the best example that I know of ty, change, choice, adaptation, and hope for future genera- an effective development effort. tions-and thus implies both potentially creative and We are here for two basic reasons: potentially disruptive tensions. As the link between people * To recognize one of the most remarkable accomplish- and land, settlement lies at the heart of people's lives. We ments in development assistance-achieving success- will discuss issues relating to this link: markets, land tenure, ful control over a widespread, devastating disease access to credit, agricultural practices, natural resource throughout a major subregion of West Africa. management, and rural development initiatives. We will * To ensure that the best possible follow-up strategies also examine the consequential and even more complex are adopted so as to reap the wider development issues raised by migraton resulting from the elimination of benefits that can and should flow from the success of river blindness or from refugees searching for a new life. the Onchocerciasis Control Programme. A principal Settlement patterns vary within and between countries. rationale for launching the OCP was to provide a Thus, there is no single policy or strategy for achieving sus- new impulse for the socioeconomic development of tainable settlement, and it would be presumptuous in a areas that had been deserted or underinhabited meeting such as this to propose a policy prescripton as because of the severity of onchocerciasis. Although applicable to all sitLations. The wealth of knowledge and the OCP's achievements in controlling disease are experience represented here should, however, enable us to by themselves cause for celebration, in the business provide the basis for the set of guiding principles for sus- of development there is no finish line. We are here tainable settlement that is the centerpiece of this meeting. to move forward-to solidify and build on what has The agenda for this meeting relates closely to the post- been accomplished. Rio Agenda21 blueprintfor making developmentsocially, The Onchocerciasis Control Programme economically,and environmentallysustainable. Agenda 21 and effectivedevelopment in Africa places most of the leadership responsibility for change on national govenmments, but recommends that they work in a The Onchocerciasis Control Programme is the epitome broad series of partnerships with nongovemmental and citi- of effective partnership in African development. It is proof zens' groups, regional and local govemments, and business that long-terrrt international collaboration can successfully and intemational organizations. Govemment support to tackle major regional problems in Africa and that well- settlement, coahtion building with civilsociety, decentraliza- coordinated development assistance produces results. The tion of decisionmaking, empowerment-these are the fun- program's success in building and maintaining a coalition damental people-centered issues that we will examine as of eleven African countries and more than twenty donors they apply to settlement in the onchocerciasis-freed areas. over a twenty-year period in pursuit of a single objective- The sponsoring agencies do not view this meeting as an controlling onchocerciasis-is virtually unprecedented. It end in itself, but as the beginning of a process that will spark illustrates how concrete results can attract and retain renewed interest in and consideration of sustainable devel- broad support over an extended period. Performance opment polices as they relate to priority investment and strengthens collaboration and support, and thus enhances capacity building initiatives in the OCP countries. Coopera- the likelihood of continued success. tion in such initiatives between the UNDP and the eleven I would like to take this opportunity to congratulate countries represented here is already taking place within the the participating countries and the OCP donors repre- UNDP country program framework. We go forward presented here for their long-standing commitment to this pared to focus greater attention on settlement issues at the program. Most of us would agree that what we have country level, and we are open to examination of mecha- accomplished collectively through the OCP far surpasses nisms for multidonor programs responding to national both our expectations and what we could have achieved development priorities. This meeting provides the opportu- working separately. nity to enhance the dialogue in this area. There are other elements of the OCP experience that, together with that persistent commitment form a sound of SponsoringAgencies package for pursuing effective development in Africa: o FosteringAfrican regional cooperationand integration. Edward V. K. Jaycox, Africa Region, World Banl The extended close collaboration among the subre- Co-chair, Committee of SponsoringAgencies gion's eleven countries-among them countries of francophone, anglophone, and lusophone heritage- There are Afro-optimists and Afro-pessimists. I happen has played a central role in the success of the OCP to be an optimist about Africa. I have seen how develop- and enhances the prospects for other cooperative ment programs can be made to work. The program we are regional endeavors.

4 a Eliminating key constraints to increasedagricultural Directors in the early 1970s, the Bank's principal concems production andfood security. The opening up of in Africa were poverty reduction and the drought that was onchocerciasis-affected areas to settlement and culti- devastating much of the Sahel. Thus, although the OCP vation has helped accelerate agricultural growth in was established as a disease control program, socioeco- several of the OCP countries. All the African coun- nomic development was its implicit raison d'etre. Control- tries represented here have a comparative advantage ling onchocerciasis is freeing up nearly 25 million hectares in agriculture-some an increased one because of the of arable land for resettlement and cultivation. We esti- recent devaluation of the CFA (communaute finan- mate, based on existing technologies and cultural prac- ciere africaine) franc-and growth in that sector is tices, that the vast new possibilities for agricultural essential for mobilizing the domestic resources need- production in the subregion have the potential to feed an ed for investments in development and-through additional 17 million people a year. Yet we recognize that increased food production-for reducing poverty, new settlement and increased agricultural production on alleviating malnutrition, and enhancing food security. previously underutilized but fragile lands may present * Promoting human resourcedevelopment and poverty environmental risks. The stakes are therefore high. There reduction. When the program ends in the year 2000, it is an urgent need for coordinated sustainable develop- will have prevented about 500,000 cases of blindness ment in the onchocerciasis-freed areas. in the subregion's poorest rural areas. That preven- Work on settlement and development of these areas is tion of disease represents a magnificent gain in the not new. Over the past six years, the sponsoring agencies quality of human life and will add 10 million years of of the OCP have prepared a series of in-depth analyses of productive labor to the economies of the eleven OCP the natural resource potential of these areas and of policy countries. The consequent human resource develop- reforms to support sustainable resettlement throughout ment and poverty reduction are essential for achiev- the subregion. These analyses have been discussed by ing long-term sustainable growth with equity. your govemments in OCP forums. In virtually all the OCP * Safeguardingthe environment. An integral feature of countries, donor-supported national efforts are underway the OCP since its inception-long before environ- to build infrastructure and undertake environmental plan- mental issues came to the forefront in development- ning in the onchocerciasis-controlled areas. Now is an has been the careful monitoring of control measures opportune time to seek consensus-at the highest lev- by an independent group of intemationally recog- els-on a set of guiding principles in support of settle- nized ecologists to minimize risk to the West African ment policies and on the follow-up actions required to environment. Most Sub-Saharan countries, particu- implement them. larly those in this subregion, have fragile ecologies, If we wait longer, it will soon be too late. Rapid migra- and environmental protection is a prerequisite for the tion into the onchocerciasis-freed areas is already occur- enhanced well-being ot African societies. ring, particularly in the Sahelian zones, and substantial * Building local capacity to sustain and enhance results. increases in agricultural production are being accompanied The staff of the program, which presently numbers by deforestation and environmental degradation. These about 600, is now 97 percent African and of areas will continue to be resettled and developed regardless world-class quality. The program, once dominated of what we do. But there are policy reforms and actions by expatriates, has developed superb African man- that we can take together to help ensure that settlement agement of the highest integrity, exemplified by and development follow a sustainable course. The World the leadership of its director, Dr. Samba, and has Bank will play its part by supporting sustainable settle- become a viable, dynamic regional institution. ment-related development through its lending program, Within the participating countries, a major effort is and it encourages govemments to give the onchocerciasis- underway to build capacity to ensure that there is freed areas an important focus in environmental action no recurrence of the disease once the OCP ceases plans, land management projects, and other, related rural operations. Capacity building, always essential for development efforts. ensuring the long-term sustainability of develop- Conclusion ment efforts, is particularly critical for securing the achievements of the OCP for future generations. The attendance at this meeting provides gratifying Socioeconomic development of evidence of the high-level attention being given to settlement and development of the OCP areas. Clearly,the "can-do", collaboratve spirit of the OCP lives on. I am When Robert McNamara proposed an onchocerciasis convinced that, together, we can capitalize on the OCP's control program to the World Bank's Board of Executive success in disease control and promote sustainable devel-

5 opment of the rural areas of this African subregion. The time-tested land tenure systems and see how far they achievements of the OCP partnership for African devel- might go toward resolving them. opment refute the Afro-pessimists. It is my hope that at The second potential kind of competition is intemation- this meeting we can set a determined course to exploit the al, a struggle over land between two countries. Here the many development opportunities unfolding as a result of experience of Ghana and the countries with which it shares the OCP success and, as a consequence, swell the ranks borders-Burkina Faso, Cote d'lvoire, Togo-demonstrates of the Afro-optimists. a good framework for resolving land disputes. Before conflicts arose, these countries commenced border demarca- Opening Remarks tion exercisesin a peacefuland friendlyatmosphere. P. V. Obeng Through the use of time-tested tools of conflict resolution, PresidentialAdvisor on Governmental Affairs, Ghana as in the case of the border demarcation, we should be able to avert land conflicts between countries. This ministerial meeting is a symbol of the success of a As we recognize our progress toward eradicating the partnership between people and between the donor and disease vector, we must remember that complacency can the recipient communities. We should not take this suc- lead to the reversal of that progress. That is why it is so cess for granted: history is replete with failures. Let the important that surveillance and monitoring have become success of this experience encourage us to continue to essential components of the mopping-up exercises associ- believe in multilateralism and partnership between the ated with eradicating the vector. Ghana has made surveil- donor and the recipient communities. But we hope that lance and monitoring an integral part of its public health this partnership can move beyond the labels that we use program in the areas affected. But even in surveillance today. With continued commitment and cooperation, and and monitoring we need to continue to work within a as success promotes further success, the day will come multilateral or regional framework, with the same level when development efforts will be so integrated into of cooperation and commitment. Tests record an infection national activities in Africa that it will no longer be neces- rate for fertile female blackflies of 0.3 to 0.7 in every 1 sary to use the words donor and recipient. thousand. And it is hard to prevent the blackfly from This meeting is also a symbol of African countries' traveling. It requires no visa; it recognizes no boundary. commitment to working together. It is said that if African Thus, even with the devolution of some activities, we states had continued to tackle the problem of onchocerci- must maintain the regional framework for monitoring asis through individual efforts, as they sought to do ini- and surveillance. tiaily, after twenty years we would still be complaining We in Ghana are taking the issue of devolution very about failure, without counting our lack of will to work seriously. We are sharpening our institutional and program together as a contributing factor. This success in African framework to support the continuation of this initiative. In coopo ration gives us reason to pursue other challenges the working sessions, we will attempt to demonstrate how through regional cooperation and integration. our decentralization program for national administration The Onchocerciasis Control Programme has main- provides the ingredients for coordination among the agen- tained its focus on its two main objectives. The first item cies whose efforts will be required to sustain the program. on the agenda was to use collective work and collective Each of the three districts in the program has a distinct resources to make affected areas safe for human habita- structure that provides links between health management, tion and to prevent human misery through the eradica- district health management, agricultural productivity, envi- tion of the vector disease. Second on the agenda is the ronmental management, and management of land and settlement, the resettlement, and the resumption of other resources. What we need to do, and are doing, is to socioeconomic reintegration of people in these areas. As make the institutions more aware of where we are headed we celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the launching of on the onchocerciasis agenda. As we begin to see isolated this program, we mark the nearly complete accomplish- occurrences of onchocerciasis in regions that had been free ment of the first part of the agenda and begin to talk of the disease, it is important that we take up the program's about the elements that will determine the success or activities at a national level. In the long run, the govem- failure of the second part. ment of Ghana is committed to integrating onchocerciasis As we begin to talk about resettlement, part of the control activities, both preventive and curative, into the issue that we must confront concems two potential kinds regional public health system. of competition for the onchocerciasis-freed land. The first As the land freed from onchocerciasis is deployed for is intemal competition, a struggle over land between two economic development, it is likely to attract two types of groups of people within a country. In considering ways to economic operators: people who are returning to their address such conflicts, we need to take stock of our own original land and people who have been dispossessed of

6 land or had no land and who would like to take advantage dramatically.The entire country is protected against of the new availabilityof land to engage in agriculture.Con- onchocerciasis,with nearly zero prevalencein all regions. flictbetween returnee and host populationscould begin to The risk of blindness due to the disease is also zero, free- erodethe benefits of the program.Our resettlement system ing some 40,000people afflictedwith the disease from would recognizethe historicalmotives of the groupsthat that danger. None of the 4 million Burkinab6children are coming and ensure harmony even among returnees. born after the start of the OCP is at risk of becoming blind We have had three types of resettlement experiencein as a result of the disease. And all the river basins freed of Ghana. One was the resettlement of people from an over- onchocerciasisare today the scene of major socioeconom- populated region to a less-populated region with fertile ic development projects. land. Another was the resettlement of large communities The Officenational d'amenagement des terroirs for the constructionof the Voltadam. The successesand (ONAT),set up to coordinateand execute resettlement failures of these resettlement projects,together with the and development operations,draws on experienceand experiencein other projects, have given us a fair under- know-how inherited from the Autorit6 d'amenagement standing of the social, economic,and cultural issues asso- des vallees des Voltas (AVV).The AVVbegan activitiesin ciated with resettlement. All these experienceswill onchocerciasis-freedareas as soon as the OCP was influence our resettlement projects,our tactics, and the launched in 1974.Since then, many projects have been structures that we create for managing settlement and implemented, including: economic activity. * Settlement of close to 60,000volunteer farmersin As we resettle the onchocerciasis-freedareas, we need some 100 new villagesfor rainfed farming to remain vigilantnot only about the blackfly,but also * Settlement of more than 7,000farmers, including 51 about other possiblepests. In Ghana, the onchocerciasis- universitygraduates, for irrigated farming freedarea offerstremendous potential for pasturelandand * Developmentof almost 250,000hectares of arable land will soon be home to cattle and other livestock.It might * Constructionof schools, dispensaries,village phar- also becomehome to tsetse and other kinds of pests. If macies, wells, tubewells, reservoirs,village roads, tsetse are allowedto spread uncontrolledand people return and other socioeconomicinfrastructure. only to fail once again because of this pest, they may believe These achievementsremain very small relative to the that the gods of the land drove them awaywith blackflies potential of the onchocerciasis-controlledareas in Burkina and will drive them away again with the tsetse. That belief Faso, however. The AW, followedby ONAT, has could make resettlement impossible.So, as we talk about achieved barely more than 20 percent of the originalgoals resettlement,we need to identifyother pests likelyto pose set in 1974 for settling farmers in rainfed areas. In Sourou, risks for resettlementand to expand the mandate of the where some 30,000hectares were suitable for develop- OCP, or establishmandates for other organizationsto ment, only about 4.5 percent of the area is now farmed. In deal with any expectedpest problems, to ensure that the Kompienga,400 hectares of irrigable land downstream program's achievementsare sustained. have yet to be developed; the upstream area also offers OpeningRemarks good land for development.At Bagre, development of more than 30,000hectares will probablystart in 1994. BlaiseCompaore Nevertheless,we can affirm that the financingcon- President,Burkina Faso tributed to the OCP will show a definite return once the onchocerciasis-freedareas in the eleven beneficiarycoun- Before1974, when OnchocerciasisControl Programme tries are developedand farmed in a rational manner. In activitieswere launched in BurkinaFaso, my country had the areas resettled and developed by the AW, the value the sad distinctionof being one of the countries in which of vegetableand animal production was estimated at 10.6 river blindness had taken the greatest toll. By that year, billion CFAfrancs (CFAF)in 1990,or US $35.3million. some 19,000people had been blinded by the disease. BurkinaFaso shares its borders with the six other Thissituation had alarmingsocioeconomic consequences: countries in the originalOCP area (Benin,C6te d'Ivoire, a The country's population was unevenly distributed, Ghana, Mali, Niger,Togo). We in Burkina Faso have fol- as fertile river valleyswere abandoned and the lowed with great interest the progress of the onchocercia- plateau areas became overcrowded. sis control activitiesin those countries and are happy to a Agriculturalyields declined becauseof overcultivation. note that the OnchocerciasisCoitrol Programme has a Mini-holdingsproliferated. obtained equallysatisfactory results in all six. In the very a Household productive capacitydeclined heavily. near future, the fight to control the disease in the extend- s Farmers' incomes were very low. ed OCP area will most certainly be just as successful,alle- Today,thanks to the OCP, the situation has improved viating the sufferingof the inhabitants of those regions

7 who are victims of the disease and consolidating the onchocerciasis. To this end, each country has already pre- excellent results achieved in the original area. pared its own devolution plan, combining onchocerciasis Permit me to take this opportunity to pay sincere trib- surveillance with surveillance to be put in place for other ute to, and renew our profound gratitude to, the entire endemic diseases, such as African human trypanosomia- intemational community, particularly all the donor coun- sis, schistosomiasis, and guinea worm infestation. tries and agencies that for nigh on twenty years have Major campaigns to sensitize and mobilize our popula- worked together unceasingly to achieve the successful tions are underway. In all the onchocerciasis-freed areas outcome that we witness today. where larvicide treatments have been permanently halted, To prevent the disease from retuming to those valleys local, mobile OCP-trained researchers have launched lon- in which it has been eradicated and undoing in the long gitudinal epidemiological surveys in the river basins at run all the progress made in developing them, however, high risk for recurrence. Onchocerciasis patients are being we need to consolidate our achievements. That would treated with ivermectin as part of an intense campaign require meeting a number of conditions, relating to: being conducted by the staffs of our countries' health * The way in which the OCP is finally completed agencies, but with more and more participation by the * The extent to which the participating countries are rural communities themselves. prepared to assume ownership of the remaining We in Burkina Faso remain convinced that it is impossi- OCP activities ble to dissociate health-oriented activities from those tar- • The mechanisms for coordinating activities among geting development in the onchocerciasis-freed areas. We the countries concerned. believe that the basic actions to promote health and devel- On the basis of the technical and scientific data accu- opment can be handled by a single agency or institution mulated over the past twenty years, we can look forward providing coordination and guidance. Such an institution, with confidence to a total victory for the program by the which could be modeled on the organizational and func- year 2000. But those same data show that, if for any reason tional structure of the OCP, would have the role of adviser, the OCP were forced to cease its activities before 2000, the motivator, and coordinator and would be entrusted with excellent results obtained so far would be rapidly jeopar- ensuring that the riches of the environment were duly dized by a recurrence of the disease, first in the extension respected and safeguarded. The institution would be repre- areas of Benin, C6te d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Sierra sented in each country by a national unit within an agency Leone, and Togo, and then in the original OCP area. already heavily involved in managing onchocerciasis-freed Consequently, the message I should like to address to areas. Each national unit would identify the development the international community through you, the program's activities needed at both the local and the national levels, donors, is that your commitment to finance the work participate in the preparation of regional projects, and being done to promote vector control and treatment of coordinate and contribute to the implementation of sus- sufferers will need to be maintained for seven to eight tainable socioeconomic development programs. This new more years to bring the situation permanently under con- institubon would use the infrastructure and logistic trol in the extension areas, the sine qua non for the pro- resources left in place by the OCP to consolidate technical gram's complete success. cooperation among our countries. The bases for this coor- During that period the beneficiary countries, with dinating institution and its operating procedures should be technical support from the OCP, will have to redouble clearly defined and adopted by all parties concerned before their efforts to assume ownership of the program's the OCP permanently ceases its activities. remaining activities. Our commitment to safeguarding the The battle that has been waged for nearly two decades achievements of this massive program remains firm and against this essentially rural endemic disease is in reality a will take practical form during the process of devolution. battle against poverty. We are therefore warriors in a It is essential that all our countries take a concerted noble and inspiring fight, and the conclusions of this con- approach to the detection and control of any recurrence of ference will be among our most effective weapons. We onchocerciasis throughout the entire area concemed, and shall use those conclusions to establish long-term strate- to settlement of the freed areas. gies designed to ensure that our rural inhabitants can Between now and the year 2000, our countries will enjoy the social and economic advantages that will lead need to strengthen their capacity for epidemiological sur- them out of their extreme poverty without damaging their veillance of the major endemic diseases so as to ensure environment. the timely detection and control of any recurrence of

8 Opening Remarks with underdevelopment, such as the destructionwrought AbdouDiouf by locusts and the disappearance of the forest cover. President,Republic of Senegal It is a striking fact that the success of the Onchocercia- President,Republic of Senegal sis Control Programme is due to factorsthat could be I have many reasons for lending my support unre- transposed very usefullyto other fields. First, I would cite servedly to your activities.Three reasons uppermost in my the united front demonstrated by the African countries mind are the seriousness of the disease you are fighting, concemed in confronting the dual challengeto public the exemplarynature of the OnchocerciasisControl Pro- health and socioeconomicdevelopment represented by gramme, and the excitingnew approach that is the topic onchocerciasis.This unity of action was encouraged by of this meeting-sustainable settlement and development the active support of the international community.When of the onchocerciasis-controlledareas. we look at the spr.-taculardevelopment today of what we The program's dual approach to controlling this in Africa callAfrican integration, we must not forget that endemic disease-eradicating the Simuliumvector the initiators of the OnchocerciasisControl Programme through appropriate insecticidesand treating sufferers were largely the precursors of that movement. with drugs, primarilyivermectin-has achievedexcellent Second, we should highlight the determination with results. Transmissionof the disease has been halted in which this program has been carried out over the past more than 80 percent of the original area targeted by the twenty years. The key to successfuldevelopment is conti- program. The risk of blindness has disappeared almost nuity: the development process cannot thrive on spectac- completely.In Senegal,surveys in several villagesin the ular, one-time events that often have no future. most heavilyinfected area have shown a 91 to 99 percent Third, the program has shown the need to establish reduction in the prevalenceof the disease. An estimated links between the approach to public health, the approach one million afflictedpersons are now free of infection. to the environment, and the approach to economic devel- It is with heartfelt emotion that, on behalf of my fellow opment. In Africa,parasitic diseases have benefited to a West African heads of state, I express my sincere congrat- certain extent from such development-relatedactivities as ulations to all those who have contributed to this success: the construction of large dams and the use of irrigation. the OCP team, the country teams, and the donors, who But the days are now gone when specialistsin different have given us their unflaggingsupport. Above all, I fieldscould act separately and without consultation on should like to congratulate OCP Director Dr. Ebrahim key development-relatedissues, such as infrastructure, Samba, whose untiring effortshave been justly crowned agriculture, public health, and environmentalprotection. by the award of the Hunger Project prize. This need for links is reflected in the choice of topic for In this same spirit I should like to pay tribute to the your meeting: sustainable settlement and development of memory of Mr. Roger Chaufournier, formerVice Presi- the onchocerciasis-controlledareas. Indeed, why free dent, Western Africa,of the World Bank, who passed areas of this disease if the people are deserting those areas away on March 15, 1994.To the familyof this tireless and and flockingto other regions, where they end up livingin generous pioneer in the battle against onchocerciasis,I overcrowdedand often deplorableconditions? What is offer our sincere condolences and the assurance of our the good of eradicatingan endemic disease if the land commitment to perpetuating Mr. Chaufournier'smemory, does not produce the food to nourish those whose lives which will always be associatedwith the efforts to eradi- have been saved? And-a familiarissue facing those who cate this terrible disease. wage war on underdevelopment-what is the point of However spectacular the success of this program, it bringing a program to a successfulconclusion if the very would be to little avail if its lessons were limited to river evils it was designed to overcomestart to come back blindness alone. Our countries are subject to many such immediately after it is completed? scourges,some with even more terrifyingpotential than Developingthe 25 million hectares of fertile land avail- onchocerciasis.Parasitic diseases-including, besides able for cultivationin the onchocerciasis-freedareas would onchocerciasis,filariasis, schistosomiasis, and sleeping make it possible to feed and ensure the well-being of some sickness-still take a heavy toll. Some afflictions,such as 17 million inhabitants.These people must of course be malaria, are gaining ground as their vectors become permanently protected against a return of the disease. increasinglyresistant to the classic remedies. In addition Confrontingthe challenge of sustainable settlement to maladies of this type, there are other pandemics, such and development of the onchocerciasis-controlledareas is as AIDS, to which Africaespecially has fallen victim.And the crowning achievementof your efforts.Once again,you on a broader scale, there are other devastating circum- are given the opportunity to be pioneers.We in the African stances that, like the development of parasitic diseases, states now face the challenge of implementing key new have complexrelationships with the environment and ideas: bringing an integrated approach to the various

9 issues, lookingbeyond the purely statisticalresults of one certainly contribute. A successfuloutcome for the pro- policyor another to the goal of human developmentand gram will reveal that a preserved environment can be a growth, and seeking sustainable development-develop- source of wealth for its inhabitants. ment that is both economicallyviable and respectfulof the Ensuring that the environment provides wealth in that environment. region is the objectiveof my government, which is mak- For Senegal,putting these ideas into practice will be ing every effort to minimize the difficultiesassociated with particularlyexciting because it will take place in an area the region's remoteness from the capital and, at the same that is rich in promise and yet-sparsely populated and time, to improve the conditions for exploitingits mining, far from the capital-little known. The area is less prey to agricultural,industrial, and tourism potential. By bringing desertificationthan many other regions of the country this area into the spotlight,your meeting echoes our pre- and has a vast national park, Niokolo Koba Park, covering sent concems. I have no doubt that the same holds true almost 10,000square kilometers. This reserve, long simply for similar areas in the other countries concemed. a protected natural area and a living testimony to the I am also convincedthat once this new stage in your wildemess of old, is destined to serve increasinglyas a activitieshas been implemented and the results are starting point for activitiesto reinstate an optimum natur- reviewed,even more originalideas will come forth that al resource balance,something to which your effortswill could be usefully replicatedelsewhere.

10 The Challengesof Success breed in fast-flowingwater, the disease affectsonly those who live near rivers. BernhardLiese In 1974,onchocerciasis was most devastating in central Committeeof SponsoringAgenaes West Africa,where it was not unusual to find 60 percent of the adults in a river valleyafflicted with the disease, The vast cooperativeeffort that went into Africa's and 3 to 5 percent blind (figure1). Villagerswere forced to OnchocerciasisControl Programme over the past twenty abandon their communitiesen masse. When the OCP years has made it one of the most successfulhealth pro- began, some of West Africa'srichest river lands were grams anywhere in the world. Supported by twenty-three uninhabited for several kilometersat a stretch. donor agencies and carried out by the govemments of But no longer. Today,river blindness is under control, eleven countries, it is a model of international cooperation and farmers are reclaimingWest Africa'sriver valleysin toward a common goal. The program has virtually elimi- great numbers. Villagesonce emptied by river blindness nated river blindness as a public health hazard within the are now thriving. program area. Yet the very prosperity of these settlers threatens the Started in 1974,the OCP coveredBenin, BurkinaFaso, river valleys' fragileecosystems. Where once the enemy C6te d'Ivoire,Ghana, Mali,Niger, and Togo. It was later was the blackfly,today it is deforestation, erosion, and extended to Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,Senegal, and Sierra extensive cultivation.Only if West Africa'sgovernments Leone (shaded area on map correspondsto program area). step in to assist and regulate new settlement will these Riverblindness is a disease caused by worms that grow lands be saved from depletion, degradation, and perhaps inside people. Becausethese worms are carried from one even eventual abandonment once again. person to the next by small, aggressiveblackflies that

>t<

11 Figure 1 The original area covered by the QCP was heavily infested (darkest dots) in 1974, when the program began. By 1992, it was almost entirely free of the disease.

Pre-controlprevalence of skin microfilariaein villages from the originalOCP area

Senegal The Gambia Mali ... Niger Burkina Guinea- - ;a;o\Sj _Bissau

Guinea -* 4 S.

Prevalence Sierra . Leone

030% , t ' o @45%*,x @60% >Liberia * I The original Cote Ghana OCParea d'vleUpper Leraba

rExtension Extension ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~River(seefigure pilot study2)

Prevalence of skin microfilariaein villages from the originalOCP area, 1992-93

Senegal TheGambia Mali Niger Burkina Faso Guinea- Bissau 'Guinea

Sierra . Leone Prevalence 0 0-5% 8 0 30% Liberia * 45% C6te Ghana * 60% d'lvoire The original UpperLeraba QOCParea Extarensi Riverpilot study Extension (see figure2)

Beforeand after area. Typical was the case of the Upper Leraba River system, which crosses Burkina Faso and C6te d'Ivoire (see When the OCP began its control operations in 1974, area around arrowhead in figure 1). Along the Upper it found particularly heavy infestation (measured by a 60 Leraba and throughout the original program area where percent or greater prevalence rate of microfilariae in the the infestation was once heavy, microfilaria prevalence skin of onchocerciasis sufferers) throughout the program today is virtually zero.

12 Figure 2 Enhancedaerial photographsof the pilot study areataken in 1972,1983, and 1993show that settlement grew steadily along the Upper Lerabaonce the threat of river blindness diminished.

1972;4 & > Fsur~~BLkinaCultivated 5 Burkin§,as Cultivated 1972 e ' - , Faso * area:Cultivated 98 area

'~~%r Km2

<~~~~~Bukiaurkinnae> ~ , { : ab

UpperLeraba teUpper Leraba E~W. -River pilotstudy /pilot study

* ,, ~~~~~~~~~~~~1Burkina .Burkina2' Faso C6te t-J C6te d'lvoire d'lvoIre t C6te dCvoired

Burkina 0~~~Existing village F~uiaw Cultivated ®9New village 1993 t \70%Faso aarea:

Krr 4 -~ 4

UpperLeraba

was funded by the government of the Netherlands and

To assess the effect that eliminatinig river blindness has carried out by Dr. David Baldry and Professor Davide had on both settlement and use of land, the OCP's Com- Calamari. mittee of Sponsoring Agencies commissioned a pilot study Using aenal photographs from three time penods, the of a 20 square male area along the Upper Leraba River, researchers were able to document changes in settlement,

13 land use, and the environment (Figure2). As captured by in some cases. the photographer's lens in 1972,the area contained the While the control of river blindness attracted many to Leraba River, a road, a bridge,a railway line, and seven these lands, the enormous increase in rural population in villages. Only 5 percent of the land was under cultivation, the countries studied obviouslyowes much to other fac- and almost all of it was in higher-altitude areas. tors. First and foremost,birthrates in West Africa are But when aerial photos were taken again a decade lat- exceptionallyhigh. Also, it is one of the few areas left in er, 30 percent of the land was under cultivation,and seven the world where people regularlymove in large numbers new villages(circled dots) had sprung up. By 1993-twen- across intemational borders. In the 1970s,for example, ty years after the start of the OnchocerciasisControl Pro- when the Sahel was devastated by drought, there was a gramme-70 percent of the land was being farmed, and massive movement toward the coast. But when the the number of new villageshad grown to thirteen. coastal economies slowed in the 1980s,many people retumed to the Sahel. During each of these migrations a large number of migrants settled in West Africa'srelative- Three decades of census figures for rural Burkina Faso, ly deserted rural river valleys. Cote d'Ivoire, and Ghana show that the settlement pattems In the thirty years between 1960 and 1990 the rural observedaround the LerabaRiver are characteristicof the population in C6te d'Ivoire grew by a staggering 3.2 mil- entire OnchocerciasisControl Programme area (figure3). lion people, while that in BurkinaFaso grew by 2.4 mil- In 1960rural population density was low, and many lion. The number of people in BurkinaFaso's Sissili West Africanshad left their valleylands. In much of rural Province tripled and that in its Comoe Province (which Burkina Faso, C6te d'Ivoire,and Ghana, there were fewer includes the Upper Leraba Basin)increased by half. The than ten people per square kilometer. By 1980 so many population also tripled in C6te d'Ivoire's northeastern people had retumed to their river valleyvillages that only agriculturalregion and nearly doubled in its northwestem Burkina Faso's YatengaProvince and C6te d'Ivoire's agriculturalregion. southwestern and northwestem agriculturalregions Such figures show that the Leraba RiverBasin experi- remained as sparsely settled. By 1990 the balance had ence was not an isolated case. The population in West tipped in the other direction,with rural populations in Africa'ssavannahs is growing rapidly.What figurescannot many regions of all three countries in the range of 30 to show, however, is how such growth threatens the fragile 50 inhabitants per square kilometer-and even 50 to 100 balance that enables settlers to be sustained by the land.

Figure 3 Census figures for the past thirty years for rural Burkina Faso, C6te d'lvoire, and Ghana show that the density of the rural population is growing steadily.

BurkinaFaso

1960 Ruralpopulation densitya 3

Ruralpopulation per squarekilometer

0-10 11-20 An21-30 m 31-50 Coted'lvoire Ghana 51-100

14 Figure 3 continued BurkhaFaso 1980 -\

C6te dilvoire

BurkinaFaso

Ruralpopulation per squarekilometer

0-10 1 1-20 9M21-30

C6te Ivoire Ghana 31-50

desiy¢ ' l1a S 51-100 15,p 1 Howsettlement is changingthe land (Figure 4) stream,and only 85percent of the savannahwoodland In 1973a thick canopy of evergreen galleryforest bor- remained. dered the Leraba River,which frequentlyoverflowed and By 1993farmland had replaced three-quarters of the flooded the adjacent grasslands during the rainy season. savannah woodland, and the gallery woods bordering the To the west of the Leraba Riverin this pilot study area, small stream had been cut down for building materials the flood plain slopes gently upward until it reaches a and firewood. From a central vilage located in the middle wooded savannah plateau. A small stream cuts across this of what had been woodland savannah, footpaths now savannah. In 1973this stream was also bordered by crisscrossedthe area. A wider dirt road had been built gallery forest, a few cultivated fields, and a lone house, from the village,and a few farmers had ventured to culti- In 1983that picture was beginningto change. Several vate fieldson the floodplain.However, the gallery forest farms and fields -ow dotted the landscape near the around the Leraba Riveris stillintact. Figure 4 Schematic drawingsof a pilot study area on the Upper Leraba River, drawn at ten year intervals, show how resettlement is steadily reducing the number of trees and the amount of unused land.

1973 ~~~~~~~~~~Galleryforest 1 973 _~,I

Woodland savannah

A;t v * Floodplain

- gs * t ^ t +_,5+ tl > ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Galleryforest

Streamt tt1

1983 Galr ors -

t' v t F - - ~~~~~~~~~~~Woodlandsavannah

_ _ ~~~~~~~~~~Road 3 _ i _ t* b A i- ~~~~~~~~~~~~Woodlandsavannah

l _i6Ls -_ ,-+ / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~aleryfrstha5

16 Figure5 Enhancedaerial photographs,taken in 1972,1983,and 1993,show different settlement pattems in Burkina Faso and in Cote d'lvoire in the pilot study area.

1972

' - f/// ~~~~~~~~~~~~1983

' --1993 BurkinaFaso's side of the LerabaRiver

'U 1972

+ < ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1983

( j~~~~~~4 f ~~~~~~~1993- Coted'i ioi' e's sideof the LerabaRiver

Sametrends different patterns The villagesthat have sprung up on the newly safe African savannahs are prosperous. Farmers are growing Aerial photos ot the well-documented case of the Upper rice in the floodplain and cotton on the slopes. Some have Leraba valley show that development there has not been also acquired cattle, which they leave in the custody of uniform. On Burkina Faso's side of the river, farmers have Fulani herdsmen. The markets that have sprung up large fields separated by unused land. On Cote d'lvoire's among villages are centers of economic and social activity. side of the river, cultivated fields are smaller and more But even as the settlers prosper and the river's gallery densely packed, and a large village and road are visible. forests remain intact, the area' thin topsoils are eroding Variations in settlement patterns may reflect different and the quality of the water has deteriorated. As the first cultural and farming practices, different crops, different warnings of a new and invidious scourge, these signs of agricultural support mechanisms-or simply the press of environmental damage show that government action can- more people living on the C6te d'lvoire side of the river. not be delayed.

1. Figure6 Froman actualaerial photograph of settlementon the bankof the UpperLeraba River in 1993, it is possibleto makecomputer projections for the areain 1998and 2003.

1993

1998*

2003* CMe d'lvoire'sside of the LerabaRiver Projection

Past victory,future threat We therefore urge West Africa's governments and the Extrapolating from experience in other areas, it is pos- donor community to make every effort to capitalize on the sible to speculate about what wAillhappen in the Upper window of opportunities presented by these reclamed Leraba valley in five or ten years-an experience likely to lands. With the same kind of international collaboration be repeated over and over throughout the area if govern- and 'can-do" spirit that made the Onchocerciasis Control ments do not intervene. Programme a resounding success, West Africa wil be able Fields will merge to form a continuous area of cultiva- to safeguard its precious natural resources and make tion. The savannah woodland will disappear, along with resettlement of its river valleys sustainable for years most of the gallery forest. With the loss of these forests, to come. the river banks will erode. These developments, further- Notes more, will begin to affect the incomes, social stability, and Tefnig rsne nti ae r ae npr quiality of ruralovllage life, is,tratnngte rn on a pilot study for environmental impact assessment in quilCtyvfllage oftrural life. the Upper Leraba Basin that was undertaken on behalf of Countriesoperating together- the Committee of Sponsoring Agencies by Drs. D. Baldry, once again-to safeguardtomorrow D. Calamari,and L. Yam fogoand fundedby the gover- Those who have returned to Africa's river valleys are ment of the Netherlands. still profiting from the economic opportunities that the Figures 5 and 6 were created by Dr. D. Baldry. conquest of river blndness has opened up for them. But if The denominations used and the boundaries shown no effort is made to conserve nature's gifts, these oppor- on the maps in this paper do not imply, on the part of the tunities could vanish. At the present rate of settlement, it World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of wiLlnot take many years for the waters on Africa's fragile any territory or any endorsement or acceptance of such savannah lands to become polluted, for forests to be deci- boundaries. mated, and for soils to erode and degrade.

18 SESSION2 ft Natural Resource Management in Settlement Areas

Settlement in the onchocerciasisareas has enormous pation of all affectedgroups in decisionmaking,effective importance for natural resource management. In a rapidly community accountability,community ownership, and changing settlement situation, addressing potential prob- coordination between the differentactors, including the lems before they become serious is vitallyimportant for local inhabitants, the government,and nongovernmental sustainability.The key issue is how populations interact organizations (NGOs). While the approach is flexibleand with the availableresources. The process of settlement allows for extensivevariation depending on local condi- and the relationship between social groups become tions, the paper outlines several key factors that consis- extremely important because settler and host populations tently affect success.These include secure land tenure, must work together, with assistance from other actors, to decentralization of authority, management capacityat the manage the local natural resources. villagelevel, and the placing of primary responsibilityat The two guiding principles that are the focus of this the villagelevel. session are recommendation 1, on promoting the social The second paper in the session, "Capitalizingon Suc- and economic integration of hosts, settlers, and pastoral- cess: The OnchocerciasisControl Programme and ists, and recommendation9, on supporting community- ResourceManagement Options," was prepared by anoth- based land management associationsfor effectivenatural er team with extensive fieldexperience in West Africa. resource management. In addition, the issues of transhu- This paper ties regional population changes to local nat- mant populations (recommendation 2) and gender (rec- ural resource management choices,emphasizing that ommendation 14) received extensivecoverage during the basic changes in the rural economy will occur as the use discussion. of external inputs increases and growing urban demand The first paper in this session, "Community-Based shapes rmralproduction strategies. While opening land to Land Management in the OnchocerciasisControl Zones," settlement is important, countries must put in place a set was prepared by a team of people who have all participat- of policiesbased on an understanding of household deci- ed in the development of what is now termed the com- sionmaking to encouragesustainable use of natural munity-based land management approach.Their paper resources. Conditions necessary for sustainable resource traces, brietly,the development of the approach as a reac- use, many of which are similar to those listed in the previ- tion to the failure of earlier development strategies and ous paper, include secure land tenure, access to markets, outlines its advantages in promoting effectivenatural access to capital and credit, devolution of authority, and resource management. The approach emphasizes partici- access to technologies.

19 Community-BasedLand From the start of the OCP, the environment and Managementin the Onchocerciasisweresustainable concerns and for rational both the management par-ticipating of countriesnatural resources and the ControlZones donor community. JeffreyLewis, World Bank,Emmanuel Nikiema, Office national This report presents key elements of a strategy of d'amenagementdes terroirs,Burkina Faso; Samidou Pale, community-basedland management (gestiondes terroirs)by Programmenational de gestion des terroirs,Burkina Faso; the local populationin onchocerciasis-controlledareas (see MarimantiaDiarra, Programme national de gestion des PNGT 1993;PGRN/GERENAT 1990; AFRICATIP 1993). ressourcesnaturelles, Mali Beforedescribing the community-basedland management approach, the paper presents an analysis of classic develop- Paper presented by Jean-Paul Sawadogo, Minister of ment projects and a brief review of two important pilot Agriculture and Animal Resources, Burkina Faso studies undertaken in several OCP countries. Although eradicating onchocerciasisis the primary objectiveof the OnchocerciasisControl Programme, there are other important objectives whose achievement would To gain an understanding of the community-based also help ensure the well-being of both present and future land management strategy first requires an appreciation inhabitants of onchocerciasis-controlled areas: of the history of earlier projects. Development projects of v Achieving optimum utilization of important the 1970s and early 1980s were mainly production-orient- natural resources ed projects and integrated rural development projects. • Establishing sustainable development The two types of projects shared several characteristics: • Ensuring food security and eliminating poverty * The projects were sectoral and the responsibility • Identifying and implementing resettlement methods of a ministerial department or an independent to ensure both controlled migration to onchocercia- project management unit. Their planning was sis-controlled areas and harmonious settlement of often overcentralized, and their implementation the different socio-occupational groups. "vertically" managed.

Figure1 Developmentof the new approach

EFFORTSTO CONTROL THE CAUSES OF DEGRADATION

Sector/production-orientedprojects Inadequateresults

Integrated RuralDevelopment Projects H Inadequate results

Settlementprojects Inadequateresults

New approach based on the results of evaluations of previous programs and projects

20 * Productivitywas the main objectiveof projects,and Pilotstudies in the Onchocerciasis it became such an obsession that some were simply ControlProgramme zones classifiedas 'productivity projects."This approach The two studies, known as the Hunting report and the overlooked the important links between the desired Land Settlement Review,were complementary.The productivity and the natural resources that support- Hunting report, a series of studies undertaken in 1988 by ed that productivity.Hutgrpr,asnsostdeudrakni198b edtheapeoplet whoweretobenefitfromthe projectsvity.Hunting TechnicalServices in conjunctionwith Organisa- were often just pawns. The purpose of projectswas tionet environnement,analyzed the potential for development. The Land Settlement Reviewevaluated sustainable not always clear to them, and they often quicklylost settlement experiencesin the OCT zones (McMilan, interest in the many and varied demands made on them. Their participation under such circumstances P was minor. Projectsusually disregarded local initia- Socioeconomicdevelopment tives and traditional knowledge. * The technology used was not readily mastered by The Hunting report provided the basis for a systematic the local people, and the maintenance it required evaluation of the nature and scope of development often entailed high recurrent costs after project com- ,Frospectsin the OCP area. Studies were carried out on pletion. These high costs jeopardized the sustain- 'the development potential of the onchocerciasiszones in ability of interventions. each country, and development proposals prepared. In * Project organization ignored the traditional selectingareas for development projects, the following sociopoliticalstructures that underlie rural power parameters were used: and organization. * Population density * The consequences of many projects for the environ- * Development potential ment (land, water, vegetation, and fauna) were so * Suitabilityof the soil serious that environmental rehabilitation of a pro- * Size of land units with development potential. ject area could end up costing more than the This study providesan important body of practicaldata project itself. and information;however, some parameters need updating. In the mid-1980s,national policymakers,donors, and regional organizationslaunched a series of project evalua- Sustaiablesettlement and development tons. They found that many projects had failed to achieve The Land Settlement Reviewevaluated sustainable concrete results and had limited sustainability(See Figure settlement experiencesin almost all the OCP countries. 1 )-findings that are hardly surprising in the light of the Its goal was to help in identifying strategies that could constraints mentioned above. All the while, degradation ensure optimal development of the controlled areas of the environment continued at an acceleratingpace, and through appropriate settlement and rational environmen- in the OCP zones unplanned migration into onchocercia- tal management. This study defined a series of factorsthat sis-controlled areas was increasing. need to be taken into account to ensure successfulreset- At the same time in the OCP zones, a wide range of tlement of the underpopulated onchocerciasis-controlled large-scaleinvestment projects for the organized settle- areas. These include the following: ment of migrants was being implemented. These projects * Types of intervention in the settlement process focused on socioeconomicinfrastructure and develop- * Land tenure systems ment of a formal,structured agriculturalproduction sys- mAppropriate production systems tem. Analysisof these projects found high costs (per * Types of development planning hectare and per migrant) and an implementation rate too a The integration of indigenous populations, migrants, slow to solve the problem of uncontrolled utilization of and herders natural resources. u Measures to ensure communityresponsibility and This analysisled to discussion by development practi- involvement. tioners of the need to identifya more effectivestrategy. The study recommendsan approach called assisted To draw lessons from unsuccessfulprojects in several spontaneous settlement (sometimesalso referred to as regions, particularlyAfrica, the Committee of Sponsoring "guided" or "facilitated"settlement), a planning method Agenciescommissioned two regional pilot studies. In that falls between two extremes. At one extreme is gov- conjunctionwith the other analyticalwork, these studies emment-organized settlement, which is highly capital- and their conclusions,summarized brieflybelow, provide intensive (along the lines of the AW in BurkinaFaso); important pointers for defining and formulatingstrategies at the other extremeis uncontrolled spontaneous for sustainable development in the OCP zones. settlement.

21 Assisted spontaneous settlement is a flexibleapproach. old, integrated development and production-orient- At the local level, it provides basic support in the form of ed projects.They decided that these projects would infrastructure (roads,bridges, wells) and social and eco- be executedwithin a flexibleframework, with exten- nornic services (extensionservices, clinics, credit, schools, sive communityparticipation and responsibility.This nonformal education). This assistance can direct migrants strategy resulted in considerable savings in both toward carefullyselected areas, or encourage those who time and human resources. have already settled in a location to invest in developing m Pilotphase. A series of projects distributed through- farming practicesthat are both more intensive and less out the region that had been reoriented toward the harmful to the environment.Assisted settlement can also new strategy,while retaining their independence, include an organized settlement component. Experience were monitored. These projects provided valuable elsewhere shows that organized settlements that are care- lessons that were regularlyanalyzed by a central fullyplanned and strategicallylocated can serve as centers coordination unit. Multilateral,bilateral, and NGO for servicesand as hubs for development for both the host projects were all invited to participatein the pilot populations and the spontaneous migrants. phase at the national level. The results of the study support two important conclu- u Analysis of the differentstrategies. Through analysisof sions about assisted spontaneous settlement. First, its the different strategies used in the pilot projects,the cost-benefit ratio is more advantageous than those of oth- basic principles and characteristicsof the communi- er, established forms of settlement-in particular, sponta- ty-based land management approach were defined. neous settlement and highly capital-intensiveplanned The analysisemphasized the importance of ensuring settlement. Second, because of its flexibility,assisted flexibilityand adapting to local conditions. spontaneous settlement leads to greater sustainability. u Establishmentof policy,legal, and institutionalframe- Thecommunity-based land vworks.The policy-related(govemment commitment), Thnageommunity-basedrlan legal (land tenure, decentralization),and institutional (recognizinglocal communities and givingthem deci- The combined effects of drought, rapid population sion-making autonomy)conditions prerequisite to growth, and inappropriate agriculturalpractices in Africa effectiveimplementation of the community-based have led to accelerated natural resource degradation over land management approach were identified. the past decade. This degradation constitutes a serious threat to economic development and food security.Aware Objectves of the seriousness of the problem and armed with analy- The community-basedland management approach ses of previous failures,Sahelian governments,with the has two main objectives: assistance of local, bilateral,and international aid, have a To provide communities,through information, developed many initiativesto remedy the situation. training, and coordinated support, with the opera- An evaluation of test operations led in 1986-87to the tional capacity to initiate and execute activitiesto definition and progressiveimplementation of a new, mul- improve their production, their quality of life, and tisectoral,and decentralizedrural development strategy their natural environment known as the community-basedland management z To devolve to communities the authority and admin- (CBLM)approach. By incorporating the concems of nat- istrativeand legal power to manage the resources of ural resource protection,spatial planning, improved pro- their land. duction and incomes, and development of socioeconomic K elements of the approach infrastructure,this approach seeks to giveorganized rural communities full responsibilityfor managing the land The community-based land management approach is they use. Although the approach initiallywas seen as con- participatory,open, and progressive.It is based on local flictingwith land use planning, the complementarityof people's knowledge of their land, their resources, their the two is now recognized and valued. needs, and the possible solutions to their problems. Sev- Phasesof development eral elements of the approach are essential for achieving success in its implementation: community participation, The development of community-basedland manage- dialogue, and community ownership. ment strategies that took place in 1986-90was character- Participation.The participatorynature of the approach ized by several phases. The most important of these is crucial.Without participatingin implementing the phases are as follows: approach, communities cannot assume responsibilityfor * Reorientationof "old-style"projects. Both beneficiaries it. Lack of community participationexcludes the possibili- and donors agreed to the principle of reorienting the ty of using the traditional knowledge of the local people

22 or allowing them any role in shaping their future-ideas view. At the local level, politicaland administrative fundamental to ownership. Without participation,and the authorities (prefects,mayors, high commissioners, community ownership that it makes possible,the deputies) need to participate in the coordination process approach becomes externallydriven. because,with CBLM,the local government will become a A participatoryapproach assumes that the needs and local coordinatorof development. aspirations of communities are taken fullyinto account. Achievingeffective coordination is not easy. Sectoral This approach therefore must be an open one, without habits and incentivesare well entrenched. The CBLM prior determination by externalactors of the type of activ- approach callsfor a change in behavior by the staff of tra- ities to be carried out. That does not, however, excludethe ditional government units. Particularlyimportant is that possibilitythat the first activitywithin the community agriculturalextension workers provide effectivesupport might be predetermined or might already have been car- for CBLMactivities in the field. Agriculturalextension will ried out as part of another project. play an essential role in providing technical solutionsto The open, dynamic nature of the approach should lead the problems identifiedin the implementation of commu- to a substantial change in the "standard" formulationof nity-based land management. Extension messages must projects and in their monitoring and evaluation systems. relate directlyto the concerns of the people and draw on In this context, Rapid RuralAppraisal has an important farmers' input. The complementaritybetween agricultural role to play. Participatory,diagnostic evaluation-carried extension and the CBLMapproach becomes increasingly out by the population-of resources, problems, and clear in the field;the CBLMapproach provides a format potentials is a key element of the strategy. for discussion and implementation that encourages adop- The participatoryapproach requires those working with tion of the techniques proposed by extension workers. rural communities to listen to the people. Thus, imple- Communityownership. A community's ownership of mentation of the CBLMapproach often requireschange in the CBLMapproach depends on its commitment to the the behavior of authorities and their representatives. approach and its capacityto implement it. Commitment Dialogue.Coordination among the actors involved in to the approach initiallywill come from the community's implementing the CBLMapproach is essential to its suc- assessment of how CBLMwill help it improveits living cess. Becausethe CBLMapproach is multisectoral,its conditions. The capacityto implement the approach will implementation involvesinputs from several different develop primarily through learning (rather than training structures and thus callsfor many types of skillsand sup- in the strict sense), reinforcedby putting the approach port. In most countries of the subregion, coordination will into practice. Community ownership of the approach is be organized within the framework of established institu- essential for its sustainability. tional structures. The CBLMapproach provides a local diagnostic and planning frameworkthat supports the tar- Lessonsfrom thefield geting of investments to localneeds and priorities. Despite the diversity of agroecologicaland socioeco- Government agencies, NGOs, and project managers nomic situations confronting the CBLMprograms in must establish a permanent system of coordination BurkinaFaso, Mali,and Niger, certain basic lessons have that fosters: emerged from all these programs. * Coherent implementation of the CBLMapproach, * Securityof tenure.An absolute prerequisite for the without contradiction,competition, and conflictwith success of natural resource management activitiesis other projects security of tenure. It guarantees and encourages * Optimal utilization of the skillsand comparative investments in community land, and it supports the advantages of each partner in the system peaceful coexistenceand the harmonious integration * Standardization of methods, approaches, and of activitiesamong different socio-occupational philosophies groups occupyingthe same area. Creating effective * Careful use of resources, to ensure complementarity ways for communities to resolve their problems will and targeting of investments and to minimize recur- help strengthen this security. rent costs. * Decentralization.Transferring central government Coordinating structures must be organized at several authority to local communities,to givethem legal different levels (department, province,region, central lev- status, control over their own property, and deci- el). At the national level, special attention should be given sion-making power, is necessary to enable local to bringing into the coordination process the different authorities to directlymanage their own affairsand financial partners interested in promoting CBLM- to initiate local activitiesand projects. who will often have different understandings of the * Management capacity building at the village level.Vil- approach-to ensure harmonization of their points of lagers require informationand training to help them

23 acquire the skills they need to assume their respon- ing local development projects. sibilities in community-based land management. Ensuring that women participate in community-based a Project,flexibilityand adaptability. There are many dif- land management requires the effective integration in all ferent ways to apply the CBLM approach. Appropri- such projects of actions designed to benefit them. Care ate practices must be determined for local must therefore be taken to avoid anything that might con- conditions, while nevertheless remaining consistent tribute to women's isolation or aggravate their situation, with the progressive, iterative, and cumulative including excessively highlighting women's participation nature of the approach. as a specific issue. Gender issues must be considered from a Community responsibility. Communities must bear the perspective of, and linked with, the future of the com- the primary responsibility for selecting and carrying munity land in order to achieve genuine involvement of out local development activities. women in the development process. a Resourcemanagement. Community-based land man- Community capacity. The gradually increasing pace at agement efforts should balance the development of which the CBLM approach is applied is determined pri- productive activities with the protection of the land's marily by the capacity of communities to learn and to agroecological potential. Ensuring the most rational build their management and implementation skills. Con- utilization of resources requires both a global and a sequently, under the CBLM approach, a program of spe- long-term perspective. cial training and field visits designed to develop local * Organizationalstructures. Organizing communities human resources is set up for the communities and the and improving their operational capacity for partici- other partners involved. Experience shows that communi- pation in community-based land management are ties are best mobilized by implementing specific actions key elements of the approach. Organizational struc- through individual projects. tures must be based on traditional structures and Social infrastructure. Social infrastructure has always systems and thus will vary depending on the situa- been the primary demand of the people in the OCP area, tion in each country. It is important to ensure that and a legitimate one considering the extremely poor facili- traditional authorities and the users of natural ties in many of its villages. The CBLM strategy must take resources are represented in the decisionmaking account of such demands because they emerge naturally structure. as the result of applying its principles. The local communities that identify these infrastructure needs must play an important role in satisfying them by: As countries implement the CBLM approach, both * Helping to find sources of finance in onchocerciasis-controlled areas and in the rest of the . Giving contributions in cash or kind, depending on country, they will need to pay particular attention to sev- what they can afford eral issues: promoting women's participation in commu- * Identifying specialized partners to help execute nity-based land management, building community infrastnucture projects capacity, supporting construction of social infrastructure, * Managing the infrastructure. and protecting biodiversity. The Agences d'ex&cutiondes travaux d'intett public Women's participation. Although women play an (AGETIPs), nonprofit, nongovernmental agencies that important role in land development, they do not always play an important role in infrastructure construction in reap the full fruits of their labors because of the many West Africa, could also have a part to play in implement- sociological handicaps they face, particularly difficulty in ing CBLM. Their services can be sought by any group gaining access to land. To ensure that women benefit with the necessary resources-local authorities, socio- from community-based land management, special atten- occupational groups, national projects and programs. But tion needs to be given to: because of the specialized nature of AGETIPs, it would be x Involving women in preparing and implementing difficult for them to act as direct contractors; they are bet- the management plan ter suited to undertake infrastructure components a Encouraging women's active participation in meet- planned at the start of CBLM projects and programs. In ings, in decisionmaking, and in the ensuing actions such cases they would simply serve as authorized devel- a Working to bring about a change in ways of thinking opers managing contracts for a specific purpose. and an improvement in male-female attitudes and Biodiversity protection. Because one of the main aims of relations community-based land management is to protect natural a Taking women's concerns and issues-education, resources, it is an appropriate approach for protecting bio- maternal and child health, easing of domestic diversity outside the areas that have been legally set aside chores-into account in preparing and implement- as protected national parks. Protection of biodiversity, not

24 Figure2 Distributionof effortacross project phases

Projectapplying CBLM

.. ... ~ ~ ~ ...... Conventionalpmoject

l i I | Time I P AP EX= SS =

I = Energy used P = Preparation EX = Execution I = Identification AP = Appraisal SS = Monitoring and supervision

only species of plants and animals but also types of 2 clearly reflects the differences in the distribution of ecosystems, is of major importance for the OCP area, energy-that is, effort-among the phases of a project which contains biologically important species and ecosys- that applies the CBLM approach and among those of a tems that are threatened. The basic methodology that conventional project. CBLM provides for the management, protection, and In a CBLM project, the most effort is expended in the rational utilization of natural resources can be adapted to identification and basic preparation phases; these phases biodiversity conservation in the OCP area. are important because it is then that the goals and activities of the implementation phase are defined. The moni- Stagesof implementation in community-based toring and supervision phase is also critical in ensuring land management the success of the project. In conventional projects the identification phase is weak, and the likelihood that it will The external project cycle produce good results is thus poor. In addition, the preci- With the CBLM strategy comes a new approach to the sion with which investments, implementation rates, and preparation and appraisal of projects. The strategy does results are detailed is misleading and hinders effective not envision identifying all the details of project execution implementation. By contrast, with the new CBLM strate- during the preparatory phase. That is no longer possible gy, detailed, predetermined goals are lacking because or desirable, although it is, of course, important to have a responsibility for project execution and key decisionmak- good understanding of the problems and the related ing lies with the community and the project team and not issues. Instead, in the CBLM approach the target popula- with external planners; for this reason, however, monitor- tion, and not technicians, determines the types of activi- ing and supervision systems must be extremely vigilant. ties and investments to be undertaken. The internal project cycle Thus, the planning process and the techniques for project appraisal must be rethought for the CBLM strategy; The practical procedures for implementing the CBLM an approach different from that used for conventional approach have certain common elements yet are not rigid. projects is needed. The "Cohen curve" presented in figure They depend on a multiplicity of parameters (context,

25 Figure3 Implementationof the Community-basedLand Management Approach

* understanding how the environment functions c

* identifyingpotential through analysis of problems and constraints Diagnostic 0 evaliation * evaluating activities in terms of over or .o underutilizationof natural resources

* delimitingcommunity lands o

m so * formulating, ranking and programming El C o solutions to problems identifiedin the o EU diagnostic evaluation, and measures for &IEenhancing the potential and support of C 5 initiatives MO0 .53 Plannin * zoning and establishing a CBLMplan co E * identifyingroles and responsibilities E o C oD _ * establishing agreement/contract among Io the parties for implementing actions

* identifyingsources of financing W C:- co

rrowardthe xectio * implementationof actions C development of 2 local management * consultation, decision making, 0 capabilliea) resource mobilization 2

_ _ * community representation through CBLMcommittees

* checking consistency of implementation with plans; analyzingdeviations

• jointly evaluatingactions

resources, know-how, level of community organization) other issues linked to them, to new constraints reported that vary widely among communities. Nevertheless, by the population or resulting from a change in the envi- implementation of the approach is still structured around ronment, or to other elements identified during the diag- common phases (figure 3). The process of implementing nostic evaluation. The approach thus gradually evolves the CBLM approach is not linear, but iterative. toward broad coverage of local development at the com- The internal, iterative, "diagnostic-planning-action- munity level. This evolution is accompanied by the popu- evaluation" cycle of the CBLM approach focuses at the lation's increasing capacity to manage the CBLM outset on one or more specific problems (figure 4). The approach and by a corresponding reorganization and cycle is then repeated with these same problems in order redefinition of the roles of the state, extension services, to evaluate and improve the efficiency of implementation. and other partners (figure 5). The cyclecan be continued indefinitelywhether it is Community-basedland management focusing on a one-time action or one that is repetitive in the onchocerciasiscontrol zones (cooperative activities, for example). The cycle then becomes the main tool for managing the cooperation. Community-based land management is not a magic In practice, the diagnostic-planning-action-evaluation formula that can solve all the problems in the onchocerci- cycle will gradually extend from the initial problems to asis-controlled areas. It is merely a strategy for planning

26 Figure4 Buildingawareness Figure5 Towarduniversal capacity

Theiterative approach Accumulating learningand MakE ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~experience/ M k

Accumul Accumulatingt learg adlearning and

experienc expeee l | ~~~~~~~planninglAccumulaiting / \ i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~leaminmgand \ / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~experience/L Action /s

and executing activities in the field that, if correctly er type of important link for the OCP zones. The applied and supported by other measures, can lead to bet- onchocerciasis-controlled zones are subject to strong ter natural resource management and improved rural demographic dynamics, including significant flows of development. As such, CBLM can make an important migration, a situation inevitably accompanied by conflicts contribution to the settlement of migrants, the develop- and disputes between the settled population and the ment of onchocerciasis-controlled areas, and the protec- migrants and between farmers and herders. Although tion of the environment. CBLM is not a universal remedy for all these problems, it If assisted spontaneous settlement becomes the policy does offer a framework for open discussion and negotia- of choice for the OCP zones, CBLM can provide an operation that can be helpful in resolving them. tional strategy for its implementation. On the planning As a strategy that depends on community participa- side, CBLM does not replace land use management. Thus, tion, CBLM has never been used in areas with no human within the framework of assisted spontaneous settlement, population and no user or traditional land rights. There is the regional land use planning process must provide the thus no evidence that CBLM can be successfully applied broad guidelines for a settlement and rural development in such regions. But even in the OCP zones, it is rare to program. Once those guidelines are completed, CBLM find large areas in which no one has an interest. can provide the elements for local planning and for the The process of creating a CBLM plan includes an analy- implementation and monitoring of the resulting plans. sis of land availability. That entails evaluating the land's CBLM thus can provide a framework for action that capacity to accommodate new migrants, a process that establishes operational links between land use manage- helps make communities aware of the natural constraints ment and investments in production, management, and to that capacity. The CBLM intemal cyde, in which this socioeconomic infrastructure. Clearly, CBLM has a major evaluation is repeated periodically, gives communities the role to play in the OCP zones. opportunity to tailor their management strategies and their The CBLM approach pulls together the interests of dif- decisions on future migrant settlements to current condi- ferent groups that use natural resources on community tions. Thus, the CBLM approach will have an impact on land, including indigenous populations, migrants, and spontaneous settlement and will help channel migrants to herders. In doing so, the CBLM approach provides anoth- areas where land is still available.

27 Conclusion they face are still relatively low. There is therefore little incentive for the people to adopt new approaches, and an The onchocerciasis-controlled areas have enormous awareness campaign is needed to ensure potential in agriculture, fisheries, hunting, and tournsm,. ai plcto fCL nteeaes extensive and This potential is threatened by serious ecological prob- rapid appllcatio s invoLv in dtheseareas. lems, however-some of natural origin but most caused o ciisu contolved as enelthatgbthe by man, including mounting demographic pressures and onchocerciasis-controlled areas to ensure that both present and future generations benefit fully from the resource mnappropriate farming practices. The earlier generations of development projects failed potential that has been gained by overcoming onchocerci- because they were nonparticipatory, unsustainable, and asis. Achieving that goal requires the community-based too costly. The clear consequences, some two decades lat- land management approach. er, are natural resource degradation, poor agricultural References productivity, and loss of biodiversity. CBLM provides an altemative. Although it is no AFRICATIP (Association afnicaine des agences des panacea, it is worth applying-it is capable of putting a travaux publiques pour l'emploi). Possibilites d'interoention stop to natural resource degradation and of stimulating des agences d'execution des travaux d'interet public (AGETIP) development at the grassroots level that communities dans les programmes onchocercose,Ouagadougou, 1993. themselves can sustain. Hunting Technical Services Limited and Organisation The CBLM approach is dynamic and constantly evolv- et environnement. "Etudesde developpement socio- ing. Although most of the national programs are relatively e'conomiquezone du programme OCP. 3 vols. Herts, new, already a range of experiences are emerging. It is England, 1993. important to draw on these experiences to find ways to McMillan, Della, Thomas Painter, and Thayer Scudder. improve the approach, particularly with regard to the rate Installation de populations et developpement dans la zone de of implementation and the ability to deal with the rapid lutte contre l'onchocercose.World Bank Technical Paper 192. expansion of areas to be included in the programs. Imple- Washington, D.C., 1993. menting the CBLM approach in the OCP area is an PGRN-GERENAT (Programme de gestion des enormous task, and the current implementation rates ressources naturelles/Gestion des ressources naturelles). La are inadequate. Gestion des ressourcesnaturelles au Mali. Ouagadougou, 1993. It must be kept in mind that the onchocerciasis-con- PNGT (Programme National de Gestion des Terroirs). trolled areas are special cases: they still have a good sup- La Gestion des terroirs au Burkina Faso. Ministere de l'Agri- ply of natural resources, and the demographic pressures culture et des Ressources Animales. Ouagadougou, 1993.

28 Capitalizingon Success: West Africa's population is not only growing, it is also The OnchocerciasisControl shifting. As of now, the urban population in West Africa is growing by over 7 percent per year, and by 2025 it is expect- Programmeand Resource ed to constitute nearly half the total. There is little evidence ManagementOptions that this rate will come down, for throughout the world, the young are attracted to the lifestvle,social mobility, and new UI.S.Agency for InlternationialDevelopment consumption opportunities found only in cities.

Figure 1 Interdependence Figure 2 The main trends are known

High population growth M11h.-o Low population growth of peoplo 600 500 400 300 200 100 0- 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

Areacovered by the Onchocerciasis ControlProgramme

Established in 1974 as part of the intemational response to Sahehan drought, the Onchocerciasis Control Pro- Figure 3 The shifting urban-rural balance gramme represents an investment of US$500 million and is one of the most ambitious pubhc health and resource recovery programs in the world. Its goal is the reopening of 25 million hectares of arable land for settlement. 200 M Rural population Second only to the Smallpox Eradication Program in Urbanpopulation Africa, the OCP has been a major public health success. 150 But the war is not yet won. Now that river blindness has largely been eradicated, further battles must be fought to 100 protect and manage the vast new lands opened for reset- _0_ tlement. The fate of the OCP zone and its potential contribution to the overall development of West Africa are 0 inextricably linked to the fate of each member state. 1950 1970 1995 2025 Majorsocioeconomic trends affecting WestAfrican development Ruraland urban population in West Africa, selected years,1950-2025. Since 1974, West Africa's population has doubled. Even under low-growth scenarios, it is projected to double again, or to more than double, in the next thirty years. What does this mean for the rural economy? Urban With enough arabie land to allow for the fallow cycle populations purchase food, clothing, raw materials, and no longer available, perennial vegetation is being depleted consumption goods. Household surveys conducted by the at an alarming rate. Farmers and herders fight each other International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) for scarce resources. In sum, the traditional mechanisms around Bamako, Niamey, and Ouagadougou indicate that that once maintained ecological stability are no longer there have already been dramatic shifts in household pro- able to operate. duction strategies in response to increased urban demand.

29 In these survey zones, over half of all household income As arable land grows increasingly scarce, more intense now comes from sources other than direct agricultural use depletes West Africa's soils. A number of recent scien- production. Within the urban market zone, demand for tific studies (including those conducted by the Compagnie fuelwood, charcoal, and construction poles has created malienne pour le developpement des textiles, the Dutch income altematives to subsistence agriculture. Royal Tropical Institute, and the Wagheningen Center for As the total urban population in the eleven OCP coun- Agrobiological Research) have found that, throughout the tries approaches 85 million, this "pull" of urban markets Sahel, farmers are using up the soil's nutrients faster than will spread and is likely to alter the farmers' production they are being replenished. Crop uptake, leaching and choices. Because food for the cities must come from erosion exceed what is put back into the soil through somewhere, urban consumption represents potential cash manure and other fertilizers, nitrogen fixing by insects, demand. Recent currency devaluations within the CFA bacteria, and plants and atmospheric deposition. zone make importing food within the broader West Although viable in the short run, soil mining cannot be African economic region less attractive. It is now up to sustained long and the costs are now being paid. OCP member states to transform their rural economies by CMDT analyses show that, in Mali, up to 47 percent of filling food trucks with domestic produce. nutrients now used in crop production come from soil

Figure4 Zonesof UrbanMarket Influence: Figure6 The cost of soil mining Present

Other Manure

IMPORTS~~~~~~~~~~NFixation

/ /~~4 Volatilization\

0 EKPORrosionTUptake

Leaching

NIGER

mining. With better management of existing resources- Figure5 Zonesof UrbanMarket Influence: that is, more inputs and better soil and water conservation Future to reduce losses-this percentage could be reduced. Twenty years of research in the Sahel have convinced the Center for Agrobiological Research in Wagheningen that, while improved management of existing natural resources can possibly restore the balance of inputs and outputs for a time, the inherent biophysical limitations of the land cannot support West Africa's growing population. Exter- nal inputs will be necessary to restore the balance in the long run-a fact that must significantly affect economic choices in the region. These demographic and biophysical trends impose certain demands on West Africa's governments. The need for extemal inputs to sustain agriculture means that cash income will be needed to buy those inputs. Widespread cash income for rural households implies a basic change from subsistence to more diversified and commercialized NIGER crop production. And although growing urban centers are

30 already creatingcash demand for rural products, this will accelerate sharply in the next thirty years. Figure8 HouseholdStrategies As field research by the Intemational Food Policy in the OCP Zone ResearchInstitute has shown, West Africanhouseholds with access to markets are already diversifying.At this , ... stage, the IFPRIstudy found, people seek to diversifyas -| much to reduce risk as to increase income. Households ) that have successfullydiversified have also tended to - invest in production methods sustainable over the long- term and have increased their incomes. Conversely, households that have not made the transition successfully continue to mine their resource base despite dedining / / yields and increased risk.

* The MigrationCycle Figure 7 Household Strategies a Incentivesfor ResourceMiningi * ResourceDegradation Potential * Uncertaintiesfor Migrants in OCP Zone

Input-outputbalance Non-agriculturalincome invest in more sustainable production lie at the heart of resource management in the OCP zone. Information about household decisionsin the OCP zone includes the Land Settlement Review,studies prepared for this conference,and other major environmental and productionstudies.

More than just land Unlike other areas in Africa,the OCP zone offers significantopportunities for nev, settlement. Relative Resource Mining to other zones, therefore, the pace of change is rapid. Infrastructureis being built, land is being put under cultivation,and new people are settling on and benefiting from the land. In West Africa's rural households today, strategies for In making decisionsabout the use of natural resources, income generation, risk management, and economic households in the OCP areas are affectedby where they diversificationare already in flux.The rich database of are located, where surrounding communitiesare, and field observationsabout their evolution includes five where each is in the settlement cycle.But while resources major reviewsof local-levelresource management initia- in the OCP zones are generallyrich, they are also fragile. tives (prepared for the 1989 Segou Roundtable on Natural Migrants have relativelyfew established socialties in the ResourcesManagement), at least ten follow-on studies, community,and resource tenure is often uncertain or IFPRIhousehold surveys,and dozens of locality-specific insecure. All of this contributes to a sense of imperma- and project-specificstudies. nence that leads to resource mining. Settlers typically Essentially,West Africa'srural producers today face have little knowledge of local conditions and do not know three choices:to mine the resource base to maintain how to manage and sustain the unfamiliar environment. income, to change production techniques to restore the As a result, there is high potential for resource degrada- input-output balance of agriculture,or to seek nonagricul- tion. Even when resource mining is not a strategy, it can tural sources of income. Most rural households are become a fact. already pursuing some mix of the three. But because basic Settlers must also deal with unfamiliar disease proffles demographicand biophysicaldynamics have already been in the new areas. Politicalstability is not guaranteed. The felt at the household level, household strategies cannot legal framework (includingland tenure, administrative remain static. jurisdiction,and common property resource management Household strategies, income diversification,access rights) changes from one area to the next and is often in to markets, and the decision to mine resources or to flux. Infrastructureis limited and has not always kept pace

31 Figure9 Howdo peopledecide?

NRMcontributions to sustainabie income

es n yels Changes in resources

ram Land-use management a s decisions

Manageable Non-manageable

Secure I Local I Infrastructure tenure authority markets flfl Knowledge Acc-essto1 skills Technology Capital | tL.J

with changing migration patterns. Finally, OCP lands are become a problem. Policy should seek to promote prac- frequently far from markets, from sources of supply, and tices that simultaneously increase both yields and from social and community systems. resources. Experience has shown that there is a range of AUlthese factors combine to heighten settlers' sense of cost-effective technologies available that enable farms to impermanence in OCP communities, and therefore to achieve sustainable increases in household incomes. To promote a shorter-term perspective of settlement and leam what influences land use management decisions, land use management. While some OCP settlements have bilateral and international aid agencies have sponsored developed sustainable, long-term natural resource man- hundreds of case studies in West Africa. agement, others have depleted the land and moved on, These studies show that specific conditions of secure leaving the area worse off than it was. What the OCP set- tenure, access to markets, access to capital and credit, tlements have shown is that success requires far more devolution of authority, and access to technologies-con- than simply making land available for settlement. ditions that vary by area and change over time-influence What governments can do resource-sustaining decisions.Because public policymakers wish to make appropriate resource management In figuring out what the public sector can do to pro- appeal to thousands of farmers' own self-interest, they mote long-term natural resource stewardship, the key must keep abreast of continually changing local condi- question is how people make natural resource manage- tions. Understanding what motivates farmers is not, ment choices. With twenty years of experience in natural therefore, a one-time activity. resource policy, it is now possible to build on what gov- At the national level, too, many OCP member states are ernments are already doing. undergoing long-term structural change. Since mortality In the OCP areas, thousands of rural settlers and rates began to decline forty years ago, West Africa's social, households seek better livelihoods. In doing so, they political, and economic climate has been transformed. All make decisions that will affect their agricultural yields and signs point to continued, accelerating change over the next their use of natural resources. Obviously, if yields go up thirty years, which will create new opportunities in the but the resource base is degraded, sustainability will soon OCP zone. The policy challenge is to keep pace with this

32 changing dynamic and to develop an overall, integrated leading to the waste of resources on a large scale. development strategy that will include the proper manage- * Govemments must monitor migration flows, which ment of OCP resources. To achieve this goal: change rapidly, to target public investment efficient- * Govemments should use major national natural ly. There are low-cost techniques available for doing resource policies already in place (in resource tenure, so. Existing regional organizations (such as Agrome- community resource management, resource pricing) terology and Operational Hydrology Centre located as the basis for OCP zone development. in Niger) could both lead the data collection and . Policies should create conditions conducive to sus- serve as regional data repositories. tainable growth. Once they have been field-tested, * Govemments should focus effort on the key pres- they should be applied in the OCP zones. sure points where public policy will have maximum s The use of field observations and case studies to col- impact. The majority of OCP studies suggest, for lect information on local conditions is particularly example, that the decision to diversify crop produc- well suited to the OCP zones because of the variation is associated with long-term settlement, and tion in conditions in local areas and over time. When therefore ultimately with more sustainable land use population density is low and land remains relatively management practices. Particularly in the OCP fertile, for example, land tenure may not be an zones, where farmers must deal with more and more important issue. But as population density increases wide-ranging economic and social variables, policy- and good land becomes scarce, land tenure becomes makers should seek to understand and influence this crucial. The rapid changes brought about by new decision. settlement in the OCP zone make field studies par- * Twenty years after the inception of the OCP, the ticularly important if an accurate picture of the situa- volume and richness of information about natural tion is to be maintained. Most OCP member states resource management-based on field experience in already base their national policies on observation the OCP zone-are already growing. OCP member and case studies. countries now need to set up structured networks to m Worldwide settlement experience suggests that share this information across borders. Existing assisted spontaneous settlement works best. Once regional institutions could be used for the task. spontaneous migration pattems establish where and * To improve the flow of information across sectoral why settlement occurs, public investment should lines, a concerted effort should be made to inform quickly follow to build and reinforce positive resource the natural resource management community about management practices. Purely spontaneous settle- the particular conditions of the OCP zones, to inte- ment has too often led to short-term stays unsup- grate OCP considerations into plans for existing pro- ported by physical, market, social, and policy jects and designs for upcoming ones, and to infrastructure. Controlled settlement, on the other reevaluate national resource management strategies hand, requires major planned investment, and has in the light of the enormous new potential these often failed to attract or retain permanent settlement, lands offer.

33 Discussion treatment in land tenure, there will be difficulties with customary authorities." Community-based land management "Experience shows that when communities have deci- Participants showed a great deal of interest in natural sionmaking power, tradition will be upheld in the begin- resource management and the community-based land ning but gradually things will change. T hese changes management approach. The discussion prompted exten- cannot be made from the top. Legislation gathers dust sive debate on the role of women in natural resource and does not change anything at the village level." management and on the increasing level of conflict "Gender-based battles must be avoided. Women are between transhumant and sedentary populations. already consulted on an informal basis and are making progress." Comments "Women are already overburdened. One should be "Do not rush into the community-based land manage- very careful about how much involvement can be expect- ment approach even though it seems good. There are sev- ed from women." eral prerequisites for success, and other approaches that Transhumant populations also seemed good are now judged to be failures." "Before the community-based land management The issue of the transhumant populations sparked a approach can work, it has to be part and parcel of national heated and politically sensitive debate. It was clearly an sectoral policies with well-defined strategies. Otherwise, important issue in each of the participating countries and there could be highly diverse situations in adjacent areas." one on which there was no clear agreement. "Despite the importance of national policies, planners Comments should not wait for perfect policies and ideal legislation to be in place before attempting the community-based land "Pastoralists come through every year and devastate management approach. People should be aware of possi- the land. They cause fights and shooting, and migrants ble problems and try the approach anyway." have bome the brunt of the conflict with herders. One "Local communities must be responsible for funding country in West Africa has banned transhumant herding, local efforts either with their own money or through local and this is being considered in other countries. Some of authorities. Control over the financial aspects of projects the established migration corridors have been cut due to is an important way of empowering local decision mak- cnme. Plans must be developed to settle the transhumant ing, and financial involvement leads to closer attention to populations." the activities by the local population." "Major problems occur with the cohabitation of farm- "Laws will not get people to replant trees, and you ing, agroforestry, and pastoralism. Govemments need to cannot simply tell the people not to cut trees when they work hard to prevent problems before conflict occurs and are very poor and have no altemative. Make communities before environmental degradation becomes severe.' responsible and they will protect natural resources." "Immense areas of seasonal grasses in the northem "Local adaptation of the approach to site-specific con- parts of the Sahelian countries are not used because there ditions is important. There is no one blueprint." is not sufficient dry-season grazing in the south. Mecha- nisms need to be worked out so that these grasslands can be exploitedbecause transhumant herds produce more All participants recognized the importance of women's efficiently and at lower cost than sedentary herds. More- participation in community-based land management over, studies have shown that there are high levels of associations and in development in general. There was female ownership of these herds." some debate, however, on the extent to which women "Herders can be either hosts or settlers. The village were currently participating and on how fast the rates land management concept has been criticized because it of participation by women could be expected to change, could give too much authority to sedentary farmers and given customary decisionmaking pattems and women's might not include herders in the process of establishing already heavy work load. land use plans. This leads to conflict later on when Comments herders find themselves forced off land they have traditionally used." "Women must be treated on an equal footing in com- "Transhumance is important because it provides cheap munity-based land management associations. There have meat for countries that are net importers of meat and it been cases where women without secure tenure have provides a gene pool for upgrading national livestock made improvements to land only to later find themselves herds. However, it may also spread disease if other coun- dispossessed. However, if women are given preferential tries have different livestock health rules. Countries have

34 used the military to drive away herds, but they always dors. Niger, Cote d'lvoire, and Burkina Faso currently come back. The issue needs to be addressed at the subre- have an agreement regulating livestock corridors. This gional level because intergovemmental cooperation is agreement may expand, as meetings between these three needed to regulate movement." countries have been attended by Ghana, Nigeria, and "Some countries have tried to establish livestock corri- Mali as observers."

SESSION3 ft Land Tenure in New Settlement Areas

Land tenure is perhaps the most criticalissue in the dis- encouraginghost populations to cede permanent tenure cussion of settlement and development (recommendation rights to new migrants. 13). It was a central point in the session on natural Dr. George Benneh's paper, "Land Tenure and the resources, and it figuresimportantly in the discussionon Development of Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas in Northem host settler conflicts,gender-related issues, transhumant Ghana," takes many of the general issues discussed in populations, and sustainable agriculture.While much of the FAO paper and applies them to northem Ghana. He the area that onchocerciasiscontrol is making availableto examines the types of tenure that exist there and presents settlement is sparsely populated, almost none of it is data on how people acquired the land they use. He then unclaimed.Attempts by national governments to override examines the implicationsof the different forms of tenure existing land tenure systems have in many cases led to and modes of access to land for planned and spontaneous conflictbetween host and settler populations. Insecurity settlement. He concludes that some form of communal of tenure resulting from conflictingnational and local land tenure will continue regardless of state intervention tenure systems inhibitslong-term investments in produc- because of the importance of livestockproduction and the tivity, something that is crucialif new settlements are to need for flexibleaccess to land. be sustainable. The paper by the Club du Sahel, "Land Tenure and The paper by the Food and AgricultureOrganization Settlement in the Onchocerciasis-FreedZones of Burkina (FAO),"Land Tenure Policyin OnchocerciasisControl Faso,' examines land tenure issues in the context of land ProgrammeAreas," addresses a number of key issues settlement in BurkinaFaso in the past fifteen years. It regarding land tenure, including the different types of traces settlement and land tenure policy and shows how a tenure in the OCP area and how these interact with the top-down, govemment-controlledprogram evolved to a different types of land settlement. It highlights security of more decentralizedsystem, using community-based land tenure as the criticalissue, and discusses methods for management committees to resolve tenure conflictsand achieving secure tenure, particularlyin the difficultarea of organize the use of space.

37 Land Tenure Policy the successive droughts in the Sahel and the resulting inOnchocercLasis Control migrations,and rural development efforts undertaken InOnch ocerciasis Con trol within the OCPframework. But development depends ProgrammeAreas primarily on national policies supported by national, Foodand AgricultureOrganization international, and bilateral agencies. West African countries plan and fund rural develop- In 1974, at the same time that the technical teams of ment on the basis of the nation's agroeconomic potential the Onchocerciasis Control Programme began establish- as a whole, of which areas cleared of onchocerciasis are ing an entomological surveillance network, evaluating only a part. Nonetheless, national policymakers may medical operations, and training the entomological field choose OCP zones as the best sites for rural development. staff, the program beneficiary countries were also launch- But investments should be based on real site assessments ing economic and social development plans at the nation- and not limited to the OCP zones just because they are al level. For if onchocerciasis could be controlled, the way newly available for agriculture and stockraising. would be open for resettlement, renewed cropping, and Land settlement is an important means of easing reopened rangelands. heavy population density and pressure on natural Before the eradication of onchocerciasis, at least 80 resources. Within the context of national rural and agri- percent of the river valley lands went unused. Today, with cultural development policies, the international commu- river blindness largely eradicated, 25 million hectares of nity-including the FAO and the World Bank-can help arable riverine land are available for resettlement, with countries to examine the best way of using new lands to sufficient agricultural potential to sustain some 17 million help the least privileged rural population groups. people. With the reopening of these lands, governments In sum, neither the OCP countries nor the develop- need to plan for their socioeconomic development, mak- ment agencies should restrict their rural development and ing sure that those who resettle West Africa's river valleys land settlement efforts to the cleared areas. To avoid cul- have full health, economic, and social benefits. tural and economic clashes when populations mix, gov- In most West African countries that take part in the emments must pay as much attention to migrants' program, rehabilitated OCP lands offer excellent settle- departure points, and to their social and cultural makeup, ment potential. But if they are to prosper over the long as to the settlement areas and host communities. Similar- term, settlers will have to leam how to increase their ly, governments must have plans to address problems of yields, make rational use of renewable natural resources, poverty, environmental degradation, unequal access to and enhance their production and marketing systems. resources, and rapid natural resource depletion in settle- First and foremost, peasant farmers must be guaranteed ment areas and on regional and national levels. the use of the fields they cultivate for a sufficient number It is up to West Africa's governments to make sure that of years to be productive. natural resources located on OCP lands are exploited to Three types of tenure systems currently coexist. In tra- the best advantage and developed in ways that guarantee ditional West African agrarian systems, the village chief sustainable production and environmental protection and authorizes settlement on village land, and the customary enhance the welfare of the entire region. chief decides on access to land, rights to land use, and the Setlementpatterns times when agricultural activities should be carried out. Today, however, govemment-registered landownership Although lands newly cleared of the threat of river has, in principle, superseded the traditional system, and blindness may be sparsely populated today, many are still usufruct rights are supposed to belong to the person culti- under some form of land tenure. In West Africa, therefore, vating the land. The establishment of community man- it is inappropriate to speak of lands abandoned because of agement groups fully responsible for the use and river blindness or other natural disasters as "vacant." development of their areas further complicates the land People generally come back to such lands through tenure picture. spontaneous settlement, assisted settlement, or systemat- West Africa's agroeconomic future will depend largely ically organized settlement. In each case, concemed on the OCP areas' ability to produce cereals, livestock, groups include host communities-the traditional owners and industrial crops, hence the need for coordinated of the valleys-settlers, and the state, whose role it is to strategies and actions that reflect the interests of the ensure that individual rights are respected and that the populations concemed. land is used to best advantage within a national context. During the past twenty years, the socioeconomic It is up to each OCP beneficiary country to determine development of the OCP areas has been influenced by the which settlement strategies it should adopt to suit its dynamism of the local communities, population pressure, own local conditions.

38 Entirely spontaneous land settlement, guided by land host populations to share access to land with the settlers chiefs and heads of migrant households, has several and-on a more practical level-can invest heavily in drawbacks. In new areas, traditional land occupancy sys- infrastructure, access roads, agricultural extension, and tems do not give migrants sufficient security of tenure to such costly public goods as wells, dispensaries, schools, ensure the rational use of natural resources, soil protec- stores, and warehoases. But planned settlement is tion, land improvement, enhanced productivity through extremely expensive to prepare and implement. inputs, or reforestation. Nor are newcomers guaranteed No matter which type of settlement is practiced, land access to agricultural credit or to public services (such as tenure arrangements must be stable. At the beginning of primary health care, access roads, wells, agricultural the settlement process, the govemment, local farmers, extension and training, or schooling). Furthermore, immi- settlers, and herdsmen must agree to land tenure terms. grants who continue to use the same farming practices Without such agreement, the host population will not that led to the degradation of their original lands, need recognize the transfer of land rights to settlers, and better technical know-how of systems more conducive to disputes will be inevitable. environmental protection. Countries must also agree on a plan to supply services Without govemment controls, therefore, spontaneous and to improve the infrastructure to compensate the local settlement leads to eventual environmental degradation, population for the release of land to the settlers. Tradi- soil impoverishment, and the gradual economic marginal- tional herdsmen's rights (to rangelands and pastures) ization of both the host and the settler populations. must also be recognized and respected. Without such Yet spontaneous settlement may be necessary to ease agreements underwritten by the state, there can be no pressures on arid, exhausted, and overpopulated lands. land tenure security for the settlers. To make it work, govemments must supply suitable infra- The state, therefore, must intervene in the process of structure reflecting the nature of the land and the avail- resettling the onchocerciasis-freed valleys. The greater the ability of natural resources. Govemments also need to intervention, moreover, the more power the state will have secure a firm commitment from host communities to over land allocation and the entire development process. share land and water access and cropping rights with the Govemments can intervene with limited investment to newcomers, in return for compensatory infrastructure, assist already established settlers. At the other extreme, social amenities, and agricultural extension. they can take the costly path of becoming fully responsi- "Assisted settlement" is usually spontaneous settle- ble for the planning implementation, and continuity of ment that later receives government, local development systematically programmed settlement. A compromise project, or NGO aid. Such aid can take the form of infra- solution is to mobilize the resources of NGOs and local structure, social services, roads, wells, or other support. and migrant populations, inviting them to participate in Not planned from the outset, such settlement can nev- land use planning for environmentally sound develop- ertheless receive considerable outside support once a for- ment. Govemment would then act as promoter, supervi- mula for assisted (or supervised) settlement has been sor, and guarantor rather than as chief executor and adopted. Provided that compensation is eventually given, funder of settlement activities. assisted settlement can also ease the social tensions that Governments can also use structured settlement as a arise from the spontaneous arrival of settlers in a host bridgehead for inviting both host and settler populations community. Furthermore, when assistance helps to rein- to use the infrastructure services provided with supervised force community institutions, host settler, and pastoral settlement in areas upstream and downstream from the populations are all brought closer together in the man- selected valley sites. The effect of localized, participatory agement of their natural resources. examples would then spread rational land management Even belated intervention can help lessen the risks of and cost-effective practices to other areas. environmental degradation, poor or lacking social services In September 1990, a workshop on population settle- and agricultural extension, and mediocre productivity, all of ment in OCP areas was held in Ouagadougou. The partic- which are greater with unassisted, spontaneous settlement. ipants determined that a mechanism was needed to With or without assistance, however, spontaneous set- coordinate, facilitate, and monitor development opera- tlers have the advantage of a firm will to refashion lives tions. This unit would help govemments exchange experi- blighted by the ecological and agricultural difficulties that ences in development planning for cleared areas and prompted them to leave their homelands. They are willing would help countries formulate intemationally coordinat- to use their best energies and economic resources to ed programs. Individual govemments, of course, would adapt successfully to their new situation. define their own settlement strategies and mobilize the With planned settlement, the govemment or sponsor- necessary financial and technical support. Participating ing agency can use the state's authority to persuade the governments would also select the intercountry mecha-

39 nisms for planning, information, dissemination, and coor- . Local land rights must be harmonized with settlers' dination. But at the request of these countries, the OCP rights. Conditions for access to-and development Sponsoring Agencies would provide technical advice and of-new lands and accompanying agronomic, com- other support. Both OCP govemments and donors should mercial, and environmental criteria must be seize this opportunity to work together to achieve sus- explained fully to the populations concemed, who tained development in the newly cleared areas and, must accept and adopt these terms of development indeed, throughout West Africa. before any action is taken. u Govemments need to promote discussion, cooperation, and harmonization of activitiesamong host and • To make development of the OCP valleys both sus- settler populations and executing and extension tainable and ecologically sound, govemments, set- agencies, all of whom will have to work together if tlers, and host populations will have to be OCP areas are to be developed on a sustainable committed to this goal over the long term. The OCP basis. To achieve cooperation among national and areas have exceptionally high agroeconomic poten- local utn. rities, landowners, valley development tial. Their development therefore merits clear politi- officiaix..vi'age leaders, and representatives of the cal commitment, continuity in govemment strategies migrant population, govemrnmentsshould maximize toward resettled areas, cooperation among the vari- grass-roots participation in the social and economic ous population groups involved, and ongoing evalu- development of the valley areas. ation. Within the framework of a coherent national u Africa needs to develop lands with agroeconomic development plan to develop the valleys, settlement potential for sustainable exploitation as rapidly as operations will need support from local and intema- possible. Governments should therefore seek to accel- tional NGOs, bilateral agencies, and intemational erate the settlement of lands cleared of onchocercia- organizations. sis. Agencies charged with this task will need the • To achieve lasting benefit from the new lands, tradi- institutional, financial, and technical resources to for- tional land claims must be reconciled with settlers' mulate and implement guidelines for OCP land use, needs. Infrastructure, services, and agricultural to plan and coordinate appropriate transnational extension must be provided on a long-term basis. activities, to define objectives for each settlement area, For optimal use, therefore, govemments will need to to evaluate progress, and to assess remaining work to plan and finance the development of OCP zones. be done and to make sure that data on settlement The ultimate goal would be to achieve sustainability, experiences are kept up to date and exchanged that is, to use natural resources carefully and spar- among the various OCP sites and countries. ingly, thereby enhancing their renewable use.

40 LandTenure and the Development are members of the landholding group, be it a state, clan, of Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas in or family.Nonmembers of the landholding groups, who are often described as "strangers," may be given easy NorthernGhana access to land but have no rights of ownership. George Benneh, Kasim Kasanga interviewed 346 landowners in the Wa University of Ghana, Legon District, of which 249 (72 percent) had obtained their land as members of the landholding group. Ninety-five farm- The subject of land tenure in Ghana has received much ers (27 percent) had gained access to land through inheri- attention from policymakers and researchers. But while tance, and 19 (6 percent) by direct allocation from the the main principles goveming access to land are well tendaana, or earth priest. known and documented, some issues of land tenure need My own studies confirm that similar land acquisition further discussion. These issues are best discussed in the practices exist in the Tamale-Jimle and Tolon local council context of the type of development encouraged or areas. In Tamale-Jimle, 149 (60 percent) of the 251 farm- planned for Ghana's Onchocerciasis Control Programme ers interviewed held their land as members of the areas, which can be broadly classified into the populous landowning group, and 91 (36 percent) had obtained land upper west and upper east regions and the sparsely popu- through inheritance. In the Tolon area, people obtain land lated northern region. chiefly through inheritance, which accounted for 288 of In deciding how these areas should be developed, 500 respondents (57 percent), as compared with 125 the govemment will have to ask the following questions: respondents (25 percent) who had acquired land by virtue Is it better to resettle the onchocerciasis-freed areas with of being members of the landholding group. planned resettlement schemes, spontaneous resettle- In the Tolon area, 236 of 265 female respondents did ments, or both? What are the land tenure implications for not have fields of their own, and 27 had one field each. In the different development strategies? What role should contrast, only 2 of 170 male respondents had no fields of the govemment take to provide access to land? In addi- their own, and 47 had four different fields. tion, those who guide development in the new lands will According to customary law, no individual has the have to look into such areas as large-scale and capital- right to alienate land to another person, although concur- intensive mechanized farming, large-and small-scale rent and successive use of the same piece of land by dif- ranches, mixed -farming agricultural cooperatives, and ferent groups or persons is easily accommodated. For agroforestry. example, one person could have rights of cultivation while Promoting farming schemes is further complicated by another had rights to trees at the same time, or the land the claims of different potential beneficiaries (displaced might be used by cultivators during the cropping season persons, women who normally have limited access to and as grazing land by herders during the off-season. land, people with resources to develop the land, migrants, In the centralized state systems of the northem region, locals). Developers must act to make sure that a scheme however, the chiefs are the custodians of all unclaimed will be sustainable. And finally, it must be decided which lands, which they hold in trust for their people. In the less area should receive priority attention. centralized societies of the upper west and upper east regions, on the other hand, it is the tendaanas and not the chiefs who are custodians of all communal land, while all Before examining these many policy questions and members of a landholding group have equal access to related issues of land tenure, it is useful to describe briefly unclaimed community lands. In theory, furthermore, the salient features of the land tenure system in northem inheritance laws favor sons over daughters. The results of Ghana. Several studies have confirmed that, in northem the studies by Kasim Kasanga confirm these characteris- Ghana, the communal, or corporate, system of land tics of land tenure throughout northem Ghana. tenure is characterized by mutual individual user and Settlement schemes community (or some other group in which the individual user has an identified status) rights to the same piece of While a great diversity of settlement schemes exist, land. Individual user rights are established by initial clear- two features are common to all: the movement of popu- ance and use of land. These user rights, furthermore, lations and the need for planning and control. remain with the initial user and his heirs until the land is In northem Ghana, organized settlement schemes abandoned. Once the land is abandoned, the community could help to relieve population pressure in Ghana's more reasserts its residual interest in the land until someone congested areas by redistributing at least some of the with recognized status in the community is granted indi- population. Land settlement is also part of a general pro- vidual user rights. These conditions apply to people who gram of agrarian reform that promotes more homoge-

41 neous distributionof land and labor,and increased agri- of farming is the modem equivalent of bush fallowing. cultural production. In northem Ghana, this embraces Modem machinery exposes large tracts of land to the both livestockand crop production. ravages of the weather, leading to soil erosion, land Land tenureand planned resettlement schemes degradation,and desertification. That settlers in new areas will use, abuse, and abandon In the past, planned resettlement projects such as the land is a major fear of at least one witness who appeared Gonja AgriculturalResettlement Scheme have involved before a government committee on the allocationof farm- the compulsoryallocation of land to settlers. Such a strat- lands in BuilsaDistrict. This area, in the sparsely populat- egy is only possible in sparsely populated areas; it is in ed onchocerciasis-freedzone, has attracted large-scale any case expensive,and originallandowners may be dis- commercialfarmers from outside the region. Accordingto possessed. Settlers are attracted to planned settlement the witness, "There is the fear that when the fertilityof schemes by the prospect of land ownership. the lands has been exhausted, the in-migrant commercial "State-initiated approaches may increase conflict farmers will repair to where they came from, leaving the between hosts, settlers, and pastoralists,and between indigenous people to their fate on the land." local residents and more powerful individualsfrom out- To ensure both the rational use of land and the conser- side the area who do not necessarilysettle but perceive vation of the soil, Ghana's govemment clearlyneeds the area largely as a profitable investment" (McMillan, to enact new land use regulations. Della,Thomas Painter and ThayerScudder 1992. Settle- Customaryland tenure ment and Developmentin the RiverblindnessControl Zone. The World Bank). It may be necessary, therefore, to Large-scalefarming-systems.While large-scalefarming impose restrictions or conditions on the land titles to pre- could be developed in sparsely populated areas without vent landholders from transferring their lands. Without dispossessingfarmers, in densely settled areas (such as such a restriction,some settlers would sell their lands, parts of the upper-east region) small farmers would be thereby defeating the aim of the settlement program. pushed out and a class of landless laborers created. Nigeria's 1978 land use decree, for example, prevents In order to benefit from economies of scale, small holders from transferring their land. farmers can pool their lands for purposes of ploughing Land tenureand spontaneoussettlements and other mechanized farming operations. But to bring about such farming cooperatives,it may be necessary to While uniform land tenure systems are easier to coerce those farmers who may decline to join voluntarily. impose on planned settlements, spontaneous settlements In the Republicof Benin, for example, the law states that wil1encounter entrenched customary tenure systems. where 75 percent of the farmers in an area decide to forn Northern Ghana's communal system assures access to such a cooperative, the rest are compelled to join. This land for the landholding group, but migrant settlers must prevents the formation of isolatedpockets of land in rely on indirect tenure systems, especiallysharecropping, large cultivated areas. which often works to their disadvantage.The rights of the Customarytenure and agroforestry.Although, as it has individualparties are often unclear; tenants can be been pointed out, tree tenure may be quite different from restrictedto raise only specificcrops; and the division of land tenure, agroforestryrights have not been much stud- farm profitsbetween landowner and tenant frequently ied. While the ownership of economicallysignificant trees failsto reflect the tenant's labor, inputs, and capital that grow wild, such as dawadawa and shea nut, has nev- investment.To safeguard the interests of share tenants in er been in doubt, the land tenure consequences of tree newly opened areas, therefore, govemments in the region cropping are stillunknown. will have to change existingrules goveming the share- Women'saccess to land. Manywomen are good farmers cropping system. on fieldsowned by their husbands and parents; yet, Where land is plentiful and access to it is not restricted, despite the Intestate SuccessionLaw that allows them to farmers tend to adopt practices that satisfytheir immedi- inherit land, few own their own land. One way of increas- ate needs but that are harmful to the soil. In a 1984 study ing women's access to land is to organize women into of the Tamale-Jimlearea, 172 of 251 farmers interviewed farming groups to which land is allocated.A tradition of (nearly70 percent) rated ease of access to land as the women labor gangs suggests that female agricultural tenure system's major advantage.Yet, in this same sample cooperativeswould probablywork in Ghana. 179 farmers (71.3 percent) had abandoned rice fields they Land-tenureand livestockproducers. Policies regarding had previouslycultivated, 138 (about 77 percent) because livestockproduction in the onchocerciasis-freedzones these fields had become infertile and 38 (21 percent) should seek to increase market output and to conserve because they had too many weeds. In effect,this system rangelands.

42 The "tragedy of the commons" theory argues that enterprise that requires quick response to highly variable only with individualtenure will herders exercise the self- rainfall pattems-particularly in northem Ghana, which restraint needed to balance herd size with range carrying is subject to periodic droughts. Any system of land tenure capacity, because they have a guarantee that other must take into account herders' need to move cattle to herders will not be allowed to exploitthe area. But while distant pastures in response to seasonal and unexpected there are advantages in providing excdusiverights to dis- changes in resource availability.Individual tenure, howev- crete land areas, for the vast majority of cattle producers, er, is not easily compatiblewith seasonal migrations, circumstancesof livestockproduction require some form especiallywhere dry-season pasture conditions of communal tenure. are not predictable.It is therefore reasonable to conclude In Ghana, livestockholdings are typicallytoo small that-although land tenure options for improving live- for single production units to be able to capitalizeon stock production are limited-circumstances virtually ranching operations and water supplies, and Ghanaian dictate that tenure reform must include some form smallholdersare not often commerciallyoriented. of communal tenure for herders. In addition, livestockproduction is a land-extensive

43 LandTenure and Settlement Djipologhoand Kankanpelle.The migrants, from the in the Onchocerciasis-Freed MossiPlateau and Dagara, were from the same ethnic group as the host population but originated from other Zonesof BurkinaFaso regions. The host population worked together to fight the Club du Sahel settlement of new migrants through a land occupation strategy: the chief of Kankanpelle unilaterally settled a Burkina Faso's experience with land management hundred Dagara families, and this destroyed the land and settlement provides an exceptional example of the evo- reserves. Settlers petitioned the AW for deeds to their lution of a top-down strategy, introduced in the 1980s, into claims so that they could counter the indigenous people's a participatory development strategy: community-based opposition with official title to the land. But they lost por- land management. This review, based on case studies in tions of the land intended for the future expansion of their the field, reveals the pitfalls and advantages of different set- fields, and the development program essentially failed. tlement policies, as well as their impact on natural The traditional land rights system had protected forest resources. The community-based land management reserves, for no one would have dared to settle without approach has moved beyond the experimental stage, and asking the traditional chiefs for their permission. By today it can be considered an essential model for develop- contrast, fifteen years after the AVV began its settlement ment projects-and one that is consistent with sustainable activities in Bougouriba, the forest retreated and the ele- development in the onchocerciasis-freed zones. phant population began to dwindle. The 1980s:Creation of A W zones UP1/Gadeghinpastoral zone Traditionally in Burkina Faso land rights were held by (GanzourgouProvince) indigenous heads of families, under the authority of local The AW designed the pastoral zone of Gadeghin, chiefs. Under this traditional land rights system, the use of on the Mossi Plateau, basing the design on theoretical natural resources was fairly stable. The population settle- ideas rather than actual circumstances. The design failed ment policies introduced by the Autorite d'amenagement to consider the traditional symbiotic relationship between des vallees des Voltas (AVV) have hurt natural resource farming and animal husbandry that is vital in this region management and the social climate in the AVV zones. with its dense human and cattle population. (For example, The AW targeted for development zones that were herders would enter into informal contracts-"fertility sparsely populated or unpopulated and that the adminis- transfers"-to provide farmers with manure for fertilizer tration thus considered free of land claims. But in reality, in exchange for access to wells and surplus crops.) even though the indigenous people had withdrawn, they Instead, when the development plan was implemented, continued to practice religious rites on land in these zones indigenous farmers were chased out of the zone by force and to exercise their right of land appropriation. In the of arms. In addition, planners significantly underestimat- Bagr6 region, for example, two physicians conducting a ed the number of cattle in the zone; basing their calcula- census in the 1960s considered about a hundred villages tions on the area (small at 6,000 hectares), they put the along the banks of the Nakambe River to be abandoned estimated maximum number of cattle at 2,500. But in fact, (Rolland and Balay 1969). Twenty-five years later, howev- in 19'0 there were more than 6,000 head of cattle in the er, a land study conducted before construction of the zone during some seasons. The calculations had failed to Bagre dam showed that traditional priests (of the land, the take into account that herds are divisible, with unpre- hunt, and fishing) had in fact never stopped performing dictable patterns of movement. Finally, the administration religious rites on the land that had been considered aban- either was unaware of the indigenous people's land rights doned. Although they no longer lived on the river banks, (some of these people are agropastoralists) or denied which had reverted to forest, they claimed control over their existence. the land (Faure 1991). Ten years later, these results could be observed in the Two case studies-the first conducted near the Ghana- zone: natural resources had been systematically CUJtedilvoire border, the second on the Mossi Plateau- destroyed, and the land had been stripped. Trees had show the impact that the AVV settlement has had on land been cut for wood and coal to sell in Ouagadougou, and occupation and natural resource management. for branches to feed animals at the end of the dry season. UP10A/1 Po-Est The inhabitants lacked any sense of responsibility for the resources, and soil maintenance was nonexistent. Besides (BougouribaDjipologho)Province, the flagrant destruction of resources,there was competi- In Bougouriba, the AVV settled migrants on cleared tion among factions of herders vying for control of the land (referred to as V1) that covered two territories: local store (containing salt, agroindustrial goods, salt, and

44 Table1 The Gadeghinpastoral zone underthe AW and underthe ONAT

Key features of AVV management (1980s) Key features of ONAT management (1990s)

* Indigenous farmers chased out by force of arms a Ongoing consideration of the essential symbiotic * Smallpastoral area (6,000hectares) relationship between farming and animal hus- * Strict arrangement of zone borders bandry (notablyfor access to wells) * Group effortsundertaken to link indigenous • Maximumnumber of cattle estimated at 2,500; agro-pastoralistsresiding in neighboringvillages actual number in 1990exceeds 6,000 and pastoralistssettled by the AVV * Failure to account for "fertilitytransfers" * Anti-erosion and forestryactivities undertaken (manure contracts, crop residues) to repair degraded land * Unawareness of host population's land rights a Pastoralists restrict night grazing to avoid destroying the trees The results The results * Land degradation (due to harvesting of trees for wood and charcoal to sell in Ouagadougou, and * The results remain inconclusive,but a dialogue of branches to feed animals at the end of the dry has begun between hosts and settlers. season) * No communal sense of responsibilityfor the land; no soil maintenance

pharmaceuticalproducts) and of the herders association, the government's announcement that it will introduce the interlocutorwith the outside leaders in a position irrigated farming in Bagre and Kompienga, have moved to grant credit and food aid. on, hoping to benefit from newly developed lands. The The 1990s:New migrants and new policies populations' acceptance of migrants varies. Some traditional leaders who have lost control of the land are Fifteenyears after the creationof AW zones, poor incapable of reacting. crops and the adoption of a domesticland policy (the In Diarkadougouin Bougouriba,fifty indigenous Agrarian and Land ReorganizationAct of 1984)have Pugli familiesremain unaware of the arrivalof 150 Mossi again transformed land occupation in the onchocerciasis- familiesbetween 1991 and 1993.These familiesfollowed freed zones and in Burkina Faso's southem and westem their religiousleader, a sheik belonging to the Tidjan fel- forests,which had been sparselypopulated in the previ- lowship of Ramatoulaye.They grow cotton, a result ous fiftyyears. The govemment has initiated a national of the experiencewith that crop that a number of farmers land management program that offersa new approach to gained while livingin Solenzo, and have progressively integrating new spontaneous migrants. transformedthe forest into cropland. They cultivate a New wavesof "spontaneous'migrants religious-basedsocial solidarity (responsibilityfor the underprivilegedand the sick),and their agriculture-based Ten years after the administrationis officialsettlement economy is well developed, thanks to the labor force that of AW populations, the southem and westem forests of the sheik can muster from severalhundred students of the BurkinaFaso are being relentlessly thinned out. The Koran. But the Mossi familieshave no socialor health causes are varied: migrants have interpreted the revolu- infrastructure (wells,schools, dispensaries)and have tionary declaration that "land belongs to the state" as made no contact with the indigenous people. meaning that "chiefs no longer have control of the land," Elsewhere,the power of traditionalchiefs is such that no and repeated droughts have transformed the migration one daresto settlewithout asking their permission.In Dis- pattems of transhumant cattle, which have moved down sanga in Kenedougou,for example,the indigenouspeople into the southem forests. Other migrants, prompted by controlthe primebottomlands, where they grow bananas

45 and rice,and they forbid "foreigners"to plant trees. They The national land management program continueto practicetheir ritesand to maintain their sacred relationshipwith natural resources.And they benefitfrom t he land anementoprgamiha twoobces: the migantanpwertha prvid, icludng he tudnts to structure the land area and to organize producers, who whemanpomthesier segandtow rorkvine,lfs the are motivated by the potential gains to exercise their right whom the sheiks send to work in the fields. As the forest is destroyed to create new fields for crops, to manage natural resources. to the detriment of land reserves and traditional pastoral In the approach adopted for these land management areas, conflictsflare up between farmers and herders in all projects, the condition of the land is diagnosed in colabo- areas. How should these conflictsbe resolved? ration with the local population, an inventoryof resources The issue of land has become criticalas pattems of and needs is established, a list of priority measures is pro- occupation have been transformned.Some free areas posed, financialneeds are assessed, a village development remain in the southwest (Bougouriba,Poni, Como6, plan or a villagecontract is drawn up, and resource man- K6n6dougou),but elsewhere the concentration of cattle is agement regulationsare established. All of the projects have been accompaniedby concrete achievements: grain cause foreconctarern-fogrexam 0 gleanethae been~dam,to banks have been organized, transport assistance (trucks where 18,000 hectares of grazing land have been lost to and fuel) has been provided for repair of degraded soil, flooding.Should pastoral areas be recreated?If so, on what scale and within which institutional framework? mllUshave been provided for women, and social infra- How are natural resources to be protected? What must structure has been constructed (water supply, schools, host populations do to achieveparticipatory, concerted, dispensaries). and sustainabledevelopment? The concept of "zoning"-dividing up the land accord- The government's answer: decentralizeddemocratic ing to assigned activity-has been highly successfulin management within an officialinstitutional framework cotton-growingareas. In Kimi and Sebedougou,for The Burkinab6leadership quickly became aware of the example, the delineation of zones has made it possible to magnitude of the issue of the migration into free areas in protect cotton crops and to transfer fields from nonfarm- the early days of the revolution.They proposed trying the ing to farming areas. The Peuhl population, with the sup- land management approach in test villages,and subse- port of the forestryservices and the prefect, ensures that quently officiallyadopted the approach in the Agrarian land and pastoral reserves are protected by issuing fines and Land ReorganizationAct of 1991. to offenders (Faure1992). To put the land management approach into practice, The land management program professionalshave the Agrarian and Land Re-organizationAct (paragraph also addressed the issue of transhumant animals. In 107)stipulates that villageland management committees Bougouriba,for example,professionals decided to com- be set up. The act also provides for the granting of land bine different types of know-how and activity.They deeds, which the AVVsettlers had desired. trekked up seasonal trails to meet with veterinarians In 1990, the AVVchanged its name to Office national and to identifythe animals' routes. This strategy makes it possible to inform herders who plan to cross a devel- d'amenagement des tenroirs (ONAT) and adopted a newp policy.Its bureaus began to rely more on indigenous peo- oped area where they may cross without difficulty. ple, who previouslywere excluded.And their approach Conclusion became participatoryand consensus-based: it involved Burkina Faso has yet to achieve an official,decentral- negotiations among social groups, and local villagenames ized, institutional management frameworkat the most replaced registration numbers (Vl, for example,became local level, and the land management approach still needs Djipologho).In the former AVVzones, the indigenous to be diffused throughout the national territory by com- people were encouraged to participate in development peoplevweres(incV4uRapagedama, amongpa e Indvewlo t municating its principlesto professionals,civil servants, activities(in V4Rapadama, among others). In newly and development agents. But the Burkina Faso experience developed areas, GNAT practiced "assisted spontaneous neverthelessshows that it is possible to resolve land settlement" (as in Bouni in Bougouriba,which vacated half its land for new immigrants from Po-Est). issues and natural resource management problemswith a program such as the land management program.

46 BURKINA FASO

LOCATIONOF AW PROJECTS NIGER SITUATIONDES PROJETS AW

NATIONALCAPITAL CAPITALED'ETAT Go,-Go Eg) PROVINCECAPITALS SOUM _ Dr CHEF-LIEU DE PROVINCES ____ PROVINCEBOUNDARIES WoDr r4TCcw LIMITESDE PROVINCES OcA INTERNATIONALBOUNDARIES LIMITESD'ETATS

AV IoOo lo50 I //t yATENGA

ug2 KOMBISRI 1 PRon P AGRE

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tJ Nouna SORE3WBANGA 13 PRE SONDR

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17 MOUHOUN 9LI 0liEdaE-RRALoNTEGE IOGO ,jagDie

58anfora 1l[ttLmI~~~~~~5U P ZOUGHOUR 15 flROJET LAENFIR

5 f 7 \t 1l l lbTlTm ~~~~6UP PFARA POURA 16 flROJETREBOIS KOMBISSIRI

O {_ _ / \ l ~~~~~~~~~~~~~7 U.PPONI 17 flROJETVOLTA NOIRE KOSSI U.PKOMPIENGA Bso R aosI _dougou KodAug ZorghR D PJ thBLm oOnt mpIIopontep

PROJECTSPECIFIQUE\s s lo U D BANE C< O T E D'I V O I R E ro'ories0 G('52 3 ENGA References Hervouet, J.P. 1978. "Development of the Volta Val- leys: An HistoricalAccident.' Cahiers ORSTOM(Social Club du Sahel. OECD (Organizationfor Economic Sciences Series) 11(1).81-97. Cooperationand Development),and CILSS(Comite Ouedraogo H. A. Faure R.-R Compao and M inter-etat pour la lutte contre la secheresseau Sahel) 1994. Ouedraogo'1 ., AEight'Case Skths of andand 'Regional Synthesis of Land, Decentralizationand Natural Decraon in Brina Faso chesS of intern ResourceManagement in the Sahel.'"2 vols.Paris. Decentralzation in BurkinaFaso.P CILSS (Comiteinter- Faure, A. 1991. 'Socio-ethnological Study of the Land stat pour la lutte contre la stheresse au Sahel), PNGT Area of the Bagni Zone." CFDand ONAT (Officenational (Programmenational de gestion des terroirs), and Club d'amenagement des terroirs). Ouagadougou. du Sahel, Ouagadougou and Paris. da e des2.teuralrPoirs).pulagaougofBurk Faso, Per- Rolland,R., and G. Balay1969. "Onchocerciasisin the 1992.onofthe"Rural Populagemetionsrof nac o Pler BissaFoyer." World Health Organization, Onchocerciasis ception of the 'Land Management'Approach: Eleven Control Programme in the VoltaBasin Region. Case Studies.' PNGT (Programme national de gestion Progoln des terroirs), and CCCE,Ouagadougou and Paris. Ouagadougou.

48 Discussion the problems. This is not only a state issue. Local populations must participate. Even with democracy there will be Land tenure conflicts, but these are to be expected. Changing land tenure is a dynamic process, with trial and error. We need to The discussions on land tenure centered on how to have roots in a set of legal texts to give a frame of reference reconcile custpmary systems with national development to the process. In our country, the farmers know the rural objectives. Gender issues-such as women's uncertain code and it has been accepted by everyone concemed." rights to land-the question of access to land by youth, "Land tenure is behind many of the problems being and the importance of credit were problems mentioned discussed here, including the environment and natural frequently in the discussion. resource management. Natural resources belong to the There was general agreement that customary tenure national heritage, and all people should have equal rights systems needed to be considered in any revision to to them. We still have some problems regarding women national land tenure codes. However, it was also agreed and rights to natural resources. In our country, land that customary systems were not, by themselves, appro- tenure is either through traditional rights or written law. priate for rapidly changing situations The rural code says that land tenure commissions should Comments be established. The government will be in charge to ensure that implementation is correct, and the commis- "Countries need a proper rural land tenure code to sions will have representatives from the traditional give a framework for cohabitation by farmers, pastoralists, authorities, farmers, women, and young farmers. The and settlers. There should be a master plan for the commissions will be in charge of follow-up and ensuring onchocerciasis-freed areas, some areas should be com- that rights are complied with. Political will is the driving pletely protected from cutting trees, and some should force behind the commissions." be identified as grazing land." "We are not sure that traditional tenure systems should "Land tenure is a troublesome issue all over the world, be taken as the base for establishing a national tenure sys- not just in our countries. If you look at land tenure only tem because they may be too restrictive, but traditional from its intemal dynamic or only from an income genera- systems must be taken into account somehow." tion perspective, then you are missing the point. The "We should be careful how we make changes in the dynamic nature of land tenure systems must be viewed tenure systems. We do not want to kill one monster only from the perspective of the overall economy. In Africa, the to create a worse one. People in the cities respond quickly formal urban economy is not well integrated with the rur- to changes and rural people respond more slowly, placing al economy. We must see how rural markets fit into the them at a disadvantage. People in the onchocerciasis national economy before discussing tenure systems. We areas must be involved in changes to the tenure system." need to look at several issues at once. Social conflicts "We must make customary tenure the starting point for around land tenure are inevitable. Tradition constantly changes in tenure, but there must be provision for situa- evolves. Look at the traditional chiefdom systems in tions where the specific location may not respond to tradi- Africa; nothing is jelled. This means that a generalized tional rights. Our government controls land near large guiding principle for all situations could completely warp dams to prevent damage to them. It cannot give back cus- the issue." tomary rights in this situation. The government should "Since independence, we have focused on supporting play a facilitating rather than a coercive role. It must high- small farmers. With the introduction of structural adjust- light the need for old and new settlers to cooperate. There ment we have had to think more about commercial agri- must be a process of public education to explain the culture, thereby putting more pressure on the land. Large potential benefits and problems. Without this, the old set- land grants have been made from the center. The people tlers may be unwilling to cooperate. In the end, the terms given the grants have cleared the land with bulldozers of acquisition of the land must be such as to provide and started growing crops, pushing the local people back incentives for developing the land over the long-term into the forest. These people have retaliated by buming rather than mining it. The social pattems of the new and the crops. The customary land tenure system works well old settlers must be considered because these affect land and people consult each other on land use. However, if tenure arrangements. Even so, there will always be some decisions are made from the cities, then there is trouble. conflict, so locally based conflict resolution systems must Any change in land distribution must take into considera- be in place. We have established a system of local courts tion the reasoning systems of the farmers." without lawyers where the choice of who sits on the courts "Land tenure needs to be tackled in the context of over- is up to the local people. The rigidities of the traditional all development. There needs to be the political will to solve legal system work against conflict resolution, and while

49 decisionsmay be made, the people are not reconciled." in my country.We must keep in mind the positive values "Do these models apply in areas that were once set- in our society. Claimingrights for women does not mean tled, then abandoned, and then resettled? Should we we want to become Westem. We do not want alien val- impose our own ideas or put our heads together with ues. Rural women are exhausted from work and ask those who left on how to manage these areas? We do not their husbands to take another wife because they want want to repeat experiments that have failed elsewhere or a coworker." those that have succeeded elsewhere but do not apply to Credit these areas.' "We need a national legal framework that bears in Participantspointed out that legal access to land was mind customary law. We cannot organize the localpopu- irrelevant if people did not have the means to acquire the lations without such a framework.We have been working land, making access to credit an important issue. on land tenure for ten years and there are many complex Comments problems regarding the accessof women and youth." Gender "Accessto credit in rural areas is a trickyissue. Infla- tion is high, and realisticinterest rates are too steep." As in session 2, gender issues surfaced repeatedly in "Land reform has failed in some countries because the discussionson land tenure, particularlythe need to those able to purchase the lan(i were not necessarilythose change customarytenure nrles to provide women with best able to farm it. Credit allocationis crucial,but tradi- more secure access to land and other resources. tional agriculturalcredit funds have not worked." Comments "We used to have centralized credit systems,but now we have a vacuum. There is a need for credit that can be "Can women gain access to land solely through legis- deliveredwhere it is needed. We need different funding lation? If you let a market economy run unchecked, then mechanisms for different types of activities." women will not gain access to land. Current markets, if Youth operated freelyand unfettered, will excludewomen. ' "Women work the land, but do not have rights to the In several countries,customary tenure systems do not land. They are the pillars of the societynevertheless. provide significantaccess to land by the younger genera- Granting women access to land is not enough. They must tion, creating tensions between age groups. This issue was have the wherewithal to work the land. Credit is critical." consideredimportant enough by the participants to merit "Women are a vulnerablegroup. New relationships being added to the guiding principles. are developingbetween women and the economy.We Comments have lost too much time on utopian projects. The status of women must be handled on an ad hoc basis due to the "Half the population in our country is under twenty. vast differencesbetween ethnic groups. Solidaritywithin a Older farmers are blocking the way for younger farmers, household is essential because men and women work who cannot get access to land. Schools are built, and old- together. One cannot clamor for land for women without er farmers prohibit young people from attending." including other resources.Women need literacy and "Accessto land by youth is an important problem, and accessto substantial credit. Smallamounts of credit are many young people are against customary law. Many used for survivaland not investment." young people do not have access to land because the "Conditions for women are very diverse even within elders enjoy their customaryrights and do not pass them one country. In my societywomen inherit everything, to the youth." which is very different from the practice of other groups

50 SESSION4 A* Policyon Administrative Structures and the Provision of Services

The guiding principles strongly recommend adopting a project, and in Ghana, three spontaneous and three gov- policy of assisted spontaneous settlement to minimize ernment-sponsored settlements. The Senegalese paper, government costs and to take advantage of the initiative "The Rehabilitationof Onchocerciasis-ControlledAreas," of spontaneous settlers while maintaining input into the goes on to describe a planned development project in the settlement process (recommendation3). Certain migrato- onchocerciasis-freedarea surrounding the Niokolo Koba ry flowsoccur naturally,but state intervention can con- National Park. The Ghanaian paper, "Administrative tribute to the pace of socioeconomicdevelopment and to Structures and Servicesfor Sustainable Settlement," environmental protection. It is important, therefore, to reviewsthe positive and negative aspects of the two dif- understand how state assistance can enhance and ferent types of settlement and recommends for the future improve the impact of spontaneous migratory flow. a more participatorydevelopment strategy based at the In addition to experiencinga wide variety of settlement district level with an agency to coordinate line ministries types, the OCP countries have used rnany differentinsti- and other development actors. tutional structures to deal with settlement areas. An The paper by Hans Verhoef and Rudi Slooffof the important questioii, to which the answer may be different WHO, "Health Aspects of Settlement in Onc'locerciasis in each country, becomes. 'Who is to be entrusted with Control Programme Areas," considers the need for appro- the task of planning and development in the resettlement priate health policiesfor the new settlemientareas. It dis- areas?" (recommendation5). This session examines the cusses the likely short-term and long-term health risks different types of settlement and differentadministrative associatedwith settlement and outlines the criticalstages structures, as well as the types of servicesthat need to be for incorporating health measures in the settlement made available (recommendations7 and 8). process. Finally,the paper argues that there is a role for Both the Senegaleseand the Ghanaian contributions autonomous development agencies, such as the Volta to this session begin by examiningthe country's past ValleyAuthority (AVV)in BurkinaFaso, in the develop- experiencewith settlement-in Senegal, the Terresneuves ment of the onchocerciasis-freedareas.

51 The Rehabilitationof ulation of 418,000. The area corresponds more or less to Onchocerciasis-Controlled the basins of the Gambia and Falem6 rivers, a setting highly conduciveto the spread of Simuiliumdamnosum, Areas the vector of the disease.This area traditionally covered Ministry of EnvironmentalProtection, Senegal by OCP activities, as well as by resettlement activities under the Senegalese national program, also extends As the Committee of Sponsoring Agencies (CSA) and northward into Matam Department, to control dracuncu- the concemed govemments consider rehabilitation pro- losis and schistosomiasis. grams in the onchocerciasis-controlled areas, they need to Various ethnic groups inhabit the area, including keep in mind that the local population is key to the lasting Peuhl, Bambara, Soce, Koniagui, and Bassari. This diversi- success of resettlement and development activities. Also ty is reflected in the wealth of systems for utilizing the key are the environment and the way in which people area's resources: pastoralism, agriculture, hunting, and interact with it. This paper highlights that interdepen- clearing land. Nearly all the production systems assume dence between people and the environment in the con- continued abundance of natural resources and availability text of initiatives that have already been taken and of land, but that assumption has been called into question potential initiatives targeting areas in Senegal where since the 1970s by the development of cotton production, onchocerciasis has been controlled. which has led to a dramatic increase in cultivated land. The area affected by onchocerciasis includes the Nioko- Physicaland socialcontext lo Koba National Park (Parcnational du NiokoloKoba, or Senegal has participated in the westward expansion PNNK), which was established in 1926, expanded in 1954 of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa and 1969, and placed on the UNESCO list of the world's since 1986. The part of Senegal affected by onchocerciasis biosphere reserves in 1981. The park covers 913,000 covers 40,000 square kilometers stretching across the hectares and has no human settlements. To provide better Tambacounda Region and the Bonconto District in V6lin- protection for wildlife, a corridor was established around gara Department (Kolda Region, see map) and has a pop- the park to prevent human intnusion. Nevertheless, the

Box 1 Experienceof the New LandsCorporation

A useful case for reviewing the Senegalese experience in settling undeveloped and slightly developed areas is that of eastem Senegal, where new lands were settled during the 1960s in a major program implemented with support from the World Bank. The program had two basic objectives: * To relieve the congestion in the groundnut basin by settling sparsely populated lands in the Tambacounda region * To organize the rational agricultural development of eastern Senegal by promoting new crops and fanming techniques that modem farmers would adopt. The program succeeded in creating a synergy between the need for arable land by farmers in the groundnut basin and the imperatives of agricultural development, as seen by agronomic studies by such centers as the SEMA in Boulel and the Centre national de recherche agricole in Bambey. The program's activities were conducted primarily in a pilot area centered on the districts of Koumpentoum, Koussanar, and Makacolibantang, under the direction of the New Lands Corporation (Societe des terres neuves, or STN, dissolved in 1985) and the Livestock Development and Agricultural Extension Corporation (Societe de developpement de l'e66vageet de vulgarisation agricole).The program focused on: a Developing the pilot area (clearing land, building dirt roads) * Constructing infrastructure (sheds, fenced enclosures, wells) * Carrying out extension activities (organizing migration, community activities, agricultural credit). The results achieved in developing the land and organizing the settlers were judged to be satisfactory. But they also revealed the inherent limits of the farming model originally conceived by the program developers: the settlers tended to revert to the farming systems practiced in their home regions. Thus, in programs designed to develop new land, it is important to take sociocultural characteristics into consideration.

52 PNNK has seen increasinglyaggressive poaching, and its tated as satellite camps. management faces a chronic shortage of resources.This A range of tourist products will be offered to visitors, situation has led the government to seek solutionsbased including: on more effectivelyinvolving the surrounding population * Traditionalpark visits (automobiletours ending in preservingthe balance between people and their envi- at the Simentishelter) ronment, including the park (for a case study on preserv- a Hiking tours in the park and the surrounding ing this balance,see box 1). The planned initiativesare in villagesto introduce tourists to ways of life in total harmony with the frameworkfor rehabilitatingthe the region and to visitmicroprojects on natural onchocerciasis-controlledareas. resource management a Mixedtours including one or more nights 'in the Action proposals for the area around bush" at one of the satellite camps. the NiokoloKoba National Park The ecotourism component will require support from the CSA for severalactivities: Experiencewith resettlement and rehabilitationpro- * Trainingthe localguides and the base camp managers grams has shown that at least three important precondi- * Constructing the base camps, rehabilitatingthe tions must be met for such programs to succeed: satellite camps,and installingnecessary equipment * The initiativemust come from the population (withsuch activitiescarried out whenever possible concemed. by local entrepreneurs) . Natural resources must be utilized efficiently. * Determining and mapping the tourist routes, * The socioeconomicclimate must be favorable. particularlythe hiking loops (a task to be handled All these conditions are met in the PNNK and the by the National Park Directorate,which has excel- surrounding area. The local population has demonstrated lent knowledge of the area, in association with its willingness to participate in some form of land manage- the Center for Ecological Monitoring-Centre de ment and accepted the principle of preservingbiodiversity. suivi ecologique, or CSE-which has software And the ongoing diversification of economic subsectors in for automatic mapping) the Tambacounda region appears to have created a new * Producing a leaflet to promote the ecotourism socioeconomicclimate that is likely to limit activitiesthat product among tour operators through major consume large quantities of land and natural resources. travel agencies. Thus, the planned pilot activitiesfocusing on the local Supportingnatural resource population in the area surrounding the PNNKcan be managemen natives expectedto stimulate and maintain an endogenous development process. In the long term, the goal of such a Efficientutilization of natural resources requires process is to integrate more fully the surrounding popula- rational management based on an appropriate balance tion into the ecologicalsystem composedof the PNNK between their consumption and their production. Ongo- and the immediate area. ing social change and changes expected to occur as The pilot activitieswill focuson developingecotourism, sparsely populated areas are resettled followingthe elimi- supporting natural resource management initiatives,and nation of health risks will necessitate complementary training. measures to preserve the natural resource balance. Developingecotourism The natural resource management component will draw on the experienceacquired in several initiatives The attractiveness of the PNNK area has led to the developed by the National Park Directorate and the local development of tourism (hunting and excursions),a population. It will focus on honey, straw (Andropogon source of foreign currency for the national economy. This gayanus), borassus palms (Borassusaethiopicum), plant component of the pilot activitiesproposes to develop eco- sponges-all resources for which management techniques tourism, a new form of tourism based on the preservation based on traditional practiceshave been fully mastered- of ecosystemsinside the park and in the surrounding and guinea fowl and bamboo (Oxythenantheraabyssini- area. The villagersfrom the rural communities around the ca). The component is expected to encompass the park who have excellentknowledge of the local environ- followingactivities: ment would serve as guides. It will be necessary to train * Improving techniques for collectingguinea fowl the guides to prepare them to provide proper serviceto eggs for stock-raisingpurposes, with the support visitors. The ecotourism activitywill be organized around of university research two base camps, located outside the park and linked to a Conducting bamboo production trials with cuttings former guard posts inside the park, which will be rehabili- and seedlingstaken from bamboo in the park, with

S3 the support of universityand forest research Rehabilitationoutcomes a Progressingfrom gathering plant sponges to Implementation of these components is likely to have producing them after improving the physical both ecologicaland socioeconomicramifications. environment envimroviengtheproucionan makeingofstrw, Ecologicalramifications. The activitiesshould contribute honey,vandsponges,uallohigh-valueeaddedoproducts to the protection of the PNNK and the surrounding area honey,t spongesa at soght afteri rope, in severalways, including increasingthe human presence, Plant s eimprovingthe local population's awareness of the impor- and the straw (Andropogon gayanus), practicaly tance of environmental protection, and creatingbuffer nonexistent elsewhere, is used as a fencing and roofxingsmteriael,ewhere,is used as afencingandzones in which natural resourceswould be rationally Theref marotherial.roctacd bbyl e managed for the benefit of the localpopulation. In addi- There are other resources that could probablyalso be developedonce an inventoryis conductedto determine tion, the irmprovedtechniques for managing and utilizing resources, including those of the park, would help restore their potential.These include Sterculiasetigera, which th 'ainlevrnet provides a gum used in pharmaceuticalproducts; "Ven" the national environment. wood (Pterocarpuserinaceus); and medicinalplants for which demand has intensifiedas the price of industrially vide new impetus for endogenous development,based on: . . ~~~~~~~~~~~~*The creation of a tourist attraction in the areas produced medicineshas increased.The inventorycould be around th a camps and,as as the drect conductedjointly by the CSEand the Institute of Environ- and indirect crat ndn s jbsu mental Sciences(Institut des sciences de 1environnement). and indirect creation of numerous jobs * The creation of a focal point for local development Providingtraining and literacy education based on natural resource management To ensure the success of the first components, it is *The diversificationof activitiesfor generating new important to develop a training strategy for the local pop- and supplementalincome ulation. The ability to write in local languages or French l The creaton of local capacityto manage touism and would give the population increased confidenceto face natural resources. the new challenges stemming from the greater access to Conclusion their region. The training and literacy component could includeinclude. theth followingfolwn activities: .ciiis Revitalizing the onchocerciasis-controlled areas is .Training for local guides and trackers, emphasizing a priority for the govemment of Senegal.The national French language courses,knowledge of the physical strategies pursued for this purpose focus on the local environment and wildlife,communications, and people and seek to exploit natural resources while telecommunications(radiotelegrap 'y) strengthening the equilibriumof the ecosystems.The aTraining for the base camp managers, focusing expectedresults wlll form the foundation for participatory, on inventory control, managing working capital, endogenous, self-sustainingdevelopment. The project iwelcomngclients, and personnel conceivedfor the PNINKand the surrounding area serves anagementi as a useful example for similar projects in other onchocer- * Effortsto improve the population's functional ciasis-controlledareas by demonstrating the potential to .teracycooperationwithnongcreate conducte. a frameworkconducive to rehabilitation. It is thus mentalliteacy, organizations organductedin incooeareatind the area andwthe thenongtovte- Directorate imperative that resources be made availablefor this proof LiteracyEducation. ject-to satisfythe legitimate aspirations of the population developingland long mnarginalizedby onchocerciasis.

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~~~~~~~~IE - GU~~~~~~IOE URBELGI8 AdministrativeStructures farms should be established to demonstrate the potential and Servicesfor Sustainable of mechanized farming. The government established the Gonja Development Company in 1951 to implement its Seftlement proposed policy strategy. It launched the company in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Ghana thinly populated Damongo area in northern Ghana and assigned it the task of experimenting with mechanized Settlement and resettlement schemes arise for diverse farming and the use of fertilizers in the Gonja District to reasons. There might be a need to put inhabited land to increase the area's food production. use for new development purposes. There might be a A major part of this project was to initiate a pilot pro- need to reorganize agriculture to permit the introduction gram to resettle on the underutilized lands of the Damon- of more advanced technology, farm planning, crop rota- go Frafra farmers who were experiencing overcrowding in tion, or land consolidation. Or there might be a need to their own districts. It was originally planned to move resettle people in their original homes, deserted because some 80,000 people from the overcrowded areas near the of a plague such as onchocerciasis. Ghana has settlement then Zuarungu District. and resettlement experiences corresponding to all three The government was to provide the physical and social situations. infrastructure services the settlement communities need- Settlement schemes are of three main types: spon- ed, such as housing, water, and schools. Each family was sored, assisted, or spontaneous. Ghana has experienced to receive about 12 hectares for cash and subsistence crop all these types of settlement. This paper discusses three production. The company was to plan all the operations sponsored settlement schemes and three assisted sponta- of cultivation, from clearing land to harvesting settlers neous schemes. were to carry out weeding. The output was to be shared Most settlement programs succeed or fail depending by the company and the farmers at a ratio of 2:1. on the type of structures put in place to provide services to These arrangements left the settlers with little involve- the settlers. This paper examines the administratve struc- ment in planning and implementation and almost entirely tures that have been used and the kinds of services that dependent on the company. The scheme failed to sustain have been provided in settlement programs in Ghana, their interest, and many returned to their home areas. and highlights reasons for the success or failure of these The company later revised the administrative structure programs to provide insights for better planning, of reset- to give the settlers greater say in planning and decision- tlement schemes for the onchocerciasis-freed areas. making. But the company continued to meet with techni- Sponsored settlement schemes cal, social, and economic problems. Some of the machinery and equipment imported for the project was unsuit- The three resettlement schemes described in this sec- able for local conditions. Constant breakdowns coupled tion are examples of "forced" or involuntary resettlement, with scant supplies of parts and skilled manpower ren- usually initiated by state authorities as ancillary to major dered management operations ineffective. Consequently, projects, such as dam construction. In the resettlement the company was liquidated in 1958, after settling only process, the planners work to protect the lives, culture, about 400 farming families. and productive systems of those who are resettled and to A major social factor in the failure was the difficulty of restore their lost livelihoods. integrating the Frafra into local Damongo communities. A Anything compulsory is usually distasteful, and forced second was the insistence of the Gonja that Gonja chiefs resettlement is more traumatic than generally expected. be appointed over the resettled Frafras. A third factor was Long-established residential communities disintegrate; the government's provision, through the company, of vir- informal social networks that provide life-sustaining tually all social amenities and all production inputs, which mutual help are rendered nonfunctional. Joblessness, led the settler families to become overly dependent on landlessness, homelessness, marginalization, and food the company. insecurity develop. Many sponsored involuntary resettle- The Volta River settlement scheme ment ventures have failed because of weaknesses in administrative structures and services. The Volta River settlement scheme, another sponsored The Gonja resettlement, resulted from the govemment's decision to construct a dam for hydroelectric power generation to meet During the years before and after independence, the domestic energy needs, to support bauxite exploration, and govemment felt that simply improving on the traditional to accelerate industrialization. The dam created the largest system of agricultural production was not enough to man-made lake in the world and necessitated the resettle- develop and modernize the sector. Instead, large-scale ment of 80,000 people displaced from 739 villages.

56 The stated govemment policy was to ensure that none arrangements, the affinity of ethnic groups, and economic of the displaced people were worse off as the result of the and production systems. construction of the dam, a goal given legal backing in the The scheme provided optimum support services, such Volta River Development Act. The Volta River Authority as health care, water, toilets, electricity, and roads. It con- (VRA) was set up and charged with developing the structed landing stages at the water's edge in every village hydroelectric power and resettling the affected people. to minimize direct exposure to the shallow water of the About 80 percent of the target people were crop farmers, lake and thus the risk of contracting waterbome diseases and 20 percent were fishermen and livestock farmers. such as bilharzia and guinea worm. And in contrast with It was recognized that productivity in the original the Volta River resettlement scheme, which had empha- farming communities had been low because farms were sized large-scale farm holdings and mechanization, the too small, genetic stock and livestock were poor, hus- Kpong resettlement scheme emphasized developing bandry practices were ineffective, and agricultural credit improved farming techniques for small farmers, maintain- was lacking. The govemment, through the resettlement ing traditional pattems where appropriate, with the Min- authority, had to provide services needed to overcome istry of Agriculture providing effective extension services these bottlenecks and decided to treat the VRA settlement to help the farmers fend for themselves on a more sus- scheme as an exercise to promote increased agricultural tainable basis. productivity.The strategy included large-scale farming Voluntarysettlement schemes using modem methods and machinery; the introduction of a cooperative scheme in which farmers cooperatives The poor results of many sponsored, involuntary reset- would have easy access to credit, machinery, and other tlement schemes have led to a tendency to favor sponta- inputs and each farmer would have a minimum of 12 neous, voluntary resettlement supported by governments hectares under mechanized farming; and the develop- or by nongovemmental agencies. ment of settlement townships. The scheme constructed Voluntaryunassisted settlements 13,000 houses in 52 settlement townships, 82 school intary unas blocks, 46 new marketplaces,146 toilets, and 62 bore in the forestareas holes and wells. Spontaneous, voluntary, unassisted settlements devel- Despite its ambitious plan, the resettlement scheme oped in the forest areas of Ghana beginning in the late failed. Lacking an efficient administrative structure with 1880s. In this settlement process, large numbers of farm- sufficient manpower, equipment, and financial resources, ers from Akwapim, Krobo, Shai, and Ga, for example, as well as the necessary support services, the scheme bought or leased virgin forestland to develop cocoa farms ultimately was unsustainable. in the cocoa areas of the Eastem, Ashanti, and Westem regions. As a result of the efforts of these settlers, Ghana

Kogy°became lciPoere tro the world's leading cocoa producer. I would The Kpong resettlement scheme became necessary therefore agree with Polly Hill (1963), who described this when Ghana began to develop a second hydroelectric pro- type of settlement process as "forward-looking, provident, ject, at Kpong, some 25 kilometers downstream of the prudential, the opposite from hand-to-mouth." In these Akosombo dam. The 9,000-acre head pond created by the settlement areas, little friction developed between the dam submerged six main settlement areas of nearly 7,000 host and settler families. The settlers acted as their own people. Unlike the Volta project, the Kpong hydro project administrators and provided many of their own services included resettlement as a major component from the very while also taking advantage of the community services beginning, resulting in different administrative structures. provided by the govemment. In addition to maintaining The Resettlement Division of the Volta River Authority their new homes, the settlers built houses in their home was charged with coordinating the resettlement program, towns, where they return during festivals. and various aspects of implementation were assigned to other state agencies. Drawing on its experience with the earlier failed settlement programs, the govemment Although the southem sector of the country holds little planned and executed the Kpong scheme, taking into attraction for human settlement, part of the northem account the social, cultural, and economic backgrounds savanna sector has vast fertile valleys that have been lib- and requirements of both the settlers and the host popu- erated from the scourge of river blindness, thanks to the lation. The scheme established six settlement townships Onchocerciasis Control Programme and the donor com- for the 6,700 people-from five ethnic groups-affected munity that has supported its efforts. A number of irriga- by the flooding, taking into consideration such factors as tion projects have been developed to utilize these valleys. the acceptability to the prospective settlers of land tenure One such project, the Tono irrigation project, was started

57 in 1975 and completed about ten years later. a To prepare a timetable for the construction of The project constructed a dam across the Tono River, infrastructure and the settlement of migrants in and developed 2,500 of the 3,860 hectares in the project the target area area for irrigation. These activities disrupted the lives of * To provide a database to support planning for people in eight villages in the Kassena-Nakani and improved human settlement in the area. Sandema District Council areas. The project offered the In implementing these objectives, the project produced affected compounds and households assistance in a number of reports, including soil and water resource regrouping and in rebuilding their villages on the periph- studies by the Soil Research Institute and Water Resources ery of the project area. By 1990, eight settlements with a Research Institute of the Council for Scientific and Indus- total of 2,900 small-scale farmers had registered to partici- trial Research (CSIR) and socioeconomic studies. This pate in the scheme. Two hundred commercial farmers also project was ended in 1987. have benefited from the project. Through its public investment program, the govem- To manage this planned but voluntary resettlement ment has provided and continues to provide physical and project, the Irrigation Company of Upper Region (ICOUR) social amenities for improved living conditions. For exam- was set up as a subsidiary of the Irrigation Development ple, between 1991 and 1993, it spent nearly 3.5 billion Authority. ICOLJR provides technical advice and inputs to cedis ($8.75 million) to construct roads, two bridges, and farmers, including credit, irrigation water, tractor services, three health facilities in the Fumbisi valleys. In 1994, it and agricultural marketing services. The farmers raise such planned to provide potable water in eleven villages in crops as tomatoes, onions, millet, sorghum, groundnuts, the pilot area at an estimated cost of 66 million cedis maize, rice, and soybeans. Fish ponds have also been ($72,000). It is also considering construction of a third developed and leased to private farmers. bridge to open up the "overseas" area to the rest of Fumbisi resettlement project the country. Because of its experience, the government had no inter- With the successful control of onchocerciasis in the est in creating an autonomous management structure to entire northern sector of Ghana, there has been sponta- oversee the voluntary resettlement in the onchocerciasis neous, voluntary movement of people from the overpopu- areas. An autonomous management structure can be effec- lated, infertile upland areas to the more fertile river tive if it has adequate financing, personnel, technical valleys-most noticeably the Fumbisi Soo triangle and the capacity, and operational links with government technical Chiana-Paga and Nangodi-Tilli areas. The government of services. But because such structures are top-down and Ghana realized that this voluntary settlement process often reluctant to hand over responsibilities to line min- could lead to rapid population growth and that, if care istries and local organizations at the appropriate time, they was not taken to introduce sustainable production sys- are not suitable for a sustainable resettlement scheme. tems, the natural resources could be mismanaged, with Instead, the government envisages a decentralized such long-term effects as declining productivity and envi- administrative structure and a participatory development ronmental degradation. It saw that it needed to provide strategy. The new policy of decentralization is embodied assistance to direct and ensure more sustainable settle- in PNDC Law 207, which establishes district assemblies. ment and production systems that take into consideration Each district assembly is responsible for the overall devel- sociocultural, ecological, and economic conditions. It pro- opment of its district, for formulating programs and posed to provide essential social and economic infrastruc- strategies for the effective mobilization and utilization of ture, such as roads, bridges, water, health services, credit, the district's human, physical, financial, and other and agricultural extension services, to attract settlers to the resources, for promoting and supporting productive activ- fertile valleys. ities and social development in the district, and for remov- In 1985, the government selected a site in the Fumbisi ing obstacles to initiative and development. Each Valley for a pilot planning project, supported by the assembly is also responsible for the development, UNDP and the FAO, to "assist" the spontaneous volun- improvement, and management of human settlements tary settlement in the area. The planners had selected the and the environment in the district. area for its high soil fertility and low population density, With as many as twenty-six districts in the onchocerci- using TAMS Satellite Imageries. asis-freed area of Ghana, a strong coordinating agency is The immediate objectives of the pilot project, as spelled needed to perform liaison with all line ministries and gov- out by the UNDP project document, include the following ernmental and nongovernmental development agencies v To define strategies for the settlement and economic right from the planning stages. The National Onchocerci- development of the project area to accommodate asis Secretariat, under the Ministry of Finance and Eco- continuing spontaneous migration nomic Planning, has served as coordinator of the pilot

58 Fumbisi project, which has involved a wide range of min- conditions, including land tenure arrangements and other istries (Food and Agriculture, Health, Education, Roads cultural and customary practices, and from their help in and Highways, Social Welfare and Community Develop- averting the ethnic conflicts and litigation that can hamper ment) and the district assemblies in planning and imple- sustainable land settlernent. mentation. In support of the National Onchocerciasis Refe Secretariat, district and village onchocerciasis committees rences have been set up as grass-roots planning units. These Hill, Polly 1963. The Migrant Cocoa Farmersof Southern committees were established to ensure that the project Ghana. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. benefits from the people's superior knowledge of local

59 HealthAspects of Settlement We therefore make a tentative and preliminary attempt inOnchocerciasis Control to estimate the population that could eventually be Onchocerciasisin Control exposed to health risks in the newly opened OCP areas ProgrammeAreas (see annex A). We estimate that 25 million additional Hans Verhoef and Rudi Slooff, World Health Organization hectares of land would lead to a 15 percent increase in the area available for agriculture in the OCP countries (or an 8 One of the primary justifications for the Onchocerciasis percent increase in the available area in West Africa) and Control Programme in West Africa has been the consider- that the number of people on this land may eventually able potential for development of fertile river valleys- reach 13 percent of the rural population of the OCP coun- once freed of onchocerciasis-for human settlement. Due tries (or 6 percent of the rural West African population). to the extraordinary success of the program, The relatively fertile land in the OCP area will likely sus- an estimated 25 million hectares of tillable land are being tain a higher population density than land elsewhere in opened up, and rapid migration to this land is already rural West Africa, however, and these estimates should occurring (McMillan, Painter, and Scudder 1993). therefore be considered conservative. These changes undoubtedly will have profound effects In the short term, during the settlement phase, the health on the environment and on the health of the settlers. The risks will be determined largely by human migration [Table movement from upland areas to the more productive low- A ]. Population movement and subsequent settlement in land valleys, for example, can be expected to contribute to rural areas are usually accompanied by the introduction of improved nutrition in the long term. But human migration new diseases and an intensification of communicable dis- and habitation of lowland valleys also are known to create eases and health problems related to physical stress major health risks. In addition to the humanitarian con- (fatigue, malnutrition) and psychological stress (problems cerns we have about the effect of development on health, of adjustment). The morbidity and mortality from vector- it is also important to consider the effect of health on bome diseases will be determined by the enhanced risks of development. People debilitated by disease produce less, transmission and, in the case of malaria, by the spread of with obvious consequences for their economic status. drug-resistant strains of parasites. Moreover, health initiatives needed to maintain health at Health services will need strengthening to deal with an acceptable level use funds that could otherwise go to this new situation. Particular attention should be given to supporting socioeconomic development. safeguarding the health of vulnerable groups during the This paper considers the need and the possibilities for settlement phase, and to groups whose mobility forms a incorporating health policies and strategies into the broad- health risk to themselves or to others. Identifying these er context of development of the newly opened OCP areas. groups requires detailed information about mobility pat- We are unable to address here the manv health problems tems, particularly for women and children (who often that may be related to new settlement in the OCP area. arrive in a second wave of migration), temporary workers However, we would like to share some lessons leamed in involved in the construction of physical infrastructure, the work of the WHO/FAO/UNEP/UNCHS Panel of migratory agricultural people and laborers, and people Experts on Environmental Management for Vector Con- with less access to health care. trol and to raise issues that we expect to be relevant to In the longer term, during the post-settlement phase, safeguarding health in the settlement of the OCP areas. new settlers from upland areas will face the higher risks Thesize and natureof the healthrisks of vector-borne diseases associatedwith the ecological conditions of river valleys. The water that collects in valley For most health professionals, 25 million hectares of bottoms creates a natural breeding site for many vectors, newly opened land is a meaningless statistic. But compared but health risks are also influenced by development of with the 52 million hectares cultivated in West Africa in water resources, pattems of land use, agricultural prac- 1982 (FAO 1987), it is a significant area. In assessing the tices, and patterns of human behavior. Vector-bome dis- health risks associated with agricultural development, how- ease risks include malaria, schistosomiasis, African ever, surface area has limited value. For example, our recent trypanosomiasis, guinea worm, yellow fever, and, of estimates indicate that rice fields flooded for various pen- course, a new outbreak of onchocerciasis. ods cover only 0.44 percent of the cultivated land in West Africa,yet expose at least 7.2percent of the rural popula- Considerationsfor healthpolicy development tion to the associated risks of vector-borne diseases-in When should health measures be introduced? particular, malaria and schistosomiasis. Knowing what population is at risk helps ministries of health better deter- McMillan, Painter, and Scudder (1993) identified five mine the priority to give to different health problems. stages in the settlement process: planning; initial infra-

60 structure development, recruitment, and installation; also be made in preventive environmental management adaptation; economic and social development; and hand- measures-for example, to control irrigation-associated ing over and incorporation. The planning phase is by far schistosomiasis. the most important stage for incorporating health safe- The health sector is not a productive sector. Govem- guards into development strategies. Many long-term dis- ments should therefore seek to recover the recurrent costs ease risks can be reduced if health is seen as part of of maintaining the disease burden at levels that would have integrated development policies and strategies and if the existed without the settlement. But cost recovery may not safeguarding of health is taken up in the planning of be possible until after the settlement phase, and then at a development projects that will be carried out during the level dictated by settlers' ability to contribute to their own settlement phase. health care. In addition, programs and projects could be The provision of infrastructure in new settlements can required to compensate for the health risks that they create be critical in safeguarding health. The initial capital by reinvesting part of their revenue in health care. investments required can be large, but they can some- Important questions concern the percentage of capital times be justified if they result in long-term health bene- funds that should be allocated for health and the best fits. These benefits may therefore not be visible when investment strategies for using these funds. These ques- projects are evaluated, however. Economic analyses car- tions touch on several issues that health professionals ried out during planning should consider health benefits often raise about the use of economic analvses, which that last beyond the settlement phase. we briefly reiterate here. First, investment priort ies should depend on an economic analysis of the costs and benefits of interven- The Land Settlement Review, commissioned by the tions, rather than on the scale of the disease burden. World Bank to assist governments in formulating opera- Disease eradication programs, for example, would never tional policy guidelines in the OCP area, recommended be sustained until completely successful if the investments assisted spontaneous settlement as a less expensive alter- depended on the number of cases occurring. native to sponsored settlement and a more effective alter- Second, the value of cost-benefit analysis is limited by native to completely spontaneous settlement (McMillan, the methodological and ethical difficulties of estimating Painter, and Scudder 1993). With this level of government health benefits. It is difficult to determine when the bene- involvement, settlers make many of the major decisions, fits of a project should be estimated. In addition, many but government agencies provide essential services (crop health professionals consider it unethical and impractical and livestock extension services, health facilities, credit, to express health benefits in monetary terms. schools, nonformal education) and infrastructure (roads, Third, some measures taken for other purposes may bridges, wells). also have unintended health benefits that can he easily The magnitude and the nature of the health effects of overlooked in a cost-benefit analysis. development are usually difficult to forecast. In particular, Fourth, in assessing the effectiveness of certain mea- communicable diseases, because of the multitude of eco- sures, it is impossible to distinguish between illness that logical, cultural, socioeconomic, and medical factors that is prevented and illness that is cured. Prevention is always determine their epidemiology, commonly show great preferable because it avoids the risk of severe morbidity variability in geographical distribution of cases and in the and death, it reduces the rate of disease transmission, and occurrence of epidemics. We can safely assume, however, it reduces the use of medicines and therefore the selection that settlement in the OCP areas will have considerable pressure on drug-resistant strains of parasites. health effects, and that extra expenditures must be made Finally, inadequate capital investments in disease miti- for disease control. Settlers usually have limited ability to gation measures may lead to a need for additional recur- contribute to health care during the first few years of the rent expenditures to maintain health at an acceptable settlement process. A large share of the extra expenditure level that governments and local institutions must cover during this period must therefore be borne by govern- indefinitely and without support from extemal agencies. ments and the extemal agencies that support them. We recommend that govemments allocate a predeter- Howecangovernment? mined percentage of capital expenditure for development safeguards in development? to the implementation of health policies. How these funds The health sector must meet a number of responsibili- are spent should depend on the relative cost-effectiveness ties to cope with the health risks associated with the set- of different interventions. These investments should not tlement phase. Of primary importance is developing a all end up in the health sector, however; depending on system for disease surveillance (which should include sur- the type of development proposed, investments should veillance of drug-resistance). The data generated by such

61 systems together with data on population distribution settlement. A rational disease control strategy for new set- provide a basis for decisions on actions to be taken-for tlements would therefore develop guidelines and standards example, redistributing health facilities. Possibilities for appropriate for conditions in agro-ecosystems that expose using aerial photography or remote sensing to assist the large agricultural populations to high risk of disease. This health sector in this task should be explored. would require regional studies to characterize and classify Health measures can be incorporated into projects agro-ecosystems and to identify and test disease interven- and policy planning through the use of health impact tions. A multidisciplinary research consortium recently assessment studies. These studies forecast the positive and developed a proposal for such studies in flooded rice sys- negative health effects of projects and recommend mea- tems in West Africa (PEEM Secretariat 1993). sures to mitigate possible negative effects. Because How should govemment be organized? preventive health measures often contribute to environmental conservation efforts, and vice versa, health impact Incorporating health measures into the planning, assessments ideally should be carried out as part of envi- implementation, and operation of development projects ronmental assessments. requires close consultations with the health sector to Despite the potential value of health impact assess- assess possible health effects and opportunities of the ment studies, their use is still limited. Administrative projects, to obtain technical advice on mitigation mea- structures normally do not exist for their use in small pro- sures, and to monitor the health status of the beneficiaries jects, nor would this use be economically realistic. Such and temporary laborers involved in the projects. To enable studies are limited by the technical difficulbes of forecast- the health sector to respond appropriately and in a timely ing morbidity and mortality, particularly for vector-borne manner, it must be involved in project planning from the diseases. The use of these studies and the implementation earliest stages and be able to share resources with other of their recommendations are also limited by institutional sectors. The collaboration required between sectors calls and administrative deficiencies and by a lack of trained for formalized contacts to manage conflicts that may arise scientific and technical staff. in the settlement process. In considering health measures, governments should Experience has shown that the most successful model not consider only the mitigation of negative health for achieving such collaboration is the establishment of impacts. Sometimes the value of projects can be signifi- autonomous or semiautonomous agencies with regional cantly enhanced, and their cost-benefit ratio improved, by development as one of their goals. In the OCP area, this incorporating public health and safety components or by collaboration could be achieved through the full participa- simultaneously carrying out projects that improve the tion of the health sector in an autonomous and integrated local health status. The settiement process should thus be river basin settlement authority, such as the Autorit6 seen as providing health opportunities-that is, govern- d'amenagement des vall6es des Voltas (Volta Valley ments should invest in projects that, when implemented Authority, or AVV) in Burkina Faso. This authority should together, have synergistic effects on health (box 1). have the executive power and the capacity to commission Govemments should give high priority to formulating and to appraise health impact and health opportunity legislation specifying which projects need screening for assessment studies and the means to implement their rec- further health impact and health opportunity assessment. ommendations. And its functions should include funding Much settlement-related development, however, will be and directing a program to develop appropriate health small-scale, without formal govemment involvement. guidelines and standards for development projects. Although health impact assessment is not feasible for Despite the successes achieved with such autonomous individual projects, it can be applied to groups of similar bodies, the Institute for Development Anthropology projects in order to develop appropriate guidelines and (IDA), which prepared the Land Settlement Review, standards for incorporating health safeguards in such pro- rejected them as generally inappropriate for West Africa jects. Community participation in disease control can be (McMillan, Painter, and Scudder 1993). The IDA criticized fostered by transforming such guidelines into model such organizations on several counts: for planning and bylaws that groups could be advised to adopt as part of implementing settlement with little involvement of other their constitution or intemal rules. For example, washing institutions, for resisting handing over managerial func- in irrigation canals or neglecting timely weeding for the tions to line ministries and local organizations, and for control of snails, the intermediate hosts of schistosomia- being costly. Moreover, because of the agencies' tendency sis, could be made punishable by a fine. Village councils to be centralized and hierarchical, the IDA considered could also be advised to adopt such rules (Tiffen 1991). them unsuitable for the participatory and diversified Vector-bome diseases associated with agricultural assisted spontaneous settlement advocated in the Land development constitute the main long-term health risks of Settlement Review. As an altemative, the IDA proposed

62 Box 1 Environmentalimpact, health impact and healthopportunity assessment: An example

Consider the imaginary example of an irrigated rice scheme being planned along a river in West Africa. Environ- mental assessment and health impact assessment studies will be carried out as part of the preparation of the project. What would be the advantages of appraising an environmental assessment of such a project together with a health impact assessment? How would the recommendations of a health opportunity assessment differ from those of a health impact assessment? Irrigation without proper drainage can eventually lead to lower crop yields because of soil salinization. Sup- pose that the environmental assessment study, based on a review of the preliminary plans for the irrigation system, identifies soil salinization as an environmental risk and recommends improvements to the planned drainage system to prevent this problem. Irrigation in West Africa is often associated with schistosomiasis and possibly with malaria. Irrigation-associated schistosomiasis is related primarily to transmission in the irrigation and drainage system (PEEM Secretariat 1993). The vast majoritv of the malaria mosquitoes breed in the irrigated fields; mosquito breeding in the irrigation system is generally insignificant. Suppose, therefore, that the health impact assessment study predicts that the project would increase the risk of malaria and schistosomiasis. As a preventive measure against malaria, the health impact assessment study could propose a project design that would allow for alternate wetting and drying of fields. Studies in China and India have shown that, compared with permanent flooding as traditionally practiced, this water management practice can drastically reduce mosquito breeding while possibly saving water and maintaining rice yields. The health impact assessment study could also propose improvements to the planned drainage system and recommend a pump irrigation system rather than a gravity irrigation system (the resulting capability to lift water would permit flooding of fields as long as there is water in the river). Improving the design of the drainage system may not be considered cost-effective when the environmental and health benefits are appraised separately. Rather than evaluating the recommendations of the environmental and health impact assessment studies separately, it is better to first consolidate them and then submit the results for economic analysis. Analyzing the benefits of the recommended measures for environmental conservation and health together increases the chances that the measures will be included in the final project design. The same health impact assessment study may also recommend health education, selective mollusciciding and the provision of safe drinking water supply systems to reduce the transmission of schistosomiasis resulting from irrigation. Health impact assessment is concerned with measures only insofar as they mitigate negative health effects caused by a project. In our example, an economic analysis will compare the costs of the provision of drinking water with the benefit of reducing the transmission of schistosomiasis. A health opportunity assessment also takes into consideration that recommended measures may have other health effects or that they may have socioeconomic effects that do not fall within the immediate objectives of the project. In our example, the provision of drinking water supplies would have a greater chance of being incorporated in the project if, for example, in addition to reducing the transmission of schistosomiasis, it was shown to contribute to the control of diarrhea or guinea worm disease or to local economic activity and growth.

that a range of govemment agencies work together all. Nor will the health problems of settlement be ade- with heterogeneous communities and nongovemmental quately addressed through the participation of local insti- organizations. tutions, as proposed by the Land Settlement Review. Although most of these concems about a structure Thus, despite their apparent disadvantages, authorities based on an autonomous agency are valid, the Land Set- such as the AWVshould not be rejected out of hand. tlement Review does not indicate how intersectoral collab- Instead, their role should be redefined to complement the oration would be adequately fostered under the altemative arrangements proposed by the Land Settlement Review. arrangements it proposes. Problems of inadequate man- Experimentation is needed to find a suitable fonnula, and agement will not be solved by having no management at this can draw on the lessons leamed through the experi-

63 ence of the AW. showed (McMillan,Painter, and Scudder 1993).Finally, We recommend that nongovemmental organizations mechanisms should be provided to ensure that authorities and local interest groups be allowed greater representa- can function more flexiblyand that they hand over their tion in these authorities, and that the authorities be given responsibilitiesafter a specifiedperiod of operation. The a greater say about their goals and operation so that they goal of such authorities, after all, should be a finite one- can better respond to the needs of local institutions. Some to assist local populations in the settlement process and in decentralization of authorities at variouslevels may be overcomingthe potentially negative effects of settlement. advantageous, as the reorganization of the AW in 1982

64 ANNEXA: In the hypothetical case that the agricultural population of Ruralpopulation density in West the OCP countries (55,881,000people) is evenly redistrib- Africabefore and after the uted over these 193 million hectares of land, the popula- AfnichobefrcasndContero Program tion density would be 29 people per hectare of available Onchocerciasis Control Programme land, and the newly available 25 million hectares would In 1991, about 168 million hectares of land were available sustain 7.25 million people, equivalent to 13 percent of for agriculture in the OCP countries (table A). The addi- the population of the OCP countries, or 6 percent of the tional 25 million hectares opened up by the OCP will rural West African population in 1991 (132 million). increase this area by 15 percent, to 193 million hectares.

TableA Estimatedrural population density in West Africain 1991 and afterthe Onchocerciasis ControlProgramme

Nonaicultural Land available Total land area rand for agriculture Agricultural Ruralpopulation (thousands (thousandsb (thousands populationd density e Country of hectares)" of hectares) of hectares) (thousands) (people/krA)L OCP countries Benin 11,062 5,330 5,732 2,882 50.3 Burkina Faso 27,380 7,277 20,103 7,782 38.7 C6te d'lvoire 31,800 8,031 23,769 6,805 28.6 Ghana 22,754 7,024 15,730 7,677 48.8 Guinea 24,586 3,186 21,400 4,357 20.4 Guinea-Bissau 2,812 322 2,490 772 31.0 Mali 122,019 82,996 39,023 7,635 19.6 Niger 126,670 112,245 14,425 6,935 48.1 Senegal 19,253 3,303 15,950 5,891 36.9 Sierra Leone 7,162 2,272 4,890 2,622 53.6 Togo 5,439 1,390 4,049 2,523 62.3 Subtotal 400,937 233,376 167,561 55,881 33.3 After the OCP 192,561 55,881 29.0 Other countries Gambia 1,000 580 420 713 169.8 Liberia 9,675 1,882 7,793 1,846 23.7 Mauritania 102,522 58,647 43,875 1,333 3.0 Nigeria 91,077 7,142 83,935 72,217 86.0 Subtotal 204,274 68,251 136,023 76,109 56.0 Total 605,211 301,627 303,584 131,990 43.5

a Excluding area under inland bodies of water (major rivers, lakes). b Includes areas that have been built on, roads, settlements, barren land (desert). c Includes arable land (land under temporary crops, temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens, and landfallowfor less thanfive years), land under permanent crops (cocoa,rubber, coffee,shrubs, fruit and nut trees, vines), permanent meadows and pastures (usedfive years or morefor herbaceousforage crops,either cultivated or wild), forest and woodland (whether productive or not, includingforestland that has been cleared but will be reforestedin theforeseeablefuture).Calculated by subtracting nonagricultural landfrom total land area. d All persons dependingfor their livelihood on agriculture-that is, all those actively engaged in agriculture and their nonworking dependents. e Agricultural population per square kilometer of land availablefor agriculture. Source: FAO 1993.

65 ANNEXB

TableB Criticalphases for safeguardinghealth during the projectcycle Projectphase Majoractivities Crucialdecisions Recommendedactions Remarks Identification Identificationof Whethersite under Preliminaryscreening: check with health sector Screening:rapid, broad possibleprojects considerationwill be on whetherhealth problems are likely;decide assessmentto identify furtherinvestigated whetheran envrronr nent?7i;sessnent (including health risks,based on healthimpact assessment) will be doneas part of immediatelyavailable the prefeasibilitystudy. information. Formulation Commissioningof Termsof refetenceshould specify, among others, Routinemechanism for of termsof prefeasibilitystudy; that accountshould be takenof: intersectoralplanning reference(TORs) decisionsbv consulting a Eealth conditionsin projectarea shouldbe establishedin firmson inputsof mHealth conditions in irrigationschemes advance. specialistsin these elsewherein the region studiesbased on the . Necessaryupgrading of watersupplies for If TORsdo not mention TORs;whether site domesticuse and livestock healthaspects, these underconsideration . Financialarrangements, e.g., whether health maynever be properly willbe further sateguardsshould be fundedfrom central investigated. investigated ministryrevenues or providedthrough contri- butionsof laborbv the beneficiaries,or both. Preparation Prefeasibilitystudy Proceduresfor planning, Ensure that health sector at ali levelsof responsi- Prefeasibilitystudies: out implementation,and bilityis preparedto respondadequately and ina lineoptions, identify gaps operationof the project timelvmanner in the planningprocess. in knowledge. Whetherto initiate Forecastvector-borne disease implications, A healthimpact assess- feasibilitystudy preparepreliminary recommendations for ment that is part of prefea- mitigatmngmeasures, and set termsof reference sibilitystudies is usually Commissioningof forlea'th partof feasibilitystudies. not carriedout by experts feasibilitystudies (nor shouldit be). Thisis probablythe last pointat whichit is polit- icallyfeasible to stopa largeproject. Data collection Collectlocal health data. Data to be collected and analysis includelocal climatic, demographic,agricultural, and healthdata. Feasibilitystudies Carrvout scopingand bounding(as much as Feasibilitvstudy: full study and design possiblequantitatively); prepare detailed recom- of the preferredoption. mendationson strategiesto mitigateadverse health impactsand onmeans for implementatonScoping: a qualitativeor of thesestrategies. quantitativeprediction of the healthimpact of the At a minimum,a healthimpact assessment project. shouldinclude: • An approximatequantification of healthimpact Bounding:a predictionof • A costingof environmentalor othermeasures whenand wherehealth for minimizinghealth risks riskswill occur. • A cost-effectiveand appropriatedesign, and recommendationson operationand The termsof referenceof maintenancesystems the feasibilitystudy should • Recommendationson healthresources and allowflexibility so that activities additionalhealth issues • Aschedule of the expectedinflux of the work identifiedafter the forceinto the projectarea prefeasibilitystage can . Recommendationson the phasing be studied. of the project * A descriptionof healthmonitoring systems, Feasibilitystudies are institutionalorganization, and legalrequire- cornmoniydone bv mentsfor the nroject independentexperts, and • Recomrnerdationson institutional the prefeasibilitystudy is anangernents. criticallyreexamined. Thus, althoughprefeasibilitv and feasibilitystudies cover the sameground, the feasibility studiesare morethorough and,because of the involvementof experts, moreauthoritative.

66 ANNEXB continued...

TableB Criticalphases for safeguardinghealth during the projectcycle (continued)

Project phase Major activities Crucial decisions Recommended actions Remarks Appraisal Appraisalof the Project selection Reviewthe economicanalysis; check whether Appraisal:review of feasi- feasibilitystudy recommendations of environmental or health bility study by aDlministries impact assessment are consistent with health and agenciesconcemed policies;consolidate the recommendations of and at appropriate levels of environmental and health impact assessments if responsibility,as wel as by they have been carried out independently; check extemal support agencies. whether the ministry of health will have resources available for implementation;review institutional Ensure that provincial arrangements; review whether feasibilitystudy is and district officesof the in reasonableaccord with wishes and abilitiesof Ministryof Health and beneficiaries. representatives of local interest groups are properly consulted. Financial Adjustment, approval, Allocatefunds; prepare memorandums of under- negotiations and clearances standing as recommended; start planning of health and education neasures. Implementation Detaileddesign Decisions on layout of Consult beneficiariesin final design stages; and construction water courses serving monitor andireport on compliancewith agreed the arms and on measures, standards, and norms; monitor the placement of foot- effectivenessof health measures during construc- bridges,washing tion phase, particularlyfor temporary laborers. faclities, and so on Implementation Check whether recommended management and monitoring practices are feasible;monitor unforeseen health effectsand consult with other parties to mitigate unforeseen effects. Integration and Integration and Reviewand report on adequacy of arrangements handing over handing over project and resources;arrange for local coordination, project to normal adminis- exchangeof information, health education, and tration monitoring when operations are passed on to local authorities. Evaluation Extemal support Measure changes in health status and capacity of agencies and govem- local health services; check cash flows needed for ment review results proper maintenance of the system. to see whether they match plans Follow-upanalysis Reviewoperational plans; introduce or amend and action legislationif necessary. Operation Maintenance Maintain the system; monitor health status and and monitoring farmers' practices;provide health education; enforce guidelines and standards.

Note: The use of environmental assessment (including health impact assessment) is relatively new. Although environmental and health impact assessments should remain flexible processes,designed to suit projects of different sizes and circumstances, it should be kept in mind that procedures may vary considerably depending on the agencies involved, and that terminologiesare not yet standardized. Source: Verhoef and Clarke 1993.

67 Notes -. 1993. FAO Production Yearbook 1992. Vol. 46. FAO Statistics Series 112. Rome. This is a working paper presented on behalf of the McMillan, Della E., Thomas Painter, and Thayer Scud- WHO/FAO/UNEP/UNCHS Panel of Experts on Environ- der. 1993. Settlement and Development in the River Blindness mental Management for Vector Control (PEEM). The Control Zone. World Bank Technical Paper 192. Washing- views expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect ton, D.C. those of the UN agencies involved in PEEM. PEEM Secretariat. 1993. "WARDA/PEEM Initiative for Acknowledgements a Research Project on the Association between Rice Pro- duction and Vector-Bome Diseases in West Africa." The authors thank the following persons for their com- World Health Organization, Geneva. ments on this paper: Dr. Hans Remme, Epidemiologist of Service, M., ed. 1989. Demography and Vector-Borne the UNDP/WB/WHO Special Programme for Research Diseases. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. and Training in Tropical Diseases; Dr. Peter de Raadt, Tiffen, M. 1991. Guidelinesfor the Incorporationof Health Director of the Division of Control of Tropical Diseases, Safeguards into Irrigation Projects through Intersectoral Col- WHO; and Mr. Robert Bos, Executive Secretary of the laboration. PEEM Guidelines Series 1. Geneva: PEEM Sec- WHO/FAO/UNEP/UNCHS Panel of Experts on Environ- retariat, World Health Organization. WHO/CWS/91.2. mental Management for Vector Control. Verhoef, Hans, and L. Clarke. 1993. "Collaboration References intersectorielle en vue de l'incorporation de garanties san- itaires dans les projets de d6veloppement" (Intersectoral Birley, M.H. 1991. Guidelines for Forecastingthe Vector- collaboration for the incorporation of health safeguards Borne Disease Implications of Water Resources Development. into development projects). Keynote paper presented at PEEM Guidelines Series 2. Geneva: PEEM Secretariat, the National Seminar on Agricultural Development and World Health Organization. WHO/CWS/91.3 Health, Cotonou, November 23-26. PEEM Secretariat, FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United World Health Organization, Geneva. Nations), 1987. Consultation on Irrigation in Africa. Pro- World Bank. 1991. Environmental Assessment Source- ceedings of the Consultation on Irrigation in Africa, book. Vol. 1, Policies,Procedures and Cross-SectoralIssues. Lome, Togo, April 21-25, 1986. FAO Irrigation and World Bank Technical Paper 139. Washington, D.C. Drainage Paper 42. Rome.

68 Discussion "The responsibilityfor overall planning should not be placed in one ministry. The move now is to decentralized Administrativestructures for settlement planning." "Spontaneous and yet assisted settlement is more flex- One of the central recommendations (Recommenda- ible. It leaves room for local communities,NGOs, and tion 3) of the guiding principles concems support for even central govemmentsto participate." assisted spontaneous settlement rather than govemment- Healthissues sponsored settlement, which requires large investments, or completelyspontaneous settlement, which often leads In response to the paper by WHO, there were several to environmental degradation. The participants endorsed comments on the ongoing need for health servicesin the this recommendation fully,and the discussion centered OCP area. on the appropriate administrativestructures for organiz- Comments ing assistance for the settlers. Comments "A number of problems can challenge the results of the OCP. Remember th2t onchocerciasisbecame a prime "It will be difficultto have a comprehensiverecom- obstacle to settlement at least partly due to winning a bat- mendation on what type of settlement to support. Cultur- tle earlieragainst sleepingsickness. Existingsettlement al, social,and economic intricaciesneed to be kept in pattems are also due to other factors,including yellow mind. The wisest courseof action would be to associate fever and the effectsof colonialism.All major onchocercia- spontaneous settlement with some sort of organization or sis breeding sites had experiencedsleeping sickness inducement. Give settlers as much informationas possible epidemics,including major epidemics in Niger, Benin,and so that they can make their own choices." Togo and on the White Volta in Ghana. With the influxof "The basic question concems the cost of government settlers and growth in population,the conditionsexist for efforts regarding settlement. The most inexpensivesolu- the spread of other epidemics.Do we have the tools to tions must be chosen, given the financial condition of the combat the resurgenceof these diseases?To preserve the country. Who will pay for settlement? We talk about results of the OCP, it is necessary to have an overall involvingthe people and NGOs, but do these groups approach. For example,what procedures for natural have savings? Structures existed before onchocerciasis resource rmanagementare beingpromoted by the ministry forced people out. Do we use these structures or establish of agriculturethat will reduce the risk of disease?The min- new ones?" istry of health needs tools to identifyand track diseases." "The choiceof the participants seems to be assisted "We cannot bask in the glory of having eradicated spontaneous settlement. Settlers are clearlymotivated on onchocerciasis.Other diseases-guinea worm, schistoso- their own. Designatinga specificministry as the one that miasis-are thwarting development.We must work should be in charge is perhaps not correct.Each country together to fight these diseases." will have to choose the best one. In any case, the state "Health is the most productiveof all sectors.We must should not do the brunt of the work. NGOs and farmers integrate health care considerationsat the planning stages." should be fully involved."

SESSION5 ft Policyon Settler Participation in the Settlement Process and Selection of Settlement Areas

Sustainablesettlement requires participation of the set- in onchocerciasis-freedareas is to mobilize and harmo- tlers in all aspects of the settlement process-from site nize those mechanisms through dialogue between these selection to provision of services.This session examines groups in which all interested parties have the right and settler participation in the settlement process and its rela- obligationto participate. tion to the sustainabilityof settlements. The paper presented by UNDP, "Viewsof the People Successfulsettlement must involvemechanisms for the on the Sustainable Development of the Onchocerciasis- peaceful resolutionof conflictsin the best interest of soci- Freed Areas in Mali," prepared by means of participatory ety as a whole, taking into account localrealities. It is research methods, examines conditions in two villages important to consider the socialcomposition of the groups (one peri-urban and the other rural) in the onchocerciasis involved in settlementprocesses, the goals and objectives areas of Mali. Both villageshave been affectedby in- that they may share, and those on which they may differ. migration, but in very different ways.The paper presents These groups include the people who already live there the villagers'opinions on how the situation has changed and those who have lived there in the past. They also over the past twenty years and what needs to be done to include those who wish to move there, those who use local improve local conditions.This view from the villagepro- resources (charcoalmakers, fishers, hunters, pastoralists), vides an interesting complement to the paper presented and even those that could serve as an important source of by Mali's Ministryof Rural Development and the Environ- private investmentcapital (urban elites, foreign tourists, ment, "Settlement and Development of Onchocerciasis- purchasers of indigenous products). Freed Areas in Mali," which givesan overviewof the Successfulsettlement also requires active participation conditions in the onchocerciasiszone in Mali and outlines by the representatives of the administration who are the government's plan for development in the area. responsible for supporting the process through planning The paper by Dr. McMillanreexamines and updates and implementing infrastructureinvestments and provid- the informationin the Land Settlement Reviewwith ing publicservices and who bear the responsibilityfor regard to the differentialeffects of settlement on men and protecting environmental assets in the interest of society women. She finds that women experiencespecific disad- as a whole. vantages related to loss of access to land and other natural The most important groups, of course, are the host resources. She also finds that women's perceptions of populations and the settlers, who can be either returning their well-being in the settlement areas relative to their emigrants or new immigrants.These groups are not well-being before moving is closelylinked to the general homogeneous but are linked and divided along such lines economic conditions of their settlement area. In other as age, gender, class, and power relationships.Each group words, if the local economy is strong and they are partici- has its own mechanisms for allocatingresources and for pating in it, women arc less concerned about their loss of resolvingconflict. The challenge of sustainable settlement access to land and other rights.

71 Viewsof the Peopleon the able and a development agency is operating, and those of SustainableDevelopment an urban peripheral area where arable land is scarce and few development initiatives are reported (box 1). of Onchocerciasis-Freed In each village, those conducting the survey let them- Areasin Mali selves be guided by the people in the exploration and analysis of their situation. Complementary techniques Aminata D. Traore were used, including commrunitymapping, site visits, UnitedNations Development Programme observation,and nondirective discussion. The community mapping technique proved particular- The OnchocerciasisControl Programme has been one ly instructive.In Tienfala,the villagersdesignated one of of those rare initiativesthat truly contribute to human their spokesmen to draw a map of the area. He drew in development. The millions of people whom it has spared pencil the contours of the location and the principal land- sufferingand blindness or restored to human dignity marks: the extension of Mandingue Mountain to the through treatment are well aware of the opportunities north, the Niger Riverto the south; the Bamako-Kouliko- created by the OCP, attesting to them in these terms: ro road, the railroad, the houses, and the fields to the If we canpeacefully talk aboutdevelopment today, it is west; the protected forest-the market; the school; the dis- becausethe simulid has beenovercome. Previously, civil ser- pensary; the eight photovoltaiclights; the former rice pro- vantsdid not want to be postedto Tienfala,and we ourselves cessing factory;and the old buildingof a cattle-fattening wereonly a broken-downpeople. project. This paper discusses the findings of a study initiated by In Tiengola,about twenty villagersparticipated in the UNDP to encourage the incorporation of the views of making a map of their area showing farmlands to the these people in the development of policiesfor sustain- north and south, pasturelands to the east, forests to the able settlement of the OCP areas. Moreover, given the west and southwest, two rivers-one to the east and seriousness of the economic crisisthat Africa faces,the another to the west-and a main road. most realisticand sustainable solutions must be expected The dynamicsthat prevailed while these maps were to come from the people themselves. The time has come being drawn allowed different people to express them- for decentralizationin Africa. selves, to make corrections, and to describe the character- The study was conducted in January 1994in Mali in istics of their sites and the status of the natural resources. two areas that, severalyears ago, shared the characteristic After this exercise,the villagersaccompanied the survey- of being hyperendemic:the villageof Tienfala,located ors to the sites so that they could establish together what about 30 kilometers from Bamako, the capital of Mali, and constituted their environments. the villageof Tiengola,located in the arrondissement of Subsequentobservation and in-depth talks with groups Dioila about 220 kilometers from Bamako. of men, women, and young people and within households Apart from their common feature, the two survey areas chosen accordingto occupation and socioeconomicstatus present differentcharacteristics yielding two different sets of the head of household' made it possible to define how of problems:those of a rural area where land is stillavail- people live and to interpret the local situation. The data collected through these exercises are organized in this report around the concems on the agenda Box 1 Key features of the survey villages of the ministerial conference.

Tiengola Tienfala Settlementand the environment Initial OCP area Extensionarea Soils,pasturelands, forests, and watercoursescreate the Rural setting Urban periphery setting physicalconditions for settlementand resettlement.The IHlighrural Low nmigrationrate historyof Tienfala,for example,begins around 1886with migration rate the arrivalof Dienfa,who was hunting for game on the future site of the village.The abundance of natural resources area area encouragedhim to settle there. The word Dienfala,Dienfa's Lareavial Laresarc Land available Land scarce 'It is difficult to determine income levels in rural settings. Note:Office de d6veloppementrural (ODR)is a Nonetheless,information on thesize offieldsand of production development agency. facilities made it possible to distinguish betweenvillagers who werewell off thosewho wereless well off, and thosewho werepoor.

72 home, was distorted into Tienfala. Tiengola also owes its out precautions, they made over tracts that were trans- existence to a Bambara farmer, Tienkoba, who discovered formed without their knowledge into titled property. good farmland there around 1770. Tienkobala, Tienkoba's The young people propose that restrictions on the use home, was distorted into Tiengola. of the forest be lifted from the part in the interior that is The host populations in these villages remember a already cleared. time when game, fish, millet, maize, sorghum, and The main crops in Tienfala are millet, rice, and maize groundnuts were abundant. The ecological awareness for personal consumption. "You have to eat yourself embodied in these memories, shared with settlers, could before you can sell anything," the peasants say. Fruit play an important role in environmental education and in trees (mangos and guavas) are the rare sources of income sustainable development of the OCP areas. It is also available to them. important to know the rules governing access to these The local traditional farming system relies on family resources and the degree of control that the villagers labor and uses the hoe as the main tool of production. exercise over the resources. The head of household organizes and coordinates all the work in the communal field. After the harvest, he stores Access to land the millet and manages it by regularly giving the women The host populations feel that the lands belong to the amounts they need. The women grow rice and tend them. Under customary law, outsiders can be granted a market gardens. They farm in the lowlands of the village tract of arable land in exchange for a symbolic payment: on tracts obtained and managed with the help of their one rooster and ten kola nuts. husband and other relatives. The children help the adults Tienfala. In Tienfala, the host population of Djingoni in growing millet, beans, and sorghum. When he can find and Tienfala-village affirm that "we have always farmed. one, a farmer recruits a hired laborer, who gives him three The land belongs to us, and we made it over to the inhab- days of work out of seven and works four days for himself. itants of Tienfala-gare." Tiengola. Unlike in Tienfala, in Tiengola land is still Tienfala-gare was created for the construction of the available: "We have very good land, easy to work. To railroad in 1926. While recognizing the status of the obtain a tract we request one from the village chief, and inhabitants of Tienfala-village as holders of the traditional we farm as much area as our resources allow." The acces- property rights, the inhabitants of Tienfala-gare express sibility of land and the acceptance by the host population regrets about the land situation: encouraged many seasonal workers from Bel6dougou, "We no longer have lands, because those who traditionally Kolokani, and S6gou to settle and work for pay in the hold the property rights sold them to the rich citizens, civil ser- cotton fields. vants, and economicagents, who have planted trees there and Until 1968, when the Compagnie malienne pour le thus violated the rules of the game. Because until recently the developpement des textiles (CMDT) began activities in Tien- person to whom the land was lent did not have the right to gola, the fanners produced millet, maize, beans, rice, and plant trees [synonymous with putting down roots and thus groundnuts for personal consumption. But the lack of with appropriation]without notifying the holders of the prop- equipment and technical advisers impeded the develop- erty rights. But the affluent classes of the town went beyond ment of food crops: "We have a vast fertile plain for rice this rule. Better still, they hold the property titles and have growing. But we are faced with inadequate production developed large areas offertile land along the river. We took facilities and an early retreat of the waters." Cotton grow- action, but in vain. They are rich, we are poor. And we lack ing, a source of income for both the farmers and the state, financial and technical support." was promoted through CMDT extension services, which Tienfala's proximity to the capital and the power of the provided farm equipment on credit (plows, seeders, oxen, affluent citizens in the land tenure game have helped con- carts) and inputs (fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides). fine farmers to meager tracts, limiting their ability to create Farmers pay for the inputs after they sell their cotton, new fields and rotate crops, and thus to increase produc- and they can repay loans for farm equipment over three tivity. The possibilities for expanding fields are also limited years. The farmers claim that they always paid their debt, by the Mandingues Mountains north of the village. As a until 1980, when their situation began to deteriorate for result of these constraints, farmers' tracts in Tienfala rarely several reasons: exceed 3 hectares: "We have been farming the same tracts a The CMDT's rule that cotton fields must not exceed for over thirty years because there are no possibilities of 2 hectares extension or even of letting them lie fallow." m The poor quality of locally manufactured carts The young people of Tienfala-gare deplore the land * The inadequacy of the inputs and seeds furnished situation. According to them, it is due to the illiteracy of (2 kilograms of seed per hectare per year) their parents, who did not know what was at stake. With- . The irregular collection of the crop, which could

73 remain stored for several months before removal, urban peripheral area of Tienfala, despite the illegal cut- causing delays in farmers' receipt of payment. ting by the pastoralists. The farmers' resulting financial difficulties have forced "Sofar, we canfind everything we need in our forest: the some to sell their millet or oxen to pay their debts. karite and the nere are part of ourfood; the n'golob6 and the Pasturelands kolo-kolo are used in traditionalmedicine and are usedfor firewood; the cho and the yala are used to make roofsfor huts." Tienfala. Most inhabitants of Tienfala raise stock as a In Tiengola, the people have become aware of the con- secondary activity, hiring Peuhl pastoralists to tend cattle sequences of degradation of the environment and have at CFAF 100 (before devaluation) per animal per month. made provisions to protect it: the women gather only Cattle are raised primarily for personal consumption, but deadwood, cutting wood is forbidden, and brush fires are also for use in farming. Women raise sheep, goats, and started only after obtaining the advice of the forest service. fowl, also for personal consumption, but, in addition, they Watercourses may sell them if money is needed. The affluent citizens also raise livestock, but semi- Tienfala is bounded on the south by the Niger River, intensively: "Their cattle wander into our fields. This situ- and Tiengola is bounded by two rivers. These watercours- ation has caused conflicts, particularly serious in 1991, es play an important role in the life of the people. Women which were ultimately put down by the authorities," the grow irrigated rice in both Tienfala and Tiengola. And all villagers reported. members of the family engage in activities related to fish- Pastureland generally has been abundant in Tienfala, ing: the men catch the fish, the women process and mar- and the stock well fed. But pastureland is beginning to ket the fish, and children help their parents. Beginning at become more scarce. the age of ten, boys accompany their fathers fishing and Tiengola. In Tiengola, it is the Peuhl pastoralists who girls help their mothers with the fish processing. own the animals, and there is greater availability of pas- Despite these economic activities, the rivers are under- tureland than in Tienfala. Because of the accessibility of exploited because of the lack of irrigation equipment and pastureland, the pastoralists have come from Nara and reliable methods of supplying potable water. "We are on Macina to settle in the area. Conflicts traditionally arise the edge of the water and we are thirsty," say the inhabi- between farmers and pastoralists. But in Tiengola, in tants of Tienfala. The water comes from the hill and the addition to the damage that the animals can cause to the river, but we do not have the means to control it." fields, the host population complains that the pastoralists Like the fields and the pasturelands, the Niger River is illegally cut down trees to feed their animals with branch- becoming less and less generous. The fishermen in Tienfala es when grass becomes scarce. The president of the Tien- still manage to make catches, however, part of which trick- gola village association described the community's les down to the fish dealers and consumers in Bamako. perception of the situation in these terms: A growing number of fishermnen from the Bozo and 'We have informed the authorities in Diofla of the unlaw- Sonomo ethnic groups have been coming to Tienfala from ful practices of the Peuhl pastoralists with respect to cutting Koulikoro and the region of Mopti. Their settlement in down trees and shrubs, but in vain. We believe that the cul- the village has caused some conflicts, as the president of prits have the resources to corrupt the government. But we are the Tienfala fishermen's association explains: determined to defend our heritage ourselves." "I settled here with my family ten years ago,from our native Forests village.At that time, the populationwas welcoming.But in 1992, it became hostilebecause it consideredthat our communi- Tienfala. The history of Tienfala tells the story of an ty was becomingtoo large and we were depletingthe river water area rich in game and in trees. But increasing pressure on with our catches.They asked us to go away. When we refused, deteriorating land has induced the villagers to transform they destroyed our equipment. Were it not for the intervention of much of the forest into farmland. the Governor of Koulikoro,the conflictwould have had more One forest in Tienfala has been protected since 1939. seriousconsequences. They are wrong to accuseus. Thefish are But its status is constantly violated-only on the edges becomingscarce not because of our catches,but because of the does it look like a forest. Its interior has been largely reservoirsand the releasesof water from the Se'ingue dam, cleared by firewood dealers and by women who also which disturb the normal rate offlow of the river." derive some income from selling wood. Tiengola.In the 1970s,big game was abundant in Tien- Developmentexperiences and initiatives gola. But at present, except for warthogs, hunting gamers All of these economic activities in Tienfala and little more than small animals, such as hare and partridge. Tiengola-fishing, cattle raising rice and cotton produc- Nonetheless, the forest is better preserved than in the tion-have been targeted by development projects and

74 programs. The outcome of these efforts should be taken expenses by collecting 2 kilograms of cotton at the end of into account in developing strategies for sustainable the harvest from each farm manager and by levying a lump development in the OCP areas. sum tax on the pay of the cotton collectors that it appoints. State initiatives The members of the association believe that the village could make further progress if they had oxen, better carts, The people freely share their opinion of these develop- an irrigation dam to develop rice and fruit production and ment projects and programs when given latitude to do so. market gardening, and a motorized irrigation pump. But The community maps that they draw show the results-or they reported that they needed technical and financial the remains-of these initiatives. support to pursue these goals successfully. The inhabitants of Tienfala, for example, mention with The members of the Tienfala village association simi- regret the time when the rice processing plant of the larly aspire to improve the local production potential by Office du Niger was still in operation. They complain that developing irrigated areas and market gardens. The asso- the former rice processing plant could have been made ciation has also contemplated reactivating facilities left by useful to the village if the responsible authorities had con- state-sponsored development projects (the rice store- sulted with them. They also mention a cattle-fattening house, and the building for the cattle-fattening project). project, which created about forty jobs for the young peo- Other development activities that the inhabitants of Tien- ple of Tienfala in 1976 but was discontinued in 1986 for fala have considered include reforestation, creating tourist reasons unknown to the village. sites, and building community health centers. The condition of infrastructure in the villagealso Conclusionsand recommendations reveals the limitations of the development initiatives of the past thirty years. Tienfala has two tubewells, one of The following analysis of the perceptions and views which is in poor condition. The women must deal with of the people of Tienfala and Tiengola is, as it should be, serious water shortages during the dry season, when the interspersed with their testimonies-expressions of their river water, which is polluted, sells for CFAF 250 per bar- gratitude for the OCP, of the hope afforded them by the rel (200 liters). The village school, built in 1959, is in poor valleys freed of onchocerciasis, and of their determination condition, underequipped, and overcrowded. The phar- to develop through their own initiative. Their views sug- macy and the veterinary center have almost no drugs. gest components of strategies that could further the par- Localinitiatives ticipatory and sustainable development of the OCP areas. HSealthand the economy The limitations of the state initiatives have led to an understandable desire among the villagers to organize The people of Tienfala analyze the relation between themselves more. One of the community leaders in Tien- health and the economy in these terms: "No wealth is of fala commented that "the state has nothing and the indi- any use as long as you do not have the supreme wealth of vidual can do nothing all alone. The group remains the good health," and "poverty has many causes among us; only weapon against adversity and poverty." onchocerciasis is but one of them." It is in this context that the community movement now Consolidating and perpetuating the results of the prominent in Africa has emerged. This movement has OCP will require that African decisionmakers and their especially engaged women and young people, who are partners in the development community have, like the particularly aware of their vulnerability and feel a need to people of Tienfala and Tiengola, a clear perception and work together. Local organizations and associations are an acute awareness of the relation between health, the endeavoring both to remove constraints to local develop- economy, and development. ment and to protect communities' interests by exerting Cooperation and sustainabledevelopment pressure on administrative and political authorities. These local organizations can play an important role in the sus- Mobilizing and investing $340 million in the OCP's tainable development of the OCP areas, as a channel for activities in the past twenty years (perhaps $580 million participation in decisionmaking and for mobilization of by the end of the century), the intemational community local resources. has shown exemplary generosity and solidarity. It would In Tiengola, for example, members of the village associ- be unfortunate for this achievement to be tarnished by the ation, created some ten years ago, cite among its accom- attitude reflected in the following statement, which has plishments the construction of a fertilizer storehouse and of been shared by some participants who seem to underesti- a house for the agricultural extension agent and the pur- mate the difficulties that African governments face: chase of a scale, 180 sacks, and a moped for the use of the "Up to now, the West Afnican governments themselves village association. The association meets its operating have played only a small role. Those efficient international

75 WHO teams with their highly trained staffs, their whirring settlement of farmland as a solution to the persisting eco- helicoptersandfleets ofjeeps, their microscopesand wall nomic crisis, which poses a risk of social unrest. The Insti- charts, their seminars and researchpapers a-rived, fought the tute for Development Anthropology (IDA) study of disease and raised thefunds." (Wigg 1993, pp. 35-36) settlement in the OCP areas in Mali confirms that Maijis Better than an invitation to African decisionmakers to government would like to establish special incentives to assume their responsibilities in the sustainable settlement settle in these areas for young graduates or mid-level civil of the OCP areas, the ministerial conference should pro- servants who have lost their jobs following economic vide an opportunity to show that a health program well- restructuring programs (McMillan, Painter, and Scudder coordinated with other appropriate activities can lay the 1993). Migration to the OCP areas needs to be considered in foundations for sustainable human development. the context of a strategy that can alleviate this economic crisis while ensuringthe protection of the environment.Otherwise, it Settlementand sustainabledevelopment is unlikelythat Africangovernments, burdened with debtand

The people recognize that onchocerciasis is one of facing unprecedented budgetary constraints, can take measures the reasons why some villages have moved away or have to achieve sustainable settlement. diminished in population, as occurred between 1950 and Access to productive resources 1968 in Tiengola. But they also mention poverty, the The reclaimed valleys are being resettled in ways drought, the lack of potable water, and the famines caseby inain'fgasopes hbnoe that accord with traditional practices. For example, the carseasbyrepeseont ofcouraselstopportunities abothofor rules of access to land are proving effective because they farmin g'and f human lospm nit are recognized by both host populations and settlers. This Nonetheless,for justmasdevelonhoceria isoecas f capacity of the people to manage themselves must be taken into Nonethelessjust as onchocerciasis is one cause of accountand supportedas part of theeffort to promotepartici- poverty, so is its eradication one factor in development. patory and sustainable development of the OCP areas. Therefore, eradication of onchocerciasis (without forget- Women's needs for their productive activities are rec- ting that other deadly diseases persist where onchocercia- ognized in the communities. In Tienfala, for example, sis is receding) must be accompanied by appropriate men request a tract of lowlands for their wives so that the solutions to economic constraints, as a 1985USAIDq mission concluded: women can grow rice. In addition to working their own tract, women perform work that is essential to the house- "Theprogram seems to be one of the most successfulmultiple- hold, such as working in the family field and carrying out donor progr s in the short history of developmentassistance, domestic tasks, including fetching water and wood. But In 90 percent of the area, the transmissionof onchocerciasiswas these vital resources are becoming increasingly diff It to interrupted,[but], unfortunately,to datethe success of thepro- obtain because of the degradation of the environment. gramhas notautomatically led to an increasein incomeor eco- The traditional wells quickly run dry, and the modem, nomic growth. Supplementaryinvestments are necessaryto expensive installations often are defective. exploitthe freed areas. New activitiesshould be developed." Improvingthe statusof womenin the OCP areaswill (USAID 1986, cited in Hunting Technical Services Limited requirepolicies that take into account their working conditions and Organisation et environnement 1988, p. 2) in the field and their many time-consuming household chores. The testimony of the inhabitants of Tiengola shows Despite the urgent need for action, it must not beforgotten that that in the absence of such initiatives the villagers migrate any guidelines not developed in collaborationwith women and to the cities. with their communitiesare doomed tofailure. "Now our young people are going toward the urban centers In Tienfala, the nature of the location and the needs after the harvests to lookfor money because the cotton work is of large landholders limit the opportunities for agricultural becomingincreasingly difficult. Some of them aregoing asfar development. The governmentmust be vigilantagainst well- as Guineaand CBted'Ivoire. This exodusis evenaffecting the off citizensusing the resourcesavailable to them (equipment, youngwomen, who aregoing to seektheir trousseaux." financing,political influence) to appropriatevast areasof land The real pockets of poverty today are in the towns, and thus limit the potential for communities-whether host where the most active members of the rural communities, populations or settler-to improve their productivity and including those in the reclaimed valleys, are coming to living conditions. swell the numbers of the unemployed. The assumptions Communityparticipation aboutsettling the reclaimedvalleys must berethought in the lightof the economic crisis and strategiesfor the survival of Unlike the host populations who have learned to communities. expect everything from the govemment (though they are Government authorities in Mali may encourage the beginning to question this attitude), the settlers have

76 often demonstrated an enterprising spirit, initiating many Environmentaleducation activitiesof common benefit to the community.African Stories about the origin of a vilage almost always guvernmen.tsshould identify theselocal initiatives, which reveal that the people settled at the site because it was resenttrue community participation, and supportthem with- rich in natural resources.The differencebetween the ini- out, however,altering them. tial conditions and those that currentlyprevail often is The financial and logisticalrequirements of such clear to everyone in the community.But that awareness an approach are minimal compared with the recurrent th does not necessarilymean that the community will take costs of the top-down strategies that have predominiated actions to protect and preserve its resources.Environmen- until recently. Most important, this approach requires an tal education-combined with income generating activi- awareness of the situation in the OCP areas and the tal patlarycorbte pos- m cal tot iv politicalwil to support the capacityof the communities tie artlarly or the Oo t cal to the to organize themselves and successfullycarry out development activitiesthat do not destroy the environment. References The role of nongovernmentalorganizations Hunting TechnicalServices Limitedand Organisation et environnement. 1988. "Etudes de developpement Thereare many nationalNGOs that couldcontribute to encioneme zone dupgae oP."Vl.1 the sustainabledevelopment of the OCPareas if they received secis,england. the necessarymaterial, financial, and technicalsupport. To Herts,England. avoid aggravating conflictbetween the administrative MNia,DR,Toa ane,adIhyrSudr avoidaggravating conflict between the administrative 1993.Settement and Developmentin theRiver Blindness Control authorities and the NGOs, donors could encourage gov- Zone.Washington, D.C. WorldBank Technical Paper 192. emments to rely more on these organizations. But the Wigg, David. 1993.And Then Forgotto Tell Us most sustainable and least costly solution would be to Why:A Lookat the Campaignagainst River Blindness support the traditional (or modem) forms of community in WestAfrica. World Bank Development Essay 1. organizations. Washington, D.C.

77 Capitalizingon Diversity: seas" region,the Damongo Planned Settlements,and the Women's Tono Irrigation Scheme) in 1988 did the Ghana team find Issuesand Sustainable a single group of settlers that appeared to be increasing Developrnentin the OCP agriculturalincome through the use of either extensiveor River Basins intensive cultivation methods. The chief reason was the extremely unfavorable policy environment in the decade De'a EMiaUvriyfFod,Gibefore 1988 (Akwabi-Ameyaw1990). With almost no access to improved technology or fertilizer, outside the Little has been written on women's issues in develop- Tono scheme, farmers attained very low yields and net ment planning under the Onchocerciasis Control Pro- . s gramme. Those studies that do exist focus on new settlers agricultural incomes, and few households were able to ... . ~~~~~~~~~movebeyond basic subsistence. still in the initial stages of frontier development (Conti Aoug the Tonosettlerco 1979; Guissou 1977; Phillott-Almeida 1985). One result Althoughthe Tonosettlers could purchase inputs rke has been a strong tendency for researchers to support vices Com ) e th ese inputs wascnstra Rogers' argument (1980) that the overall effects of new vieCopn)acssttheipuswsosried Rogers' argument (1980)resethatl overalwomeffret onew All credit was tied to the Social Security Bank's assessment landsegattlementi and7rstlMenthy ondwomen are0que of the settlers' previous performance in the scheme. This neatv(uisu 97;Mupy n Spe 190 Re'a credit assessment was made by the Social Security Bank in 1983, 1986). But recent research by the Institute for Devel- collaboration with the scheme management ICOIUR (the opment Anthropology at the sixteen sites included in the Irrigation Cmno the Upper Eastmegn). Sine OCP Land Settlement Review (figure 1; table 1) suggests farmer w orced or the ir cRedits Stnfe that te situtioni far mre com lex' Th aesuis farmers were forced to reimburse their credits just after that the situation ISfar more complex.1 The case studies of these sites support Koenig's conclusion that in at least harvest, when farm gate prices were at their lowest, they could never be certain about how much they would eam. some cases, women are better off when the entire house- This insecure market made it risky for the average farm hold iS better off, even when their access to pre-resettle- faiytuneakacrd. ment resources and occupations has been compromised in th onermajor caedinm (forthcoming, p.21). the one major case in which (forthcoming, p.21). ~~~~~In the goverrnment Although it is important to emphasize that not aU attempted to aid spontaneous settlement in the Fumbisi new-lands settlement in the OCP river basins affects Valley during the 1970s, unrealistic policies subsidized the women negatively and that some new-lands settlement crops of a small elite at the expense of the local popula- .. .. . h~~~~~ton.The result was an increase in conflict, including the can affect them quite positively, it is equally important to bin . The wn, hen subsidie ended, the counsel caution. That is because the shift from subsistence nomina ohcrops w asu nderutheAw cb- to more dynamicto patternsmoe dyamicpattms ofo householdhouehol incomeincme growthgowth Ameyawnomic viability 1990, pp.of these 67-68; crops McMillan, was undercut Painter, (Akwabi- and Scudder occurred at only six of the sixteen study sites: the Mo Plain and FED (Fonds Europ6ens du Developpement)- 1992, p.26). In certain ethnic groups, such as the Mamprussi and Agbassasettlementdess insTogo,the AutKompitedangage Dagomba, who cultivate only bush fields, women did not ment des vallees des Voltas (AVV), Kompienga, and farm at all and did not even go to the bush to collect fuel- Solenzo settlements in Burkina Faso, and the Dioila set- for householiduse, the mns ronsibil- tlement in Mali. Each of these sites involved an area in wood for household use, these being men's responsibid- .. . . h~~~tes.Where women participated physicallv in the field which donor and government policies had-either inten- tionally or unintentionally-provided basic services and focused on planting, weeding, and threshing. The chief infrastructure for the settlers moving in. Even then, the excepton wasta im grantwoen aon Bogtn resulting development was not always sustainable. In each case in which this occurred, however, the early ga and Damongo, who constituted the main agricultural inrasnteecne awork e 's i force for the urban-based commercial farmers increase and then decline in women's Income and living lwb-myw19,p 19) standards stadarshdhad lessessto to doo withithther their binbeing woenwomen thanha (Awb-myw19,pAt all of the study sites in Ghana,19) women concentrated with the overall effects of resettlement and new lands a . on domestic chores and developing what meager retums settlement on women. they could fiom trade. Trade was especially important at Sites showing little evidence of growth the research sites located near the trade centers of in agricultural income for smallholders Fumbisi,"Overseas" and Damongo. Akwabi-Ameyaw argued that the strong emphasis on trade reflected the complete lack of opportunity for income growth in agri- At none of the four study sites in Ghana (Red Volta culture (personal communication, 1994). He stated that if Valley and Plateau, the Fumbisi Yagoba-Soo or "Over- opportunities were available, many women would take a

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Country; Settlement type; name of site; approx.date of Location nature of sample settlement onset in country BurkinaFaso 1. Solenzo (3v:36hh+19v) Spontaneous (1960s) Kossi Province 2. Niangoloko (22v) Spontaneous (1982) Comoe Province 3. Kompienga (lv:35hh) Dam-related planned Gourma Province resettlement and spontaneous (1983) 4. VoltaValley Authority (AW-UP1) a. SurveyRestudy Linoghin (6v:20hh) Planned (1973) Oubritenga Province Mogtedo-Bombore(7v:20hh) Planned (1979) Ganzourgou Province Mogtedo (6v:40hh) Planned (1974) Ganzourgou Province b. Case Study Restudy MogtedoV3 (1v:20hh) Planned (1975) Ganzourgou Province c. Rapadama (+7) Assisted (1987) Ganzourgou Province Ghana 1. Red VoltaValley and Plateau (2v:30hh) Cyclical,spont. Upper East Region (late 19th cent.) 2. Fumbisi-Yagoba-Soo Assisted (1985) Upper West, Upper East, Mankarigu ("Overseas") (4v:30hh) and Northern Regions 3. Damongo Settlements (3v:30hh) Planned (1950s) Northern Region 4. Tono Irrigation Scheme (2v:30hh) Planned (1980s) Upper East Region Mali 1. Yanfolila(5v:30hh) Spontaneous (1970s) Third Region Assisted (1985) (Sikasso) 2. Selingue (3v:29hh)(late 1970s) Dam-related planned Third Region and spontaneous (Sikasso) 3. Dioila (4v:30hh) Spontaneous (1960s) Second Region (Koulikoro) 4. Finkolo (3v:30hh) Wage workers in Third Region workers' villagesat tea plantation (Sikasso) (late 1960s) 5. Tienfala(3v:9hh) Spontaneous, by Second Region railway workers (from early 1900s; (Koulikoro) continuing) 6. Manantali (14v:70hh) Dam-related planned FirstRegion (1986/87) (Kayes) Togo 1. FED-Agbassa(3v:30hh) Planned (1972) Kara Region 2. Mo Plain (3v:30hh+6v) Spontaneous (1970s) Central Region

Note:Numbers in parenthesesthatfollow site namesdenote the numberof villagesat eachsite wherehousehold inter- viewswere conducted, followed by the numberof householdsin the site sample.Numbers preceded by a plus sign denote the numberof additionalvillages at thesite whereleaders and othercommunity members were interviewed. Information on Manantaliwas drawnfrom anotherIDA contractdealing with that project.(Horowitz, Grim and Konate1993) Source:McMillan, Painter and Scudder,1992, and Koenig personalcommunication 1994.

80 more active role in the household's farm activities. He to help raise settlers' incomes (Diarra and others 1994; qualified his statement, however, by saying that it is McMillan 1983; McMillan, Nana, and Savadogo 1993; unlikely that women in certain ethnic groups like the Painter 1990). In each case, however, the resulting Mamprussi and Dagomba would participate in crop pro- increases in crop and non-crop incomes were not sustain- duction. Their more likely role would be in food process- able due to various market, policy, climatological and ing and trade. The situation might be quite different, other conditions. however, in other ethnic groups like the Frafra, where The Manantali sponsoredsettlements (Mali) women have traditionaly been more active in local farm production. Once crop productivity in the Manantali settlements Selingue (Mali) deteriorated to the point at which the women were forced to depend on their private fields for basic subsistence, the Selingue is another case. The original irrigation effort settlers reduced the amount of time they worked on the was designed to benefit the indigenous Malinke inhabi- collective household fields.2 By 1994, only 18 percent of tants who were displaced by the dam. In an effort to the women reported that they worked on collective fields increase the irrigated perimeter's productivity, the manage- (down from 42 percent in 1988). But women's efforts to ment started to encourage the Dogon immigrants who had develop private crop production were thwarted by the immigrated on their own into the surrounding zone to join same overcultivation problems that plagued the main the project (Koenig 1990: 35). It was also decided that the household fields. Women were able to obtain larger plots perimeter would be a good place to locate young school in the less circumscribed planned villages but, because of leavers. These extra farmers reduced the size of al plots the isolation of these villages, received lower prices for and decreased the amount of land aDlocatedto individual their crops (Diarra and others 1994, p. 37). Efforts to households from between 0.5 to 1.2 hectares in 1984-85 develop irrigated gardening, which traditionally had been to 0.25 hectares for a household with one to eight econom- a major source of off-season employment, were thwarted icaDlyactive individuals and 0.5 hectares for households by the lack of appropriate sites. Once dam construction with nine to sixteen active individuals in 1988. This meager ended, there were few opportunities to engage in trade. plot size compares with the Office du Niger's policy With less uncultivated bush, the women not only were of allocating 1 hectare of irrigated rice land per person in unable to engage in many of their traditional gathering 1979 (CILSS 1978: 39 in Koenig 1990: 35). Few families activities, but also were forced to buy some of the prod- could provide for themselves on what they eamed from ucts that these activities had once provided, such as shea these smal plots even with above-average yields of two nut butter, fruits, and soap (Diarra and others 1994). With tons per hectare. Settler insecurity increased further by the few opportunities to develop trade based on their produc- management's policy of constantly redistributing parcels. tion, the women tumed to exploiting wood. The indigenous farmers compensated by clearing private Thus, despite the project's efforts to provide women maize and millet fields in the surrounding zone. As a result, with land, the lack of a profitable extension package com- their average food grain production (232 kilograms per per- bined with the limited opportunities to develop livestock son) was much higher than that of the Dogon migrants or nonfarm employment left women worse off than (29-141 kilograms per person) who had difficulty getting before resettlement. Moreover, they were worse off, but in permission to clear and farm in the surrounding dryland a situation in which they were still expected to provide for zone (Koenig 1990:39). a large share of the household's basic food and condi- Sites where the initial rise in agricultural ments. In 1993-94,the male household head helped pro- income growth was unsustainable vide sauce ingredients for the family's meals in only 14.3 percent of the survey households during the dry season In an attempt to circumvent the multiple macro-and and only 23.2 percent of the households during the rainy micro-level constraints to development at the sites, the season (Diarra and others 1994). In addition to providing AVV, and FED-Agbassa projects provided settlers with most of the purchased food, the women were responsible a planned settlement package to develop basic infrastruc- for much of the clothing for themselves and their children ture (schools, health facilities, roads, and wells) and to (Diarra and others 1994). support intensive farming (Koenig 1990; Painter 1990; The AVV sponsoredsettlements at Mogtddo McMillan, Nana, and Savadogo 1993). In the more isolat- and MogMdo-Bombord(Burkina Faso) ed OCP river basins, like the Manantali Dam resettlement, elements of development planning-access to new In response to the huge labor demands for cotton, ris- land, supplementary food aid, wage labor on project con- ing production costs (due to lower subsidies), and experi- struction sites, subsidized extension services-combined ence with unreliable yields with the proposed technology

81 Figure2 SubdMivisionof net cropvalue of incomeper household,the AW sponsoredsetlm ts, 1979-1989

AW sponsoredsettlements, 1979 Settlers'home village In Kayaarea, 1979

Collecively worked 89% Collectivelyworked 64%

Wivesof male household head 4% WivesOf naue Unmarried children 5.5% hosehold head 14%

Mamed sons. brothers, their wives, children 1.5% Unmariedchildren 5% Married sons, brothers, their wives, children 12% Edmers(others, fathers and cmies)5%

AW sponsoredsettlements, 1988

Colectrvely worked 80%

Privat*eyworked 20%

Sources:McAM'illan 1983. Savadogo,Sanders anLd McMillan 1990.

package,3 the AW project farmers graduallyreduced the the women's private fields represented a smaller share of area planted to high input cotton production and the total planted area than the share in their home vil- increased the area planted to the less intensivesorghum lages (8 percent of total area in 1979,compared with 24 and millet.4 The increased production they achievedwas percent in the home village;McMillan 1983, pp. 158 and not, however, associatedwith higher cash income. 388), the income women earned from their private fields Indeed, the settlers' average income, calculated using the was supplemented by gifts of cash from their husbands median price at which crops were sold, was 10 percent and gifts of grain from their husbands' friends.In contrast less in 1988 than in 1979. When this nominal net income to the home area, where women often were forced to rely was adjusted for inflation using the Intemational Mone- on their private production to supplement the house- tary Fund price index, averageincome per labor unit hold's food during the dry season, in the settlements they (adult labor equivalent,or ALE5) on the officialhousehold usually sold these food crops. In addition, in 1979,many fields was 40 to 50 percent lower in 1988than in 1979 of the expensesthat women had traditionallybome in the (McMillan,Nana, and Savadogo1993, p. 34). home area (for example, condiments, school fee medi- During their firstyears in the AW sponsored settle- cines, and familyclothing) were being shouldered by the ments, the settlers were involvedin the heavy work of male household heads. dearing fields,their familieswere small, and they had lit- As households shifted away from the earlier "inten- tle time or money for noncrop activities,such as livestock sive" model, however, they reverted to the "traditional' or trade. By 1979, three to five years after settlement, most pattem in which women were responsible for a higher households had established small private plots. Although share of the household expenses. By 1988,when the ten-

82 Table2 AverageNon-farm Income from Different Sources for Individuals ReportingIncome from the Source,1988-1989.

A. Male Head of Household Linoghin Bombore Mogtedo MogtedoV3 Solenzo Kompienga 1. Unprocessed agric. products 64,120(1) * 42,000(1) a * 23,167(3) 2. Processed agric. products * * * * 24,000(1) 8,425(2) 3. Forest and water products * * * * a 87,000(1) 4. Meat and animal by-products 28,500(1) 122,500(2) 38,650(3) 25,000 * 107,667(3) 5. Commerce 300,000(1) * 50,250(2) 14,000(3) * 81,000(3) 6. Handicrafts 21,300(2) 6,070(6) 1,950(1) 6,950(2) * 53,167(3) 7. Gold * 2,000(1) 36,166(3) 27,721(7) a a 8. Services 4,000(1) * 5,000(1) 23,700(2) 41,250(2) 50,000(1) 9. Agric.Labor ** 20,000(1) * a a 10. Nonagric. Labor 450,000(1) a * 250,000 *a 11. Mill * 550,000(1)

B. One Woman per Family

1. Unprocessed agric. products 9,050(2) ** 74,200(2) * 10,437(10) 2. Processed agric.products 26,043(13) 3,833(5) 3,186(7) 6,642(14) 29,300(6) 6,361(11) 3. Forest and water products 30,050(2) * o * 3,000(1) 4. Meat and animal by-products * a 37,500(1) a * 5. Commerce 2,200(1) 6,000(1) * a 350(1) 6. Handicrafts 7,650(1) 8,150(1) ** 17,000(1) 7. Gold * 500(1) 19,691(12) 13,914(16) * m 8. Services * 3,500(1) * a

()indicates how many men and womenprovided non-zero numbers. Twenty men and twentywomen were interviewed in eachof theAVV plannedsettlements; 36 men and 36 womenwere interviewedat Solenzo.Means are takenover these numbers. Source:Savadogo 1989a in McMillan,Nana and Savadogo1993:52.

year restudy was conducted (ten to thirteen years after the for 36 percent of the total CFAfranc (CFAF)value of pro- settlements were created), husbands no longer gave cash duction or gross income in 1979 (McMillan,Nana, and "harvest presents" to their wives, and the earlier practice Savadogo 1993,p. 47, figure 2). of giving large, lavish gifts to friends' wives (an important These changes do not appear to have had much effect source of income for women in 1979)had died out. With on women's labor time during the main agriculturalsea- fewer and less lucrative opportunities in trade than a son, because cotton requires a high percentage of decade earlier,both men and women farmed more land women's labor during harvests (which occurin the lull as private fields. In 1988,private fieldsaccounted for after the rains). White sorghum, in contrast (which has a about 20 percent of net agriculturalincome. Although a much smallertotal labor requirement-394 weighted larger share than ten years earlier,when it had been 11 hours per hectare compared with 1,520weighted hours percent (before subtracting the costs of animal traction), for cotton), requires about the same amount of labor as the income from private fields was still less than it had cotton for soil preparation and weeding (see McMillan been in the settlers' home village, where it had accounted 1983, pp. 397-99).

83 Table3 Percentof womenindicating income from off-farm employment and livestockproduction and averageincome from these sources for the entiresample, 1988/89 (per woman)

Off-Farm Income Net Livestock Incomea Sample Size % CFA % CFA Linoghin (20) 80 21,331 20 201 Bombore (20) 35 1,690 45 486 Mogtedo (20) 60 14,805 45 1,887 Mogtedo V3 (20) 95 23,392 55 3,865 Solenzo (36) 17 6,833 0 0 Kompienga (25) 64 9,774 8 442

a Net income on livestock includes deductionsfor animal losses by death and theft. The lowfigures reflect both this and the fact that only afew women in each sample had sold livestock at the time this initial analysis (August 1989) was conducted.

Source: Savadogo 1989a,c in McMillan, Nana and Savadogo 1993:52.

By 1988, the settlers were experiencing growing prob- All relocated to Kompienga, the site of Burkina Faso's first lems with basic infrastructure because of their inability to hydroelectric dam, in the extreme southeast of the coun- manage user fees in ways that allowed them to make try. The settlers' main motivation for leaving was to find repairs and to replenish stocks of drugs and basic equip- an area with greater opportunities for dry-season irrigated ment. The erratic operation of the groupement-managed farming and trade. Some of the strongest advocates of the grain mill during the preceding five years meant that most move were senior wives. women had to revert to the "traditional" (preresettle- "Step" agricultural migration, like that of the AVV farm- ment) pattem of devoting two to three hours a day to ers from the home village to the AW settlements (1975-78) grinding sorghum and millet. Some men would occasion- and then to Kompienga (1988), is not new. This sort of seri- ally transport the family grain to a gas-powered mill in al agricultural migration has been practiced on the Mossi Mogt6do, but they were an exception. The same period Plateau for centuries. The Kompienga census identified (1988) was characterized by growing problems with the fifty-five male household heads who were former AVV set- first generation of bore hole pumps. Pumps sometimes tlers from the planned settlements at Mogtedo, Mogtedo- would remain broken for one to two weeks, forcing Bombore, Rapadama, and Mankarga. As many as half of women to seek water in neighboring villages or to rely on the Mossi living in Kompienga in 1989 had probably lived streams or stagnant pools. A similar pattern of early suc- for two to ten years in other areas of the OCP valleys or cess followed by decline characterized women's health the plateau before migrating to the town. fadlities. By 1988, most of the village maternities that This kind of step migration has costs-not only UNICEF had stocked with an initial supply of drugs had economic, but also institutional and environmental. been abandoned. At Mogtedo and in certain villages at Rapadama, the out- In late 1987, gold was discovered near the AVV migration of wealthier faimers mneantthe loss of income planned settlements at Mogtedo. The net result was a earned during the early period of colonizing the new set- substantial increase in the income and welfare of female tlement sites, when crop production was highest. These and male farmers near the mining sites (table 2). But the cash resources could have been reinvested in the develop- settlers were not optimistic that gold revenues would be ment of more intensive, sustainable environmental man- reinvested in ways that would improve nonfarm employ- agement-for example, in the construction of stone ment in the long run. diguettes (small dikes). Another incalculable cost is the Frustrated by the lack of long-term prospects for loss of a first generation of settlement leadership. The improving their income and living standards, twenty-one commercial farmers who left Mogtedo for Kompienga registered households, and ten people from households included some of the most ambitious leaders who had that did not move (as a group), left Mogt6do; another worked most closely with the AW administration in find- eight households left Mogtedo-Bombore just as suddenly. ing practical solutions to the settlers' problems.

84 Siteswith LimitedOpportunities for Agricultural labor-intensive soil conservationmeasures, such as build- IncomeGrowth but Opportunitiesto Develop ing diguettes and manure pits. This, along with the almost Off-farmEmployment nonexistent out-migrationfrom the site, reflected their greater interest in investing in long-term settlement. In A third category of case study sites includes those contrast, the more isolated, less diversifiedneighboring where greater opportunities to develop off-farm employ- blocsof Mogt6do and Mogtedo-Bombor6experienced ment made it possible for male and femalesettlers to raise high rates of settler dropout. Of the 255 households their livingstandards despite the areas' limited potential acquiringAVV farms at Mogt6do between 1974 and 1978, for agriculturalincome growth. only 58 percent (148)were still livingthere in 1989. Out- migration was much lower but stillsubstantial (19 per- The AVV planned settlementsat Linoghin cent) at Mogt6do-Bombor6. (Bw*ina Faso) The greater dynamism of the Linoghin settlers mani- In contrast to the AVVplanned settlements at Mogt6- fested itself in other ways as well. For example, an operat- do and Mogt6do-Bombore,no settler households immi- ing millwas run by a private entrepreneur. Although data grated to Kompienga from the AVVplanned settlements are incomplete, it seems that the villagesat Linoghin have at Linoghin.Yet the Linoghin farmers confronted the been more successfulin pooling funds to replace wom- same stagnant prospects for growth in agriculturalincome out pumps. One settler, a pensioned French military vet- as the settlers living in the thirteen neighboringAWV set- eran, had opened a small private pharmacy in his home. tlements at Mogt6do and Mogt6do-Bombor6described The women had started a small weaving cooperative to above.The key differenceseems to have been the much profit from the increased urban demand for hand-woven greater opportunity to develop trade at Linoghin, where doth. In contrast to neighboringblocs, in Linoghin the one of the settlements was located along the paved high- female literacyprograms have been popular and well way linking Ouagadougou to eastem BurkinaFaso, Togo, attended. Especiallyremarkable was the Linoghin group's Niger, Benin, and Ghana. Eighty percent of the women development of the firstkindergarten, reflectingthe high- interviewedat Linoghin recorded income from off-farm er overallspending on education (primaryand secondary) employment none of it from gold (tables 2 and 3). Most in Linoghin observed in the consumption survey. was from cooked food, homemade beer, and gathered Finkoloand Tienfala (Mali) forest products. The average nonfarm income for the women interviewedat Linoghin was about the same as Most of the study households at the Finkolostudy site that recorded at Mogt6do V3, the villagewhere women had immigrated to work as wage laborers on a commer- gained the most from the 1987-88gold rush. cial tea plantation that was established in 1967 (Koenig The greater success of the Linoghin farmers in devel- 1990).It was like most plantations in Africa,and provided oping nonfarm, income-eaming opportunities seems to the workers with an income insufficientto satisfyall their be the main factorin their willingnessto invest in a new household needs. The abilityof tea plantation workers to generation of cash and labor-intensive crop production supplement their income through part-time farming was techniques. Ten years ago, there was no visibledifference hampered by lack of inputs and extension advice; the gov- among Linoghin,Mogtedo, and Mogt6do-Bombor6in emment agency charged with agriculturalextension for input use or net productivityper worker (Murphyand the zone did not recognize part-time farming,even Sprey 1980,p. 69). By 1988, however, the net CFAFvalue though, after retiring many of the workers remained on of crop production per labor unit (ALE)for the study the small farms that they had cultivated (Koenig1990, pp. farmers at Linoghin was 12 percent higher than for those 30-59).Not surprising average food grain production was at Bombore,and 20 percent higher than for those at low (119kilograms per person) (Koenig1990, p. 39 and Mogt6do (McMillan,Nana, and Savadogo1993, p. 65). In personal communication 1994).Few settlers owned ani- 1988,production expenses (in cash and in kind) for study mal traction equipment or livestock.The small amount of farmers at Linoghin were 24 percent higher than at land made availablefor household fieldsat Finkolo left Mogt6do and more than 200percent greater than at none for women's private fields. Despite these con- Mogt6do-Bombor6and Mogt6do V3 (Savadogo,Sanders, straints, the combinationof crop and income eamed on and McMillan1989, p. 40). Seventy-ninepercent of the the tea plantation allowed farmers to improve their living study farmers used some compound fertilizeron their standards. School attendance, for example,was the high- fields at Linoghin, 85 percent did at Mogtedo,but only 45 est at all of the study sites. percent did at Mogt6do-Bombor6(Savadogo, Sanders, A similar situation was observedat Tienfala,located in and McMillan1989, p. 34). The Linoghin settlers also the peri-urban area along the railway line between showed the greatest interest in investingin the more Bamakoand Koulikorowith easy accessto the Bamako

85 market (20-30kilometers). Although there were no obvi- women reduced the time that they devoted to their pri- ous cases of landlessness in Tienfala,it was becoming vate rice fields in the intensive IERvillages, the average more and more difficultfor small farmers to support them- area that they cultivatedand the averageincome that they selveson the availableland and to maintain adequate fal- eamed from their rice fields were about the same as in the low periods (Koenig 1990,p. 34). Averagefood grain semi-intensive and traditional village(IER 1981, p. 42). productionwas also low (177kg per person) (Koenig That is because, in contrast to the other two villages,in 1990,p. 39 and personal communication,1994). Despite the village that adopted intensivecultivation the male these constraints, thirty-fivepercent of the recorded fields household heads plowed their fields. A similar pattem of belonged to women (personalcommunication, 1994). In male aid on women's private fieldswas observed in the addition, women entered into a varietyof non-farm enter- early AVVsettlements (McMillan1983). Whatever the prises. Several of the migrant women in the sample motivation for the men corntributingtheir labor on the worked as maids, something the local women would not women's private fields,the net result was to enable do (Koenig1990, p. 54). Other women sold wood. women to concentrate their labor on the household's Sites with successful intensive commercial enlarged cotton fields while still retaining their 'right' to crop prowhuctionpackages private fields. In contrast, in two of the three Dioila study villagesin The best example of a crop production package that the Land Settlement Review,the women reported having can be characterizedas sustainable is the intensive com- few private fields (Koenig1990, p. 52). Unfortunately, the mercial cotton package promoted in southem Mali and team was unable to measure the percentage of land area westem BurkinaFaso (Koenig1990; McMillan, Nana, and or production that these fields represented. In addition, Savadogo 1992).Average annual food grain production the women in the Yaniolilaregion (near the IERBougouni for the study farmers at Dioila was 394 kg per person, study sites), where Compagniemalienne pour le d6veloppe- more than twice the yearly requirement of 180 kg per per- mentdes textiles(CMDT) had just begun working, reported son (Koenig 1990,p. 38 and personal communication having great difficultyacquiring fields (Koenig 1990,pp. 1994).In addition, the sample households produced an 53-54).Qualitative interviews in Burkinaand at other averageof 1,817 kg of cotton per household (Koenig sites show that women immigratingto an uncleared area 1990).Average cereal (sorghum, millet, and maize) pro- in the OCP river basins depended on their husbands to duction for animal traction households at Solenzowas a clear the new fields. For that reason, the first fieldsinvari- whopping 567 kg per person (if the inflated production ably were created alongside the household's main fields. figures for the small number of farmers with mini-tractors The lesser access to cleared land, combined with the high- are included) and 361 kg per person for manual farmers er labor demands of building a house and routine domes- (Savadogo,Sanders, and McMillan1989, p. 5; McMillan, tic chores, explainswhy nonsponsored immigrants Nana, and Savadogo 1993,p. 66). Totalcotton production typicallyhad little time, energy, or land for private crop averaged372 kg for manual farmers, 2,202kg for house- production. holds with animal traction,and 22,252kg for the nine In the Dioila, Solenzo, and IERintensive cultivation households with mini-tractors. villages,the observedincrease in women's labor obliga- These higher yields, involvinga much larger cultiva- tions on the collectivelyworked household fields and tion area for cotton, were associatedwith much higher their reduced income from private sources were accompa- demands for household and women's labor.6 Indeed, the nied by a "renegotiation" of the distributionof resources Institut d'6conomie rurale (IER)research in the Bougouni from the collectivehousehold fields. In the middle- and region argued that the women's willingnessto circumvent upper-income households that grew the most cotton, the the traditionalprohibition on women workingin the male household heads appeared to be making cash pay- fieldsalongside their husbands by participatingin all- ments to the women and married sons who helped them femalegroups that hired themselves out to work on one on the fieldsas well as providing all the basic food and another's fields was a major factor in the households' condiments (Koenig1990; Lichte, personal communica- ability to meet the much higher labor demands of the new tion, 1994).A similar phenomenon was observedat the crop technology (IER1981, p. 25). Conversely,they AVVsettlements in 1979, when farmers still had 30 per- argued that no such innovative "social" pattem existedin cent of the total land area planted in cotton (McMillan the semi-intensiveor traditionalvillages, where adoption 1983).Besides assuming greater responsibilityfor house- rates and productivitywere lower than in the third village hold expenses,the early AVVsettlers gave gifts of 5,000 to which was characterizedas "intensive". as much as 20,000CFAF to their wives and older sons and The impact of these higher labor demands on women's brothers. Indeed, the high cost of these "gifts" was one of private production varied widely between sites.Although the main reasons given for the farmers' unwillingnessto

86 Table4 CFAValue of Productionper Householdand for One Womanper Household

CFAValue of Production from Private CFAValue of Production Income ProducingActivities (per household) (for 1 Woman per Household) From From All Sample Household Women's Site: Size Fields Fields Crop Livestock Nonfarm Total AW Linoghin 20 233,762 31,092 19,336 201 21,331 71,960 Bombore 20 237,137 30,594 11,145 486 1,690 13,321 Mogtedo 20 220,242 37,699 16,976 1,887 14,805 33,668 MogtedoV3 20 192,854 36,457 17,385 3,865 23,392 65,892 Solenzo-All (36) 1,065,185 22,203 12,687 0 6,833 19,520 Manual 13 86,340 * a * * u Animal Traction 14 354,231 * * * u u Mini-Tractors 9 3,627,438 * u u Kompienga 25 409,732 33,505 12,633 -442 9,774 21,965 * indicatesdata not available. Sources: Savadogo1989a: 17-19; McMillan, Nana, and Savadogo1993: 62, 66.

accept the cotton parastatal's proposal to split the cotton ures can mask wide variation between technologygroups market into two days. They argued that the split market in women's role in food grain production (table 6). would eliminate any profit because it would obligate them Koenigobserved that, at all of the Mali study sites, to make two sets of intrahousehold gifts (McMillan1983). women in the poorest households engaged in a wider The same case studies caution against focusingexclu- range of nonfarm activitiesthan women in the middle- sively on the ideal or "modal" pattem of intensive cotton and upper-income strata (Koenig1990, pp. 42-43).In production to avoid overlookingwide differencesat a site addition, the households in the lower-incomestrata were in household patterns of production (table 4). In particu- much more dependent on the women's nonfarm income lar, it is very easy to overlook the fact that not all house- to purchase food and satisfybasic needs. Koenig observed holds have the cash, land, or labor to adopt new intensive a similar phenomenon at Kita, another area in Mali with a crop production technologies (Koenig1990, p. 42; IER successfulintensive peanut package (Koenigin Koenig 1981,1982; McMillan, Nana, and Savadogo1993, pp. 62- forthcoming).At Kita, women in the lowest-income stra- 68). Key factorsinfluencing the ability of farmers to adopt tum produced a much greater share of household income the proposed intensive crop packages include household than those in the other two income groups (about a third, size, capital, experiencewith animal traction, and quality compared with a tenth or less), and their income was nec- of landholdings, as shown in table 5. These same factors essary to cover basichousehold expenses (Koenig in account for at least some of the wide variation observed Koenig forthcoming).The IERsurvey of three CMDTvil- among households in averageyields and income (IER lages near Bougouni (near Yanfolila)found that the poor- 1981, p. 9; Koenig 1990,p. 30).7In many cases, these dif- est households usually had the most diversifiedsources of ferences correlate with differencesin levels of and depen- income (IER1981, pp. 42-46).Nonfarm income was espe- dence on private crop production. For example,women's ciallycritical in the low-income households, which used it production accounted for 25 percent of the net value of to purchase food. production for the Solenzo households that farmed man- A key lesson to be leamed from these "successful" ually, but only 6 percent for the households that farmed study sites is the flexibilityof traditional patterns of intra- with animal traction and less than 1 percent for house- household production in adapting to new, more labor- holds that owned mini-tractors (McMillan,Nana, and intensivecash crops. Equallyimportant is that not all Savadogo 1993,p. 66; Savadogo 1989a,p. 17). This wide households are willingor able to absorb the labor variation was obscured by the overallsample average of 2 demands and risk associatedwith this type of high input percent (Savadogo 1989a,p. 17). The same average fig- cultivationpackage. It is not surprising, therefore, that

877 Table5 Cropand LivestockProduction per AdultLabor Equivalent (ALE Solenzo 1988/89)

Dar/Kie Daboura All Animal Animal Animal Manual Traction Tractor Manual Traction Tractor Manual Traction Tractor Average family size 8.0 (6) 13.5 (8) 29.5 (5) 8.0 (7) 7.5 (6) 37.0 (4) * * e (no. residents) Average family labor 2.8 5.3 10.9 2.6 2.5 13.8 2.7 (13) 4.1 (14) 12.2 (9) force (ALEa) Collective Field Area 4.4 (6) 7.0 (9) 37.7 (5) 2.7 (7) 5.8 (6) 29.9 (4) 3.5 (13) 6.5 (14) 34.5 (9) (per farmh) Collective Field Area 1.4 1.6 3.4 1.5 1.9 2.2 1.4 1.7 2.8 (ALE) Cotton (Kg. per ALE) 148 548 2,789 133 513 869 138 537 1,824 Sorghum-Millet 422 694 808 411 1,252 737 410 838 771 (kg. per ALE) Maize (Kg. per ALE) 42 135 4,292 132 94 1,448 88 124 2,864 Net Crop Income all Fields 24,416 79,821 521,167 39,134 104,988 182,850 31,978 86,398 297,331 (CFA per ALE) Annual Livestock Income 1,000 11,200 71,907 3,737 -4,911 10,921 u (CFA per ALE) for Male Household Heads

()indicates number of households. * indicates data not available. a Weights used to derive ALE are based on study calculations. b Measurements for thefields of the household head and one wife were estimated by crude calculations of length and width. A subsample offields was subjected to more rigorousfield measurements in order to verify the accuracy of our estimates. Sources: Savadogo, Sanders, and McMillan 1989 and McMillan calculations.

Table6 Divisionof CerealProduction between Privately and Cooperatively WorkedFields, Solenzo 1988/1989 (in percent)

Private Fields Village and technology type Cooperative All Men's Women's Dar-es-Salaam/Kie Manual 100 0 0 0 Animal traction 79 21 10.5 10.5 Tractor 100 0 0 0 Daboura Manual 95 5 0 5 Animal traction 98 2 0 2 Tractor 100 0 0 0

Source: Savadogo 1989d.

88 households in different income and technologygroups land. Since rights to land are usually held by the person vary widelyin their organization of household and private who clears it, the women generallybecame more depen- crop production. dent on their husbands for land than they had been before moving.Over the long term, most women did Conclusion acquire private fields, even in planned settlement projects, The Land Settlement Reviewconfirms the observation such as the AVVand FED-Agbassaprojects, that made no based on comparativeresearch that women were general- provision for private fields (McMillan,Nana, and Savado- ly worse off, at least initially,in areas of new-lands settle- go 1993;Painter 1990).The chief exceptions occurred ment (Koenigforthcoming Scudder 1981, 1984;Sequeira where the amount of land given to the recognized male 1993).One reason for this is the substantial increase in household head was considered inadequate to farm-for demand for women's labor for domestic and agricultural example,Finkolo, Tienfala, Selingu6,and a villagein chores. The initial transition period also was associated Manantali (Koenig1990, p. 43, and forthcoming p. 11). with women's loss of their traditional sources of indepen- Koenig (forthcoming)points out that women generally dent income from private fields, irrigated gardening and were less concerned about the loss of land rights per se nonfarm employment-not just in the AW settlements than about the consequences.She observed that where but in sponsored and spontaneous settlements worldwide resettlement resulted in a higher standard of living and (Koenigforthcoming Scudder 1981,1984; Sequeira 1993). men were willing to share the higher income with their The river basins' isolation and their greater distance wives, women had a more positive perception of the from markets increased the amount of time spent in move. Two of the best-documented examples of this are transporting crop and forest products to markets. the Zimbabwe schemes studied by Jacobs (1989)and the Women's loss of access to the gas-powered millsthat Shukriyatenants in Sudan's New Halfa scheme (Salem- many had used in their home areas led to a dramatic Murdock 1989). Studies emphasize that women can com- increase in the time spent in processing food. With few pensate for a loss of rights in agricultureif they can find permanent water points, the average time required to get other, nonagriculturalsources of income (Koenigforth- water also increased,by several hours a day. As a result, coming p. 18).At New Halfa, for example, many women women often obtained water from lakes and stagnant began to trade, and they thus approved of the resettle- sources, which contributed to an increase in guinea worm ment despite their loss of "traditional" occupations and infant diarrhea]disease at some of the study sites (Salem-Murdock1989). In the more isolated Karibavil- (Painter 1990). When combined with the backbreaking lages that were far from beer halls, women were able to work of clearingand planting new fields, the increased increase their incomesby making bee1 when the harvests labor associated with routine domestictasks meant that were good (Colson 1971,pp. 130-32). femalesettlers had little time for their independent social Similarpatterns were observedat the Land Settlement and economic activitiesduring the early years. Burdened Review study sites, but the resulting income increases with higher labor demands and less familiarwith their were not always sustainable. In each case, however, the new environment the women often decreased their use early increase and then subsequent decline in women's of gathered foods and forest products (McMillan1983; income had less to do with their being women than with Diarra and others 1994).Colson observeda similar result the overall failure to generate sustainable opportunities at Kariba,where it had a serious effecton infant and child for increasing agriculturalincome at the study sites. nutrition (Colson 1971). When profitable technologieswere available,women A centraltheme in the resettlementliterature is that showed their willingness to foregothe land rights and femalesettlers usually lose their inheritedrights to land when income earning opportunities they had enjoyed before they move (Colson1971; Koenig forthcoming Salem-Mur- immigration. Women thus contributed to the adoption dock 1989;Sequeira 1993). The loss of inheritedland tenure and productivityof new technologies and land manage- rights is especiallydisruptive in matrilinealsocieties (Kiste ment practices.In the absence of profitable activities,the 1972;Koenig forthcoming). Studies emphasize that the lack income earned from women's crop, livestock,and non- of inheritedrights, fewer sources of independentincome, and farm activitieshelped the familiesto survive. distancefrom their natal familiesincrease women's vulnera- R bilityin the event of a divorceor the husband'sdeath (Brain 1976;Koenig forthcoming Sequeira 1993). 1. Support adaptive,gender-sensitive, on-fartn When the women settlersimmigrated to the OCP areas, researchand extension they also lost their traditional rights to crop and grazing The intensivecotton package implementedin southem land. Their acquisitionof new land in the river basins was Mali and westem BurkinaFaso has been the only crop complicated by their dependence on men to clear the technologypackage promoted in the OCP river basins that

89 approximates the popular definitions of environrrmentalsus- de-eniphasized. Rather, echoing Scudder's global recom- tainability. This package builds on more than fifty years of mendation, it is clear that every research station that consistent support for action-oriented research and exten- serves a specific agro-ecological or political zone "should sion by the French and national governments. Its develop- include an area which simulates in size and other condi- ment was further supported by the existence of strong tions the different kinds of settler holdings in that zone" well-organized rural development organizations such as (Scudder 1984, p. 24). the CMDT and Socidt6 des fibres textiles (SOFITEX)Xwhich As part of this process, there is a critical need to rein- offered agricultural credit, improved inputs, and advice force and expand existing efforts to promote the full par- to farmers growing new crops on new lands (Koenig 1990, ticipation of women in the identification, testing and p. 64; McMillan, Nana, and Savadogo 1993). dissemination of new technologies. There are several Few such technologies exist for the other Sudano- practical reasons for this. One has to do with the fact that Sahelian zones. Moreover, in these zones the "normal" women's knowledge of the environment is not the same problems of technology development were complicated as men's. Drawing on women's knowledge can help pre- by the lack of established cropping systems or research vent costly mistakes, such as investing in seed varieties, data on which to base extension recommendations and field layout pattems, roads, or road networks that are not advice. The river basins' sparse population means that adapted to the needs of rural farm families. Another prac- they often lacked the basic infrastructure (roads, bridges, tical reason for ensuring women's participation is that it schools, markets, and administrative centers) that sup- helps improve the chances that both male and female ports development. Some of the reasons that an area may farmers can accommodate the new labor and production have remained uninhabited, such as human or animal demands by adjusting intrahousehold pattems of produc- diseases, or unhealthy drinking water, also pose prob- tion and consumption. lems, as does insecure land tenure. For all these reasons, 2. Anticpate and reinforce the evolving patterns technology development in the less privileged zones is of income diversification at the sites likely to be a long process of trial and error. There is a critical need for donors, nongovernmental In the short run, even the most seasoned planners are organizations (NGOs), and governments to support unlikely to be able to predict all of the factors that will research to develop the technology and policies necessary affect the development of commercial farming in the OCP to support higher-yielding sustainable crop production river basins. For that reason, the planners' goal should be practices. Planners recognize the need to support agricul- to develop a diversified production system, rather than a tural development. All too often, however, the follow-up system focused on the intensive production of one or two planning has focused on preliminary surveys designed to commercial crops, such as the early programs advocated measure arbitrary levels of success, basic infrastructure, at the AVV, FED-Agbassa, and Manantali projects and extension. In the early AVV project, for example, (McMillan 1993). A diversified economic system that there was almost no attempt before 1986 to link the includes possibilities for eaming income from irrigated results of the project's farm monitoring program to modi- dry-season farming, livestock, forestry, trade, and rainfed fication of the recommended package (see Murphy and agriculture offers both men and women the greatest free- Sprey 1980). A similar pattem of "top-down" extension dom to develop innovative responses to new constraints was observed at most of the other sites. Indeed, no evi- and opportunities. dence of on-farm adaptive crop or livestock research was While diversification is important in all systems, it is found at any of the study sites in 1988 except in the especially important in areas that lack established commer- CMDT and SOFITEX cotton zones. cial crop production packages such as those supported by This finding is consistent with Scudder's observation, the CMDT in Mali and SOFITEXin Burkina Faso. In these based on a comparative review of more than 100 new- areas, the availability and profitability of nonfarm income lands settlement projects in Africa, Asia, and Latin Ameri- earning opportunities (for men and women) are likely to ca, that extension services were either nonexistent or influence reinvestment pattems. Some of our best evidence minimal in 53 percent of the govemment-sponsored set- for this comes from the AVV planned settlements at tlements and of good to excellent quality in only 11 per- Linoghin. Plentiful nonfarm employment gave the Lino- cent (Scudder 1984, p. 33). Of the ten spontaneous ghin settlers the means to invest in a new generation of settlements on which he had data, nine either had no crop technology and land management practices. Higher extension services or had only minimal extension services. cash income due to plentiful off-farm employment gave the The recommendation to support adaptive, gender-sen- Linoghin settlers the means and the motivation to invest in sitive, on-farm research should not be interpreted as sug- a new generation of crop technology and land manage- gesting that conventional crop research should be ment practices that would allow them to increase or at least

90 stabilize agricultural production at the site. In much the tiements in particular during the 1970s (Haggblade, same way, the high potential for developing irrigation and Hazell, and Brown 1987, 1989; Johnston and Kilby 1975, trade at the Kompienga study site seems to account for the p. 301; World Bank 1978; Weitz, Pelley, and Applebaum low rates of farmer out-migration despite declining yields 1978; van Raay and Hilhorst 1981). But it seems to have and the lack of govemment support for agriculture.8 been lost during the 1980s, as the emphasis shifted to Diversification is likely to be relatively unimportant in macroeconomic policy reform and reinforcing national the initial development of areas with intensive commer- research institutions and regional research networks. cial packages such as the CMDT cotton package. But over For more decentralized, diversified income earning the long run the development of diverse commercial food opportunities to develop, they need to be reinforced by and cash crop production helps to buffer the impact of a new technology. There is an immediate need for research collapse in the price or subsidies for a singie dominant to identify promising technologies that could improve the cash crop. A dramatic drop in the profitability of a domi- returns to women's manufacturing and food processing nant cash crop affects both rich and poor, but wealthier activities, for wider dissemination of information on exist- households have a greater ability to move on to an area ing food processing technologies. Another priority need is offering new opportunities. for national initiatives to decentralize food processing and A diversified package of income earning opportunities to expand markets for nontraditional, locally manufac- based on several crops, livestock, and nonfarm employ- tured products. ment improves the chances that new immigrants, who In view of the importance that settlers attach to devel- often have less labor and cash than established farmers, oping diversified sources of income, policymakers should will be able to absorb the cash costs and higher risk of concentrate, at least initially, on less isolated areas where moving into new, higher-yielding crop production tech- opportunities for diversification are greater. The chief nologies. The same "bank" of more diversified income exception should be isolated areas with considerable nat- earning opportunities provides a cushion for smaller ural resource or economic potential, such as areas near households that may be forced to abandon more labor- dams and protected (or classified) forests. intensive, high-risk technologies because of illness, old If the first generation settlers in an area is successful in age, or the out-migration of a key worker. development efforts, that success is likely to attract addi- These findings corroborate other research showing tional settlers. Therefore, iLis important for policymakers that increased economic diversification need not be at the to phase development investments over a long period. expense of additional investment in intensive farming or Growth of a settlement normally results in the creation of higher crop productivity (Scudder 1981, 1984). Indeed, new markets and in the expansion of existing markets and there is little evidence from successful settlements administrative centers. These expanded markets tend to throughout the tropics of significant numbers of wealthier increase women's nonfarm employment by creating new farmers withdrawing entireiy from agriculture as long as market opportunities and reducing input and labor costs. appropriate agricultural markets exist (Scudder 1981, The AVV's many futile attempts to develop markets show 1984). In terms of environmental sustainability, crop pro- that it is not always easy to predict where new market ductivity, and positive regional development, one of the centers will develop. Nevertheless, govemment invest- most successful settlements in the tropics is Minneriya, ment in roads and infrastructure that facilitates the devel- established in the drv zone of Sri Lanka in the 1980's opment of market centers increases the profitability of (Scudder and Wimaladharma 1985, 1990). Wimaladharma local agricultural and nonfarm enterprises. Donors might found that over 90 percent of holdings in the early 1980's therefore plan a second generation of funding to support were still controlled by the same families-including now the development of market and administrative centers adult children to whom parents had handed over man- that emerge during the first phase of an intervention and agement (Scudder and Wimaladharma 1990). High rates whose continued success is critical to the attainment of of settler tumover in Africa, Asia, and Latin America are longer-term project goals of sustainable development. associated with a lack of opportunity as well as insecure 3 Link basic hterary training to the development tenure and unfavorable project and macro-level prices of better modelsforfnding and managing labor- and/or price policies that deflate the returns to sustainable saving technology and social infarastnicture cropping (Scudder 1981, 1984; Painter and others 1984). There is a need to increase the awareness of govern- There is clear evidence that women suffer dispropor- ments, NGOs, and donors about the vital link between tionately from the lack of infrastructure in the sparsely farm and nonfarm employment: in the OCP and at older settled river basins, since this increases the labor involved settlement sites worldwide. This is a theme that was in time consuming activities like carrying water, process- examined for agriculture in general and for new-land set- ing food, and raising healthy children, transporting crops

91 and trade. To remedy this, a large number of research and der-related factors on a household's willingness and planning documents emphasize the need to develop ability to adopt new technology and land manage- health and education infrastructure, as well as labor-sav- ment practices9 ing technology for domestic tasks, as a "women's issue" * To misidentify the major sources of household (see Phillott-Almeida 1985). income and to estimate incorrectly the size of house- But no model has yet demonstrated the best means to hold income support these types of project. In one model the new infra- * To overestimate the impact of gender-specific con- structure was provided by a development authority similar straints relative to that of broader system constraints to the AW or FED-Agbassa. Invariably, however, these u To exclude women from the design of crop and live- projects ran into trouble when it came time to hand over stock extension programs by focusing attention management of the infrastructure to the settlers (McMil- instead on gender-specific infrastructure and income Ian, Nana, and Savadogo 1993; Painter 1990; Koenig earning projects. 1990). An important problem was the settlers' low level of The call for a broader systems approach is similar to a education. For this reason, some of the more recent pro- recent shift in thinking about women in developing coun- grams emphasize the need to link infrastructure develop- try agriculture toward the concept of "gender planning," ment programs with programs to teach the basic literacy which, in taking account of the fact that women and men and accounting skills necessary to manage this infrastruc- play different roles in Third World societies and therefore ture. Policymakers would benefit from a critical analysis of often have different needs, provides both the conceptual the factors that have contributed to (or detracted from) the framework and the methodological tools for incorporating success of group-managed infrastructure such as wells, gender into planning (Moser 1989: 1799). mills, village pharmacies, and schools in the older areas of 6. Need for a longitudinal perspective new-lands settlement or in particular countries. Far less attention has been focused on the issue of privately managed mills, clinics, and village pharmacies. An important weakness of OCP planning and evalua- Although the Land Settlement Review did not examine tion documents, hcwever, has been their strong tendency this issue, a high percentage of the mills operating in suc- to consider househoid and intrahousehold opportunities, cessful zones of spontaneous in-migration seemed to be constraints, and goals as if they are static. This stems in privately owned. The high failure rates for group-man- part from the difficulty of quantifying and verifying the aged enterprises suggests that more attention needs to be reliability of information on intrahousehold labor and paid to the relative merits of private sector management. commodity flows and in part from the need to simplify Few women care who operates a mill or dispensary; they interview forms to ease data collection and comparative care only that it is open and capable of delivering the analysis (McMillan 1987). required services. A promising methodology for developing comparative, 4. Develop income earning opportunities based longitudinal research on settlement trends is to incorporate intensive, micro-level studies of intrahousehold change and diversification in a more broadly based farm Given the heavy concentration of protected and natur- monitoring survey. This methodology was used in the al forests in the OCP river basins, priority should be given longitudinal case studies of the AW and the Manantali to NGO and government efforts to develop income eam- sponsored settlements (see Diarra and others 1994; ing opportunities based on renewable forest products. The Koenig 1990; McMillan 1983, 1987; McMillan, Nana, and genius of this type of project is that it creates a group of Savadogo 1993). A longitudinal approach is important for people with a vested interest in regulating those who development research in general, but it is especially attempt to exploit the forests. And since women typically important for analyzing new-lands settlements because are the primary gatherers and processors of forest prod- of the high demands for labor and investment during the ucts (firewood, charcoal, honey), they often are the major early years and the significant stress of adjusting to new participants in and beneficiaries of such projects. social and production environments (Scudder 1984). Whenever possible, studies should strive to be longitu- 5.tAnalyeswomen issueswitn anider statemes cntodess dinal-that is, they should reexamine the same group of households at different points in the project cycle. If lon- A final recommendation concerns the need for plan- gitudinal research is not possible, careful attention should ners to analyze gender issues within a wider systems con- be given to distinguishing between households at differ- text. Failure to do so can lead policymakers: ent stages in adopting a new technology package. This * To overestimate or underestimate the impact of gen- approach allows researchers and policymakers to distin-

92 guish between long- and short-term effects of technical 5. The AVV uses a system of labor equivalents to innovation and resettlement. It can also increase appreci- determine the amount of land a household receives and a ation of the fact that the issue of women's roles in OCP similar system to determine the distribution of supple- development is not only-or even primarily-about equi- mentary food during the first year. A household's poten- ty. Rather, general differences in development are funda- tial labor is measured by a labor index that assigns mentally economic, and, as such, have significant weights to persons according to sex and age. Since an implications for the current and long-term sustainability adult male is considered to have the work capacity most of specific sites and of the entire OCP zone. readilv transferred to a variety of tasks, adult males are the Notes standard unit and are assigned a value of one. Women and children are assigned lesser values (0.75 for adult 1. The research was conducted in 1989 by four country women, 0.50 for teenage boys, 0.25 for a woman over age teams that comprised a mix of national and intemational 55). The use of labor and consumption equivalents to consultants. The teamnsconducted interviews in 114 vil- standardize the units of comparative analysis (so that one lages and several cooperatives. The household surveys does not calculate the "average" household income based included 485 settler households in 66 villages (see McMil- on units that may range in size from three to thirty-five lan, Painter, and Scudder 1992, pp. 5-6). Questions asked people and one to twelve workers) is a hotly debated topic of household members at each study site concemed in farm management research. household migration histories; pattems of production, 6. In 1979, the recorded rainy season labor time for consumption, and investment; the nature and uses made Kaya settlers who had lived in the AVV planned settle- of retums on production; off-farm activities; and natural ments for three to five years was twice the recorded figure resource management. In most cases, though not all, only for the home village (1,200 weighted hours per labor unit one man and one woman were interviewed in each study compared with 600), due in large part to the fact that 30 household. Community leaders and other individuals percent of the total area was planted in cotton. were asked questions about village history, migration, 7. The IER research in the most intensive CMDT village and settlement in the area, land use and land conflict, the showed that cotton yields ranged from 747 to 2,346 kg/ha presence of social services, infrastructure, markets, and and averaged 1,091 kg/ha (IER 1981, p. 9). Sorghum yields the like. Regional-level information on settlement and ranged from 736 to 2,369 kg/ha and averaged 1,380 kg/ha. development was obtained through interviews with rep- 8. The reinstatement of women's private fields and off- resentatives of govemment and nongovemmental organi- farm employment at Kompienga was very rapid due in zations and projects and through a review of govemment large part to the strong base of existing social infrastruc- documents (McMillan, Painter, and Scudder 1992). ture associated with the dam, such as housing, wells, Although gender issues were addressed for each topical roads, and health care facilities, as well as the fact that area, they were not the primary focus of the study. some of the fields were all or partially cleared by the first 2. Like the AWVand FED-Agbassa plans, the project generation of spontaneous settlers before the former AWV plan for the Manantali Dam resettlement scheme includ- settlers arrived. ed the expectation that settlers would continue to use the 9. One of the best examples of this was the fear that a high input package suggested by ODIPAC (Operation de strong tradition of "private" fields would reduce settlers' Developpement Integr6 des Productions Arachidieres et willingness to adopt more labor-intensive crop technolo- Cerealieres) that would have allowed the settlers to grow gies. Instead, the case studies note several instances in a mix of cash and subsistence crops on a fixed area of land which the women were willing to forgo certain "tradition- that was more circumscribed than that to which they had al" prerogatives as long as there were sufficient economic been accustomed (see Horowitz, Koenig Grimm, and incentives. Moreover, in the absence of strong economic Konate 1993; Diarra and others 1994). incentives, the case studies showed that nothing could 3. The success of the intensive cotton production mod- prevent the women from reinstating private income eam- el in westem Burkina Faso led the AWVto advocate a sim- ing opportunities even when these were not specified in ilar model for the planned settlements along the the project plan (AVVand FED-Agbassa). Nakambe (formerly the White Volta). References 4. The AWVfarmers reduced cotton cultivation from 38-42 percent of the planted area in household fields in Akwabi-Ameyaw, K. 1990. "Land Settlement Review, 1978 to 20 percent in 1988, and increased the area planted Country Case Study: Ghana." Institute for Development to the less intensive sorghum and millet from 33-48 per- Anthropology, Binghamton, N.Y. cent of the household field area to 60 percent (McMillan, Brain, J. 1976. "Less than Second Class: Women on Nana, and Savadogo 1993, p. 64). 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93 and Edna Bay, eds., Women in Africa. Stanford: Stanford and Kathleen Staudt, eds. Women and the State in Africa. University Press. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner. Collins, J. L. and M. Painter. Settlement and Deforesta- Johnston, B., and P. Kilby. 1975. Agriculture and Struc- tion in CentralAmerica: A Discussionof'Development Issues. turalTransformation: Economic Strategies of LateDeveloping Institute for Development Anthropology Working Paper Countries. London: Oxford University Press. Number 31. Binghamton, NY: Institute for Development Kiste, R. 1972. "Relocation and Technological Change Anthropology. in Micronesia." In H.R. Bemard and P.J. Pelto, eds., Colson,E. 1971.The SocialConsequences of Resettlement: Technologyand SocialChange. New York:Macmillan. The Impact of the KaribaResettlement upon the Gwembe Koenig, D. 1990. "Land Settlement Review, Country Tonga. Kariba Studies TV.Manchester: University of Case Study: Mali." Institute for Development Anthropol- Manchester Press. ogy, Binghamton, N.Y. Conti, A. 1979. "Capitalist Organization of Production . Forthcoming. "Women and Resettlement." through Non-Capitalist Relations: Women's Role in a In R. Gallin and A. Ferguson, eds., The Women and Pilot Resettlement in Upper Volta." Review of African International Development Annual. Boulder, Colo.: PoliticalEconomy 15/16:75-92. Westview Press. Diarra, T., D. Koenig, Y. Kone, and F. Maiga. 1994. McMillan, D. 1983. "A Resettlement Project in Upper "Evaluation: Manantali Resettlement Project (625-0955)." Volta." Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestem University, Institut des sciences humaines, ministere des enseigne- Anthropology Department, Evanston, Ill. ments secondaires, superieurs et de la recherche . 1987. "Monitoring the Evolution of Household scientifique, Bamako. Economic Systems over Time in Farning Systems Guissou,J. 1977. Etudesur lesbesoins desfemmes dans Research." Developmentand Change18:295-314. les villages de l'AVVet proposition d'un programme d'inter- . 1993. "Diversification and Successful Settle- vention.Ouagadougou: SAED. (Societe Africaine d'Etudes ment in the River Blindness Control Zone of West Africa." et de D6veloppement). Human Organization 52(3):269-82. Haggblade, S., P. Hazell, and J. Brown. 1987."Farm/ McMillan, D., J.-B. Nana, and K. Savadogo. 1993. Non-Farm Linkages in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa: Empiri- Settlement and Development in the River Blindness Control cal Evidence and Policy Implications." Discussion Paper Zone: Case Study-Burkina Faso. World Bank Technical ARU 67. World Bank, Research Unit, Agriculture and Rur- Paper 200. Washington, D.C. al Development Department, Operational Policy Staff, McMillan, D., T. Painter, and T. Scudder. 1992. Settle- Washington, D.C. mentand Developmentin the RiverBlindness Control Zone. -1989. "Farm-Nonfarm Linkages in Rural Sub- World Bank Technical Paper 192. Washington, D.C. Saharan Africa." World Development 17(8): 1173-1201. Moser, C. 1989. Gender Planning in the Third World: Horowitz, M., D. Koenig, C. Grimm, Y. Konate. 1993. Meeting Practicaland Strategic Gender Needs. World "Resettlement at Manantali, Mali: Short-Term Success, Development. 17, 11:1799-1825. Long-Term Problems." In AnthropologicalApproaches to Murphy, J., and L. Sprey. 1980. "The Volta Valley Resettlement: Policy, Practice, and Theory. Ed. M. Cernea Authority: Socio-economic Evaluation of a Resettlement and S. Guggenheim. Boulder, Co.: Westview. pp. 229-250. Project in Upper Volta." Purdue University, Department Hunting Technical Services Limited. 1988. "Socioeco- of Agricultural Economics, West Lafayette, Ind. nomic Development Studies in the Onchocerciasis Con- Painter, M., C. A. Perez-Crespo, M. L. Albomoz, S. trol Programme Areas." 4 vols. Hemel Hempstead, Herts, Hamilton, W. L. Partridge. New-Lands Settlement and England. RegionalDevelopment: The Caseof SanJulian, Bolivia. Insti- IER (Institut d'economie rurale, Ministere de l'agricul- tute for Development Anthropology Working Paper Num- ture). 1981. "Synthese des travaux realises en Zone Mali- ber 15. Binghamton, NY: Institute for Development Sud de 1979 a 1981 avec la participation du Centre de Anthropology. recherches pour le developpement international (CRDI Painter, T. 1990. "Land Settlement Review, Country Dossier Centre 3-P-77-0058 de l'USAID et de la Fonda- Case Study: Togo." Institute for Development Anthropol- tion Ford): Requete de financement pour une deuxieme ogy, Binghamton, N.Y. phase (1982-1983) aupres du CRDI." Bamako. Phillott-Almeida, R. 1985. "Report on the Status and - . 1982. "Commission technique sur les systemes Contribution of Women in Socio Economic Development de production rurale." Rapport de la Campagne 1981-82 in the Onchocerciasis-Liberated Zone." Onchocerciasis et Proposition de Programmes 1982-83. Bamako. Control Programme, Ouagadougou. Jacobs, S. 1989. "Zimbabwe: State, Class and Gen- Reyna, S. 1983. "Dual Class Formation and Agrarian dered Models of Land Settlement. " In Jane Parpart Underdevelopment: An Analysis of the Articulation of

94 Production Relationsin Upper Volta." CanadianJournal LandsSettlement in the Tropicsand Subtropics:A Global of AfricanStudies 2(17):221-34. State-of-the-ArtEvaluation with SpecificEmphasis on Policy . 1986. "Donor Investment Preference, Class Implications. Institute for Development Anthropology, Formation, and Existential Development: Articulation of Binghamton, N.Y. Production Relations in Burkina Faso." In M. Horowitz . 1984. The DevelopmentPotential of New Lands and T. Painter, eds., Anthropologyand Rural Development Settlementin the Tropicsand Subtropics:A GlobalState-of-the- in WestAfrica. Boulder,Colo.: WestviewPress. Art Evaluationwith SpecificEmphasis on PolicyImplications. Rogers, Barbara. 1980. The Domestication of Women: AID Program Evaluation Discussion Paper 21. U.S. Discrimination in Developing Societies. New York, N.Y., Agency for Intemational Development (USAID), St. Martinis Press. Washington, D.C. Salem-Murdock, M. 1989. Arabs and Nubians in New Scudder, T., and K.P. Wimaladharma. 1985. "The Halfa: A Study of Settlement and Imgation. Salt Lake City: Accelerated Mahaweli (Sri Lanka) Programme and Dry University of Utah. Zone Development. Report 6. Institute for Development Savadogo, K. 1989a. "Analysis of Off-Farm Income." Anthropology, Binghamton, N.Y. Land Settlement Review Draft Site Report. Institute for Scudder, T., and K. P. Wimaladharma. 1990. The Development Anthropology, Binghamton, N.Y. Accelerated Mahaweli (Sri Lanka) Programme and Dry . 1989b. "Land Tenure Systems." Land Settle- Zone Development. Report 7. Institute for Development ment Review Draft Site Report. Institute for Development Anthropology, Binghamton, N.Y. Anthropology, Binghamton, N.Y. Sequeira, D. 1993. "Gender and Resettlement: An . 1989c. "Livestock in the Farming System." Overview of Impact and Planning Issues in World Bank- Land Settlement Review Draft Site Report. Institute for Assisted Projects." Paper prepared for Bankwide Reset- Development Anthropology, Binghamton, N.Y. tlement Review. World Bank, Washington, D.C. . 1989d. "Factors Explaining Household Food Van Raay, G., and J. Hilhorst. 1981. "Land Settlement Production Systems." Land Settlement Review Draft Site and Regional Development in the Tropics: Results, Report. Institute for Development Anthropology, Prospects and Options." Draft discussion paper. Institute Binghamton, N.Y. for Social Studies Advisory Board, The Hague. Savadogo, K., J. Sanders, and D. McMillan. 1989. Weitz, R., D. Pelley, and L. Applebaum. 1978. "Farm and Female Incomes and Productivities in the Riv- Employment and Income Generation in New Settlement er Blindness Settlement Programs of Burkina Faso." Land Projects.World Employment Paper 10, Working Paper 3. Settlement Review Draft Site Report. Institute for Devel- Intemational Labour Office, Geneva. opment Anthropology, Binghamton, N.Y. World Bank. 1978. Agricultural Land Settlement. Scudder, T. 1981. The Development Potential of New Washington, D.C. Unpublished.

95 Settlementand Development of paddy and groundnuts. of Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas It is also the foremost mining area of the country, combining the gold mines of SIAMA I and II, Kalana, and ifl Mv.ai Sadiola and all the diamond mines, marble quarries, and other mineral works. The hydroelectric dams of Selingue and Manantali-with their high potential for increasing Developmentofonchocerciasis-freed areasalsetofhenccrissae. agricultural and electrical production-are major iridustri- al assets of the onchocerciasis area. For a very long time, onchocerciasis (or river blindness) The onchocerciasis area is also rich in natural has been the main constraint on the development of vast resources: areas of high productivity in Mali. Indeed, the area of * The area's agricultural land reserves are estimated at prevalence of this serious endemic disease covers 350,472 7,168,768 hect9res. The rate of land use is 36.25 per- square kilometers, or 28 percent of the national territory cent. The area farmed per number of inhabitants (five regions out of eight, and twenty-seven cercles-local gives the ratio of 0.94 hectares per capita. The land administrative units-out of forty-six). Often, more than reserves are es imated at about 100 years. 90 percent of the economically active rural population in * The pasture resources consist of natural forests, these areas was affected. cropland after the harvest, harvest residues, and The govemment of Mali not only launched a program agro-industrial bv-products. Forage resources to combat the disease, it also planned for the economic reportedly fall far short of the needs of the animals development of the areas freed from onchocerciasis. In using the area. December 1974, therefore, an Onchocerciasis Unit was * The forest resources (now receding rapidly under created at the level of the Ministry of Planning with the pressure of the drought and wood cutting) are support of the UNDP, the FAO, and the World Bank. expected to provide the area with a reserve of fire- Since then, major successes have been achieved with wood for about 150 years. regard to the endemic disease, and the populations are * The wildlife and fish resources, formnerlyconsider- flowing back into formerly deserted areas. able, are rapidly receding despite the existence in the The global strategy of combating desertification favors onchocerciasis area of Mali's only national park as developing more fertile areas before already desertified well as wildlife reserves, numerous watercourses, areas. For this reason, areas freed of onchocerciasis were and large reservoirs of water in the S6lingu6 and given priority for agricultural extension and the establish- Manantali dams. ment of technical structures. * The area's water resources are considerable and Characteristics of the area make it possible not onty to develop the lands but also to replenish underground springs and meet The onchocerciasis area extends across the Sudanese- human and animal consumption needs. Neverthe- Guinean and Sudanese savannas and the Sahelian- less, a perceptible and continuous decline in rainfall Sudanese steppe. Rainfall there ranges from 1,300 has been noted in the area since 1950. millimeters per year in the south to 400 millimeters per Extension services in the area are provided by the year in the north. According to the 1987 census, the area major development offices and operations, a large num- had 5,189,417 inhabitants-or more than 65 percent of ber of nongovemmental organizations, and other national the total population of the country. The density there is and international projects-including the Onchocerciasis 21.97 inhabitants per square kilometer, compared with a Control Programme. national average of 7 inhabitants per square kilometer. In the onchocerciasis area, mechanization is furthest This population is 90 percent rural and Is divided among advanced in the country, and the rural areas are well small villages. The formerly infested region is largely organized into village associations, village tons, and farmland and pasture area with immense economic women's groups. In the CMDT area, an experiment with potential. rural savings-and-loan banks is in progress. The current economic activities there are farming, fish- Since the drought of 1973, the westem, southem, and ing, stock raising and forestry. It can be safely said that eastem edges of the onchocerciasis area have experienced the onchocerciasis area is the breadbasket of the country. heavy immigration of populations and their cattle fleeing It furnishes: particularly harsh climatic conditions, especially from the * More than half of Mali's millet and sorghum Mopti Region and regions of the north. a All cotton produced for export Major health control efforts in the area include: * More than 20 percent of the production * A devolution plan for the Onchocerciasis Control

96 Programme, begun in 1989 and updated in 1993, accordance with the govemrnment'sMarch 1992 Strategic which covers not only onchocerciasis but also Guidelines for Rural Development. African human trypanosomiasis and schistosomiasis. To develop these areas' enormous agricultural, live- * A program for combating any new or more serious stock, and mineral resources, the govemment must con- outbreak of onchocerciasis through information, tinue its efforts to eradicate disease, actively combating education, communication (IEC); epidemiological infestation by blackflies and tsetse and implementing fol- surveillance of sentinel villages; and ivermectin low-up investment programs in health control. treatment for already infected settlers, for popula- OCP gains must be enhanced throughout the tions especially at risk, and for new onchocerciasis onchocerciasis-fteed areas and complemented by a bold victims detected at health facilities. policy on land use and village development (gestion des . Surveillance for trypanosomiasis will entail educat- terroirs). Mali's economic situation suggests that the sup- ing the population about the disease; conducting port of its partners in devclopnient will also be required. immunological tests of at-risk populations; testing Combating poverty is the ultimrate objective of all these for parasites, if necessary, by means of cercle health development activities, which must therefore be in accord services; and having villagers combat disease vectors with their ecological setting to be sustainable. with the help of traps and screens impregnated with Sustainable development depends upon combating insecticides. such problems as Mali's low education and literacy levels, . Combating schistosomiasis will entail parasitological inadequate farm equipment, poor health services and surveillance; installation of clean water sources; potable water coverage, the after-effects of onchocerciasis, treatment of known cases with praziquantel (biltri- the pressure of tsetse, the schistosomiasis in the dam cide); and informing communities about the dan- areas of S6linguA and Manantali, restricted access to farm gers, the symptoms, the transmission method, and credit, climate constraints, degradation of the environ- preventive measures. ment, isolation of villages, low-performing rural produc- Whether combating onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis, tion systems, populations that move about in search of or schistosomiasis, disease control requires a comprehen- cash income, unequal rural and urban development, inad- sive community and health development policy. All health equate recognition of rural women's economic contribu- control activities should be decentralized to community tions, and a traditionally centralist approach to health structures and given support at the regional and development. central levels. Backed by sufficient political will, Mali's Mali's democratization has created a new socioeco- health authorities can establish a program of training and nomic situation. The government has now hired macro- refresher courses for staff members at all levels, strengthen and microeconomic planners. Populations are now being and equip the existing community health infrastructure, given responsibility for development of villages, thereby and promote active participation by the rural communities. assuring more secure land tenure. There are real assets for Such a program would be coordinated by the Comit6 the development of onchocerciasis-freed areas. national de d6volution and monitored by regional and Devaluation has also helped increase the export of local committees. Mali's health sector can look to Belgium, agricultural products and therefore increased producers' the European Development Fund, the Netherlands, and income-an additional advantage in accelerating Mali's the World Bank as partners in development. agricultural and pastoral production. Mining, too, is increasing rapidly and should soon provide income that onchocerciasis-freed areas will improve the standard of living of rural people. But the precondition to all rural activitiesin the There is no lack of development experience within onchocerciasis-freed areas is maintaining their freedom the designated area. The OCP has already helped resettle from disease. Control activities therefore must be integral areas and has a data bank that is indispensable to devel- to the primary health care system, and rural communities opment planning. With the OCP having now largely must take part in carrying them out. Combating achieved its objectives, Mali must adopt a ten-year devel- onchocerciasis and developing areas freed of the disease opment plan to resettle cleared areas that reflects its new- both require financial efforts that exceed the capacity of found democratization, administrative decentralization, the Malian govemment, however, and will require the and accountability of the population. This plan must be in support of all partners in development.

97 Discussion groups to facilitate cohabitation in settlement areas." "Women are not participants at all levels. We must The discussion centered primarily on the need to safeguard the gains already achieved by women. In our ensure the participation of settlers-particularly women- village committees at least two of the five members in the settlement process. Participants stressed the diffi- should be women, but this is not always done. Women culties that women face because of their low levels of still have a long way to go. Even at this conference we are education, their lack of marketable skills, and the heavy a minority. Education and information are fundamental to demands on their time. improving women's position, but a change in mentality is Comments also needed in order for women themselves to change. It should be emphasized that we are striving for comple- "The onchocerciasis-freed areas have fantastic poten- mentarity with men, not competing with them. Participa- tial. We need to go to these areas and discover the needs. tion of women at all levels is important and this is true Then we need to support these areas with infrastructure with respect to development in the onchocerciasis-freed such as roads, health centers, water points, and improved zones, where women should be able to participate in the communication. We must create enough incentives so planning, implementation, and use of all resources." that people will stay and not move to the cities." "Returning to the question of participation, coordina- "The presentations have spoken of the negative aspects tion of efforts is needed such as is found in the OMVG of settlement for women as well as examples of successful (Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Gambie). women. What is the percentage of these cases? The gen- Environmental studies are an important part of these eral situation of women in Africa is disastrous. We need to efforts, and similar things should be done in the work swiftly. Where are we going to be in ten years?" onchocerciasis areas. From a historical perspective, this "There cannot be just one model for settlement, since area flourished before colonialism. Grain was exported to the situations in our respective countries are diverse. For North Africa. However, colonial policy was to push farm- example, Ghana saw displacement from overpopulated to ers not to plant millet, but to plant peanuts instead. The underpopulated areas. In Niger and Mali the underpopu- local population switched to imported rice for food. Farm- lated areas are desert, and people are leaving and going to ers participated in the shift to cash crop production, but the overpopulated cities. We must try to change this by was this good? For most Sahelian countries, the level of studying the sending areas and finding out how to retain importation is high, and this is an aberration. There is a people. We must be careful to avoid overpopulation in the need to diversify the production system with the primary settlement areas. Africans must be involved in the design goal being to meet the needs of the people. We need to of projects from the outset because, whatever the good reorient diversify, and open the markets. But if you open intentions of outside organizations or individuals, they do the markets, will this create development? NGOs can not understand or sense the situation in the same way as help facilitate settlement but the settlers themselves must those of us who live in the region. Therefore, sometimes be the motor for change. To do this, they must be partners they do not understand why certain changes are resisted when we define the policies. We need to take into by the countries in the region. If this meeting allows the account their hopes and aspirations, otherwise nothing expression of African opinions, then it is a step in the right we do here will matter." direction. We must be mindful of the past history of ethnic

98 SESSION6 ft Sustainable Agrcultural Production

Sustainable,diversified production systems are key to the cultivation without endangering the environment and success of settlement in the OCP area. Initially,settlers outlines steps for creating and supporting such systems. produce mainly for subsistence.Once convincedthat sub- The paper by RobertoCogno, of the French Ministryof sistence production is assured, they diversifyrapidly into Cooperation, "Settlementand Developmentin Ganzour- other crops and, just as important, into other income- gou Province,Burkina Faso," examinesthe agricultural generating activities.This means that extension messages issues discussedby the FAO,as well as broader rural deve- must shift over time. Agriculturalextension systems need lopment issues,in the contextof GanzourgouProvince in to understand the role that diversificationplays in house- BurkinaFaso. Tnis area has experiencedconsiderable set- hold income-generating strategies.And they need to be tlement, both spontaneous and organized, in the past able to provide advice on sustainable production systems twenty years.The paper details the agronomic,socioeco- that are financiallyviable for small farmers. nomic, and ecologicalimpact of settlement in the area, For their part, governments need to set appropriate analyzesthe cost to the government of planned settlement policiesto promote sustainableproduction in settlement and makes recommendationson how to promote sustain- areas, policiesthat will accelerateproduction while at the able agriculturaland nonagriculturalproduction in the area. same time protect the environment (recommendations10, In a similar vein, the paper by Guinea's Ministry of 11, 12).To do so, they must understand the farming sys- Agricultureand Animal Resources,"Strategic Guidelines tems in the surrounding areas from which most settlerswill for Sustainable Resettlementof Onchocerciasis-Freed come. Theyalso need to be aware of the fragilityof the nat- Areas," examines the situation in the formerlyhyperen- ural resource base with which they are working-toknow its demic part of the country where considerable settlement potential carryingcapacity for both human and livestock is now occurring.The paper describes the current land populations.Production systemsmust be seen as a contin- tenure rules, the agriculturalproduction systems, and the uum-from production to farm and villageprocessing to potential for settlement. It also looks at problems associ- markets, with a counterflowof incomefor household ated with settlement and makes recommendationson needs, includinginputs for the nextproduction season. how to overcomethese problems and promote increased The FAO paper, "SustainableAgricultural Production: agriculturalproduction and sustainable settlement. Issues and PolicyRequirements in the Onchocerciasis In the final presentation in the session, the Minister Control Programme Area," reviewsthe current state of of Agricultureof Sierra Leone describes his govemment's agricultureand the different farming systems in the OCP current agriculturalpolicy and its relationship to develop- areas. It describesproduction systems that allow intensive ment in the onchocerciasiszones.

99 SustainableAgricultural whether a set of broad, mutually acceptable objectives can Production:Issues and Policy be established that recognizes and harmonizes the interests of all these actors and the requirements of sustainable Requirementsinthe Onchocerciasis development. ControlProgramme Areas Thecurrent state of Africanagriculture

Food and Agriculture Organization Before taking a closer look at agriculture in West Africa, and in the OCP area in particular, it is worth considering This paper looks at policies and strategies that would African agriculture in general. Agriculture, including accelerate the adoption, in the areas freed from onchocer- forestry and fisheries, plays a central role in the continent's ciasis, of agricultural production systems that will protect economy. For many countries, the food and agriculture sec- the natural resource base and the environment for the tor accounts for more than 40 percent of gross national benefit of present and future generations. product, and for some of the non-oil-producing countries, Sustainable agricultural and rural development has 50 to 90 percent of export earings. In Sub-Saharan Africa, been defined as follows: which is particularly dependent on agriculture, the volume ".the management and conservation of the natural of agricultural exports declined by one-third between 1970 resource base and the orientation of technologicaland institu- and 1980 and had failed to recover by 1990. tional change in such a manner as to assure the attainment If we look at Africa's resource base and its environmental and continued satisfaction of human needsfor present and problems, we see that it is a continent of contrasts and future generations. Such sustainable development (in the agri- extremes, ranging from desert to equatorial forest. Because culture, forestry and fisheries sectors) conserves land, water, of this diversity, generalizations are not meaningful. Thus, plant and animal genetic resources,is environmentally non- we normally divide the continent into six major subregions, degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable, and two of which cover the OCP area-Sudano-Sahelian Africa, socially acceptable." and humid and sub-humid West Africa. These subregions Sustainable agriculture is inspired by considerations of accord with national boundaries to benefit from statistical human needs. It links the protection of resources and the information available at the country level. The land re- environment to povertv reduction, gender issues, and the serves in Sudano-Sahelian Africa (65 million hectares) and creation of production incentives. It recognizes the crucial in humid and sub-humid West Africa correspond to these role of human beings in every sphere of development. subregions' marginally cultivable land; some marginally The challenge facing Africa-with widespread poverty, suitable land in the subregions is already being cultivated. degraded natural resources, high levels of extemal debt, Natural resources and environmental constraints and a population projected to reach 850 million by 2000 and 1.5 billion by 2025-is to achieve three essential goals: Soils. Most parts of Africa suffer from several forms of * Food security environmental degradation. Vulnerability to sheet erosion * Employment and income-generating opportunities is closely related to slope and vegetation. Soil crusting is a in rural areas, particularly to eradicate poverty serious physical soil management problem that decreases a Protection of natural resources and the environment. permeability and increases runoff, thereby causing ero- An effective strategy to meet these goals must extend sion, and can prevent seedling emergence. Many soils beyond the purely agricultural sector. It needs to encour- have poor nutrient retention capacity and thus are heavily age fairer terms of exchange for agriculture in national and leached. This is exacerbated by "nutrient mining"-the international trade, appropriate population policies, ade- removal through cropping of more plant nutrients than quate financial facilities, measures favoring agriculture are returned to the soil by mineral or organic fertilizers or and protection of the environment, and a better recogni- by natural processes. In the more humid areas there are tion at the policy level of the need to accord farmers a sta- chemical problems-aluminum toxicity and potassium tus commensurate with their role in supplying essential and phosphate deficiency-and many semiarid soils suffer commodities and maintaining the natural resource base. from deficiency in phosphate and organic matter. The implementation of sustainable agricultural and Hydrology. Compared with tropical Asia and Latin rural development strategies should involve many actors: America, Africa has less surface water and a higher rate of farmers (many of whom are women and thus still less evaporation. The flow of most of its main rivers is privileged than most) and other rural dwellers, rural com- markedly seasonal. Irrigation could make a dramatic munities, the private sector, govemment institutions, and impact in the drought-prone Sudano-Sahelian region, intergovemmental and nongovemmental organizations. but only two major rivers-the Senegal and Niger-flow The success of these strategies will depend largely on through the OCP area. Both rivers are subject to large

100 seasonal variation in discharge rates, and would require nutrients and declining productivity have resulted. substantial regulation to supply irrigation water reliably Fallowingsystems through the dry season. The OCP area contains many small rivers and watercourses, often with only seasonal In areas with better soils or a longer rainfall period, or flow. There is potential in this area for small-scale irriga- both, shiffing cultivation systems have evolved into fal- tion using traditional irrigation technologies. lowing systems that are applied within a settled environ- Rangelands. The increase in livestock numbers is placing ment characterized by permanent field divisions and grazing land under intense pressure. Although livestock is limited areas for livestock grazing. These systems rely on privately owned, property rights controlling access to graz- short fallows of only a few seasons to maintain soil fertili- ing land often do not exist, so responsibility for land man- ty. To minimize risks relating to the climate and pests and agement cannot be allocated. The livestock carrving to optimize retums from increasingly degraded land, capacity of the rangelands has already been exceeded in farmers have developed intensive cropping methods that many places, particularly in the Sudano-Sahel. If the pre - include intercropping and multiple cropping and, when sent productivity levels were to continue unchanged, the feasible, an integration of crops and livestock and the use projected livestock population in the year 2010 would of organic fertilizers. require 84 percent of the area of the Sudano-Sahel, clearly These intensification efforts are not unique to fallow- an unattainable situation. Much former grazing land is now ing systems. They have long been used to a lesser degree used for crop production; this often means that adjacent in most shifting systems and more recently have been lands are inaccessible for grazing during the cropping sea- used with greater success in permanent systems in areas son and that access to transhumance routes and water is with higher population density. Such intensification was affected. Large areas could be opened to livestock and feasible because farmers gained access to new crops and would meet future grazing land requirements if water sup- varieties and to other extemal inputs, largely through plies were developed and tsetse infestation eradicated. informal channels. The performance of fallowing systems has been mixed. It depends to a large extent on the natural fertihltyof the In West Africa, as elsewhere, the agricultural production soil, the level and distribution of rainfall, and the popula- systems used by farmrersare determined by a unique com- tion growth rate. In high potential areas with slower pop- bination of natural and man-made factors and conditions. ulation growth, farmers have had sufficient time to Some of these factors and conditions remain constant over develop technologies through trial and error to achieve long periods, such as climatic and soil conditions; others, stable and productive systems. Extemal inputs-higher- such as relative prices and technologies, are subject to yielding and pest-tolerant varieties and limited mineral more frequent change. fertilizers-were important in the development of these Agricultural production systems in West Africa can be systems. Under these conditions productivity has stabi- grouped into three types: shifting, fallowing, and perma- lized, but often at levels lower than those realized under nent. These three types, in that order, also depict the evo- the shifting system used earlier. lutionary progression of agriculture from traditional to In areas of rapid population growth farmers have been modem farming. For the vast majority of farmers in the forced to switch from shifting to fallowing systems while OCP area, this progression has yet to run its full course. retaining the crops and production methods used in Shifting systems shifting systems. Increased soil degradation and falling crop yields have resulted. In marginal areas productivity Indigenous agriculture occurs in systems characterized has fallen more dramatically as the fallowing cycle has by an abundance of land relative to population. Shifting become shorter. cultivation and grazing practices that use no extemal inputs Permanentsystems predominate under these conditions. The key to sustainability is replenishment of soil nutrients through regrowth The shift to permanent agriculture has already of natural vegetation. While this process occurs, the farm occurred over extensive areas of developing countries. A population "shifts" its location, retuming only after ten to number of variations of the system have developed. More twelve years. At low population densities these systems are recently, permanent systems based on wheat, maize, and productive and can be sustained over long periods with lit- cash crops have emerged in some semiarid upland areas tle or no degradation of the natural resource base. with sufficiently fertile soils and adequate rainfall. Almost As population densities have increased, farmers using all of these systems are monocropped and achieved the shifting systems have been forced to adjust to the scarcity significant increases in productivity through green revolu- of land by shortening the fallowing cycle. Mining of soil tion technologies. Mineral fertilizers, fertilizer-responsive

101 varieties, and, for rice, water control were the key ingredi- some pesticides are hazardous to humans and to beneficial ents. Other permanent systems of perennial tree crops flora and fauna. The pure stands and monocultures often have emerged from shifting and fallowing systems, largely inherent in high extemal input systems may exacerbate in response to increased commercial opportunities. weed, pest, and soil erosion problems. Although such Agro-climaticenvironments and sustainability problems can be minimized through carefulmanagement, there is increasing pressure to reduce the use of inputs. Knowledge of the sustainability of agricultural produc- In high extemal input systems livestock production tion systems is limited. Productivity growth, the best-docu- usually is spatially separated from crop production. This mented indicator of sustainability, is occurring in the arid arrangement often precludes the utilization of crop and ani- irrigation and wet lowland areas where permanent systems mal by-products and presents problems of waste disposal. are practiced. In the arid dryland, semiarid, semihumid, and humid highland zones, where shifting and fallowing OQganicfanning systems predominate, productivity is generally declining or Organic farming avoids or largely excludes the use of stagnating other than in the permanent wheat- and maize- synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth based systems and permanent tree crop systems. regulators, and livestock feed additives. Organic farming Indicators of sustainabilitv at the soil system level are systems rely as much as is feasible on crop rotation, crop the rate of soil and nutrient loss and the level of soil pol- residues, animal manure, legumes, green manure, off- lution. These indicators are not well documented, nor is'.' . lutheirelon.Thetweens e indicatorsnot are documentefarmwell organic wastes, and biological pest control to main- the relation between the indicators and productivity well tam soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients, understood, except for macronutrient loss. undestoilpollution is rlattonuthrinensity lofs. arceia and to control insects, weeds, and other pests. Organic use and improper irrigation practhceis Waterloggingo build- systems are viewed as posing lower environmental risks than systems that rely on high doses of agrochemicals. up of salinity, and micronutrient deficiencies and toxicities Yet organic farming still represents an intensification are serious problems in some arid irrigation areas. One aeriousprablemsinproduconmd beyigationdetensi of land use compared with many farming systems used in West African countries. It aims at maintaining yields at a shifting cultivation, plant and animal diversity began to remunerative level by intensifying intemal nutrient cycles decline in all agroclimatic environments. Shifting and fal- and recycling organic material, and at increasing the fre- lowing systems pose a threat to indigenous animal and q . . ~~~~~quencyof crops through mixed cropping and rotation. plant species that increases as shifting systems evolve Because organic system.s depend on higher labor inputs, into fallowing and permanent production systems. they tend to be competitive only where labor costs are Intensificationof agriculturalproduction very low or where consumers will pay a premium for withoutenvironmental hazard organic produce, as in many high-income countries.In most developing countries, labor costs are low but the Three main strategies have been used to intensify agri- possibilities for special market outlets are minimal. More- cultural production: reliance on high levels of extemal over, population and income growth may require increas- inputs, organic farming, and integrated farming. Each of es in domestic production beyond the yield potential of these strategies can be used as long as the users are aware organic farming. of the potential environmental hazards involved. But for most situations in Africa the third is the most important. Integratedfarming systems

High external input agriculture Integrated production systems accept moderate and environmentally appropriate use of extemal inputs-main- Increasing the use of technology to enhance the pro- ly fertilizers and pesticides-in combination with measures ductivity of land has allowed many countries to meet or to make maximum use of intemal nutrient recycling, bio- exceed their domestic needs for farm products. Fertilizer logical pest control, and complementarity between differ- and plant protection chemicals have been the rnain exter- ent crops and between crops and livestock. nal inputs that have increased yields; plant breeding and Integrated pest management, integrated plant nutri- improved cultivation techniques have also made a large tion, soil conservation, and efficient and nonexhaustive contribution. In West Africa this strategy has been used use of water are mutually reinforcing measures. They in cotton production. should be applied together in the farming system at the Experience in industrial countries shows that intensifi- intensity levels appropriate to the physical and socioeco- cation often causes environmental damage. Excessive fer- nomic conditions; the optimum strategies are highly spe- hlizer use has caused contamination of water supplies, and cific to individual farms.

102 Socioeconomicpolicy and environmental lem arises when resource users upset the balancebetween managementconsiderations the resource base and their needs, by using it inefficiently for their short-term interest alone. Sustainable develop- The socioeconomic policy and environment nexus is ment can only be achieved by steps that progressively re- crucial in determining sustainable use of natural resources. move the financial, cultural, and institutional constraints, In Africa development strategies have long given too little and enhance the knowledge base, that govem the resource attention to agriculture-including the fisheries and users' decisions. forestry-despite its important role in African economies. Many environmentally sound agricultural practices Country development strategies may contain an urban, have been shown to be technically successful, such as anti-agriculture bias as the result of a concurrence of agroforestry, minimulm tillage, alleycropping, water har- macroeconomic and sectoral policies that most likely are vesting, and water spreading. But, mainly because of not intentionallv anti-agriculture. But the domestic terms social and economic constraints, these practices have of trade move against agriculture as the prices farmers not been adopted bv the great majority of farmers. receive fall relative to those they pay for inputs and con- Farmers need incentives and assistance to adopt agricul- sumption goods. At fault are policies that maintain an tural technology that enhances yield and conserves overvalued exchange rate, that tax export trade, or that soil and water. protect domestic industry through tariffs or quantitative Limited economic data are available to assess the costs restrictions, leading to higher prices or short supplies for and benefits of altemative ways of exploiting natural re- agricultural inputs and consumption goods. sources and to arrive at rational policies for natural Inadequate investment in and poor maintenance of resource management. Improved research is needed on rural physical infrastructure, particularly in transport and the key characteristics of the resources and of their users. communications, result in reduced incentives for farmers Special efforts are needed to fully assess the economic and high marketing costs. Inadequate investment can value of the resources and how this value is affected by hurt agricultural research and extension, and marketing the manner and degree of their exploitation. Improved and credit organizations. And it can contribute to the research and information are also needed to deal ade- breakdown of indigenous land and property rights, lead- quately with the potential tradeoffs between different ing to the creation of open or private access rights, land- users of a resource. lessness, and rural poverty. The move to sustainability in agricultural production Many govemments have intervened, through subsidies must transform traditional agricultural and fisheries and credit provision, to offset the deteriorating terms of exploitation systems into science-based systems, through trade for agriculture. But often such interventions are inad- a combination of strategies and policies adapted to local equately focused, so that the larger, richer farmers benefit conditions. In the OCP areas of West Africa, national gov- the most and the smaller, poorer farmers not at all. And emments and their development partners should in the govemment interventions, whether in research, extension, first instance protect,conserve, and sustainablyuse the credit, access to land, or input supply, have often neglected naturalagricultural resource base by ensuring that: women farmers, who play critical roles in agricultural pro- m Land clearing practices are appropriate duction for home provisioning as weUlas for cash. a Land is used for crops that maintain soil The widespread adoption of structural adjustment pro- fertility grams in Africa has led to the phasing out of many, of the * Necessary fallow periods are maintained market interventions and price distortions. The net effect to guard against overexploitation on farm incomes and production incentives has been * Grazing lands are managed at stocking levels mixed, depending on the prevailing macroeconomic and that avoid overgrazing market policies. Adjustment programs offer both opportu- * A protective forest cover is maintained, nities and challenges to modify the "urban-biased" devel- especially on watersheds opment strategies and to support a move toward sustain- * Harvesting and growth of fuelwood able agriculture. are in balance * Fisheries resources are not Movingtoward sustainable agriculture overexploited Whether sustainable agriculture can be achieved ulti- * Biological and chemical qualities of water mately depends on the motivations, perceptions, capabili- are maintained ties, and attitudes of rural dwellers using natural resources. u Ecosystems are safeguarded They must feel responsible for the natural resources that against pollution. they exploit to satisfy their needs. The fundamental prob-

103 Conclusion percent of the labor input for producing these foods. Nationai policiesshould aim at increasing social Govemments and their developmentpartners should responsibilityand environmental awareness. They should adopt measures to increase farm productivityby elevating create a framework and institutions that help intemalize the yield thresholds on traditionalcrops, introducingnon- the need for environmental conservationand promote traditionalcrops and livestockenterprises, developing conscious,voluntary participation in decisions on resource labor-savingtechnologies (particularlyfor women) and use. Decisionmakersshould promote research into new improvinglabor efficiency,identifying altematives to shift- systems of relationshipsbetween the individualand the ing cultivation,and designing cost-effectivetechniques for community,on one hand, and land, forest, and water restoring the productive capacityof degraded lands. resources on the other, and they should adapt resource Where land resources are limited, expanding produc- tenure and management rules and rights to the holistic tivitywill require the improved use of such inputs as development needs of societies. water, fertilizers,and high-yielding cultivarsand, where Through these measures governmentsin the OCP area feasibleand economical,the use of higher levels of can address severalof the needs mentioned in the guiding inputs. In some instances, the cultivableland area must principlessuch as natural resourcesconservation and man- be expanded through major land improvements such as agement, the provision of essentialsupport servicesand land reclamationthrough drainage and flood control. input supplies,polices to support small farmers,and the Agriculturalresearch and extension efforts will need to promotion of sustainableagricultural production through identify techniques and innovations that will lead to sus - enlightened planning appropriatepolices, and effective tainable production of locallyconsumed foods, taking problem-orientedresearch and extensionprograms. into account that women farmers provide 60 to 80

104 Settlementand Development for zoning and distributingland based on the planned inGanzourgou Province, development activities.The land previouslyhad been used InGanzourgou Province, by groups of transhumant Peuhl pastoralists and seasonal- BurkinaFaso ly by neighboring villages. Roberto Cogno, Institut de rechercheset d'applications de Second, the AVV deemed it necessary to organize methodes de d6veloppernent,Ministry of Cooperation,France a program of planned settlement, as opposed to spontaneous settlement of indigenous or recently arrived groups Beginning in the 1970s, the govemment of Burkina not sponsored by the AW. The planning centered on Faso (then Upper Volta) and the intemational donor com- three issues: recruiting migrants from the central Mossi munity, including France, agreed to set up a large-scale Plateau, settling migrants in the areas identified by the model operation combining the health objective of con- guidelines, and pacing the recruitment and settlement trolling onchocerciasis with the more general objective of to accord with the ability of the AVV to complete the opening up for development "new land" throughout the necessary infrastructure and improvements. catchment area of the Volta rivers. Progress had been Third, the AWVsought to initiate economic growth made during the 1950s in identifying the nature and in the newly developed valleys through: extent of onchocerciasis through health research and oth- * Increased food self-sufficiency and cash income for er work by organizations such as the Center for Research the primary participants. The AVV viewed higher on Controlling Major Endemic Diseases in Bobo Dioulas- cash income for farmers not only as a means to raise so. The methods developed for controlling onchocerciasis their general standard of living and enable them to were based on eradicating the insects (simuliids) that are acquire modem means of production, but also as a the vectors of the disease and, to be effective, had to be deterrent to internal and extemal migration. More- applied over vast areas. Between 1968 and 1974, a region- over, reducing the chronic shortage of food staples al program was developed to eradicate simuliids. and developing export crops (cotton) would help In Burkina Faso a govemment agency, Autorite' d'ame- increase the foreign currency available to purchase nagernentdes vall6es des Voltas:(the Volta Valleys Develop- imports and finance development. ment Authority, AVV), was charged with organizing the a Modernization of farming systems, to increase settlement of the newly "liberated" lands. The AWVwas the production and productivity of both food crops incorporated in 1974 as an industrial and commercial and cash crops. statutory body with financial autonomy and placed under Preservation of the ecological balance. The chal- the supervision of the Ministry of Rural Development. The lenge of preserving the ecological balance had been AWVbegan preliminary design work for the settlement raised from the outset, with regard both to main- operation in 1971, with financing from the French devel- taining and restoring the fertility of the fragile and opment fund, Fonds d'aide et de coope'ration(FAC). depleted soils and to protecting and renewing the Settlementand development goals forest resources threatened by the cuffing of firewood for Ouagadougou. The primary goal was to redirect development efforts toward the "new land" in the river valleysand to decrease Development and settlement the population density on the overpopulated central Mossi in Ganzourgou Province Plateau, where pressure on the land was considered excessive. The AVV development scheme, in seeking a more The province is characterized by: appropriate balance between population distribution and * A Sudano-Salhelian climate that has unreliable rainfall, production potential through organized or 'directed" ini- averaging about 700 millimeters a year, but which sus- tiatives, formed the cornerstone of a voluntary regional tains cereal, pulse, and cotton crops and stock raising development policy designed to achieve a new equilibrium m A population density of about 55 to 60 people per in nationwide rural development. square kilometer, which leaves little space for tradi- The measures that the AWVtook, from its inception tional cropping systems and contributes to the until its reorganization in 1991 as the Office national d'arn- steadily increasing depletion of the soil nagernentdes Terroirs(the National Office for Land Devel- . Excess food production at least three years out opment, ONAf), toward developing the underpopulated of five, which is sent primarily to the markets of areas of the Volta valleys reflect three main objectives. Ouagadougou and Pouytenga (Pouytenga is 30 First, the AWVsought to achieve rational land use planning kilometers east of Zorgho) in the Volta valleys. To achieve optimal land use, the AWl * A high rate of out-migration. gave priority to developing and implementing guidelines Soil fertility is decreasing, with the possible exception

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106 of home gardens, where organic matter and fertlizers are not apply to the land itself, however, but to the soil-the concentrated. Erosionhas been intensifiedby the land "skin" or the "crust" of the earth. clearingactivities of the 1970s and 1980sand by the con- Most land disputes stetnfrom the unequal distribution fusion over land tenure rights, particularlyin the valleys. of land rights and the instabilityof these rights over time. Traditionalchieftaincies and controlof the land The number of disputes and conflictsis growingas a result of the inabiity of the production and land tenure The province has been occupiedby the Mooaga (Mossi) systems to cope with the increasingscarcity of available ethnic group since the 1500s.All of the traditionalchief- land for cultivationand the increasing density of the rural taincies fall under the command of the Moogo-Naaba,the population. The growingscarcity of free land makes it Mossi chief,who lives in Ouagadougou. Th-eBissa had impossible,for example,for heads of families(or masters once controlledthe central and southem part of the of the land) to allocateplots to young people and women. province,but they were either drivernaway or assimilated Ganzourgou Province comprises two distinct regions: into the Mooaga group. Other indigenous groups once the plateaus of the northeast, which cover about two- occupiedvillages in the north, east, and center of the thirds of the province, and the valleys (WhiteVolta or province,but Nakombe, members of an aristocraticgroup Nakamb6 River)of the southwest, which cover the related to the Moogo-Naaba,now lead all of these villages. remaining third. The AW targeted these valleys,which A group's rights of primacy to the geographicallyde- had long remained largely unpopulated due to the pres- fined familyterritory on which it is settled are symbolized ence of simuliids,for settlement and development begin- by the master of the land, the tengsoba(land possessor). ning in the 1970s. The authority of the tengsoba operates on three levels: Between 1974 and 1989 the AVV,Unite de Planification religious,economic, and legal. N°1 (Planning Unit No. 1, UP1), and the Mankarga project * Religious.The tengsoba leads rituals linked to the (fundedby the European Union, then known as the Euro- land at the time of clearing,planting, and harvesting. pean Community)improved close to 15,000hectares of He also purifies the land. land in the White Voltaarea (GanzourgouProvince) for * Economic.He allocates vacant land to those who farming and stock raising.On that land they settled about request it and determines when planting, harvesting, 2,500families, most from out-migration areas in Ganzour- and marketing of grain should begin. gou Provinceand from neighboringprovinces, but also *Legal.He is the guarantor of the permanent collec- some localfamilies that had lived in the area for a long time tive and individualuser rights that he grants and the (MankargaDevelopment Unit 1990).Considerable infra- guardian of villagelands. And he serves as arbiter of structure and equipmentaccompanied the settlement any dispute involvingland rights. activities,including schools, 130 wells,primary health care In GanzourgouProvince, the masters of the land belong centers, warehousesfor storing inputs, more than 300 kilo- almost exclusivelyto the Yoyooseethnic group (an indige- meters of unpaved roads, and housing for the staff assigned nous Mossigroup) of the Sawadogo. to provide extensionservices to the newlyarrived settlers. Farmingrights and land tenure Resultsof thepopulation settlement Among the Mossi, ownership of land always falls poltcy In GanzourgouProvince to its firstoccupants. Occupyingland is tantamount to The settlement program has had two simultaneous establishing political authority. Farming rights are based objectives,voluntary agriculturaldevelopment and land on membership in a particular kinship group or lineage. use planning. Because the main objectiveof the program Each community is composed of several families, is to seek an appropriate balance between the spatial dis- generallybelonging to the same lineage. tribution of the population and full development of the The familiesof a community appropriate and cultivate agriculturalpotential in the provinces, these two compo- each piece of land, and each community has property nents of the operation are inseparable. rights to the land that it cultivates. Everymember of a The settlement program has evolved through four lineage holds an inalienable right to cultivate the lin- main phases: a true takeoff in 1974,a phase of major eage's property. Land passes from father to oldest son by accomplishmentfrom 1976 to 1980, an almost total halt inheritance. in 1982,and then a resumption by UP1 in 1988 and by Foreigners,migrants, dependents, and conquerors Projetde developpementrural du Ganzourgou(Ganzourgou who have obtained property from the masters of the land, Rural Development Project, PDRG) in 1991. whether through a request or by force,will gain de facto Although assessing the overall results of the program property rights after their familieshave cultivatedthe to settle migrants in Ganzourgou Provinceis a delicate plots over several generations. Such property rights do and difficulttask, this paper nevertheless attempts a criti-

107 cal assessment of eight issues of fundamental importance Agronomicimpact of settlementon production to the program's objectivesand ultimate goal: After about twenty years of operation, the program The stabusof the land in the onchocerciasishas obtained results that can be considered positive. controlled areas before the settlement activities coThenstabsffarmas aefrer the settlement activities Most important has been the significantprogress in cot- xmThe status of farms after the settlement activities tnpouto hogi18-5 uigtoeyas ton production throughl 1984-85. During those years, * The agronomic impact of settlement on production the AVVfocused its effortson intensive and directive * The socioeconomicimpact of the settlements extension work aimed at stimulating cotton and x The social structure of the area * The impact of settiement on the ecological balance cra rdcin During the first ten years, impressiveyields were ob- * Land management and land tenure problems tained for food crops (800 to 900 kilograms per hectare) x Operating costs. and cotton (800 to 1,000 kilograms per hectare). But the Status of land in the valley region limited range of cereals planted, the modest inclusion of beforesettlement and development pulses in the cropping pattem, and the excessivedefor- estation at the time of settlement and afterward have Threareastwhere uni ithenew settpulemen wereoreeathe ne already given rise to doubts about the social, technical, were neither uninhabited nor depopulated before the new anecomcrpibityfthsfrigsses migrants arrived, but were occupiedby farmers and pas- ars Bonnaicaescay 1983). toralists. In particular,a group of long-establishedBissa 'irecnar, asdworld peo n d and Mossivillages in the area, most notably Niaogo, dInre fertlize, pricesh s r cofton have de- B6gu6clo,~~~~~~~~~~~an'aag,hdaihppltoGoino clined, fertilizerprices have risen, tenmsof trade have Beguido, Gouingo, and Gar a high poua deteriorated, and credit has become increasinglyscarce, dholens,abouever,th10 peo per squadereiloter. Apard farmers have abandoned cotton production. In the AWV who d the la spopulated compare areas of Ganzourgou Province,cotton production fell withfthedhensettlyepoate MrossimPlgatizeau. ytheA* from about 3,200 tons in 1981 to about 1,800 tons in Bheforedin the settlementas prongra organed by herA 'e, 1993.Possibly also contributing to the decline in cotton groups: production is its labor intensiveness:cotton requires four groups: ~~~~~~~~~~~timesas much labor prhcaea ogu 10 or l Indigenous farmers under the authorityof the Mossi per hectare as sorghum s,5tu hours per hectare compared with 400 hours per hectare). andchiefs Bissa village ~Today,smallholders are concerned primarily with . Peuhl pastoralistswho had a long-standing presence c oductiondest araising.Ded pinart tothe inth araadwoenmer.eeicesn cereal production and stock raising. Due in part to the because of a severe drought in the northern part of newly developedareas, Ganzourgou has become a reg- the country andthe thete ounrv reducedrducdnd pasturelandpaturlan in thehe cen-en- ular exporter of cereals (12,000tons annually) and meat. tral plateau (due to overpopulation and its effects) * Woodcutters, who cut and sold wood during the dry Socioeconomicimpact season and farmed during the rainy season, particu- The program has provided socioeconomicbenefits on larly near Ouagadougou, Linoghin,and Rapadama several levels:access to considerablecash income (cotton), mGroups of Bozo (Malian)fishermen along the the possibilityof attaining self-sufficiencyin food, and Volta rivers. access to community facilities.The settlement program Failure to take stock of prior land use led inevitably to led to the establishment of at least six types of communi- land tenure conflictsbetween the host population (which ty facility: had considered itself the owner of the land since its arrival * A network of roads in the area) and the settlers introduced by the AVV. mWells Status offarms after settlement a Buildingsoccupied by extension staff mWarehouses The development of the target areas has had a dynam- * Schools ic agriculturaland economicimpact. But it has also been * Clinicsand health posts. observed that only a minority of the farms are capable of Despite flaws in some structures and some staff short- mastering the technicaland economic factors requiredto ages (of government-provided nurses, for example),the achieve surplus production, though the AVVgranted the inhabitants of the valleyregion have living standards sig- same amount of land to each working adult. The great nificantlybetter than the averagein other rural areas of majority of the farms have a limited labor force at their the province and in the country as a whole. disposal and have tremendous difficultyreplicating the The condition and management of schools and clinics recommended production system. in the program area are relativelysatisfactory. The gov-

108 ernment does not maintain the roads, however, because Impact on ecologicalbalance they are considered "rural roads"; the only maintenance has been provided by projects (UP1 and PDRG). Methods for conservingresources in the program area The most serious problem concems the maintenance are much less developedthaniinathe plateau region, where and replacement of pumps used to draw potable water land use followsmore traditionalpattems. In fact, the from wells. More than half of the wells have been out of farmingsystem prevailingin the program area can be order for a long time, and the resources availableto the likened to a mining operation. In addition, the cutting and villagemaintenance funds have steadilydwindled. By gathering of wood and the collectingof construction mate- contrast, in the plateau region each village with a well rials (sand, gravel,laterite) are highlydeveloped and gen- has a maintenance and replacement fund that functions erally not supervisedby the farmers organizations. quite well. Through their effects on farmers' incomes, the devel- The program has achieved more positive results with opment of production systems, the increase in population the self-managed markets for selling cotton and the man- pressure, and the deterioration of the terms of trade all agement of the related villagefinds. These funds are have led to disturbances in the ecologicalbalance. Defor- financed by payments from Societedes fibres et des textiles estation, erosion, and loss of soil fertility have reached (SOFIEX) in exchange for the farmers' work in market- disturbing proportions. The AW evaluation mission ing, weighing, and loading the cotton. sounded the alarm on these problems as early as 1983 Other evaluationsand field observations report that (Baris,Bonnal, and Pescay 1983). farmers who have eamed cash income have invested it Several factorshave led to the deterioration of primarilyin their home villages,in schooling for their resources: children, in urban real estate, in villageshops and busi- * The settlers' practiceof intensive dearing on their nesses, and in livestock(McMillan, Nana, and Sawadogo arrival, so that they could utilizelinear planting and 1990;and PDRG-EMPMogtedo 1991).They have rein- animal traction vested little in conservingand maintaining the productive * "Interstitial" clearingby spontaneous migrants qualities of the soil. Investments in secondaryand tertiary * Bush fires,still used in the valley region sectors provide a better guarantee of increased income. * Wood cutting, which developed rapidly after the arrival of the settlers because of the new roads Social sructure * The considerableincrease in livestockas, in addition Many farmer organizations have been set up in the to Peuhl pastoralists, sedentary farmers tumed to program area with the help of the AW or UP1. Some of stock raising these organizations functionwell and are properly man- * Insecurity of land tenure for the farmers settled aged. But most have an organizationalstructure, manage- by the AW. ment methods, and leadershippolicies that tend to limit Diachronicanalysis in the areas targeted for new set- their effectivenessand diminish their abilityto serve the tlements shows clearlythat the loss of plant coverhas interests of the community.Tumover on the decisionmak- accelerated over the past twenty years and that the eco- ing bodies of these organizationsis slow and sometimes logicalimbalarce, due vrimarilyto excessiveclearing has blocked.And the AW migrants are overrepresented in reached alarming proportions. This phenomenon is much these organizations comparedwith the host population less pronounced in the rest of the province, where land and spontaneous migrants. management is govemed by traditional rules. More successfulhave been villageorganizations that Land managementand land tenure problems manage a system of cotton rebates in connection with villagecredit funds for agriculturalinputs. Some of these Starting in 1984,UP1 movedbeyond the newlydevel- organizations, such as the one in Ouayalgui,have been oped valleysand targeted the eitire province for settle- so effectivethat they have taken over the role of the ment, drawing on the lessons of the firstphase. In addition, Caissenationale de creditagricole (National Agricultural it sought to help farmersbetter establish themselvesin Credit Fund, CNCA). their area of origin.UP1 continued to settle the valleysin Some farmers in the developed zones continue to be- accordwith the originalAW plan; spontaneous migration have in a way that suggests the mentality of a perpetual also continued.An initialassessment of the program in aid recipient. No doubt the intensity of the extension 1983 showed that the rate of planned settlementwas lower activitieshas led some to expect projects and extension than expectedand that spontaneous migrations exceeded workers to provide everything.Thus, the "emancipation" those organized by the AW (Baris,Bonnal, and Pescay of the farmers is a more complex and difficulttask in the 1983;and Murphy 1980). areas settled by the AW than in traditional areas. In an effort to resolve latent, and sometimes open,

109 conflicts, UP1 intervened in three areas, Rapadama, difficulty in replicating the activities led to recommenda- Bombore, and Mogt6do, to bring together the AVV and tions as early as 1992 to study altemative ways to provide spontaneous settler communities. It proposed to settle security of tenure to farmers in the developed areas. the non-AW familiesin the "free" space between the Prospets andpoicy for settlement AVVlands (alboudo 1992; and Konombo 1990). and development The approach that UP1 developed to resolve the conflicts led to the establishment of a land registration system The settlement activities in the onchocerciasis-con- in which each farm was attached to a specific plot, the trolled areas, like other efforts to support rural develop- plots granted to the migrants were plowed, and additional ment, are based on a general local development approach facilities (wells) were established. in which the primary focus is on economic development Once the improvements had been made, specifications and sustainable resource m3nagement. A quick analysis of for land management were drawn up, and the farmers the activities shows that they would have achieved better organizations were charged with enforcing them. This results if they had placed greater emphasis on self-man- approach, according to its supporters, would eventually agement by the communities involved. lead to joint ownership rights, providing participants with Indeed, in ensuring that a development program is a degree of land security. Yet, even though the files were sustainable and replicable, the manner in which benefi- deposited at the territorial administration in 1988, when ciaries are involved and assume "ownership" of the activi- the AVV settled the migrants, no individual or joint own- ty is at least as important as the physical results obtained ership rights have been granted. in the field. To achieve true ownership, initiatives should Presently, about 4,000 families inhabit the valley areas, not bh imposed from the outside, but should instead be of which 2,500 were settled in the 1970s; the rest are local selected by the beneficiary population. In this way, rural families or families of spontaneous migrants. civil society can eventually become a full partner with the Operating costs government and with govemment agencies and actively participate in formulating rural development policy. The settlement activities have proved costlv (McMi - The French assistance program, in full awareness of Ian, Nana, and Sawadogo 1990; and Mankarga project these truths, supports national policies of local develop- evaluation, 1990). The total cost through 1990, including ment and professionalization whose basic goal is to make capital costs, operating costs, and technical assistance for the populations that inhabit and utilize rural spaces more settling 2,500 families, came to approximately FF 89 mil- directly responsible for the land and related agricultural lion. The settlement cost per family was FF 36,000 (CFAF and socioeconomic resources, as well as for the measures 3,600,000 at the new rate' Mankarga project evaluation, required to organize more sustainable management of 1990; Dumont 1984). available space and economic and social amenities. To examine the economics of settlement, let us take as In conjunction with this approach, and in order to an example a 10-hectare farm over one growing season. ensure its success, it is necessary to move from a situation Assume that the farmer decides to plant 5 hectares, 2 in of waiting and dependency to one in which local society cotton and 3 in cereals, while leaving the remaining land assumes the powers of initiative, decisionmaking, and fallow (the present system). A simple economic calcula- management. This new situation of "ownership" could tion allows us to determine the total value of the harvest: be organized around the following elements: 3 hectares in cereals: a Negotiation processes designed to create the neces- 3 ha x 800 kg/ha x CFAF 50/kg = CFAF 120,000 sary links between the local level and the regional and national levels 2 hectares in cotton: * Support for policies of inclusion of all elements of 2 ha x 900 kg/ha x CFAF 130/kg = CFAF 234,000 local civil society (including the host population, new- The total value of a family's typical annual harvest ly arrived groups, pastoraists, farmers, and artisans) o A legal and fiscal framework that provides local on 5 hectares iS thus CFAF 354,000, about 10 percentcomntewihrgs,potute,adte of the total cost of settling one family. communities with rights opportunities, and the The cost of the settlement activities (between CFAF means to discharge their responsibilties concerning 300,000 and CFAF 400,000 per hectare at the new rate), the management of land, natural resources, and public uncertainty about security of tenure and the govemment's infrastructure and property * A support and advice mechanism designed to facilitate (rather than impose) farmers' initiatives for planning, supervising, and managing local develop- New rate: US$1 = FF 6 = CFAF 600; FF 1 = CFAF 100. ment activities in such a way that true control and

110 Box 1 Conditionsin the two regionsof GanzourgouProvince

Land tenure and management Valley region • Recent settlement of the land by indigenous or newly arrived migrants * No real land tenure rights; claims maintained on land by nearby villages and traditional chiefs * Increasing numbers of new arrivals due to family ties, despite relatively impoverished soil * Land management committees operating at a minimal level, if at all * No existing entity for collective land management Prospects • Large-scale migration * The creation of new modes of social organization Plateau region • Long-standing land tenure by the Mcoaga (Mossi) group, ancient village lands, important customary land tenure rights a Highly structured social organization, organized housing, land use planning * No cash crops but surplus food crops easily sold in markets a High population density a Heavy out-migration • Traditional practices for managing land and maintaining soil fertility Prospects . Increasingly frequent individual appropriation of land • An evolving re]ationship with Peuhl pastoralists

Current conflicts Valley region • Between migrants settled by the AVV, the host population, and spontaneous migrants • Between men and women and between older and younger sons and daughters over rights to individual plots * Between pastoralists and farmers • Between AWVmigrants and the host population of the plateaus with claims to land in the valleys Plateau region a Between Peuhl pastoralists and farmers due to increasing scarcity of pasture and fallow land . Between men and women and between older and younger sons and daughters over rights to individual plots * Over access to and use of bottomlands

Economic and social infrastructure Valley region • Much more developed; needs met with respect to schooling health care, and water for human consumption • More intensive extension services in the past . Infrastructure provided by the AWV;little or no local participation in managing the infrastructure * Major efforts to train and organize farmers . High rate of use of equipment powered by animal traction Plateau region . Water lacking in some villages • Little or no extension activity in the past a Little existing infrastructure e Village management of existing infrastructure * Little or no use of equipment powered by animal traction

111 accountability are vested in the local population References * A clear distinctionbetween technicaladvice and Bais, Pierre, Philppe Bonnal and Mchel Pescay. implementation functionsand the financing function 1983.'Mission d'6valuation:Autorit6 d'am6nagements * Appropriatesystems of financing-forexample, local funds managedby the local populationand profession- d arries destas. AM, aRC SEDES. at sstanablystms crditdaptd t rurl nedsBarrier, Christian, Alain Felix, and Vatche Papazian. 1990."Rapport d'6valuationdu Projet de d6veloppement * Clear contractsbetween local participants and their rural de la province du Canzourgou, BurkinaFaso." Caisse public and private sector partners to promote an centrale de coop6ration conomique. Ouagadougou. institutional and economic framework that provides Boujou,Jackie, and Roger Brand. 1989."Analyse socio- greater security' Aneconomicframeworkthatprovidessecurityanthropologiquegreater des trames foncieresdans la province du * An economicframework that providesgreater security, Gnorov'AV-rjtU1ogo indluding price policies, support for subsectors, and ' azugu A-rjtUI ogo snupingportifestabliesh stpporengthening,anetogand- Boulon Lefevre,Anne. 1988."Propositions pour un contenu agronomique et une methode de mise en place ing trade organiations, particularlyagricultural orgar- des contrats villageoisa l'UP1 Zorgho. " Working paper. zationsbut also artisanand commercialorganizations * Systemsof trainingand informationbased on requests CED.O ougo. from,the nees an of, grss root pripat. Cogno, Roberto. 1991. "Quelques reflexions sur la Inom,this newthe eapproah,thessg oov ts mustear l. gestion des terroirs: Le projet Zorgho au BurkinaFaso." In is byweffectivelytwithdrawingnfromsthelsec- Journ6es d'6tudes IRAMsur Gestion des terroirs et d6- reposition itself by effectivelywithdrawing from the sec- vlpeet ai,Spebr tors in which localcommunities and trade organizations veloppeme'nt nais,oSeptember. are capable of assuming a major role and by transferring m 193r Cnionns deRi en oReMetDR- to them the corresponding powers and resources. At the mrh prtonled DG(909)"IA-DG Dumont, Ren6. 1984.Note on the status of agriculture same time, the govemment must redefine the resources i and mechanisms required to achievea balanced policy Furina Faso. of lan use panningandprvide ncessar supprto Freudiger,Patrick. 1994."Notes concernant l'experi- os land use planning and provide necessarn sunnort to ence du Projet de d6veloppement rural de Ganzourgou." subsectors i order to iate and expand a significantRG. Ouagadougou. process of accrual and investment.Also necessary are gDRG.Magadougou. oraizn an steghnn eomiexhneadIlboudo, Marie Laurentine. 1992. "Compte rendu de la complemeintaryactivitiesnbetweentheninaicultural and rencontre EMP Mogt6do:Pr6fecture de Mogtedo-Popula- complementaryactivities between the agriculturaland to uV otd. DGETMg6o urban sectors, to avoid potentially harmful competition. tond moo.1 PDte Moghid. ' . . r . ' ~~~~~~Konombo,A. 1990.Note on Linoghin.Unite de The PDRGhas instituted a local development policy that involves supporting villageinitiatives and assisting ano o. adProjet de dveloppement rural project developers in assuming control of their investments. The most significantoutcome of this policyis the Lisch, Benoit.1994. "Le d6veloppementlocal en increasingresponsibilty and accountabilityof rural popu- France: Quelles lecons pour le d6veloppement local en increasing responsibility ~~Afniquede l'Ouest?" Association francaise des voluntaires lations:project developersand their representatives have demonstrated the ability of rural populations to make de prognais. Ouagadougou. decisionsabout funding to assess projects,to move Mankarga Development Unit. 1988. Settlement toward local control, and to manage financial resources Operations Report. ' . . . ~~~~~~~McMillan,Della. J.B.Nana, and Kimseyinga Sawadogo. allocatedfor their projects.This approach, which encour- M 1990. "Etude sur l'installathon des po ulations au Burkina ages rural populations to organize for the purpose of justi- 1i p fyirg projects and managing budgets, in accordance with Faso." Institute for DevelopmentAnthropology, Bingham- rules easilyverifiable by civil society,paves the way to ton, N.Y. implementing local community budgets. The process Murphy, Josette. 1980.AVV statistics. includes trainingparticipants to meet the specificneeds Ouattara, Norbert. 1991. "Bilan des installations de ofcommunitydevelopmentefforts.migrants spontan6s dans les UD de Mogt6do et de of community development Bombora."BomorartMmeo Mimeo. Notes PDRG-EMPMogtedo (Projetde d6veloppement This paper was prepared with the collaboration rural du Ganzourgou). 1991. Project Evaluation.Zorgho, of Mr. PatrickFreudiger, chief technicaladvisor of the BurkinaFaso. Projetde d6veloppementrural du Ganzourgou.

112 StrategicGuidelines for Thecontext for resettlement SustainableResettlement of Settlements occur spontaneously and in a disorganized Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas fashion in the onchocerciasis-freedareas. There has been a large influx of people leaving their owrnlands, new emi- Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources,Guinea grants seeking more fertile soil, and pastoralists searching Thispaper reports the conclusionsof a fieldstudy con- for pasture (table 2). These migrants are followingtradi- ducted by a missionto propose strategicguidelines for reset- tional patterns of population movement. But they are also tfingonchocerciasis-freed areas in Guinea'.This fieldstudy, being joined by a new type of migrants, people fleeing the in which researchersinterviewed people on the plains of wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone. Boussoul6,Bagb6, Kirikoko, and Diaragbela,made clearthat Customaryland tenurepractices the successof the OnchocerciasisControl Programme, Once onchocerciasishas been eradicated,new migrants' which came to Guinea in 1986,is fosteringa massiveflow firstcriterion in choosingsettlement areas are agricultural of populationback to the onchocerciasis-freedareas. potential and easy accessto fertile land. In the formerly This report examines selected settlement areas, hyperendemicarea, now free of onchocerciasis,access to describingand assessing their enormous potential for land is once again regulated by custom.Thus, those return- development and, based on this review, sets out guide- ing to villagesthey had abandoned can reclaimtheir rights lines for a strategy to attain sustainable resettlement without difficulty,and new migrantfarmers and pastoral- in these areas by tapping that potential. ists can easilyobtain loans of land by making the tradition- Resettlementareas al offeringof ten kola nuts (though they are prohibited from planting trees and making substantialimprovements). The principalarea of resettlement in Guinea lies in the The main points of contenton relate to control of water upper basin of the Niger and along its main tributaries:the sourcesand the damage caused by stray animals (such dis- Bafing the Bakoye,the Dion, the Mafia,the Mandan, the putes are settled bv th? communidties). Milo, the Niantan, the Sankaran,and the Tinkisso.The Systems o roduction Niger Riverbasins coverall of Upper Guinea, the prefec- y" oi tures of Dabola, Dinguiraye,Faranah, Kankan,Kouroussa, In Guinea's traditional farming system, rainfed crops Mandlana,and Siguiri,and the preforestregions of Beyla are cultivated on the plateaus and irrigated crops on the and Kissidougou.This resettlement area was earlierclassi- plains. Ricecultivation is the main agriculturalactivity. fied as hyperendemic.Its extremelyhigh rate of blindness, Famiers rely on traditional and extensivesystems of pro- ranging from 2 percent to 10 percent, induced a massive duction that integrate animal husbandry (wide use of ani- exodus to areas with more healthful livingconditions. mal traction), emphasizing ownership of animals rather Large spontaneous settlements occur on the plains- than true hvestockproduction. notably on the plain Boussoul6on the Milo, where the Problemslinked to resettlement ruins of the Wamy and Boussoulevillages still stand. Set- Spontaneoussettlements faceparticular problems. tlements also occur on the Fifa plains on the Tinkissoand Some arise because of the conditionsof anarchy that pre- on the Diaragb6laplains (12 kilometersfrom the center of vail.For example,in Guinea's onchocerciasis-freedareas Kouroussa).Indeed, all river basins contain settlements the development of mining as an important income-gener- (table 1). New villages, soo koura, have also appeared all ating activit is causing environmental damage and tension over Upper Guinea. between agropastoralistsand miners. Water shortages on the plains are causing a shift in farming toward hill areas,

1 During a seven-day visit to the on-chocerciasis-freedareas which is leading to the destruction of forests. in Guinea, the mission collaboratedwith all of the services Other practices are also leading to environmental de- involved in resettlingthese areas, particularly with the struction. The practice of uncontrolled bush fires devas- OnchocerciasisControl Programme. Thanks are extended to tates areas intended for settlement and destroys the Mr. Kasse, Mr. Kaba, and to all of the OCP department heads ground cover and forests that regenerated while the vil- who assisted the mission by providing infonnation and were lages lay abandoned. Similarly, hunters' practice of con- especially helpful during visits in the field. The mission also ducting hunts by setting forests on fire poses a grave wishes to thank the regionalagriculturai inspectorof Upper threat to the regenerated forests. Guinea, the Director of Brigade Technique du Genie Rural The isolation of settlement sites also gives rise to prob- (BTGR) of Kankan, all of the Kankan rural development ser- lems. They often lie at a great distance from markets and vices, and the Operation de Developpement Rural Integre de lack drinking water, schools, and health care facilities, Kouroussa(ODRIK) programme for their readiness to help. which increases their vulnerability.

113 Table1 Populationby basin,February-March 1993 Basin Number of villages Population Tinkisso 101 14,812 Koulouto-Koliba 90 11,342 Bakoye 31 6,234 Bafing 175 18,862 Milo-Niandan 196 38,502 Sankaran 169 25,487 Niger-Mafou 115 22,271 Total 877 137,510

Source:Onchocerciasis Control Programme, Guinea.

Table2 Populationby village,selected years, 1988-94

Basinand village 1988 1989 1990 1993 1994 Milo Mansarena Banankoro 581 * * 814 u Dalagnan 189 * * 255 U Morigbedou 317 * * 361 u Niandan Kouran Nafadji * 354 * 989 Totala * 284 * 989 a Bagbe * 643 * 1,000 u Konya-Laya * 238 * 325 a Niger-Mafou Nora * * 101 * 203 Laya Sando * * 630 * 1,050 Wassaya * * 408 * 702 Diaragb6la * * 173 * 593 Saman * * 401 * 721 Tinkisso Bendougou * * 212 * 267 Lower Souarela u a 338 * 448 Kinero a * 477 * 601 Sampolia * * 406 * 430 Sankaran Mafinto u a 291 * 428 Kossa * * 116 * 298

* Not available. Source:Onchocerciasis Control Programme, Guinea.

114 Productionpotential and assets Guinea through the surplus production that this of resettlementareas region could supply to other regions. . It would alleviate the pressure on Guinea's forest Guinea's onchocerciasis-freedareas have the potential resources,particularly around the Ziama forest (classi- to become the country's most important producer of fled as a biosphere reserve), which is one of only two many crops, including rice, cotton, tobacco,groundnuts, large forests survivingin Guinea. The area around the and maize. The dense network of rivers in the Niger's Ziama forest is comi under increasingthreat as its upper basin offersexceptional irrigated farming potential iabants popleg g snhbltntsDeplewho fled the onchocerciasis- on alluvialplains, whose area varies between 60 and 5,000 affcted areas, tun to their benefit the slogan "la hectares. The potential for irrigated farming is estimated ted arent a cei benefit the la at 73,000hectares, 40 percent of Guinea's entire potential. terre appartient Acelui qui la valorise" (the land The region's main assets for agriculturalproduction are belongs to those who use it). These people might these: return to their homes if the potential for irrigated these: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~agriculturethere is developed. x Plateaus and terracessuitable for many rainfed crops, * It would facilitateefforts to improve management such as millet, sorghum, cotton, and groundnuts. o Wt Africatsprip bodiesrofwater e * Vast•~~~~~~~ alluvial plainsVata'valisad and valleysaeswoeuprsg whose upper seg-. of West Africa'sprinripal bodies of water, whose upper segments are fed by this region. ments are suited to rainfed crops,lower segments to a It would help address the effects of the CFA franc submerged rice farming,and nonfloodable and irri- devaluation in this region, which is vulnerablebe- gable segments to high-yield irrigated rice farming. cause it is closelyintegrated with the subregional These plains can be developed to reduce the risk of . . economy (Bamako-Abidjan axis). flooding and, in the best cases, introduce irrigation The strategy's main drawback is the high cost of its systems with total water flow control. implementation. Cost should not prevent support for * Local conditions favorable to such high-yield crops development, however;constraints must be taken into as fruit trees, tobacco, and cotton. consideration,but cannot dictate policy. * Good conditions for animal husbandry. The strategy also implies a number of prerequisites- . A dynamic population (almost 350,000)with exper- among them developing basic guidelinesto ensure cohe- tise in animal traction and irrigated farming. sive, integrated settlements. . A vast fisheriespotential in the rivers and in ponds that can be hamessed for aquaculture and wide- Land developmentand community resourcemanagement spread expertisein fishing techniques. To be viable, the strategy to resettle the onchocerciasis- Guidelinesfor a sustainable resettlementstrategy freed areas in a framework of regional development requires the politicalwill not only to establishinstitutions The settlement pattem in the onchocerciasis-freed at the highest levels for land use planning, coordination, areas is of broadly dispersed islands of population. The and preparation, but to strengthen grass-roots institutions. areas' population density remains low (elevenper square Land use planning and development are government kilometer).Although the region is unstable compared tasks, but resource management is the task of the local with other regions in Guinea, it has the potential to be- farming and pastoral communities (with recourse to assis- come a hub for national and subregional development. tance from govemment agencies when needed).And it is Resettlementpolicy must aim to reduce this instability. possible (and will eventuallybe necessary)to involvelocal justification communitiesin Ihe planningand implementation of land development activities. There must be a planned policyfor resettlement in the To enable communitiesto undertake these responsibil- framework of a regional development strategy for Upper ities, the govemment will need to supply certain services, Guinea. Unlike the other OCP countries,where such which, in tum, requires that it train professionalsin land options have proved to be economicallyunfeasible, Upper use planning and development. Guinea has a high potential for development.It could . . . help meet the Guinean government's goal of food self- sufficiency.And its transformation into a hub of economic A rural development policy aimed at sustaining settle- development would help attain regional equilibriumand ment in the onchocerciasis-freedareas must take into integrate the domestic economy. account customary land tenure and resource management Resettlement in the framework of a regional develop- practices.Moving to a capital-intensiveproduction system ment strategy would have severaladvantages: generates management problems that customary practices * It would help achieve a balanced food supply in have proved incapableof resolving, however. So the poli-

115 cy should set in motion a process to progressivelyadapt and failureto develop the plains' potential is causing customary practices to modem production systems, with a progressiveshift of production from the valleys to the partidpation of local communities.Key to the success the hill areas. of such a development policy is delegating responsibility * Sino. Sinois situatedat Beryl,where forest and savan- to traditional communities. na meet. Although onchocerciasishas been eradicat- The land tenure system for the onchocerciasis-freed ed in the area, people continue to leave, fleeingthe areas must: cattle diseases that can decimatelivestock herds. * Guarantee the land rights of migrants, pastoralists, Generalmeasures. The pilot phase of the project should and host populations, to enable farmers to invest undertake several general measures in all of these sites. more First, it should delegate responsibilityto villageorganiza- * Aid communities in adapting their traditional tions responsible for managing a discrete area of land resource management structures to modern sys- (farms,pastures, fishing areas, forests,and mining areas). tems of production Various traditional rural organizations already are assum- * Promote communitymanagement of farm, forest, ing certain responsibilities(zoning and parcelingagro- and pastoral lands and of the environment. pastoral land). Also important is the need to harmonize the various Second, the projectshouid providefor secureland ten- legal codes regulating resource management. ure rights, both for the host populations,which willthen be Strategy able to lend and transfertheir land without hesitation,and for the migrants,who face greater investment risk.Success- In implementing a policy of resettlement in the frame- ful resettlementdepends on guaranteed land rights. work of a regional development strategy, it would be pru- Third, the project should help increase income in the dent to proceed in stages;by testing the strategy in pilot settlement sites, so that they act as magnets for further sites.The fieldstudy identifiedfive possible pilot sites, settlement. To raise income, the project should introduce each with different characteristics. intensiveproduction systems and diversifiedactivities. * Fifa.The largest settlements have occurred on the Specificmeasures. The project should also implement once prosperous plains of Fifa,which were aban- specificmeasures in each pilot site, in the context of a vil- doned in 1965.The resettlement has been closely lage development scheme based on an in-depth study of linked to the development of lucrative gold mining. the development opportunities in each site. The top prior- This activityconstitutes a real threat to the environ- ities of these schemes should be: ment, through depletion of the soil and deforesta- * Progressiveintensification of production tion. Moreover, there is a nascent conflictbetween u Increased soil productivityon the hills agropastoralistsand the mining community that * Broaduse of draft animals threatens to intensify if a rational resource manage- * Conservationof forests ment system is not put into place. * Disseminationof production techniques a Diaragbela-Bankan.The Diaragbelaplains, situated 12 * Integration of mining into the rural economy kilometersfrom the town of Kouroussaon the Milo, * Containment of stray livestockand dissemination have been severelyaffected by onchocerciasis.The of herding methods massiveexodus of population has left some villages * Improved animal nutrition abandoned, includingthe villageof Facia.Migrants are (cotton seed, forage plants) now returning to these plains to settle on the periph- * Rational control of bush fires ery of Kouroussa.This peri-urban site offersan oppor- * Development of urban-rural links tunity for integratingthe urban and rural economies * Development of river fishing and developingcomplementary activities. * Development of conservationtechniques and a Kogbedou.The construction of a hydroelectricdam planting of fruit trees around villages planned for this year, on the Milo at the site of the * Development of irrigation schemes abandoned villageof Kogb6dou,will generate a * Construction of roads to improve access strong migratory pull to this area. This situation to settlements and markets requires guidelinesfor settlement. m Development of commodity crops (cotton, tobacco) * TheBagbe-Bafele axis. The plains of Bagb6,Kirik6r6, * Development of schools and health care facilities. 65 kilometersfrom the towns of Kankan and Bafel6, Although the government must plan these measures, are experiencingheavy settlement along the rebuilt the village organizations and nongovernmental organi- Kankan-Faranah trail. This settlement activityis zations (both national and foreign) should help imple- threatening one of the region's few forest reserves, ment them.

116 SustainableSettlement Agriculturaldevelopment policy and Developmentof the The Sierra Leone government attaches great serious- OnchocerciasisControl Area ness to eradicatingonchocerciasis, not as an isolated in Sierra Leone health problem, but as one closelylinked to the country's agriculturaldevelopment program. Safeguardingthe Lt. Col.Abdul Sesay, Secretary of State health of the more than 80 percent of the farming popula- Department of Agriculture and Fisheries,Sierra Leone tion potentially at risk is vital to ensuring that these people can contribute to the countrys development. Endemic in Sierra Leone, onchocerciasis constitutes The Sierra Leone government's agricultural policy a serious public health problem and an obstacle to socioe- takes an integrated approach embracing crop production, conomic development. Most affected are the rural com- livestock production, inland fisheries, and agroforestry munities in the country's eight main river basins. In much supported by the development of infrastructure (roads, of this area, the disease is hyperendemic and the rate of wells, drying floors, markets, and stores) and by credit vision impairment relatively high. According to the offered mainly through rural banks. The provision of Onchocerciasis Control Programme's mapping of the basic health care facilities in parallel with the onchocercia- disease, about 80 percent of Sierra Leone lies within sis devolution plan is an important component of the in- the onchocerciasis belt of West Africa. tegrated development strategy. Sierra Leone was incorporated into the OCP in 1986 Under its new rural development strategy, the govem- as one of the westem extension countries. But active con- ment will provide technical extension services to groups of trol-aerial larviciding and ivermectin distribution-began farmers through community farmers associations. This in 1989. After five years, these efforts have reduced trans- will be followed by the provision of essential agricultural mission of the disease to negligible levels in most vector inputs-fertilizers, farming tools, and planting materials monitoring sites in the country. from research institutes. The govemment has embraced the concept of devolu- To ensure that agriculture follows an environmentally tion, which envisions the participating countries taking sustainable path of development, the govemment's strat- over residual onchocerciasis control activities within an egy gives special attention to promoting community par- integrated framework aimed at controlling four other ticipation, involving women in development, reducing endemic diseases in addition to onchocerciasis. poverty, and managing the environment, particularly in Thecurrent situation in SierraLeone's the onchocerciasis-controlledregion. onchoercurresituationesin SierraLeone'sThe govemment does not want to wait until people onchocerciasiszones... begin to migrate from the affectedareas before initiating Until 1987, onchocerciasis control operations in Sierra these development activities; rather, it would like to Leone were confined to the savanna region in the north. make these areas more productive by promoting sound But following entomological studies commissioned in and appropriate farming systems. Meanwhile, it would 1989-90, the operations were extended to the forest areas like to put forward for donor consideration the following in the southeast. The rebel incursion, however, has led to recommendations: the suspension of aerial larviciding in the south and east. m That an in-depth study be conducted to assess the Sierra Leone's situation is unique among the affected socioeconomic effects of the biting nuisance of the countries: even though onchocerciasis is endemic in 80 vector in the affected communities percent of the country and the rate of onchocercal blind- m That appropriate measures be taken to ensure a ness is high in many of the river basins, there has been no quick resumption of the Onchocerciasis Control Pro- large-scale migration from the affected areas. The strong gramme in Sierra Leone and the extension of the beliefs and the economic activities of the onchocerciasis- program throughout the country as soon as the war affected communities may explain why no such migration ends, to protect against the risk that migrants from has occurred. Yet the nuisance aspect of the vector poses areas affected by the war could carry the disease to a serious hindrance to agricultural activities. areas that had been free of onchocerciasis.

117 Discussion donors carry on its support for OCP and for implementing settlement programs, a regional approach be used to The discussionsin this session were much broader than resolve problemsbetween herders and farmers,and gov- the issue of sustainableagriculture. Most comments placed emments develop awareness programs about OCP." agriculturein the larger context of the development of "The involvementof localpopulations has been the leit- onchocerciasis-freedareas. The discussionshighlighted motif of our discussions.When we discuss localparticipa- credit as central for agriculturalgrowth and underscored tion, we are emphasizingthe role in planning because the the need for increased participationby farmers in the role in implementationis a given. The role of the state will research and extension system. Near the end of the ses- continue to be to offer general supervision,inform the con- sion, several of the Africandelegates remarked on the cemed populations,and provide training,extension, and silence of the donor communityin the discussionsand this support services.The identificationof activities,planning, prompted a discussion of the role of the donor agencies. programming,and implementationhas to be done with Comments the activeparticipation of the populations even though this is much more time-consuming.We need to indude donors "In all our countries we have alreadystarted a restruc- and all partners in our work in the onchocerciasisareas. turing of the whole system for agriculture.We should So far the donors have not said much, but we would like listen to the beneficiariesto leam their needs. The OCP to know their views." has been backed for many years by an economicprogram, "We appreciate the rationale of the recommendation but this needs to be organized to make it a success.So far, on researchand extension,but it should be recast.Research we have not been as successfulon the economic front as tends to be very expensive,so it must be designed to pro- we have been in controlling the disease. We need to give vide the utmost benefit for the country.The results should farmers more leeway and give loans on more favorable be made availableand accessibleto the farmers.The exten- terms. Farmers must have enough income to repay the sion system should not be modifiedfor settlement areas. loans. Letting farmers decidewhat to grow seems to con- The CMDT(Comnpagnie malienne pour le dEveloppementdes tradict the fact that donors want to know if a program will ttiles) has been very successfulin the onchocerciasis-freed be economicallyfeasible. Will banks be willingto let zones with the same system used elsewhere.We have farmers do whatever they want with the money they bor- launcheda new integrated extensionsystem that is proving row? Farmers are participatingin agriculturalprograms, very effective.Farmers have seen that new technologies but the crops they are growing are not very profitable. increase yields,and this is conduciveto introducingcredit Inputs are becoming more expensive,especially in the schemes.We need to integrate livestockinto the farming CFAcountries after the devaluation.Farmers will not use system; not exdude it. The problem is not one between fertilizersif they are not profitable.Also, look at cattle countriesbut one between modes of rural activitiesthat breeding. Meat is coming in very cheaplyfrom outside have to be allowedto coexist." markets, making local livestockuncompetitive. This sort "Development of onchocerciasis-freedareas should be of 'cooperation' needs to change." part and parcel of a national development policy.Encour- "We started ten years ago trying to make the best use aging sustainable agriculturalproduction should rnean of our onchocerciasis-freedzones, and we traveledto oth- ensuring food production and improving incomes from er countries to study their experiences.Even so, we have cash crops. The success of researchwork and extension had bad experienceswith settlement in the poorest areas depends on making the necessary inputs availableand with no infrastructure.We organized the social sectors to having outlets to sell produce. Countries should have sup- give backingto an agriculturalpilot project and this was a portive input, marketing, and credit policies.Rural devel- success.Crop production, particularlycotton production, opment policyhinges on five things: integrated man- increased rapidly. Many people were attracted to the area. agement of natural resources,food security,organization However,the project was extremelyexpensive. We cannot of rural communities,intensifying and enhancing specific inject such huge sums of money into everydistrict. We types of production, and organizing rural credit using the must choose areas carefullyor reduce the capitalinvest- savings of farmers. Our national policy is in tune with all ments because the OCP area covers nearly 85 percent of the recommendations. We agree that the major financial the country (Benin).We will need to diversifyproduction needs for the implementation of the development pro- from food crops to cash crops now that the CFAfranc has gram in the onchocerciasis-freedareas will necessarilycall been devalued. We will also need help from the donor for the support of the international community,in addi- community to do all this. So far the recommendations tion to the resources given by the countries themselves." have only been addressed to the Africangovernments, "We do not have to reinvent the wheel. We must capi- but we should also recommend that the community of talize on existing research results and avoid overlapping

118 activities. I think we have to revitalize institutional bodies. onchocerciasis experience and the bank of knowledge the Research is expensive, and it is a state responsibility to program has built up on the environment." support research, but we need support from donors. "I have been very happy to listen to the debate of the Applied research revolves around farmers. They do not ministers at a level of engagement that I have not heard need theoretical training. Building farmers' capacity is for years. It was so enriching that one did not feel one had important, not just building state capacity. Agriculture anything to add, only to leam. Such an expression of must be given pride of place since we are rural countries." political will is the most important prerequisite for success. This conference is outstanding in its political wealth. anomspentsoringaepriesentative ofdonIntemational organizations can only support, not take the lead. The shift from health to development is extremely "We have not been involved in the discussion because important, and we are ready to be an even more active it was not the proper time. Donors should note the recom- partner now that rural development is becoming the mendations, but they do not make policies. They have the emphasis. We have leamed ways to combine agricultural money, but the countries have the knowledge and exper- development with environmental protection: integrated tise. This meeting clearly shows that the problems arising plant nutrition, integrated pest management, lower in- in the onchocerciasis areas have nothing to do with the puts, and incorporation of indigenous knowledge. We eradication of onchocerciasis. Local populations are get- should build on existing capacity." ting poorer, but this is a trickier issue and applies to other "This has been a real leaming experience. There is a areas also. The problem at hand is that land is getting wealth of examples of progress in all these countries: the depleted. In the past three years, what was sorely missing Niger rural code, the Mali credit program, Senegal's vil- was the essential environmental perspective. Nothing has lage forests. We need to put more resources into telling been said about how to avoid degradation. The ecological the story." balance is not to be viewed merely as trees and water and "We have been reluctant to parti.ipate here because we the like, but also as people. Mention has been made of felt that in the past we have not listened enough. It is im- problems between herders and farmers, but if you block portant that you tell us your experiences and needs. We can migration for transhumant populations, you may block provide a comparative perspective. We have been delighted wild animals and threaten biodiversity. We have not been with the tenor of the discussion, and it has added greatly to shown the critically important role of gallery forests. our understanding of the problem. If we had not agreed Destruction of these would be disastrous. Let us use the with what has been said, we would have responded."

119 I SESSION7 ft Closing Session

Closing Remarks relevantministries, the localgovemment authorities,and the people themselves.We further leamed that although EllenJohnson Sirleaf these policiesmust be country-specificto reflectdifferences United Nations Development Programme in resources and traditions, they must also take into Likethe representativesof the other supporting agencies accountthe regionaldimensions that are important for around the table, I did not take the floorin the past two West Africaas it moves toward regional cooperationand days of discussionbecause I too wanted to listen, to learn, integration. to be guided by the views and experiencesof the represen- The question now is where we go from here. As stated tatives of participatingcountries. The discussion has been at the outset, the sponsoring agencies view this meeting rich in substance and diversity,and we have benefited not as an end in itself, but as a first step toward a dia- indeed. We leamed that, led by people's initiatives,settle- logue on the issues at the country level. The guiding ment is acceleratingon land that the program has freed principles that this meeting adopted are a major contri- from onchocerciasis-some of the potentiallymost pro- bution to that dialogue. These principles are consistent ductive land in West Africa.We leamed that governments with those of the UNDP and other sponsoring agencies should encourage the spontaneous exploitationof this and with sustainable human development policy and land, and that, by resolvingownership issues appropriately programming. As their name suggests, the guiding prin- and developinginfrastructure and education,they can ciples are for each government to take into account in a greatlyenhance the benefits from this exploitation.And way consistent with its development strategies. The prin- with the help primarilyof our femaleparticipants, we ciples have a broad range of application in existingplan - reviewedthe still unsatisfactoryrole of women in impor- ning mechanisms-national environmental action plans, tant aspects of civilsociety in Africaand the need for more sectoralplanning for agriculturaland forestry develop- concerted effortsnationally and intemationallyto free ment, multisectoral action programs for rural develop- women from the constraintsthat prevent their full contri- ment, and poverty reduction programs. bution to development,just as this effectivepartnership The donor community has stayed the course in the freed the onchocerciasis-affectedlands for development. program for the past twenty years to eradicate a disease, The discussionsgenerated a livelydebate on policy though always with the development dividend as the ulti- issues relatingto sustainablesettlement and development. mate goal. The sponsoring agencies expect that the donor We learned that the policiesaffecting the onchocerciasis- community is now prepared to shift the dialogue to the freed land and the people who settle on that land-policies country level and to support national sustainable develop- relatingto the role of govemmentvis-a-vis local communi- ment programs, including settlement. ties, to land tenure and land use, to agriculturalproduction As the dialogue shifts to the country level and as gov- and productivity,to the environment,and to health and ernments take the lead in establishing sustainable devel- education-cannot be handled independent of other opment priorities as part of their national planning nationalpolicy. Instead, these policiesmust form part of a process, the aid coordinarionprocess is likelyto change. coherent national developmentstrategy involvingall the But within this context, aid coordinating mechanisms do

121 exist. The World Bank-led consultative group meetings cross-border migration. bring together countries and their development partners There is perhaps no need to establish new institutions to discuss the macroeconomic policies that broaden the for coordination among countries; however, mechanisms framework for development. Similarly, the UNDP, in could be established or strengthened within existing in- partnership with govemments, conducts the roundtable stitutions. Several regional and subregional institutions process, which provides forums for govemments, devel- would lend themselves to this approach. opment partners, bilateral and multilateral institutions, The Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought and, more and more, the private sector and nongovem- Control in the Sahel (CILSS), which, with the support of mental organizations to review the macroeconomic and the Club du Sahel, has produced an excellent study on the sector policies underpinning development. long-term demographics and their effect on development Both these mechanisms provide the opportunity to in West Africa, could provide a structure for sharing infor- mobilize resources in support of appropriate policies. For mation. Other regional and subregional institutions could example, participants in the roundtable assembled financ- establish coordinating or oversight niches within their ing for programs for human development and poverty structures. And, of course, the OCP structure, with its reduction in Sierra Leone, agricultural and human re- unprecedented assets, could be put to work in ways con- source development in Burkina Faso, poverty reduction sistent with the ideas that their excellencies President and agricultural diversification in the Gambia, macroeco- Diouf and President Compaore expressed during the nomic reform and decentralization in Mali, human devel- opening session. The OCP could coordinate the gathering opment in Guinea, political and economic decentralization of data and the sharing of information to support a review in Niger, and capacity building in Ghana. of the progress in settlement. These arrangements need not be the only follow-up The UNDP stands ready to assist in supporting small mechanisms. Several delegations have expressed interest working groups that will examine possible coordinating in some type of intercountry coordinating mechanism to mechanisms and structures and to ensure that the value continue the collaboration that has proved so effective in contributed by the OCP is maintained for the good of the OCP. This approach has validity, particularly for development in the region. exchanging information and monitoring settlement and

122 ClosingRemarks Special elements of this program have helped ensure KatherineMarshall its success and offer a model for pursuing effective devel- Africa Region, World Bank opment in Africa. Of special note is the long-standing partnership in development involving tight collaboration It is my privilege to attempt a brief summary of among the eleven countries in the subregion coupled with what appear to be our central conclusions at this impor- strong support and close coordination among a commu- tant meeting and to outline the actions that we have nity of more than twenty donors. This strong, durable agreed to take with respect to onchocerciasis control and coalition has been the backbone of the OCP. This meeting socioeconomic development of the onchocerciasis-freed reaffirmed the importance of maintaining this coalition to areas. We all stand deeply impressed at the remarkable complete the OCP, to reap the wider socioeconomic ben- achievements of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme efits that can and should flow from its achievements, and as we mark its twentieth anniversary. Onchocerciasis to address other critical problems in the subregion. We transmission has been almost totally interrupted in this dare not let the success of the OCP lead to complacency. vast eleven-country area of West Africa-an area, nearly We must instead so6idify and build upon that success. three times the size of France, that was once the most Building capacity-know-how, organization, and hon- heavily affected by onchocerciasis, with 15 percent of its est, efficient management-has been and remains central population infected. to the OCP's success and critical for the future. We noted The program's accomplishments offer us real hope with particular satisfaction the steady evolution of this for the future generations of the subregion. Already regional institution from one dominated by expatriates to more than 10 million children bom since the inception one staffed and managed by personnel of the highest quali- of the program face no risk of contracting the disease. ty from the region. Not only has the OCP largely eliminat- All of us were touched by the art displayed outside our ed onchocerciasis, it is also helping to create a capacity meeting room by Burkinabe school children. It signifies within the countries of the subregion to ensure that the dis- an awareness of their liberation from the tragic blind ease never recurs. Such capacity will also be key to sustain- adulthood faced by many of their ancestors and symbol- able development of the subregion long into the future. izes our commitment to helping build a better future The aim of development partners is always to build a for them. better future and to conquer poverty. Rarely can we point Eliminating the source of the disease is now almost to such clear success as with the OCP. It has promoted solely a matter of time and resources. It is vital to continue health and productivity for some of the poorest people in control operations for six more years, to ensure that the the eleven countries, and it has offered them a livelihood adult worm reservoir dies out throughout the human by helping remove an important constraint to using land. population in this part of West Africa. This final push The OCP's benefits in enhanced labor productivity and calls for sustained support and determination. increased land availability exceed its costs by a large mar- Somekeys to the OCP's success and their gin. We calculatethat the retums to the investment in the portent for the subregion's development OCP in terms of these two factors alone-human productivity and land-will exceed 20 percent once the OCP has We reflected here on both the future and the past: what been brought to a conclusion. This program provides clear inspired, forged, and drove this prograrm, and what path proof, if any were needed, of the strong causal relation does it suggest? The vision, courage, and determination of beiween improved health and overall development. several people played a pivotal role in getting the prograrn Opportunities and risks off the ground. We have recognized some of them here, along with the inspired mix of science, political and insti- We noted often that the OCP is set in a period and an tutional leadership, and bureaucratic energy and courage area marked by dynamism and change. The rapid repopu- that the OCP has called forth. The role of sheer persistence lation, after the successful control of onchocerciasis, of and commitment to solving each problem as it arises also underutilized or uninhabited river valleys presents both bears noting. Some of the people we saluted: Robert enormous opportunities and important risks. These lands McNamara, former President of the World Bank; the late have already contributed to a surge in agricultural produc- Roger Chaufoumier, Vice President, West Africa, for the tion far outstripping population growth in the countries of World Bank in the early 1970s; Dr. Rene Le Berre, a scien- the subregion over the past fifteen years. But the future tist for many years with ORSTOM; and Marc Bazin, who development of these lands presents complex challenges, led the program in its early years. And, of course, many of and the stakes are high. us have paid special tribute to the OCP's dynamic current We all need to recognize both how at risk the onchocer- leader, Dr. Ebrahim Samba, and to his team. ciasis-freed areas are and how important they are as some

123 of the most fertile and productive land in West Africa and ture, and the changes in the livestock economy. the last high-potential frontier in the subregion. Without a We focused much attention on diseases other than clear appreciation of the changes taking place there and the onchocerciasis in the OCP areas, asking how we could special risks that migration and intensive development pre- apply the OCP's lessons and resources. Malaria, sleeping sent, environmental degradation is a real and quite imme- sickness, guinea worm, and schistosomiasis need urgent diate possibility. 'Nhat is needed, we all agree, is an attention as part of the settlement process in the oncho- effective policy framework to support people in their devel- cerciasis-freed areas. The programs now in preparation or opment efforts, addressing above all agricultural services underway to devolve responsibilities to the participating and research, land tenure systems, input policies, transport countries and ensure that onchocerciasis never retums planning, and mapping for schools and health centers. The also involve activities for surveillance and control of these village development approach-gestion des terroirs-offers other endemic parasitic diseases. an exemplary model of community-centered work linking There will never be a more opportune time than now to services and science, policy and people, conflict resolution implement the policy framework that we have agreed on and creative planning. The experience in community-based here. First, we can now be virtually certain that onchocer- land management in Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger offers ciasis will not return as a major health problem in these rich examples of a bold new approach to development. high-potential river valleys. Second, the recent devaluation Social conflict, particularly between herders and farm - of the CFA franc in eight of the eleven OCP countries has ers, was much on our minds this week. The historic ten- significantly enhanced these economies' competitiveness sions in many regions of the world between cattle owners and offers a renewed opportunity to propel development and crop farmers were often discussed, and events in programs forward, above all in agriculture. Local agricul- Central Africa added special significance to the issues tural products are now much more attractive to domestic around land security for settlers, hosts, and herders. consumers than imported goods and exports produced in These issues clearly need special attention in these tran- the onchocerciasis-freed areas, such as cotton, have a sitional ecological zones. Another area deserving note is much stronger competitive advantage on the world market the protection of national physical and cultural treasures. and should see a surge in demand. Third, spontaneous As development proceeds, both parks and wildlife will resettlement in the onchocerciasis-freed areas is moving come under increasing pressure. fast, posing the very real danger that it may soon be too A clear message from this meeting was that women late to influence it or to take steps to ensure its social, eco- are playing and will continue to play a vital role in devel- nomic, and environmental sustainability. oping the region. The discussions centered on three Follow-up issues. First, land tenure. Under custom and law, women's access to land and security of land tenure are A clear and coherent policy framework to support sus- unclear and insufficient; in situations of flux, such as tainable settlement and development-the central theme migration, these uncertainties need to be addressed of this conference-offers a necessary but not a sufficient through policy and training. Second, agricultural credit base for our future action. Policy, planning, and monitor- and other services. Programs providing credit and similar ing need to be complemented by well-designed and vig- support need to recognize women as full participants in orously implemented investments in infrastructure and the economy. And third, participation. Development social and economic services. programs must draw on the wisdom, and focus on the Implementation of the guiding principles can be needs, of both men and women, achieved in the context of a macroeconomic policy frame- We are at a complex watershed in the history of work conducive to investment and sustainable production onchocerciasis control and follow-up socioeconomic systems in the rural sector. That means favorable produc- development. The discussions here touched on a wide er prices, more open markets, and elimination of range of regional and national issues, because the devel- restraints on trade in the rural sector. Also vital is inte- opment agenda for the OCP areas is in fact now the cen- grating a policy framework for settlement into national tral development agenda for the nations and the region environmental action plans. Indeed, each country and its concemed. It is artificial-indeed, potentially distorting- partners need to see intemal migration and settlement as to separate the virtually parallel development agendas. central development and environmental issues. In my The onchocerciasis-freed areas constitute a large part of department of the World Bank, I raise questions about national territories, and they are often dispersed across links to the onchocerciasis program time and time again the landscape, dictating a need for national policies and as development issues and programs are presented: Do strategies to address the issues that we raised: health, chil- they fully take into account the dynamics of settlement dren's welfare, population dynamics, the role of agricul- and the special needs of newly opened-up areas in trans-

124 port, school planning, agricultural research, interventions of Africa. The active involvement of the entire OCP com- related to women's issues, river basin development, AIDS munity in this meeting demonstrates clearly that the strategies, and so forth? coalition that is conquering onchocerciasis remains alive The consultative and aid coordination mechanisms and well and is determined to follow through on the working for each nation-the UNDP roundtables and OCP's progress. This coalition has three remaining tasks World Bank consultative groups-are important and effec- that relate to onchocerciasis. The first is to complete the tive mechanisms to guide and assist this continuing plan- OCP and thus eliminate the disease. The second is to ning and consultation effort. They also provide a forum for build capacity in the participating countries through devo- reviewing the application of the guiding principles in each lution to ensure that this tragic plague never recurs. The country and for mobilizing and consolidating the external third is to put in place the policy framework that we have support required to implement these policies and to pro- agreed on to help ensure sustainable settlement and mote investments for sustainable settlement and develop- development of the onchocerciasis-freed areas. We are ment of the onchocerciasis-freed areas. The World Bank well on our way to achieving tasks one and two, and we intends to play an active part in supporting development have made a major breakthrough on task three at this of the onchocerciasis-freed areas within these forums and meeting. If the participating countries act boldly to estab- through its dialogue with the countries about their nation- lish the agreed upon policy framework, and if the donor al development strategies, starting with a broad vision of community actively supports development of the prospects and options and extending to the essential onchocerciasis-freed areas through participation in aid details of program and project implementation. consortiums and within the context of this policy frame- Conclusion work, we will also accomplish task three. The end result will be an acceleration of sustainable growth in the partic- The Onchocerciasis Control Programme has proved ipating countries and a vast improvement in the welfare that development can be made to work in this subregion of the rural poor throughout the subregion.

125 ClosingRemarks only consumer goods and social services,but also inputs Harftvigde Haen and servicessupporting production, marketing, storage, AgricultureDeparment, Food and AgricultureOrganizaton and agriculturalprocessing. Fifth,the debate has shown that before governments The emphasis of the OnchocerciasisControl Pro- adopt new modesof people's participation,such as land gramme is now shiftingfrom health to development,to managementassociations, they need to systematicallystudy focus on such issues as settlement, land tenure, rural the traditionalland tenure systemsand lines of authority, development,agricultural production, and natural resource which offeran important way of minimizingconflicts. conservationand use. In support of that shift, the partici- Sixth,the decisionto support the developmentof poli- pants in this ministerialmeeting have adopted guiding des that favorproduction by small farmers gives rise to a principlesand recommendationsfor sustainable settle- need for a definitionof small farmers. It may be appropri- ment and development in the OCP areas. To quote the ate to define them not only by the size of their land but Minister of Health from the Republicof Benin,what will also by their accessto informationon property rights, to be the practicalconsequences of these recommendations? appropriate technologies,and to inputs and finance. These Followingthe proposed guiding principles,I have are issues that extensionmessages and public expenditure drawn some conclusionsfrom the debate, giving particu- should focus on. lar attention to principlesthat touch on the technicaland Seventh, perhaps the most important conclusionhas institutional issues of sustainable agriculturaland rural been that any settlement must be seen in the context of development. overall rural development. Becauseof naturai resource First, an evident conclusionis the need to translate constraints and the way that people's aspirations and each recommendation into action adapted to the realities preferences will evolve,the rural economywill have to of each country and each community.These realities are undergo a transformation from semi-subsistence to more extremelydiverse. Yet there are common kinds of prob- market-oriented agricultureto a diversifiedrural economy lems and common approaches to their solution. with more and more nonagriculturalemployment and Second,in addressingthe appropriatebalance between income generation. A lack of diversificationand nonagri- state and private action in the settlement of onchocerciasis- cultural altematives is bound to lead to resource degrada- freed areas, the participantsin this meeting expresseda tion, impoverishment, and accelerated rural-urban preferencefor assistedspontaneous settlement.This ap- migration, unacceptableconsequences after the remark- proach should ensure that the public interest is met in able success in making the lands accessiblethrough the such important matters as environmental protection,the control of onchocerciasis. provision of physicalinfrastructure for effectiverural de- Finally,the farming systems too must undergo a trans- velopment, and equity of access to resources,markets, formation. Traditionalland-consuming fallowsystems and social services. cannot be maintained. Appropriateproduction systems The concept would also leavesufficient initiative to for achieving sustainable intensificationmust be found. private individuals,communities, and nongovemmental Such systems will require not only improved resource use organizations to foster their assumption of responsibility but also access to extemal inputs, particularlyfertilizer, for natural resource management and organization of the and thus will have to be accompanied by a gradual transi- rural economy and to encourage maximum use of cus- tion from a subsistence to a rural market economy.They tomary rights, traditionaltenure systems,and traditional will also necessitateinvestment in land rehabilitation,irri- ways of dispute settlement. But as has been so convinc- gation systems, rural infrastructure,and the like. ingly stated, there can be no single blueprint for such a This is not, however, the occasion to enter into details sociallycomplex development path. Inequity and dispute of such a strategy.Moreover, all countries in the region are unavoidable,and therefore governments will have to are undertaking both macroeconomicand rural sector monitor and fine-tune the situation, though with a mini- restructuring. The FAO is ready to continue its coopera- mum of control. tion with member countries, to support efforts to attain Third, we must not overlook the fact that in some maximum benefits from the development potential of the areas so much return migration has occurred that the car- areas freed from onchocerciasis.Promoting development ryingcapacity has been reached. Urgent attention should in these areas, most of which have high productive poten- be given to redressingany resulting damage to the natural tial, coincides with a proposed new initiative to focus the resource base. FAO's effortseven more strongly on food security in low- Fourth, it would be irresponsible to provide new set- income, food-deficitcountries, many of which are in tlers with a piece of land without ensuring continuing and Africa.The FAO stands ready to support national efforts, affordableaccess to a broad range of rural services-not but also regional cooperation. Regionalactivities could be

126 organized to share the results of research in sustainable include exchange of information, monitoring of regional agriculturaldevelopment and to find solutions to prob- natural resources, training at selected regional centers of lems with a transboundary nature. These activitiescould excellence,and transboundary pest and disease control.

127 GuidingPrinciples for Sustainable areas as part of overall national planning. Settlementand Developmentin Recommendation8: Take into consideration the envi- the OnchocerciasistheOnchocerciasis Control ~sustainableSsronmental andsettlement health needsand development. of settlers in planning for ProgrammeArea Recommendation9: For the most effectivemanagement Preamble of natural resources, governments should support the for- A Ministerial Meeting on Sustainable Settlement and mation of community land management associations that involve hosts, settlers, and pastoralists in land use zoning. Develpmenhe Ochocrciassof CotrolProgamme Recommendation710: Develop agricultural policies that (OCP) Area was held at the World Bank office in Paris on April 12-14, 1994, under the chairmanship of Mr. Lambert support more intensive and diversified production sys- .inisterof Agriculture and Animal Resources, tems and take into account the upstream and downstream Konan, malReorcs linkagesgcltr.ad Republic of Cote d'lvoire. Imkages. Rheopublicf g oCthed'lvoire. was attended byPresident Recommendation 11: Design and implement agricultural Theth penngmeeingwasattededby o Pesient research and extension systems that respond to the Abdou Diouf of Senegal, President Blaise Compaore of Burkina Faso, and Mr. P.V. Obeng, representing President changing needs of settlers over time. J. Rawlings of Ghana. Recommendation 12: Promote efficient markets in The meeting forcefully underscored the opportunities settlement areas. and risks that rapid resettlement of the areas freed from Recommendation13: Put in place land tenure regula- onchocerciasis provides. It also confirmed the concem tions that take into account customary tenure systems, but and the commitment of the participating coun Jgh-.ies also ensure secure land tenure and the access of women level delegations of the eleven participating countries dis- and youth to land and natural resources. cussed individual country experience and research on Recommendation74: Ensure that women's rights major aspects of settlement. The very substantive discus- of access to and control over land are not lost in the sion benefited from the diversity of country situations and settlement process. traditions.But mostimportantly, the discussion highlight- Recommendation75: In addition to sustained support edtreladitio butymost immporant, thaedxperiscuss hihlgh- for the control of onchocerciasis and other important dis- ed the large body of common, shared experience. Thus, the meeting more than accomplished the task it eases, the donor community should support the efforts of had set for itself-to agree on a set of guiding principles for the govemments regarding the sustainable settlement and sustainable settlement. These guiding principles, set forth development of the onchocerciasis-freed areas. below, should help ensure that the long-term social and Introduction economic gains of settlement can be fully realized and sustained. 1. The Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) has removed a major constraint to the settlement of 25 million Guidingprinciples hectares of arable land in eleven countries of West Africa' Recommendation1: Promote the social and economic thereby providing a unique opportunity for promoting sus- integration of hosts, settlers, and pastoralists. tainable settlement and increasing agricultural production. Recommendation 2: The governments of the OCP area At the same time, it has become clear that to maximize should put in place a process of consultation and coordina- benefits from these new lands and to avoid environmental tion to resolve regional issues, particularly problems associ- degradation, govemments need to establish an appropriated with the movement of transhumant populations. ate set of policies in support of sustainable settlement. Recommendation 3: Encourage "assisted spontaneous 2. Prior to the start of the OCP in 1974, onchocerciasis settlement" as the most appropriate for the OCP area, was one important reason that large stretches of river given the volume of migration and the financial and man- valleys in West Africa were sparsely populated or com- agerial capabilities of the govemments. pletely deserted. After the program began operations, Recommendation 4: Institute, at the national level, a migration to the sparsely settled areas was slower than process of coordination regarding all development activi- anticipated due to other constraints and the attraction of ties in settlement areas. rapid economic growth along the coast. However, as the Recommendation 5: The responsibility for implementing fear of onchocerciasis diminished and opportunities in projects in settlement areas should rest with the line the coastal countries decreased, settlement in some OCP ministries. areas became rapid. Recommendation 6: Support settlement in areas close to already settled areas. 'Benin,Burkina Faso, Cote d'lvoire, Ghana,Guinea, Guinea- Recommendation7: Provide socialservices to settlement Bissau,Mali, Niger,Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo

128 3. One of the statutory bodies of the OCP, the Com- sefflement involving host and settler populations from dif- mittee of Sponsoring Agencies (FAO, UNDP, WHO, the ferent ethnic groups, ethnic differences increase the poten- World Bank), has actively promoted socioeconomic devel- tial for tension and need careful attention. Other demo- opment of the OCP area in a number of ways, including graphic characteristics of the settler population, such as age the execution of two major regional studies. The first of and gender also are important and should be monitored. these studies, executed by Hunting Technical Services Ltd. Recommendation 1: Promote the social and economic (United Kingdom) and Organisation et environnement integration of hosts, settlers, and pastoralists. (France), examined the natural resource endowments and 9. Problems between pastoralists and farmers are the development potential of the OCP areas. The second cause of serious conflicts in many countries in the region study, carried out by the Institute for Development and, at times, the cause of conflicts between countries. Anthropology (United States), examined land settlement Because of drought and increasing population pressure, activities and developed policy recommendations to facili- transhumant populations are having difficulty finding tate effective settlement practices. adequate grazing land and cross national boundaries to 4. Governments have responded to the increased ensure the survival of their herds. Pastoralists must be migration with a variety of measures, and the accumulat- guaranteed access to grazing land through agreements at ed experience of settlement, both spontaneous and gov- the local level with farmers and agreements at the inter- emment-organized, now allows us to draw conclusions national level between governments. about the settlement process and to outline a set of poli- Recommendation 2: The governments of the OCP area cies likely to promote long-term benefits from settlement. should put in place a process of consultation and coordina- These policies, taken as a group, provide a set of guiding tion to resolve regional issues, particularly problems associ- principles for supporting the successful settlement and ated with the movement of transhumant populations. development of the OCP area. 5. Conditions vary greatly from country to country and even within one country. However, in general, settlement 10. Broadly speaking, there are three types of settle- affects two types of populations, hosts and migrants, and ment in West Africa: two occupations, fanmers and pastoralists. These groups Sponsored settlement. The government or a private are not mutually exclusive, but in this document people agency controls all aspects of the program, from land sur- are identified as hosts, settlers, or pastoralists. These dis- veying to selecting and installing settlers to mandating tinctions, although somewhat artificial, highlight the con- production regimes straints to sustainable settlement and development. Assisted spontaneous settlement. The government Successful settlement provides some services and infrastructure to settlers who have moved on their own. 6. Successful sustainable settlement will occur only Spontaneous settlement. Settlers choose the area for when settlers are able to reestablish social networks and settlement, move themselves, and receive little or no create viable production systems. This depends on the inte- government assistance in the settlement process. gration of settlers with the host and pastoral populations. 11. With a policy of assisted spontaneous settlement, 7. Settlers are keenly aware that their long-tern suc- govemments, donor agencies, and NGOs play a support- cess in a region is linked to their ability to be incorporated ing role in a process that is already occurring, taking into a wider economic and social system, including rela- advantage of the well-documented initiative of sponta- tionships with the hosts who lend or give them land, with neous settlers and the social networks they build with the herders who have traditional pasture rights, and with host populations. Governments should be aware of the migrants who arrive after them. The strong value placed ongoing settlement process and provide the necessary by settlers on peaceful, mutually beneficial integration services. By providing services to the sefflers, govern- with the host community is reflected in their continuation ments may gain leverage in settler decisionmaking, proof traditional land tenure practices despite national land mote increased productivity, and prevent some of the tenure changes. Settlers are aware that whether or not environmental degradation often associated with sponta- they have official land title, they will have no satisfactory neous settlement. social or economic life in an area if they have antagonistic 12. Assisted spontaneous settlement may avoid some relationships with the host populations. of the problems with land speculation found in govem- 8. One important factor influencing integration is the ment-sponsored settlements, since it relies much more on composition of the settler group. Host populations may feel settler initiative and less on govemment largess and so is threatened by the in-migration of large numbers of a differ- less attractive to land speculators. ent ethnic group. While there are many cases of successful Recommendation 3: Encourage "assisted spontaneous

129 settlement" as the most appropriate for the OCP area, 17. In general, settlers tend to move to areas close to given the volume of migration and the financial and those already settled. This is often at odds with govem- managerial capabilities of the governments. ment policies that stress opening more distant areas. The National Planning history of settlement in the OCP area indicates that settlement moves in flows rather than leaps, so govemments 13. Government action at the national level is critical should plan to support new settlements in areas adjacent for successful settlement. The process of settlement, to currently settled areas. Such a strategy takes advantage including natural resource management, the provision of of settler initiative and is less expensive than developing infrastructure and services, and local economic develop- support infrastructure in more distant areas. One excep- ment, touches on the responsibilities of many different tion to this may be when a large infrastructure project is ministries, and the government must be able to coordi- planned for a more remote area, in which case govem- nate its own activities to be effective. The complexity of ments may capitalize on infrastructure investment for the the settlement process which involves the creation of new project and provide additional services to spontaneous social and economic communities, requires a coordinated settlers at marginal incremental cost. set of national policies and administrative structures. Recommendationi6: Support settlement in areas close Govemments should incorporate human health consider- to already settled areas. ations into settlement planning through the selective use Provision of services of environmental impact assessment in natural resource policies, plans, and projects. 18. In most of the OCP countries, govemments are Recommendation 4: Institute, at the national level, explicitly committed to providing education and health a process of coordination regarding all development services to the entire population. Provision of services in activities in settlement areas. settlement areas therefore should be seen as part of a AdministrativeStructures national plan to provide necessary servicesand govemments should not regard the provision of services to set- 14. In the OCP region, govemments have used a vari- tlement areas entirely as additional costs due to ety of management structures for planning and imple- settlement. Prompt provision of services, particularly menting settlement projects, ranging from special units health services, can be used as an inducement to host in line ministries to semi-independent parastatal agen- populations to accept new settlers, as encouragement for cies. Each management structure has strengths and weak- villages to adopt land management programs, and as a nesses, but in the long term placing responsibility in the tool to guide settlers to specific areas. line ministries appears to be the most effective approach. Recommendation 7: Provide social services to settlement 15. Parastatal agencies created to supervise all settle- areas as part of overall national plaining. ment activities in a given area may be more effective ini- 19. The success of the Onchocerciasis Control Pro- tially in mobilizing resources, constructing physical and gramme in opening new lands to cultivation should not social infrastructure, and encouraging agricultural produc- mask the risks of recrudescence of onchocerciasis and tion. However, these agencies are expensive, and they the risks of other new and returning diseases. These have a great deal of difficulty handing over their functions risks are due to changes in environmental and demo- to the line ministries or to local authorities after the set- graphic conditions. tlers are established. They may also be paternalistic and Recommendation 8: Take into consideration the envi- quash settler initiative. Services provided by the paras- ronmental and health needs of settlers in planning for tatal, upon which settlers come to depend, are often sustainable settlement and development. beyond the capacityof the line ministries to deliver once Sustainablenatural resource management they are given responsibility for the settled area. Recommendation 5: The responsibility for implementing 20. One critical component of successful settlement in projects in settlement areas should rest with the line the long term is the sustainable management of natural ministries. resources. Traditional systems of resource management Infrastructure were effective in situations of low population density and easy access to new land, but increases in population and 16. Govenmment can guide spontaneous settlers through the growing scarcity of land mean that continuing use of decisions on where to build infrastructure. Roads attract extensive farming practices will lead to rapid resource people, so road construction can be used to direct sponta- degradation and permanent loss of productivity. In addi- neous settlers to areas that the government wants to devel- tion, increased population is putting pressure on forests, op and away from protected forest and wildlife areas. water resources, and wildlife populations. Management

130 strategies are needed at many levels, from the intema- age long-term investments in intensive and diversified tional to the local. agricultural production. 21. At the community level, locally agreed zoning 25. Diversified production systems are central to the arrangements may be the most effective method for pro- success of settlement in the OCP area. Much of the area tecting natural resources. Resources are best protected by experiences wide fluctuations in rainfall, and rigidly pre- local populations allocating land to farming grazing and determined cropping pattems will not allow settlers to forests. Local agreement on zoning is much more likely adapt. When settlers are convinced that subsistence pro- than national policies to decrease deforestation, because duction is assured, thev diversify rapidly into other crops, local communities benefit from the remaining woodlands and, just as important, into other income generating and have a stake in protecting them. Similarly, reserving activities. In many settlement areas, the most successful certain areas for herding through local agreements may agricultural producers invest in off-farm income generat- prevent encroachment on soils unsuitable for sustained ing activities and eventually leave farming altogether. production and maintain space for livestock, which are an Agricultural extension systems need to understand the important part of overall production systems. role that diversification plays in household income gener- 22. One promising tool for addressing local land man- ating strategies and provide advice on a range of crops agement issues in settlement areas is the village land man- and cropping systems, rather than promoting one system agement model currently being tested in several OCP for every household. countries. The exact organization varies from country to Recommendation 10: Develop agricultural policies that country, but in general this model provides for local deci- support more intensive and diversified production sys- sion-making on natural resource use, assisted by technical tems and take into account the upstream and downstream advice from government ministries. In return for a com- linkages. munity's adopting activities such as soil conservation, 26. National agricultural research systems should re- preservation of forests, and improvement of pastureland, spond to the needs of newly settled farmers. This requires the government provides basic social infrastructure to the an understanding of the specific constraints faced by these community and formalizes traditional land tenure arrange- farmers and of the household production strategies they ments. If implemented early in the settlement process, the pursue. This, in tum, requires increased contacts between village land management model offers an opportunity to farmers and researchers. Agricultural extension systems protect the interests of indigenous inhabitants by allowing are a key part of improving contact between researchers them some measure of control over migration to their land and farmers, and extension agents must be able to convey while giving settlers legal recognition of their claims and information in two equally important directions: from giving pastoralists clearly defined grazing areas. researcher to farmer and from farmer to researcher. Exten- Recommendation 9: For the most effective management sion agents need to understand that new settlers will of natural resources, govemments should support the for- attempt to ensure food self-sufficiency before they begin to mation of community land management associations that experiment with new crop varieties, so initially settlers involve hosts, settlers and pastoralists in land-use zoning. may appear unwilling to accept advice. However, once Rural development food self-sufficiency has been assured, settlers often have proved more willing to experiment than host populations. 23. Settlement in the OCP river valleys will not be sus- 27. To meet the information demands of settlers, the tainable unless settlers become successful farmers. This research and extension systems will have to provide infor- requires, among other things, secure land tenure, effective mation on a range of crops and crop varieties, allowing extension and research systems, efficient market net- settlers to choose those that best fit their needs. Farmer works, functioning rural financial systems, and realistic (male and female) participation is critical for identifying exchange rate policies. crops and constraints and for testing and disseminating 24. The goal of most settlers is to establish subsistence- research results. Having available a range of information level production and, when this is assured, to generate a will help the extension systems meet the needs of women surplus that can be reinvested in agriculture or in other farmers, who are important agricultural producers and activities. Often, the fastest way to generate a surplus is who often grow a different set of crops than male farmers. through extensive agricultural production techniques that Extension systems should be structured so that messages rapidly deplete the soil and make further agricultural pro- reach both men and women. duction uneconomic for a number of years. National Recommendation 11: Design and implement agricultural interests, on the other hand, are to see that the migrants research and extension systems that respond to the establish sustainable production systems. In order to do changing needs of settlers over time. this, govemments must put in place policies that encour- 28. Markets and service centers are vital for successful

131 settlement. Markets are focal points for transactions involv- are not sufficient in themselves. Customary tenure sys- ing agricultural commodities from the immediate area and tems often allow access to land when settlers begin to from surrounding areas and imported manufactured goods arrive, but they do not give secure tenure in the long term, essential for day-to-day life. Market activities allow settlers making it unlikely that settlers will make permanent to diversify income sources, which is particularly important investments in the land. In addition, conflicts may arise as for those with less access to land. The sale of agricultural the volume of settlement increases and land becomes surplus generates local demand and stimulates the diversi- scarce. Governments can play a role in mediating confLicts fication of local and household economies. and establishing clear rules. 29. Govemments can promote successful markets in Recommendation 13: Put in place land tenure regula- ;everal ways. Most important, in newly settled areas gov- tions that take into account customary tenure systems, but emments can provide the necessary infrastructure to also ensure secure land tenure and the access of women ensure that goods move in and out of markets in a timely and youth to land and natural resources. manner. This is particularly important for the sale of per- 33. The access of pastoral groups to land must also be ishable agricultural commodities and the timely delivery protected in the settlement process. There is increasing of inputs such as fertilizers. The dissemination of market friction between pastoral and sedentary groups in West information is an additional means through which gov- Africa, much of it due to the expansion of settled areas. emments can improve marketing systems. Sedentary host populations may be willing to give settlers 30. Govemments can also remove constraints to free access to land that has traditionally been used by transhu- marketing of agricultural products by reducing or remov- mant groups, leading to friction between settlers and ing licensing requirements for trading, eliminating restric- herders. Pastoral populations with traditional grazing tions on the circulation of goods within the country, and rights must be included as part of any decisionmaking on reducing the role of agricultural parastatals. giving land to settlers. Recommendation 12: Promote efficient markets in 34. In some areas, the settlement process can be used settlement areas. to improve security of tenure for all groups in the settle- Land tenure ment area by formally recognizing traditional land claims. This can be used as an incentive for host populations to 31. Land tenure is a dynamic situation influenced by the accept new settlers. macroeconomic situation and by the local agricultural pro- 35. Women's traditional access to land, water, and oth- duction systems and other land use pattems. While much of er natural resources is often lost as tenure systems based the area becoming available due to onchocerciasis control is on individual ownership are introduced. If individual sparsely populated, almost none of it is unclaimed. Attempts tenure is being established, women should be given by national govemments to override existing land tenure explicit title to land and should not have to count on systems will almost certainly lead to conflict be-tween host access to land through other members of their household. and settler populations. This conflict may be violent or may If the govemment establishes eligibility requirements for be manifested in host population boycotts of settler-run receiving land, women should be equally eligible. markets or exclusion of settlers from established social net- Recommendation 14: Ensure that women's rights of works and markets. Inability to tap into these systems may access to and control over land are not lost in the settle- trap settlers in subsistence-level production. Equally impor- ment process. tant the insecurity of tenure resulting from conflicting 36. If local land tenure traditions are used as the basis national and local land tenure systems will inhibit long-term for land tenure decisions, it is less likely, although not investments in productivity, something that is crucial if new impossible, that large-scale speculation will occur. This settlements are to be sustainable. needs to be monitored because there are anecdotal reports 32. The land tenure system needs a national code with- of substantial appropriation of land in the OCP river val- in which land tenure rights are assured. Emphasis should leys by wealthy urban elites, and it will undoubtedly be placed on security of access rather than on a particular become more of a problem as land becomes scarce. type of control (for example, individual versus collective International cooperation tenure). To achieve this, the land tenure code must take into account customary tenure rights, and local adminis- 37. The substantial financial needs associated with the trative and judicial systems must offer mechanisms for development of the onchocerciasis-controlled areas conflict resolution. Secure access to water and other nat- require the strong support of the intemational community ural resources can be as important as secure access to to complement and reinforce the efforts of the participat- land. Local systems of tenure provide the necessary starting countries. ing point for devising a secure system of tenure, but they Recommendation 15: In addition to sustained support

132 for the control of onchocerciasisand other important dis- mental degradation of the more densely settled areas. eases, the donor community should support the efforts of However,with the control of onchocerciasisand rapid the govemments regarding the sustainable settlement and population growth, these areas will quicklybecome settled development of the onchocerciasis-freedareas. and just as quicklybegin to experiencethe environmental Conclusion consequences.Successful settlement, the comerstone of successfuldevelopment in the OCP areas, requires a com- 38. The 25 million hectares of arable land being made prehensive set of policiesfostering agricultural growth, availablethrough the control of onchocerciasisrepresent a rural development,and the social and economic integra- tremendous opportunity to promote sustainable develop- tion of settler, host, and pastoral populations.African gov- ment. Expansionof cultivatedland has been the engine of emments and donor agenciesmust act immediatelyand agriculturalgrowth in many of these countries,and the decisivelyto adopt policiesthat will safeguard the unique onchocerciasis-freed river valleyshave been the locationof opportunity provided by the control of onchocerciasisand much of the expansion.Many of these areas have been ensure the sustainablesettlement and development of the sparsely populated and have not yet suffered the environ- newly availablelands.

133

ANNEX 1 ft BackgroundPapers

SustainableSettlement and Govemment-sponsored effortsto settle agricultural Developmentof the land have been unsuccessful,for reasons having to do Developmentthe of with the sociologicalbehavior of the people involved.In OnchocerciasisControl search of a more effectiveapproach, a pilot project for ProgrammeArea in Benin integrated development was devised and implemented to People'sRepublic of Benin see whether an endogenous, participatorydevelopment strategy could open the way to sustainable development Discussionson the eventual development of onchocercia- of onchocerciasis-freedareas. sis-freed areas in Benin date to 1977,around the time the The results of this experiment,the P6huncopilot pro- OnchocerciasisControl Programme was launched. The ject, have been mixed. On the positive side, it boosted ideas explored have centered on two key considerations: agriculturalproduction in that district, improving the * The history of settlement in the onchocerciasis-freed quality of life of the resident population and attracting zone provides no evidence that it once sustained a newcomers.On the negative side, it has thus far failed to population that subsequentlyabandoned it when draw a steady stream of settlers from outside P6hunco. onchocerciasisbegan to take its toll. On balance, it has helped establish permanent communi- * The program originallycovered 50 percent of the ter- ties and offersthem far better economic conditions. ritoryof Benin.After it was expanded in 1988 to 85 Based on its experiencewith this venture and the fac- percent of the country,issues concerningthe develop- tors known to trigger migration in the region,Benin has ment of onchocerciasis-freedareas ceased to be adopted a more comprehensive,integrated approach to "regional"concerns and instead became synonymous national development that accords special attention to with nationaldevelopment issues. (The program area these sensitive areas of the country. continues to pose specificdevelopment problems, Since the democratic renewal, the government of however, such as undersettlement,infrastructure Benin has been pursuing a three-pronged approach to needs, and heavy migratoryflows.) land use planning, with the goal of helping to establish This paper explores these two considerations,and lasting settlements in the onchocerciasis-freedareas and takes stock of Benin's efforts to settle and develop areas in creating pockets of employment to attract migration: which onchocerciasishas been controlled during the first a Improvingcommunication in all regions (through a phase of the OnchocerciasisControl Programme. program to upgrade road infrastructure) These areas, particularlyzones in the north, are still a Rehabilitatingand developing socialinfrastructure sparsely settled, despite their agriculturalpotential. (health care facilities,schools) Migrantsare bypassing them in favor of more hospitable . Developingvillage water supply systems. surroundings. Although onchocerciasisis a definite factor An environmental action plan has been drawn up to in the weak settlement activity,it is by no means the only underpin the country's effortsto achieve sustainable set- one. Isolation and poor economic and social tlement and development,with the onchocerciasis-freed infrastructureare the real constraints. areas as its starting point.

135 For Benin to proceed with this development strategy in The waterways in these two river systems carry water its onchocerciasis-protected areas will require a number of year-round, and are therefore a permanent and very active studies to help target efforts more precisely to settlements focus of onchocerciasis infection. The prevalence of the in and near treated river valleys. Considerable funding disease increases with distance from the source of a river, also will be needed to implement the various action plans. and then begins to decline near the mouth of the river. Benin hopes that it can rely once again on support from its Demographics partners in development, notably the Sponsoring Agen- cies of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme, to solidify In 1979, the OCP area was home to 761,071 people; by and build on the gains made thus far in this major region- 1992 its population had risen to 1,106,832. The main ethnic al undertaking. groups in the area are the Bariba, Dendi, B6tammarib6, Onchocerciasis-freedareas in Benin Lokpa,and Peuhl. The majority of the Peuhl raise cattle, and most of those in the other ethnic groups (which make The Onchocerciasis Control Programme began activi- up about 80 percent of the population) are crop farmers. ties in Benin in 1977, and now covers nearly 85 percent of Overall, the OCP area is sparsely populated. The aver- the country, extending throughout the area north of an age population density in 1979 was a mere thirteen per imaginary line running from Lokossa in the southwest to square kilometer. By 1992, the average had risen to twenty Bohicon in the center. The original program zone, howev- inhabitants per square kilometer. By comparison, in south- er, is further north, above the Djougou-Nikki axis at 9°40' em Benin in 1992 densities exceeded 150 inhabitants per north. About 56,000 square kilometers in size-roughly square kilometer with the provinces of Atlantique, Mono, half the country's land area-the original zone comprises and Ou6me reporting 342, 193, and 157 persons per the province of Atacora (except for Bassila District) and square kilometer. the province of Borgou (except for the southern districts of The population in the OCP area is unevenly distrib- N'Dali, Nikki, Perer6, Parakou, and Tchaourou). The rest uted. The districts with the highest densities are Copargo, of the program area is the extension zone, where control Ouak6, Natitingou, and Boukoumbe, located in the west- efforts did not get underway until 1988. em part of the OCP zone in mountainous terrain. Epidemiological data gathered by an OCP team in a Economicimportance of the OCP area number of villages in the control zone in 1977 showed onchocerciasis to be endemic in the zone. The team Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of Benin, recorded prevalence rates ranging from 25 percent to 83 employing some 70 percer.t of its work force and generat- percent, depending on the locality and its proximity to ing 36.7 percent of gross domestic product in 1992. In the rivers or their sources. In some villages more than 3 per- OCP area, too, agriculture employs more than 70 percent cent of residents were afflicted with river blindness. The of the economically active population. lowest rates were recorded in villages near the source of The leading crops in Benin are such staples as yams, watercourses. cassava, maize, sorghum, beans, and rice. Atacora and Physicalgeography Borgou provinces in the OCP area account for much of the production of these crops, supplying 10 to 40 percent The OCP area in Benin is shrubby savanna with pock- of the country's total groundnut, bean, cassava, and maize ets of gallery forest near the rivers and rugged terrain in production, 70 percent of its yams, 94 percent of its the west (Atacora Mountains). The climate is tropical, with sorghum, and 72 percent of its cotton. The two provinces a dry season from November to April and a rainy season also produce the bulk of Benin's livestock. The OCP area from May to October. was home to some 1,062,317 head of cattle in 1992 (94 Two large river systems-the Niger River system and percent of the country's total stock), 424,742 sheep (65 the Volta Lake system-are home to the larvae that cause percent of the national stock), and 433,967 goats (47.7 onchocerciasis. The Niger River system consists of water- percent of the national total). courses flowing north into the Niger River: the Sota (250 The OCP area is blessed with vast stretches of fertile, kilometers), Alibori (338 kilometers), Pako, Diar6kou, arable land. A 1982 soil survey conducted by the FAO M6krou (410 kilometers), Topoa, and Oli (which meets Agricultural Soil Project showed that agricultural land in the river across the border in Niger). The Volta Lake sys- the OCP area would lend itself well to cultivation of the tem encompasses the Pendjari-Oti River (380 kilometers) main food staples-sorghum, maize, yams, rice-and and its tributaries, the K6ran and Koumougou, which industrial crops-cotton, groundnuts (table 1). Unfortu- cross Togo to western Ghana and empty into Lake Volta. nately, the densely populated westem reaches of the area The largest rivers and tributaries in the country are the are the least fertile. Yet only about 6.8 percent of the Pendjari, M6krou, Alibori, and Sota. acreage suitable for cultivation is being farmed, compared

136 Table1 Agriculturalproduction potential in the OCParea

______Soil capacity Crop Excellent Very good Good Sorghum Entire area Com Kouande District Tanguieta District Natitingou District Kandi District Nikki District Gogounou District Sinend6 District Rice Entire area Groundnuts South West Cotton North (Borgou Province) South West and north Kouand6 and P6hunco districts K6rou District in Atacora Yams South North

Source: FAO data.

with 37 percent of arable land in southem Benin. The OCP the interfluves. And while intensive cultivation in the area's prospects for development are particularly attractive interfluves has triggered erosion and impoverished the because, failing any effort to intensify farming (through the land, the soil in the valleys retains its potential. use of inputs, particularly fertilizer), rural areas in southem If these valleys are abandoned, then, it is not because Benin with fast-growing populations will soon find them- their soil is infertile or because they have proved difficult selves with a dearth of viable farmland. to develop. According to Hervouet (1978), several factors are at play here, and they frequently have a cumulative Onchocerciasisand agricultural land use effect.But it is tribalwars, more than any other single A number of studies, notably in Nigeria and Burkina cause, that have decimated the valley-dwelling popula- Faso, have pointed up the relationship between onchocer- tion. Areas sparsely populated to begin with have been ciasis infections and the settlement of farmland. A Niger- further battered by onchocerciasis. ian study, for example, showed that settlement patterns in Onchocerciasis remains a barrier to settlement and Hawal Valley shift depending on the severity of onchocer- farming in river valleys. Two rice projects in Burkina Faso, ciasis in different areas. Likewise, there is evidence that one at Loumana on a tributary of the Leraba and the other those who contract the disease abandon fields at a dis- at St. Pierre on a tributary of the Black Volta, failed tance from their homes to work land that is much closer because of the intensity of onchocerciasis transmission. as soon as eye lesions begin to develop. Onchocerciasis Although onchocerciasis is by no means the only hurdle to thus seems to act as a subtle catalyst on other factors that settlement of the valleys, it is clearly one reason why farm- can cause farmers to vacate fields. ers have not established themselves on land that often was A study of population distribution in Burkina Faso relatively close to their homes and offered soil that had not revealed a sharp contrast between deserted valleys in been impoverished by long-standing agricultural use. The which onchocerciasis was hyperendemic and overpopu- resulting asymmetry between the size of the economically lated interfluves. In the White Volta and Red Volta basins active population and the settlement of farmland gives this population densities exceed 100 people per square kilo- disease its socioeconomic dimension, particularly in meter, while the valleys are devoid of human habitation. regions where land and water are important constraints to A number of regions have never been settled, or have the growth of agricultural output. been settled only sporadically, in tiny villages. Is poor soil the explanation for these empty valleys? Settlemet areas The soil surveys performed in these regions suggest that The OCP area in Benin can be divided into two settle- the soil composition in the valleys is comparable to that in ment zones-the eastem and the westem. The eastem

137 settlement zone comprises the districts of Kerou, But the OCP area does not hold the same appeal for Kouand6, and Pehunco in Atacora Province and Banikora, migrants from villages everywhere. The survey found that Bembereke, Gogounou, Kalal6, Kandi, Karimama, 46 percent of those who left villages in the eastem settle- Malanville, Nikki, Segbana, and Sinend6 in Borgou ment zone remained in the program area, but only 20 Province. The zone occupies about 41,615 square kilome- percent of those migrating from villages in the west did ters, or 75 percent of the OCP area. Most of its inhabitants so. That suggests that the motives for these rural migrato- are Bariba and Dendi crop farmers and Peuhl stock farm- ry flows are not identical in all areas. ers. The fertile soil in this vast region gives it great poten- Migrants from villages in the east are perhaps motivat- tial for farming and pastoral activities, and it could well ed by the desire for better communication with the outside attract farmers seeking productive land. Immigrants to the world, as they settle in villages on the international route area can acquire land at no cost, but must obtain clear- linking Parakou, Malanville, and Niamey. And emigrants ance from the local chief. from the west may be seeking more fertile land, as sug- The western settlement zone is an area of rugged ter- gested by the large numbers moving to points south of the rain encompassing the rural districts of Boukoumb6, OCP area where onchocerciasis still is not under control. Cobly, Copargo, Materi, Natitingou, Ouake, Tangui6ta, Rural migrationtoward non-onchocerciasis-pmteted areas and Toucountouna. Its 14,385 square kilometers (25 percent of the OCP area) are home mainly to the Otamari, Of those who migrated during the survey period, 65 Berba, and Lokpa peoples. percent settled in areas still not treated under the pro- A comparison of the agricultural potential of these two gram-notably the southem part of Atacora and Borgou zones shows unequal natural resource endowment. The provinces-in an attempt to find employment or land to east, with its huge expanses of arable land, is underpopu- farm. These migrants are mostly farmhands and peasants lated, while the land in the less fertile westem zone is who had come to realize that the land at home is too heavily overfarmed and, because of the zone's much more scarce and the soil too poor, and decided to seek a more irregular terrain, eroding. The average maize and productive environment. sorghum yields in the westem zone are half those in the According to the INSAE survey, this type of migration east. This unequal natural resource endowment triggers is particularly prominent in villages in the westem OCP migration from west to east; settlers from southem and area. A quarter of the emigrants tracked in villages in the central Benin are also streaming into the eastem zone. eastem zone, but 58 percent of those in all OCP villages, Is the Onchocerciasis Control Programme leading to a chose the OCP extension area as their destination. There shift in migratory flows in these areas? To examine the are many reasons for this choice of route, and they go far program's impact on these population movements, we back in history. Two key reasons are the isolation of the look first at patterns in the migratory flows and at factors OCP area and the migratory traditions of the people likely inducing people to move from one zone to another. to leave their homes. Isolationof the OCParea. Roads are one of the most powerfuldraws for settlement. Year-round access to the Migratory flows are a noticeable phenomenon in the outside world is a critical need for rural communities. program area, though heavier in some settlement zones Poor communications are a constraint to the development than others. They can be classified into three types: of trade and to the provision of health care and security. * Movements of rural population within the onchocer- The original program area is isolated compared with ciasis-protected area the extension area, which has open to it three major trunk * Migration of rural population to areas not yet cleared roads of several intemational routes that can carry traffic of onchocerciasis (the extended OCP area) all year-N'dali-Parakou-Dassa-Zoum6 (292 kilometers), * Emigration to bordering countries (Niger, Nigeria, Djougou-Savalou-Dassa-Zoume (259 kilometers), and and Togo). Djougou-Parakou (145 kilometers)-and the Dassa- Rural migrationwithin the OCP area Parakou railroad (232 kilometers). In total, the extension area has about 928 kilometers of all-weather roads. Migratory flows within the OCP area are triggered Because of poor maintenance, half of the roughly 1,035 when peasants decide of their own accord to look for work kilometers of national roads in the original OCP area are as farmhands or to seek land more fertile than the plots impassable in the rainy season. The districts of Cobly, they leave behind, but to remain within the OCP area. A Kalale, Karimama, Kerou, Materi, P6hunco, S6gbana, and twelve-month survey by INSAE revealed that 25 percent Sinende-all of which have good agricultural potential- of those who had left the villages studied over that period are very difficult to reach during that season. One casualty had taken up residence elsewhere in the program area. of these difficult conditions is the supply of farm inputs,

138 such as fertilizer and insecticides; to ensure that they will permanently established in Bassila, thanks to this state- be available when needed, these inputs often must be run program and to spontaneous migration. brought into these districts months before the rains begin. The traditional migration pattems in this part of the The rainy season may complicate access to district country and the settlement experiments show that despite hubs, but it cuts off communities located off the national the fertile land available in the OCP eastem settlement road system. The sense of being doubly confined- zone, the Otamari and Lokpa people from the west do not inwardly and relative to the rest of the region-is one fac- migrate to it spontaneously. The eastern zone is much more tor that prompts young people to strike out for areas with cut off than the extension zone; the history of tribal wars better communication links. Most take up residence near may also play a role, as well as the heavy reliance on yams, the main trunk roads, particularly the Djougou-Basilla- which are cultivated in rotation cropping and therefore Savalou, Djougou-Parakou, and Parakou-Dassa stretches, entail itinerant agriculture. all of which are in the extended OCP area. Rarely do they In Burkina Faso, when the spread of onchocerciasis make it as far as Cotonou, the country's commercial hub. was halted in the Volta valleys, those areas were settled Most of those emigrating from the original OCP area end spontaneously by the Mossi people, even though ethnic up in the rural districts of Bante, Bassila, Djougou, considerations might have predicted otherwise and even Glazou6, Savalou, and Tchaourou. though settlers were not automatically given final title to Bassila District alone has become home to 5,000 emi- land. The overpopulation of the Mossi Plateau (120 grants from the original OCP zone. The zone of sponta- inhabitants per square kilometer) and persistent drought neous settlement, largely for Otamari and Lokpa migrants left residents no choice but to hunt elsewhere for water seeking farmland, is the triangle formed by three trunk and land. In Benin such a combination has not been roads: Djougou-Parakou, Parakou-Dassa-Zoume, and enough to alter traditional migration flows. Dassa-Zoume-Bassila-Djougou. Although proximity to The Beninese authorities therefore think it unlikely these roadways is one factor in settlement decisions, that any "directed settlement" project would succeed at migratory traditions also influence these decisions-as do this time in the valleys of the Mekrou, Alibori, and Sota in the results of past experiments with the settlement of the viable (eastem) zone of the OCP area. Those living in agricultural land. the east have available to them vast expanses of agricul- Migratory traditions of the Otamari and Lokpa. The des- tural land, and those with insufficient or degraded land tinations for most Otamari and Lokpa who abandon are electing to move to areas not yet cleared of onchocer- poor-quality land in the westem settlement zone are the ciasis, despite the risk. Under these circumstances, the districts of Bassila, Glazou6, Savalou, and Tchaourou. program should quickly direct its attention toward the Here they are recruited as farmhands to grow yams, extension areas to build on its gains in controlling tobacco, and groundnuts. onchocerciasis. Tlhemigratory flows are organized, with migrants trav- Cross-borde emigration eling in groups of three to five. Most find work with mer- chants or on medium-size farms and become integrated According to the INSAE survey, 17 percent of Beninese into family life or settle on farms. Those who integrate who abandon their homes cross into Niger, Nigeria, or successfully and acquire land for farms put down roots Togo. Because of its more advanced economy, Nigeria there. Young people who had remained at home hear of holds particular appeal for young emigrants; it was the their success and follow in their footsteps. choice of about 65 percent of those who had emigrated Two settlement programs were attempted in Bassila from the villages surveyed. District (in the OCP extension zone) to ease the constraint This outward migration is emptying the countryside. of poor farmland in the districts of Boukoumb6 and Whether it continues will depend on how wide a develop- Ouak6 in the westem zone. The first was a 1962 initiative ment gap persists between Benin, with its farm-based by a pastor of the Sudan Interior Mission to help the Lok- economy, and Nigeria, with its oil wealth. Unless agricul- pa people of Ouak6. The second, a govemment-spon- tural policies are introduced to help Beninese farmers sored venture in 1968, was targeted to the Otamari in increase their production and income, this emigration Boukoumb6. may indeed continue, thwarting efforts to resettle these The first program established the new villages of Bigu- areas and develop onchocerciasis-freed land. ina 1, 11,and 111,which, by the 1979 census, were home to Setlemet of land some 3,500 people. The second experiment was less successful. The new village of Diapeni started out with a pop- The government, having witnessed the slow, sporadic ulation of about 1,000 but has seen all but 300 leave. trickle of migrants toward valleys in the eastem zone, has Nevertheless, an estimated 1,500 Otamari settlers are now not organized any focused program to settle areas now

139 protected from onchocerciasis. Instead, given the factors in 1979, were no more sparsely populated than Segbana, triggering emigration, the objective has been to improve with four inhabitants per square kilometer, or Nikki, with economic and social conditions in the OCP area, particu- eight. Evidently, then, factors other than onchocerciasis are larly in the eastem part, to attract people who will settle responsible for the low population density in the valleys. there of their own accord and work the land. Such an Two possible causes are epidemics caused by guinea effort would include upgrading roads, schools, and worms and tsetse, and tribal conflicts and wars to rebuff health care facilities and developing village water colonization. It thus is difficult to affirm that there are peo- supply systems. ple who emigrated from the valleys to the poor plateaus The only prospective settlers of the eastem zone, given who should now be brought back to the valleys. If there its poor communications, are those living in this region; it are no such emigrant groups to return to the land, out- is unlikely to attract many outsiders. But the extended siders offer the only possibility for settling it. OCP area will continue to attract Otamari and Lokpa Settlementby migrants.Tne parts of Benin now consid- migrants in the years ahead. And there is a risk that plans ered cleared of onchocerciasis constitute roughly half the to pave the roads between Dassa and Parakou, Parakou nation's territory but are home to less than a third of its and Djougou, and Djougou and Savalou, the three sides people. They thus represent significant reserves of land. of the triangle of viable agricultural land, will give this Southem Benin, by contrast, has a large population and not already attractive area an even stronger appeal for enough land to satisfy its needs or achieve development prospective settlers. objectives. Agriculture could be expanded in northem Shapinga developmentstrategy Beninif some of the population in the south were shifted to for onchocerciasis-freedareas empty river valleys in the north; the congestion of densely populated pockets in the north, such as Boukoumbe and To help devise a development strategy for the Toucountouna, could be eased in the same way. onchocerciasis-freed areas, officials from Benin's Oncho It is unlikely, however, that such settlement opera- Unit traveled to Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Togo to tions would succeed. They would be thwarted by, among examine those nations' efforts and achievements in devel- other factors, the behavior of population groups, the dis- oping areas once plagued by the disease. They found no tance of the land from prospective settlers' home villages, single, standard strategy; each country has worked out its and, above all, the tradition of spontaneous migration. own policy, taking into account its features, development The traditional direction of spontaneous migration in goals, and priorities. Benin, too, has set out to fashion its Benin is from north to south, and from the countryside to own strategy, with careful regard for the nature of each the towns. Any south-to-north movements that have onchocerciasis zone. It has performed a number of field been observed are seasonal (tied to the growing season studies in the program area to assess the regions' devel- of three to six months). Seeking to reverse these flows opment problems, the aspirations of those living there, without first resolving the problems that have prompted and their willingness to find, or to help find, solutions. them would be unrealistic. Onchocerciasis is but one of Settlement was one issue these studies addressed before these problems; another is the lack of social and econom- the government opted for an integrated, endogenous ic infrastructure. development style centering on the current population. Integratedendogenous development Settlement~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Iterte nognusdvlomn Settlement The obstacles to settlement programs, and the recent One of the ultimate concerns of the Onchocerciasis failed attempts on this front, argue strongly against Control Programme in the Volta Basin is the development launching any new organized effort that would entail of fertile valleys that are underpopulated, if not virtually shifting the population from one area to another. Benin deserted. An argument often made is that this land was has elected instead to pursue an integrated, grass-roots abandoned because of onchocerciasis and that, once the development strategy to contend with the factors keeping spread of the disease is halted, the original inhabitants settlers from moving to the onchocerciasis-freed areas and should be brought back in, or outsiders should be encour- to foster and channel spontaneous immigration to these aged to resettle from overpopulated plateaus where areas, in order to ensure that they are put to productive already poor land is being overfarmed, or both. But this use in the medium and long term. The goal is to mobilize argument is difficult to sustain. rural communities to be partners in development as well Retum of emigrants. The valleys are clearly underpopu- as beneficiaries, by exploring and taking account of their lated, but so is northem Benin generally. The districts of motivations and tapping their creativity and their ability to Kerou, Kouande, and Pehunco in the Mekrou Valley, with resolve development problems on their home turf. nine, eleven, and twelve inhabitants per square kilometer

140 Table2 Averagsannual rate of growthin productionof selectedcrops, 1981-91 (percent)

Crops Benin OCP area P6hunco Maize 4.9 29.3 30.2 Sorghum 10.5 13.3 12.7 Yams 7.6 9.3 34.9 Cotton 112.7 114.7 430.0

Note: Becauseagricultural statistics are usuallyaggregated by province,data for the country'stwo northernprovinces- Atacoraand Borgou-are usedfor the OCP area. Source:DAPS/MDR.

The P6hunco pilot project . Flexibilityto allowthe project to adapt as the target population becomes increasingly comfortable To test an endogenous, participatory, and integrated with the participatory approach. development strategy to develop onchocerciasis-freed The Pthunco pilot project thus looks at the advance- areas, the govemment of Benin, with FAO support, me ocmunit from theviewpoit othei wnc devised a pflot project for integrated development inmnmfcmuiisfo tevepito hi w deviedun piot project forinbythegraiteddevelopmnt Caina aspirations, and engages them in a partnership with the Pehunco. Funded mainly by the United Nations Capital state and the intemational aid community. It calls for Development Fund and implemented by the FAQ, the modest sector investments with recurrent charges that project was initiated in 1987. can be defrayed by the general budget. The chief areas for

Description of the project action are agriculture, water supply, roads, sanitation, education and literacy training, recreation facilities, and The project follows a bottom-up, systematic, and par- loans for farmers, craftsmen, and housing. ticipatory approach in which the broad picture takes The project is considered an experiment because of its precedence over sectoral concems. Targeted toward com- innovative nature, the complex issues that come into munities of small-scale farmers, it looks squarely at their play in participatory development, and its cross-sectoral objectives, their techniques and operating know-how, and approach to the institutional problems that arise in carry- their initiative. The ultimate goal is to help them develop ing out such a venture. the ability to solve their problems by bolstering their skills In its second stage, now underway, the project is and fostering entrepreneurship. developing a "showcase" approach. This should enable The guiding principle is to help communities respond the project to become a sphere of action for a number of to their perceived problems and needs, encouraging them interdependent projects to attend to the needs voiced by to manage their own affairs. Current difficulties and needs communities. The goal is to optimize the efforts and are identified, technical options that make sense in the ensure that they dovetail successfully. setting are devised in consultation with those that stand to benefit from them, and measures are planned, imple- Taking stock of the project mented, monitored, and evaluated. This kind of grass- A thorough evaluation of the project exceeds the scope roots approach brings people to shake their long-standing of this report. Instead, we examine a number of mile- habit of looking to the outside for help. But even with its stones relating to its two core objectives: to raise income strong participatory element, the project cannot be by increasing farm output, and to accelerate settlement in expected to transform its beneficiaries ovemight. Its start- the area. ing point is the real world: What are the people like? Growth in agriculturalproduction in Pehunco. Agricultural What do they want? What can they do? And what do they output has increased sharply in the Onchocerciasis Con- know that can help them advance? The project thus trol Programme area in Benin. The annual rates of growth accords importance to indigenous know-how and to in the production of four main crops between 1981 and training. Central to the project's approach are: 1991 were higher than the national averages (table 2) * Lessons leamed from previous ventures The P6hunco district also posted remarkable gains. * Consideration of national rural development policy Yearly increases in its production of the main crops, except * The need to gear activities to the project's setting for sorghum, were stronger than the regional average.

141 Cotton production in Benin rose after the 1982/83 crop area, it is not surprising that such a growth pattem would year, thanks to favorable rainfall conditions and the start- manifest itself there. up of large-scale initiatives such as the Borgou integrated Over the past ten years, then, the Pehunco district rural development project. The effects of the pilot project appears to have gained settlers at a faster rate than the on cotton production in Pehunco can best be illustrated OCP area as a whole. That outcome supports Benin's by comparing the performance in 1988-91 with that in decision to enhance economic and social conditions in the 1987 (the year the project began). The average annual onchocerciasis-protected areas in order to encourage set- growth rate in Pehunco was 82.3 percent, compared with tlement through voluntary immigration, rather than 41 percent in the OCP area and 38 percent in Benin. With through organized settlement programs bringing people this strong increase in output, P6hunco has consolidated from densely populated areas. Such settlement programs its position as an important cotton-growing area. fail to take into account the balance that often exists Although the district accounted for only 1 percent of cot- between an environment and its population. ton produced in the OCP area in 1981, in 1991 it account- References ed for 18 percent, with only 2.3 percent of the population. Because cotton is the leading cash crop, the dramatic Agbede, K., and J. Ahodekon. 1983. Enquete legeresur growth in its production should translate into a compara- les besoinssocio-economiques dans six districtsde l'aire ble jump in income for the population in Pehunco and du Programme de lutte contre l'onchocercoseau Be'nin(Quick thus into improved living conditions, not least because of survey of socioeconomic needs in six districts of the the project's stress on training and motivation. The inte- Onchocerciasis Control Programme in Benin). Cotonou. grated development pilot project thus will have helped .1984. Etude monographique du District Rural de make the district of Pehunco a better place to live in the Pehunco(Survey of Pehunco Rural District). Cotonou. eyes of current inhabitants and prospective settlers alike. Ahodekon, J., A. Ganmavo, and others. 1985. tvalua- Populationgrowth in Pehunco.During 1979-92, Pehun- tion de l'impactsocio-economique du Programmede luttecon- co's population grew at an average annual rate of 3 percent, tre l'onchocercoseau Be'nin (1974-1984) (Assessment of the increasing from 22,880 to 33,727. The national rate and the socioeconomic impact of the Onchocerciasis Control Pro- rate in the OCP area were 2.9 percent. Clearly, then, some gramme in Benin, 1974-1984). Cotonou. specific dynamic was at work in the pilot project area. The Hervouet, J.P. 1978. "La mise en valeur des vall6es des stronger growth rate may be linked to falling mortality Volta Blanche et rouge: un accident historique." rates, particularly for children, thanks to expanded health Cahier ORSTOM Series SciencesHumaines, 15(1):81-97. care and sanitation coverage and improved water supplies. McMillan, Della E., Thomas Painter, and Thayer Scud- But the more likely explanation is the stream of migrants der. 1993. Installationde populations et deeloppement dans moving into the area. Lending credence to this conjecture la zone de lutte contre l'onchocercose(Settlement and devel- is the higher male-female ratio in Pehunco; men tradition- opment in the river blindness control zone). World Bank ally are much more likely to migrate than women. The Technical Paper # 192. Washington, D.C. number of males per 100 females climbed from 98.6 in 1979 Sahou, Jean. Le Projet Pilote de DeveloppementRural Inte- to 103.2 in 1992; nationally it increased from 92 to 95; and grede Pehunco: le chemin parcouru (The P6hunco Integrated in the program region it rose from 96.6 to 99.2. With Rural Development Pilot Project: Taking stock). Pehunco situated at a type of crossroads in the program

142 Experienceof BurkinaFaso where ranching and livestock-fattening projects are in SelectingSettlement Sites . Wildlifebeing or reserves, could be where developed natural parks and tourist and Sevtlers projects could be developed Burkina Faso * Forestry zones close to population centers, where trees will be planted as a source of fuelwood and construc- In Burkina Faso, most of the responsibility for manag- tion lumber. ing Onchocerciasis Control Programme areas designated Analytical studies have identified eight broad types of for resettlement lay initially with the Autorit6 d'amenage- land (milieux) in the AW management zones that are suit- ment des vall6es des Voltas (AVV), although other agencies able for integrated management and determined which were later set up to carry out similar activities; for example, uses are appropriate for each type. These uses are divided Autorite de mise en valeur du Sourou (AMVS) and the Direc- into three main categories: agricultural, pastoral, and tion Gbenralede la maftrise d'ouvrage de la Kompienga forestry. The proposals for settlement sites take into (DG/MOK). The AW was established in 1974 to carry out account the types of land present to evaluate not only what studies and promotional activities for resettlement and to economic activities should be pursued, but also what mea- coordinate and execute (or supervise) operations support- sures should be taken to safeguard the ecological balance. ing economic and social development of the OCP areas (covering some three-fifths of the country). Land managementstudies In discharging these functions, the AW has generally To begin the land management studies, basic data are followed a five-step plan of action: collected for a geographic management unit, a "block," 1. Planning (methods, procedures) measuring an average of 10,000 hectares, and then for a 2. Construction of basic infrastructure, and recruit- development unit, itself located within a planning unit ment, transfer, and resettlement (see table 1 for the sequence of studies and activities nec- 3. Period of adaptation, transition, and establishment essary to establish a settlement). An aerial photography 4. Economic and social development mission provides a physical model of the block on a scale 5. Transfer of responsibilities. of 1:20,000, showing hydrographic and land use data. Three types of preliminary studies are carried out on key aspects of the land management program: sociological, The site selection process consists of several steps. The soils, and hydrogeological studies. first is to conduct land management studies to identify the Using simple management criteria (minimal distances characteristics and potential of each settlement area. This between village centers and farmland and between information is then used to determine land management dwelling areas and water points, farming villages com- zones and to prepare a land management master plan, prising twenty-five, fifty, or seventy-five households, with which establishes the preferred uses for each area. Topo- each allocated one 1-hectare plot for its own use), and graphical surveys are then conducted to show, among assuming that the farms will be smallholdings, these other things, where the highest area is outside the areas studies will yield results that can be used in preparing a to be cultivated. This area is selected as the site for the vil- master plan for block development. The block master plan lage. The main difficulties encountered during the site shows the location of the villages, the farmland allocated selection process are finding nonmarshy tracts of land and to each village, village access roads, and location of com- estimating the costs and planning the logistics for provid- munity facilities (schools, clinics, sheds, markets, and ing the necessary land and water resources. housing for extension workers, block supervisors, and Several types of land management zones, have been other personnel). identified: This study phase lasts at least two years. The first year * Rainfed agriculture zones, where a large is devoted to the basic studies, and the second to share of the soil is good and villages have already prospecting for water on the basis of the results of the been established and are inhabited by farmers soils study and of a joint exercise combining geophysical recruited in overpopulated regions or regions surveys and test drillings. This phase is completed with lacking cultivable land the preparation of the block master plan. * Irrigated agriculture zones, where there are sufficient Topographical studies and erosion control experiments water resources and appropriate soils for irrigation projects and where fishing in man-made reservoirs If no large-scale topographical studies of a block exist, offers a secondary source of income surveys must be carried out (on a scale of 1:10,000,taking a Livestock zones in the cattle regions of the south, one survey site per hectare) to obtain the information on

143 slopes,relief, and locationof the hydrographicnetwork that meters deep and 15 centimeters in diameter. Because is needed to pinpoint the locationof the soilsrecommended tubewells of this size can be operated only by a hand by the soilsexpert and the sites selectedfor the villages. pump, two are installed in each twenty-five-household AW surveyteams perform this work, surveying1,000 to village,three in each fifty-householdvillage, and four in 1,500hectares for a fifty-householdvillage. This operation each seventy-five-householdvillage. can take place after the blockmaster plan is established, For durability,settlement buildingsare constructed of showing the farmlandboundaries and the villagesites-at reinforcedconcrete, with aluminum roofing and metal fit- the earliest,one year beforeresettlement occurs. tings. Extension workers (one per twenty-fivehouse- Work is also done during this phase to assess environ- holds) receivea two-room house, as do the members of mental conditions.Researchers analyze soils in the region the socioeconomicsurvey team (one per 100 households) to identifyprecautions that should be taken and mistakes and the femaleextension workers (one per fiftyhouse- that should be avoided to ensure satisfactorysoil conserva- holds). The block supervisorypersonnel-the block chief, tion in areas subject to severeerosion. Bymeasuring runoff the manager and storekeeper, primary schoolteachers, and sediment load, researchers are able to estimate the and nurses-receive three-or four-room houses. pace of erosion under differentuses of the land (tree cover, Each block also has a three-classroom school, a dis- cropping,grazing). The results of these studies show the pensary, and a central depot (100square meters) for stor- utility of arranging the farm plots to allow for contour ing emergency food supplies and inputs. Villageswill planting, of taking steps to avoid leavingthe land bare, of have smaller storage facilities(one for everytwenty-five planting windbreaks, and, if possible,of practicingstrip households, measuring 36 square meters) for food sup- croppingand protecting fallowlands against brush fires. plies and inputs. The land management plan is then drawn up, indicat- Settlerselection ing the arrangement of the farm plots (basedon the eco- logicalconsiderations), the cropping strips grouped in Once the carrying capacityof an AW project site has fields,and the farm roads and anti-erosion drainage sys- been determined, settlers can be recruited and selected. tems. The strips are physicallyestablished field by field as The AW's transfer and resettlement unit is responsible the farmers become ready to cultivatethem. for selecting and recruiting the farmers to be resettled in The next step is to subdivide the area, allocating 1.5- the new sites. It gives priority to the host population and hectare plots to each farmer, who will cultivate only as spontaneous settlers already living in the block in which much of his plot as it is estimated that his own family the land management program is to be implemented. It can handle. then focuses on those areas from which people are Collectiveinfrastructure already emigrating in large numbers because of overpop- Co-lective infrastructure ulation and the dedining fertility of overworkedsoils. The collectiveinfrastructure works (roads, water sup- The Sourou project is recruiting settlers in the provinces ply systems,storage depots) are put into place before the with chronic shortages of rainfall (twenty of the country's farmers are settled. Housing for the socialworkers and thirty provinces). extensionworkers who are to receive the settlers is built at Recruitmentof settlers proceeds in severalphases. the same time. Task forcescarry out most of this construc- Information about resettlement is disseminated in the tar- tion work, using equipment owned by the AW. get provinces,and application forms are distributed. Pro- The AW is responsiblenot only for building intemal ject planners then travel to the provincesto provide roads in its management zones, but also for linkingthese informationon the nature and conditions of the resettle- roads with the existingroad system, by constructingcon- ment area. Finally,application forms are processed and necting roads that may sometimes extend for dozens of the settlers are selected. kilometers. To simplifyconstruction and ensure durability Disseminationof information and ease of maintenance, the AW has opted for a single type of year-round construction for all roads, the manage- Information on resettlement is disseminated within the ment zone access roads, the main roads within blocks, subprefecturesby recruitment and migration agents and the road links to villages.In addition, paths of a more (RMAs)with support from the govemment authorities rudimentary nature are constructedwithin the villages. and the OrganismeRegional de D)veloppement(ORD). The water supply requirements for settlements have Broadcastsover the rural radio system, anchored by a been estimated at 400 liters per household per day (20 femaleAW agent, discussionswith administrativeand liters each for eight people, 30 liters each for four head of technicalleaders, and informationalmeetings organized cattle, and 120 liters for small livestock).These require- in target areas also provide information. ments are met through mechanicallydrilled tubewells 40 To ensure that the informationis correct,the AW has

144 devised an information booklet that it distributes to the Upon arrival at the settlement site, the settler takes RMAs, ORDs, and govemment authorities. This booklet is possession of the concession on which he is to build his designed to inform prospective settlers about the AWV,its house. Extension workers receive settlers, assist them, and areas of expertise and organization, what settlers should provide them with emergency World Food Programme expect, and what their obligations and duties would be (WFP) supplies to meet their household food needs. Dis- (this information is also found in the list of requirements, tribution of WFP supplies will cease after the settlers have or cahier des charges).The AVV works to ensure that the been in place for two years. farming conditions in the AVV area are accurately depicted Difficultiesencountered and lessons learned in order to discourage applications from people lacking the necessary motivation. Many of the problems encountered in the settlement process concern differences between customary law and the new land law, and the relationship between the host Those wishing to apply for resettlement must register and settler populations and between farmers and pastoral- with the ORDs or the prefectures. A well-established net- ists. For example, conflict has sometimes arisen between work of local survey teams (RMAs) contacts each appli- settler and host populations after farming communities, cant, and a recruiting agent verifies that he meets the under the new land legislation, requested and obtained required conditions. Each applicant must be the head of a administrative autonomy from the traditional villages that household with at least three members of working age originally granted them cultivation rights. Conflict has also (between sixteen and fifty-five), he must have farming arisen over herders' grazing rights. Neither statutory law experience, and he must demonstrate the requisite person- (droit r6glementaire)nor customary law (droit coutumier) al qualities (moral integrity, motivation). The recruiting recognized the principle of rangeland rights for herders agent also tries to determine the applicant's social stand- before the agrarian and land reform, and intervention by ing in his area of origin. Finally, the agent gives the appli- project or government authorities has often been neces- cant a complete description of his future situation as a sary to guarantee these rights. settler and explains his rights and obligations. To minimize such conflicts, a sociological study of the area to be settled should be conducted before recruitment Transferand resettlement takes place. In addition, the information dissemination Once a settler's application is approved, the settler will activities carried out before registration and selection of receive transportation to the site of his choice as long as the settlers should include efforts to promote long-term coop- distance is more than 50 kilometers. The AWVwill transport eration between the settler and host populations in man- his household and goods in a one-time move between Jan- aging the local natural resources. uary 1 and March 31 of the year of his resettlement.

145 Table1 Timetableof activitiesbefore installation of settlersand in earlyphases of settlement

Fouryears Threeyears Twoyears Oneyear Year1 before before beore before of settlement settlement settlement settlement settlement Activity 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Aerial photos (1:20,000) * * Soil reconnaissance (1:100,000) Hydrological reconnaissance (1:100,000)

Agropastoral n reconnaissance (1:100,000) Sociological reconnaissance (1:100,000) Hydrogeology * * * (1:20,000) Soils (1:20,000) Sociology ) * (agrosociology) (1:20,000) Photogrammetry (1:10,000) Land management * * * n master plan

Land management * * n plan Sociological study * * * * * of areas of origin Layout of cropping strips a * Layout of villages Drilling of tubewells Temporary roads Construction of buildings * * * Permanent roads * * - Mechanical clearing Initial plowing, field 1 _ _ Installation of settlers Year I of settlement Manual clearing (settlers) Initial plowing Year 2 of settlement Initial plowing Fields 3, 4, 5, 6

146 The Land TenureSystem in the most widespread land tenure system, is characterizedby the following features: SettlementAreas of BurkinaFaso * A nght to collectiveappropriation of land, so that Burkina Faso land belongs to an ethnic group, tribe, or family, but never to an individual. Agriculture dominates Burkina Faso's economy, pro- * A right of eminent domain assigned to the headman, viding a livelihood for more than 90 percent of the popu- who, as a descendant of the land's first occupant, lation and contributing 35 percent of the coun.ry's gross intercedes on his group's behalf with the supernat- domestic product (per capita GDP is about $320). Thus, ural forces linked to the land and who administers land is an essential resource, one that social groups have all the land belonging to the group. always sought to control. * Individual or collective rights to farm and use land. Before the colonial period, ethnic or family groups These rights are permanent and may be handed applied land tenure systems that were consonant with their down to the heirs by any member of the clan or sub- economic and sociopolitical structures. Although these cus- clan that holds the collective right of appropriation. tomary land tenure systems differed from one another in For any beneficiary who is not a member of the clan, some ways, they also shared important characteristics. however, such rights are provisional and the land is Colonization brought with it a land registration system provided on loan. that led to the creation of private property through land * The customary land tenure system poses several titling. The colonialists also instituted a system of property problems for settlements in the OCP area. First, the of the state and of constituent subdivisions (collectivites land is not always assigned to those who would like publiques secondaires).The post-colonial state thus inherit- to farm and are capable of doing so. Second, because ed a dual land tenure structure, in which the customarv of the original abundance of land, the inhabitants system (regirnecoutumier) coexisted with the statutory have become used to engaging in extensive farming system (regime r0glemnentaire). practices that can have harmful results (making anar- In the mid-1980s, Burkina Faso's government drasti- chic and excessive land claims, allowing livestock to cally modified the land laws. Reorganisation agraire et tbi- wander freely). Third, the restrictions under the right ciere (the agrarian and land tenure reorganization, RAF) of temporary use extended to migrants lead to inse- instituted domnainefoncier national (national state property, curity of tenure and encourage activities that have DFN) and determined the appropriate system of land use adverse effects on the land. The migrant is discour- management. aged, either directly by the landowner or by the This paper describes the land tenure systems that pre- impermanence of his situation, from undertaking vailed in Burkina Faso's traditional villages and in the state's works to improve or maintain the land, such as con- development and resettlement program areas, and the structing anti-erosion sites, improving the soil, and effects of those systems, and then reviews the changes that planting trees. And fourth, there is an overlapping of have occurred since the RAF was implemented in 1984. rights under customary law. A piece of land that belongs, first and foremost, to a clan or subclan as of the OCParea collectiveproperty can be penmanentlyassigned to any family in that group, while the rights to the use The Onchocerciasis Control Programme area in Burki- of that land can at the same time be assigned to a na Faso contains two main types of land zones: zones family member or outsider. This overlaplogical occupied by traditional villages, and sparsely populated behavior of the people involved. In search of a more zones close to watercourses that are reserved for the effective approach, a pilot project for integrated state's development and resettlement programs. development was devised and implemented. to see Land tenure system in traditional villages whether an endogenous, participatory development strategy could open the way to sustainable develop- The traditional village is a spatially organized sociolog- ment of onchocerciasis-freed areas. ical grouping founded on beliefs, clans, and forms of community life. It involves an association between a physical space and the group that inhabits it. Under the customarv The land laws in force in the state's development and land tenure system that long prevailed in traditional vil- resettlement areas before 1984 were govemned by the lages, land was occupied and appropriated in the name of statutory land tenure system. In colonial times, legislators the village or a family group. established special land tenure rights for real estate The customary land tenure system, the oldest and belonging to legal entities (state, secondary constituent

147 subdivisions, and statutory bodies) that distinguished implemented by Decree 85-404/CNR/PRES of August 4, between public and private property. Public property is 1985. On June 4, 1991, new laws were promulgated to any natural or man-made property that, by its nature or incorporate revisions to the order and decree (Zatu AN purpose, cannot be considered private property (roads, VIII-0039 Bis/FP/PRES and KIMIAN VIII-0328 bridges, ponds, watercourses, and lakes and their beds TER/FP/PLAN-COOP). A second revision of the RAF and surrounding areas). texts is planned for 1994. The RAF texts have been the After independence, other laws were added, among only land laws in force in Burkina Faso since their pro- them Law 77/60/AN, promulgated on July 12, 1960, which mulgation and therefore are applicable in the settlement regulated privately owned land in the country. By orga- areas, as well as in every other part of the country. nizing a concession system of land occupancy and tenure, The RAF texts established a national state-owned the state became the potential owner of all land that was domain (domaine national foncier, DFN) that comprises all unregistered when the law took effect. land within the national territory as well as land acquired While these provisions defined the general framework abroad by the state and secondary constituent subdivi- for the system of management for developed land, the sions. The texts prescribe how different types of land are basic text was Law 29/63/AN, promulgated on July 24, to be used and the requirements for use, and include a 1963. This law authorized the govemment to reserve for number of precise stipulations on land tenure, develop- the state a share of any land that had been specially ment, and management. Although the DFN is state prop- developed and to declare sparsely populated or remote erty, the land may be leased for private use. land the property of the state. This law provided the only In the management of the DFN, a distinction is drawn legal framework for large-scale rural developments. It is between urban areas intended essentially for residential by virtue of this law that the state issued decrees defining and related activities and rural areas devoted to farming, land tenure and management procedures within the land forestry, and grazing. Urban and rural development management zones, such as basic studies, a land manage- schemes call for master management plans consistent ment master plan, a land management-plus-zoning plan, with provincial, regional, and national land management definition and installation of infrastructure, and recruit- guidelines. ment, transfer, and settlement of volunteer farmers. Developed DFN land is registered in the name of the A number of difficulties arose in the application of state; undeveloped land must be registered before it can be these regulations, which govemed land tenure manage- assigned. Any occupant of DFN land is required to hold ment in the land management zones until 1984: the appropriate right of usufruct (droit de jouissance). Use of . The coexistence of the traditional and statutory land undeveloped rural land to meet the food and housing tenure systems caused innumerable disputes needs of the occupants and their families, however, does between the govemment and the villagers living not require possession of official title or payment for occu- near the land management zones; these villagers pancy or use of the land, except in certain specific cases. claimed collective ownership rights to the land. Irrigated farmlands are allocated by an ad hoc commis- * Mass migration of people from other regions (farm- sion in accordance with the list of requirements (cahier des ers looking for better land, herders in search of charges) drawn up by an interministerial commission. watering places and pastureland) severely disrupted Occupancy and use of such land by individuals or corpo- the development plans for the village lands and rate bodies are subject to the issue of a right of usufruct by resulted in many conflicts. the competent authority and may entail the payment of . The govemment was unable to enforce its land laws taxes and dues. by expelling spontaneous migrations and overriding Occupancy and use of developed land reserved for customary law. rainfed agriculture require a right of usufruct granted by . Lack of land tenure security and of individual or col- the competent authority and may be subject to taxes and lective land title that could be used as collateral dis- fees. Such land is allocated to individuals or corporate couraged settlers from investing in, or taking any bodies and may be used by associations, groups, or coop- initiative for, improving or maintaining the soil or eratives. undertaking real estate activity. The effort to implement the RAF has been hindered by Agrarian and land tenure reorganization a number of problems: (RAF) since 1984 . Many population groups have failed to recognize the legitimacy of the management structures contem- Agrarian and land tenure reorganization (Reorganisa- plated under the RAF, and many rural groups con- tion agraire etfonciere) was established by Order 884- tinue to follow the customary land law. 050/CNRJPRES, promulgated on August 4, 1984, and * The RAF management structures either have not

148 been put in place or are not operational, leaving a have encountered and some of the shortcomings of the vacuum that impedes the work of many projects and RAF.It also suggests steps that could be taken to rural development agencies. strengthen the current system: The relationship between the ProvincialLand Use m Avoid creating management structures that Management Commission (CPAT)and the Provin- duplicate existing structures cialTechnical ConsultationExecutive (CCT/P) * Establisha national land management fund remains poorly defined, leading to duplication of to support appropriate actions activitiesand excessivered tape. u Widelydisseminate the RAF texts, including * Although master plans and management plans are translations in local languages, and publish either ready or under preparation, the provincial, the underlying laws regional,and national land use management plans * Increase the effectivenessof the RAFmanagement are not yet in place, a delay that may later lead to units problems because of lack of congruitybetween these * Devise a rural land registryso as to better different management instruments. handle the issue of land tenure and usufruct * Both officialsand the general population are insuffi- rights in rural areas cientlyinformed about the RAFlaws. Officialsmust * Address the problem of insecureland tenure be completelyfamiliar with these laws, not only so at the state level by issuing land tenure and usufruct that they can perform their jobs effectively,but also titles, effectivelyimplementing the land manage- so that they can keep people well informed. ment plans, creatingviable settlements and infra- * Land disputes are on the increase in both traditional structure, and devolving authority and at the local and managed areas. These disputes have myriad level by ensuring that the people assume responsi- causes. In the traditionalareas, problems often arise bilityfor developing their land through participation because of disputed boundaries of farms, villages, in the villagecommunity land management and departments, conflictsbetween farmers and committees. herders and between settlers and the host popula- Conclusion tion, mass migrations that heighten land tenure pressures, and conflictingclaims of different clans. In The experiencein implementing BurkinaFaso's land the managed areas, conflictsoften concern land tenure systems suggests that there is room for further claims by the host population, identificationof bene- adjustments to the current laws, to bring them closer into ficiarygroups, and settlers who use land in ways line with practicalrealities. This review of that experience inconsistent with the management plans. also suggests that enforcingland legislationin support of Strengtheningthe land tenuresystem sustainable development in Burkina Faso's onchocerciasis-freed settlement zones requires givingpriority to This review of the successiveland tenure systems in training, dissemination of information, and institutional BurkinaFaso has shown some of the difficultiesthat they and human resource development.

149 SustainableSettlement in the nomic and social emergency program, starfing in April OnchocerciasisControl Pro- 1992,to demonstrate to the intemational community its determination to fight the economic crisisdevastating the grammeAreas of the Republic country. The expected results of this program should of Guinea-Bissau enable the government to reopen negotiations with the Intemational Monetary Fund and the World Bank to Republic of Guinea-Bissau design a third structural adjustment program. The Republic of Guinea-Bissau is one of the poorest Today, there has been a marked improvement in eco- developing countries. It faces serious economic problems nomic performance, but macroeconomic and financial linked both to the structural imbalance left by five cen- indicators continue to poinit to numerous weaknesses, turies of colonial rule and to its distorted economy, which revealing the depth and complexity of the crisis. Economic is excessively govemment-controlled and, although the recovery has yet to take off, and the country is experienc- country's major production activities are agricultural, ing enormous difficulties in generating the resources it heavily oriented toward urban production. Situated on the needs to honor its domestic and foreign commitments. western coast of Africa, the country has an area of 36,125 Fifteen years after its independence, in 1987, the Republic square kilometers and a population of about one million. of Guinea-Bissau had a total debt of about $300 million. The economy In 1992, only five years later, its debt had more than doubled, to $632 million. Preliminary data for 1994 suggest When it became independent in 1974, the country that the debt is niow about $700 million. Despite the inherited an economy in disarray. Its officials began the authorities' efforts and their determination to honor the task of rebuilding the economy. The first steps toward eco- country's commitments, arrears of about $250 million nomic development were marked by increased centraliza- have accumulated. Annual debt service payments amount tion and omnipresent govemment. The intemational to $50 million. To understand the magnitude of the coun- community's support for the country and the determni- try's debt problem, it is helpful to compare these figures naton of authorities to achieve rapid reconstruction led the with some national aggregates. National debt is equal to govemment to undertake an ambitous investment policy. 241 percent of GDP and debt service payments to about But poor economic management capacity resulted in pro- 110 percent of total exports. In 1993 arrears equaled 65 grams that were often ill adapted to the country, and its percent of GDP. economic choices did not yield the expected fruits. Instead, The government continues to address this crisis, focus- those choices set the economy on a course toward crisis, ing its efforts in three main areas: economic liberalization, with a massive debt that the country has no assurance that which began in 1987 and is now well underway, modern- it can service. Drought and plummeting world prices for ization of the govemrnment;and alleviation of the social the country's main exports further eroded the situation. costs of structural adjustment. It is giving special empha- To trv to reverse the trend of deepening domestic sis to measures to create a strong capacity for domestic imbalances, the government launched an economic and and foreign debt management, tax collection, budget con- financial stabilization program in 1983 with the support of trol, monetary policy, and other functions that are crucial the international community. The program garnered posi- to its ability to provide an enabling environment for sec- tive results: exports increased, budget revenues covered toral policy and private sector initiatives. civil service wages for the first time, and currency issues The government also plans measures to promote pro- remained below projected levels. But 1985 and 1986, duction activities, particularly rural production activities, which should have seen the consolidation of these gains, which employ more than 80 percent of the country's were instead marked by backsliding. Financial imbalances active population. Finally, like the other countries in the worsened, and the countrv's debt grew to critical levels. subregion, the Republic of Guinea-Bissau has moved Recognizing the gravity of the economic crisis, in 1987 toward a democratic system, and it will hold its first mul- the government implemented a three-year structural tipartv elections in the coming year. adjustment program to attain stability in the medium term The health sector and balanced, self-sustaining growth in the long term. Failing consolidation, the program's few positive results The economic and financial crisis and the structural faded rapidly. The suspension of the program in 1989 left a adjustment measures that the government is attempting void with disastrous consequences for the economy. Debt to implement have had marked effects on health condi- accumulated to a disturbing level, dragging the country tions in Guinea-Bissau. The predominant public health into a vicious circle from which escape has proved difficult. problems remain malaria, diarrheal disease, respiratory In its search for solutions, the goveniment drafted an eco- disease, tuberculosis, leprosy, onchocerciasis, schistoso-

150 Table1 Demographic,health, and socioeconomicindicators for Guinea-Bissau,1991

Population 983,443 Population growth rate (percent) 2.1 Infant mortality rate (per thousand live births) 140 Maternal mortality rate (per 100,000 live births) 914 Births attended by health personnel (percent) 50 Life expectancy (years) 47.1 Population with access to health care (percent) 40 Population with access to safe water (percent) 22.5 Rural population with access to sanitation (percent) 18 Urban population with access to sanitation (percent) 30 Vaccination coverage rate (percentage of infants age 12-23 months) BCG 94 Diphtheria 3 54 P'olio 3 54 Measles 65 Antitetanus 11 Per capita gross domestic product (U.S. dollars) 198

Source: Republic of Guinea Bissaui,Ministry of Healthand Social Affairs.

miasis,measles, malnutrition, and neonatal tetanus. The Onchocerciasisin Guinea-Bissau AIDS epidemic also has become a major preoccupation. Onchocerciasis is ravaging the eastem part of the coun- Complications of pregnancy and birth contribute to high trv. The affected areas are situated in the Corubal and Geba maternal and infant mortality rates (table 1). river basins, in the provinces of Gabu and Bafata. Together, To improve health conditions in Guinea-Bissau so that these tvo provinces have an estimated population of about its citizens can lead more socially and economically pro- 350,000, almost 30 percent of the national population, and ductive lives, the government is implementing a universal an area of 14,000 square kilometers, or 30 percent of the health care strategy based on a primary health care national territory. The provinces are important develop- approach. In addition, the government, in its strategic ment poles owing to the fertility of their soil, the abun- 1992-95 health development plan, has set a number of dance of their forests, and the proximity of groundwater to objectives for strengthening the health sector. These goals the surface. Moreover, because of their location, they have include decentralizing health services, strengthening become centers of trade. institutions, developing a training and supervision pro- The main economic activities in the region are farming gram for health personnlel, and improving the coordina- and livestock raising. The eastern region, whose Sudanese- tion of healtlh services. The plan gives absolute priority to type climate favors cultivation of millet, sorghum, and maternal an.d infant health and family planning programs, maize, could potentially supply grain for all of Guinea-Bis- safe drinking water supply, environmental sanitation, and sau. Its extensive bottomlands, estimated at about 100,000 disease control and prevention. The government faces hectares, and fresh water resources offer potential for rice serious obstacles to realizing its health development farming. The region accounts for about 75 percent of the goals, however, including insufficient resources, inade- country's livestock. Forestry is also a substantial source of quate managernent skills, the AUDSepidemic and other income for the region's peasant population. sociocultlral problems. and a deteriorating economic and financial situation. In addition, the countrv lacks sufficient Entomological and epideniological status health personnel, with only 136 physicianis, 320 registered The number of people exposed to onchocerciasis in nurses, and 141 midwives. Guinea-Bissau in 1985 was estimated at 140,000, 30,000 of

151 whom were infected with Onchocercavolvulus. About Gabu and Bafata will be abandoned. Any strategy of sus- 1,400 persons in the country are onchocerciasis-blind. The tainable settlement in this area must also include a pro- latest entomological surveys (December 1988/December gram to control malaria, which remains the leading cause 1990) conducted in the Corubal and Geba river basins of illness and death in Guinea-Bissau. Epidemiological revealed that the annual transmission potential is quite surveys of endemic diseases in the Gabu region have high in some areas, ranging from 400 to 1,800. shown that the area where onchocerciasis is hyperendem- The latest epidemiological surveys recorded an average ic coincides with the area where malaria is holoendemic. prevalence of 15 percent of the total population, but small A strategy of sustainable settlement must not only seek hyperendemic pockets exist. The intensitv of transmission, to eliminate onchocerciasis and to improve the popula- measured by the community microfilarial load (CMFL), tion's health conditions, however. It must also include was found to be high in twelve villages, with CMFL levels social and economic development activities to make exceeding 10, the value at which the risk of blindness in infected areas viable, such as: savanna areas is considered very high. The highest preva- * Providing health infrastructure and resources to lence rates and the highest CMFL values were recorded in ensure better health care coverage the Corubal River basin. * Supervising the construction of socioeconomic infra- Onchocerciasis Control Programnme structure that will support development . Helping to improve small farmers' income The Republic of Guinea-Bissau was an observer state . Building main roads and access roads to facilitate the in the Onchocerciasis Control Programme until 1985, flow of goods to urban centers when, under a protocol signed in Geneva, it became a m Building and equipping schools member state in the pilot program to control onchocercia- * Undertaking agrarian and land reform and clarifying sis. The Onchocerciasis Control Programme began activi- land users' rights ties in Guinea-Bissau in November 1988, with the m Constructing works to develop arable land inauguration of the Gabu base of operations. * Establishing a credit system The current devolution plan for Guinea-Bissau inte- * Supporting off-season activity by developing irriga- grates the onchocerciasis control program with the malar- tion systems and dams, water impoundment svs- ia and schistosomiasis control programs. The strategy to tems, and bottomlands. combat onchocerciasis is based on patient chemotherapy, These measures are becoming increasingly urgent. using mectizan. Every aspect of the strategy is supported These areas are at risk not only because of disease, but by a program of training at all levels, as well as the also because of farming practices destructive to the envi- strengthening of health care infrastructLre and supervi- ronment. Rice farming on land in the mangrove forests sion of operations. Another essential element of the strat- poses an obvious threat to the environment. And defor- egy is information, education, and communication estation has become a systematic response to the pressing activities targeting officials and the population. These demand for arable land, even as the bottomlands in these activities are conducted both in permanent health care regions offer immense potential for farming. If this situa- training facilities and by mobile teams and primary health tion continues, other factors besides onchocerciasis-such care agents. as desertification-may cause people to abandon these The technical body in charge of implementing the pro- regions. gram is the National Devolution Committee. This steering committee and the epidemiological and entomological Conclusion teams nmakeup the Onchocerciasis Control Programme" The government of Guinea-Bissau is abundantly aware national team." of the urgency of these measures to ensure sustainable settlement, which take priority in the country's strategy Sustainablesettlement and development for development. But the countrv has limited domestic financial resources, and it faces growing international debt Onchocerciasis has not yet resulted in the depopula- obligations and significant development financing needs. tion of any areas of Guinea-Bissau. But demographic sta- Thus, the role of the international community will be tistics, particularly on migration patterns, show a shift in more than decisive in implementing a policy of sustain- the population toward unaffected areas. Thus, if addition- able settlement in the Onchocerciasis Control Programme al measures are not taken soon, there is a good chance areas of Guinea-Bissau. that in the years to come, villages in the affected areas of

152 Resettlementand Development of fishing for a rational development in Onchocerciasis-FreedAreas . ofCreating woodland rural resources markets in Niger . Planning game reserves for the development Republic of the Niger of wildlife resources.

Before the antivector campaign began in Niger in 1975, National devolution program the number of people severely infected with the onchocer- Although transmission of onchocerciasis has been virtu- ciasis parasite was estimated at 15,000. In the districts of ally halted in Niger, there is still a small risk of recrudes- Tera and Say (in the region of Tillab6ry), which cover cence. A residual parasite population remains, and 17,000 square kilometers, 224,000 inhabitants were development and settlement activities in onchocerciasis- exposed to risk of infection. affected areas are conducive to human contact with the In the Onchocerciasis Control Programme's early vector. In its efforts to achieve food self-sufficiency, Niger is stages there were eighteen capture points for the black fly, giving particular attention to exploitation of the vast agri- the vector of the disease, in the entomological surveillance cultural potential in the fertile river valleys in the south- network of Niger's five onchocerciasis-ridden river basins. west, regions deserted by entire communities when The general prevalence of the disease exceeded 60 percent onchocerciasis was prevalent. And there are large move- in nineteen test villages, qualifying these villages as hyper- ments of population to the fertile valleys of the Niger Riv- endemic. In a number of valleys, including the M6krou, er's tributaries, especially in the Say region. Moreover, as almost 5 percent of the population was blind as result of farming and herding conditions have become favorable, a onchocerciasis. Some villages were simply deserted. steady flow of migration has been observed from Benin and Today, the results of the OCP's long and tireless strug- central Nigeria, where onchocerciasis is hyperendemic. gle are conclusive. The disease is almost under control, These activities, and the associated risk, call for contin- with prevalence trending toward zero in all thirty test vil- ued vigilance in epidemiological surveillance to ensure lages. The affected areas are experiencing a high rate of timely detection and control of recrudescence of the dis- spontaneous resettlement. The Nigerien govemment has ease. Permanent monitoring is essential. In addition, recently assumed responsibility for recrudescence control there should be a southwestem extension of Niger's con- within the national framework for integrated primary trol area to include the districts of Gaya and Boboye health care. A devolution program has been designed to (Filmy administrative post) because of their proximity to undertake control activities with the support of such part- Benin and northwestem Nigeria. ners as the World Bank, the PHOEBUS/USA Foundation, Niger plans to implement permanent onchocerciasis the Helen Keller Intemational Foundation, and UNICEF. control activities through its devolution program. This Settlement of onchocerciasis-freedareas program will also include activitiesto control other severe endemic diseases, such as schistosomiasis and dracuncu- The onchocerciasis-freed areas, notably the Say area, losis. The aim is to significantly reduce sickness linked are experiencing flows of migration from Filingue and to schistosomiasis and to eradicate the medina worm. Oualam, as well as shifts in the location of indigenous The program's strategy centers on the following populations. This resettlement has occurred without any basic elements: crganization, however, and social and environmental u Information, education, and communication problems have resulted in conflict between pastoralists m Epidemiological surveillance and farmers, illegal grazing in National Park W, and anar- * Ivemmectin treatment for migrants with onchocercia- chical clearing of forests. The ensuing destruction of the sis and for people in areas of recrudescence environment and threat to National Park W led Niger to * Mollusk control and praziquantal treatment of adopt a strategy of natural resource management based infected patients for schistosomiasis control on sustainable use of natural resources, conservation of * Distribution of water filters, provision of potable biological potential, and organization of the rural popula- water, and antivector control, including treatment of tion. The Nigerien authorities have taken a number of cyclops-infected water sources to control dracuncu- measures, including: losis. * Declassifying part of the reserve in Tamou The estimated cost of the program over five years was (Ainoma Zone, 64,900 hectares) to allow the updated in November 1992 to $2,904,896. The program resettled population to conduct farming, forestry, was approved by the OCP's Joint Programme Committee and pastoral activities in December 1989 at The Hague and submitted to the • Constructing encampments for the development World Bank for funding in December 1992.

153 Proposals for development of onchocerciasis-freed areas a Integrate the development program for onchocerciasis-freed areas which have real potential for farming, Despite the OCP's epidemiological success, it has forestry, pastoral, and mining activities into national nevertheless failed to trigger the increased income and planning strategies. economic growth projected by the U.S. Agency for Inter- * Adapt the new rural code to rural activities through national Development (USAID) in 1986. Development in innovations that Millensure optimum use of land the onchocerciasis-freed areas would require additional assets. The rural code will play an important role in investment and the designing of new activities. establishing landowners, migrant land tenants, and Nigerien government officials, aware of the growing pastoralists in the framework of the land manage- problems linked to desertification north and east of the ment approach (l'approche-terroir). Niger River, have turned their efforts to capacity building * Institute a rural development fund to provide credit in onchocerciasis-freed areas, with a view to promoting for production and marketing activities, and adapt food self-sufficiency and rational management of natural lending conditions to farmers' repayment capacity resources. Their plans are reflected in a draft program, and risk conditions. Donors could assume the risk "Projetde misc en villeur des terres libereesde l'onchocercose" on rairal lending in order to provide an incentive to (development program for onchocerciasis-freed areas), banking institutions to invest in the agricultural sec- with an estimated cost of about CFAF 11 billion. The tor. Rural savinigs and loan institutions should be project's general objectives are: promotedi as a complement to the rural development * To consolidate the OCP's gains fund. * To diversify and improve agricultLuralproduction * After appropriate study, promote pastoral activity by * To improve the pastoral system creating substantial value added for producers * To preserve land capital and control desertification through sheep breeding and fattening programs. * To improve access through roads and communica- * Strengthen extension services in order to help farm- tion systems ers increase crop yields and thus produce a cash sur- * To install socioeconomic infrastructure (schools, plus for savings. dispensaries, wells) * To control the natural resource management prob- * To provide training, and information and lems that may result from the large tlow of migrants increase awareness of environmental and natural to the Say region, adopt a mode of settlement guid- resource issues. ed by village management committees and based on Before launching this broad-reaching program, how- rational occupation of available space and integra- ever, the government needed to conduct national studies tion of all ethnic groups within effective multi-ethnic to identify opportunities for development and to specity social and economic community associations. With complementary measures. With the assistance of the Food government support. these committees would con- and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in 1990 the govern- duct activities to improve access, build well-distrib- ment undertook a project to define development strate- uted water points in sufficient number, improve land gies for the onchocerciasis-freed areas. The specific goals development methods (through professional train- of the project were: ing by an efficient extension service using model To conduct soil surveys, land use studies, and crop tarmers), and create economic institutions offering a suitability studies in order to identify the land's drawbacks range of services to farmers, such as grainbanks, and development potential, and to draft proposals for grain mills, and veterinary product storage centers improving natural resource use * Conduct a pilot test of a land management * To assess demographic pressure on program sites, approach, with a view to drafting a development and to identify the advantages and disadvantages program with help from the village community. The of traditional land tenure systems, resource develop- Ainoma region in the canton of Tamou represents ment methods, and cultivation practices for support- an interesting case of settlement and could be selecting the integration of groups of settlers ed as the site for the pilot. An experimental phase of l To draft proposals for settlement that address the twelve months would enable the pilot program to equitable satisfaction of natural resource needs, con- reach realistic, reliable results and to refine the servation and protection of the environment, and method before it is extended to all of the onchocerci- income generation in the short and long term. asis-freed areas. These exercises produced a number of recommenda- * Build small dams and develop temporary or artificial tions that the government has adopted to support devel- watering sites or ponds. opment in the onchocerciasis-freed areas: * Encourage grazing and transport activities during

154 the rainy season in areas inappropriate for farming. organize transport. To support pastoral activities, it will be necessary to * Intensify water conservation and soil restoration efforts maintain and improve the natural fodder potential, by using measures based on national experience. rationalize conditions for livestock watering, and

155

ANNEX2 ft Agenda

MinisterialMeeting on SustainableSettlement and Development of the OnchocerciasisControl Programme Area Paris,April 12-14, 1994

Objective The objectiveof the meeting is to highlight the potential for land settlement and development in the OCP area and to facilitatethe formulationof effectivepolicies in support of land settlement. The specificoutcome of the meeting will be a set of guiding principles, defined by the participants, which will help establish concrete national strategies for follow-up actions that ensure the long-term social, economic, and environmental success of new settlements.

Tuesday,April 12, 1994 Session1 10:30-12:30 Opening Call to Order Mr. BruceBenton, Committeeof SponsoringAgencies, OnchocerciasisControl Programme Mr. Lambert Konan, Ministerof Agricultureand Animal Resources, Republicof Coted'lvoire, and Chairof theMinisterial Meeting

Welcome by Committee of Sponsoring Agencies of the Onchocerciasis ControlProgramme Ms. EllenJohnson Sirleaf,Assistant Administrator and RegionalDirector, Africa Bureau,UNDP Mr. EdwardV. K. Jaycox,Vice President, Africa Region, The World Bank

Opening Remarks Mr. P. V. Obeng, PresidentialAdvisor on GovernmentalAffairs, Republic of Ghana President Blaise Compaore,Burkina Faso President Abdou Diouf, Republicof Senegal

1571 Dr. Ebrahim Samba, Director, OnchocerciasisControl Programme

Land Settlement and Environmental Change in the OCP Area Dr. Bemhard Liese, Committee of SponsoringAgencies of the OnchocerciasisControl Programme

Presentation of the guiding principles and their relationship to deliberations throughout the meeting Mr. Lambert Konan, Chair of the Ministerial Meeting

12:30-2:30 Lunch on Premises

Session2 2:30-5:30 Natural Resource Management in Settlement Areas Resourceperson: Mr. Jeffrey Lewis, Agricultural Ecologist,The World Bank Effective and sustainable management of natural resources is vital for the success of settlement. Settlement is often associated with rapid decreases in forest cover, particularly gallery forests, and declines in wildlife populations, grazing land, and water quality. However, settlement in new areas provides an opportunity to prevent degradation before it occurs and to maintain more productive conditions than in sending areas.

Presentations and Documentation Burkina Faso Community-Based Land Management in the Oncho-FreedZones: Experi- encesfrom Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger (Prepared by the regionalworking group on community land managemnent). USAID:Capitalizing on Success: The OCP and ResourceManagement Choices

6:00-7:00 Evening Reception

Wednesday, April 13, 1994

Session3 9:00-12:30 Land Tenure in New Settlement Areas

Resourcepersons: Dr. Hartwig de Haen, Assistant Director General, FAO Mr. Gerard Ciparisse, Land Tenure and Settlement Officer, FAO While much of the area becoming available due to onchocerciasis control is sparsely populated, almost none of it is unclaimed. Attempts by national govemments to override existing land tenure systems will almost certainly lead to conflict between host and settler populations. Insecurity of tenure resulting from conflicting national and local land tenure systems will inhibit long-term investments in productivity, something that is crucial if new settlements are to be sustainable. Presentations and Documentation FAO: Land Tenure Policy Outlook in the OCP Areas Dr. George Benneh,Vice Chancellor, University of Ghana: Issues of Land Tenure in Settlement Areas Club du Sahel: Land Tenure Disputes and Community Land Management in Newly-Settled Areas 12:30-2:00 Lunch (own arrangements)

158 Session4 2:00-3:30 Policy on Administrative Structures and the Provision of Services Resourceperson: Mr. Alioune Sall,Poverty Alleviation Manager, UNDP The policy guidelines strongly recommend adopting a policyof assisted spontaneous settlement to minimize government costs and to take advantage of the initiative of spontaneous settlers while maintaining input into the settlement process.The OCP countries have experienced a wide variety of types of settlement from govemment-sponsored to completelyspontaneous, and they have used many different institutional structures to deal with settlement areas. This session will examine the different types of settlement and different administrativestructures, as well as the types of servicesthat need to be available. Presentations and Documentation Senegal:Senegal's Experience with the TerresNeuves Project Ghana: Policieson AdministrativeStructures and Provisionof Services in the SettlementAreas WHO: HealthAspects of NaturalResource Development in SettlementAreas of the OnchocerciasisControl Programme

Session5 4:00-6:00 Policyon Settler Participationin the Settlement Process and Selection of Settlement Areas ResourcePerson: Ms. Cynthia Cook, Environmentand SocialPolicy Advisor, The World Bank Settler participation in all aspects of the settlement process-from site selection to provision of services-is required for sustainable settlement. This session will examine settler participation in the settlement process and its relation to the sustainabilityof settlements. In addition, it will examine the impact of policy on the compositionof settler groups and who, in the end, benefits from settlement. Presentations and Documentation Ms. Aminata Traore: SettlerParticipation in the SettlementProcess: An Examination of the SettlementExperiencefrom the Point of View of the Settlers,Based on Research donein Mali Dr. Della E. McMillan,Deputy Director, Land Settlement Review:Capitalizing on Diversity:Gender Issues in theSettlement Process Mali:Development of the Onchocerciasis-FreedZones

159 Thursday,Apr1l 14, 1994

Session 6 9:00-12:00 Sustainable AgriculturalProduction: Issues in the OCP Areas and Policy Requirements ResourcePersons: Dr. Hartwig de Haen, AssistantDirector General, FAO Mr. CyrilGroom, Assistantto theAssistant Director General, FAO Sustainable and diversifiedproduction systems are central to the success of settlement in the OCP area. Initially,settlers produce mainly for subsistence. When they are convincedthat subsistence production is assured, they diversify rapidly into other crops and, just as important, into other income generating activities. This means that extensionmessages need to shift over time. Agricultural extension systems need to understand the role that diversificationplays in household income generating strategies. In addition, extensionsystems must be able to provide advice on sustainable production systems that are financiallyviable for small farmers. Presentations and Documentation FAO: SustainableAgricultural Production: Issues in the OCPArea and PolicyRequirements France: FrenchSupportfor Sustainable Development in the Onchocerciasis-Controlled zones:Experiences and Perspective Guinea: StrategicPlan for SustainableSettlement in the Onchocerciasis-FreedZones

12:00-2:00 Lunch on Premises

Session 7 2:00-4:00 Closing

Adoption of Guiding Principles UNDP:Mechanisms for Follow-UpActivities: Coordinating Government and DonorActivities in Supportof SustainableSettlement Closing Presentations Ms. Katherine Marshall,Director, Sahelian Department, The World Bank Dr. Hartwig de Haen, AssistantDirector General, FAO Closing Statement by Chair

160 ANNEX3 ft Participants

Benin Cote d'lvoire Dr. VeroniqueLawson M. Kouassi Lambert Konan Head of Delegation/Chefde Delegation Headof Delegation/Chefde Delegation Ministre de la Sante Ministre de l'Agricultureet desRessources Animales M. Andr6 Ganmanvo M. Joseph Niamkey Directeurde l'Analyse,de la Previsionet de la Synthese DirecteurGenfral de l'Agriculture Ministeredu DeveloppementRural Ministre de l'Agricultureet desRessources Animales M. BachirIssiaka Oloude M. Bernard N'Zore Urbaniste Directeurde la Programmation DirecteurGeneral de la Societed'Etudes Regionales Ministerede I'Agricultureet des RessourcesAnimales d'Habitatet de l'AmdnagementUrbain M. Yao Guillaume Loukou M. Jules Ahodekon DirecteurGeneral Directeurdu Plan et de la Prospective Ministerede la SantePublique et desAffaires Sociales Ministeredu Plan et de la RestructurationEconomique M. Germain N'Dri BurkinaFaso Attache'de Cabinet S.E.M. BlaiseCompao re Ministerede l'Agricultureet des RessourcesAnimales S.E.M. Blaise Compaore D.GaooPer rk P.6identaduofHead of Delegation/Chef de Detle'gaMedecinDelgation Dr. Gbayoro- PierreCoordonnateur Brika National Presidentdu Conseildes Ministres Ministerede la SantePublique et desAffaires Sociales M. Jean-Paul Sawadago M. Jeannot Amont Ministrede l'Agricultureet desRessources Animales Ghana M. Christophe Dabire Mr. Paul VictorObeng Ministrede la Sante Headof Delegation/Chefde D'legation Dr. W. Joseph Cabore PresidentialAdvisor on GovernmentalAffairs CoordinateurNational de la Devolution Honorable Mr. Ibrahim Adams Ministerede la Sante Ministerof Foodand Agriculture M. Emmanuel Nikiema Honorable Mrs. Margaret Clarke-Kwesie DirecteurGene'ral de l'OfficeNational d'Amenagement DeputyMinister of Health des Terroirs(ONAT) Mme. Viviane Compaore Mr. James Fosu Chef du Departementdes Affaires Sociales, ExecutiveDirector Culturelleset de l'Education NationalOnchocerciasis Secretanrat Cabinetdu PremierMinistre Ministry of Financeand EconomicPlanning M. Moustapha Kass6 Mr. Fred Buatsi Professeura la Presidencedu Faso ChiefEconomic Planning Officer NationalOnchocerciasis Secretariat Mine. Beatrice DamibaMiityoFiacanEoomcPnig Conseilleren Communicationdu Presidentdu Faso Ministry of Financeand EconomicPlanning Mrs. Therese StrigglerScott Ambassadorto France

161 Guinea Mr. Sadou Nouhou Directeurdes Programmeset du Plan ProfesseurMadigbe Fofanah Ministeredu Plan Head of Delegation/Chefde Delegation Ministrede la Santeet desAffaires Sociales Mr. Kori Malam Ari Chef du Service de VulgarisationAgricole M. Ibrahima Sory Sow Ministerede l'Agriculture Ministre de l'Agricultureet RessourcesAnimales M. Mamadi Sangare Senegal Chefde Section S.E.M. Abdou Diouf Ministerede l'Amenagementdu Tertoire Head of Delegation/Chefde Delegation Dr. YayaKasse Presidentde la Republique Coordinateurde l'EquipeNationale Oncho de Guine S.E.M. Moustapha Niasse Ministrede la Santeet desAffaires Sociales Ministred'Etat, Ministre des Affaires Etrangres

Guinea-Bissau M. Abdoulaye Bathily Ministrede l'Environnementet de la Protection Mme. Henriqueta Godinho Gomes de la Nature Headof Delegation/Chefde Delegation M. Assane Diop Ministrede la SantePublique et . . Membredu ConseilNational de l'Environnement Ministrede la Sant M. Nelson Gomes Dias M. Massambo Sarr6 Secretaired'Etat au Plan Ambassadeurdu Senegal,France Dr. Antonio Tamba Nhaque M. Bruno Diatta CoordonnateurNational du ProgrammeOncho Ambassadeur,Chef du Protocole M. Rui Miranda M. Amadou Kamara Directeurdu Cabinetde Planification Directeurde lAgriculture Ministeredu DRA Minist&rede l'Agriculture M. Mamadou Mactar Sylla Mali CoordinateurTechnique de la CelluleApres-Barrages Ministerede l'Economie,des Financeset du Plan M. Moussa Dossolo Traore Headof Delegation/Chefde Delegation M. Racine Kane Directeurde Cabinet Geographe,Chercheur au Centrede Suivi Ecologique Ministeredu DeveloppementRural et de l'Environnement Minist&rede l'Environnement M. Denis Traore M. KalilouDiatta Commissaireau PlanPrimature DirecteurAdjoint a l'Amenagementdu Territoire Ministerede l'Interieur M. Hama Cisse Directeurde Cabinetdu Ministrede la Sante,de la Dr. Mame Cor Ndour Solidariteet desPersonnes Ag6es CoordinateurProgramme Oncho, Se'negal Ministerede la Sant' Niger Dr. Pierre Pol Vincke Chef du ProjetCAB-AGCD Mme. Aichatou Kane CelluleApres-Barrages Headof Delegation/Chefde Delegation Ministerede l'Economie,des Finances et du Plan Secretaired'Etat au Plan Mme. Zeinabou Maikorema Secretaired'Etat aupresdu Ministre de l'Agriculture et de l'Elevage,Charge'e de l'Agriculture Dr. Goumbi Kadade CoordinateurNational du Programme de Lutte Contrel'Onchocercose Ministerede la SantePublique M. MounkailaGoumandakoye Directeurde l'Environnemnent Ministerede l'Hydrauliqueet de l'Environnement

162 SierraLeone UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP) Lt. Col. Abdiil Sesay Ms. EllenJohnson Sirleaf Headof Delegation/Chefde Delegation Headof Delegation/Chefde Delegation Secretaryof State AssistantAdministrator and RegionalDirector Departmentof Agricultureand Forestry Africa Bureau Mr. Joe PatrickAmara Mr. Alioune Sall Acting ChiefAgriculturalist PovertyAlleviation Manager Departmentof Agricultureand Forestry PovertyAlleviation Division Mr. BensonLahai Mr. Benjamin Gurman DevelopmentOfficer, DODEP SeniorRegional Program Manager Dr. Abdul Rahman Wurie AfricaRegion NationalCoordinator, Oncho Project Ms. Aminata Traore Consultant Togo WorldHealth Organization (WHO) M. Yebli Sibiti Headof Delegation/Chefde Dele'gation Dr. Ralph Henderson Attachede Cabinet Headof Delegation/Chefde Delegation Ministeredu Plan et de l'Amenagementdu Territoire AssistantDirector General M. Klutse Kwassi Dr. Ebrahim Samba DirecteurGeneral du Planet du Developpement Director,Onchocerciasis Control Programme Ministeredu Plan et de l'Amenagementdu Territoire Dr. Rudolf Slooff Dr. Etienne Siamevi Scientist,Division of EnvironmentalHealth DirecteurGeneral de la Sante Mr. Diego Buriot M. Ekoue Kande Assiongbon WHO Representative,Cote d'Ivoire DirecteurGeneral du DeveloppementRural Mr. Hans Verhoef Ministeredu DeveloppementRural TechnicalOfficer, PEEM Secretariat Divisionof EnvironmentalHealth COMMITTEEOF SPONSORINGAGENCIES World Bank

Foodand AgricultureOrganization Mr. EdwardV. K. Jaycox of the UnitedNations (FAO) Headof Delegation/Chefde De'lgation VicePresident Dr. Hartwig de Haen Africa Region Head of Delegation/Chefde De'legation Ms. Katherine Marshall AssistantDirector General Director AgricultureDepartment SahelianDepartment Mr. Gerard Ciparisse Dr. Bernhard Liese Land Tenureand SettlementOfficer Director AgrarianReform and Land SettlementService HealthServices Department HumanResources, Institutions and AgrarianReform Division Mr. Birger Fredriksen Economicand SocialPolicy Department Chief,Population and Human ResourcesDivision Mr. CvrilGroom SahelianDepartment Assistantto theAssistant Director General Ms. Cynthia Cook AgricultureDepartment Environmentand SocialPolicy Advisor Occidentaland CentralAfrica Department Mr. Robert Epworth SeniorAgriculturalist, Agriculture Division WestAfrica Department Mr. JeffreyLewis AgriculturalEcologist SahelianDepartment Mr. Albert Osei ResidentRepresentative, Burkina Faso

163 DONORS/DONATEURS Netherlands Ms. Ineke Duijvestijn Belgium DeputyHead M. Jean-JacquesBourge West AfricanCountries Section Attacheau ServicePays Saheliens Ministry of ForeignAffairs et de l'AfriqueSoudainaise OPECFund for InternationalDevelopment De'parternentAgronomie AdministrationGe'nerale de la Coope'ration Mr. Abdelkader Benamara au Developpement(AGCD) Directorof Researchand Information EuropeanCommission Switzerland Mr. CarloDe Filippi Dr. Roger Pasquier Rural DevelopmentTechnical Groupfor West Counseillerpour la Cooperationau Developpement and CentralAftica DelegationPermanente de la Suisse France OCDE M. Michel Colinde Verdiere UnitedKingdom Headof Delegation/Chefde Delegation Ms. Cathy Mackenzie Sous Directeur NaturalResources Institute DeveloppementEconomique et de 1'Environnement Ministerede la Cooperation Mr. Robert Cheke Mine. Frenehard NaturalResources Institute Chargede Mission UnitedStates Minist&rede la Cooperation M. Jean-Marie Bruno Mr. John Lewis Sous Directeur Headof Delegation/Chefde Delegation Santeet DeveloppementSocial Counselor Ministerede la Cooperation USAID Representativeto Clubdu Sahel Dr. Jean-Marie Laure Mr. MichaelMcGahuey Chefdu Bureaude l'Afriquede l'Ouest Counselor Sous Directionde la Santeet du DeveloppementSocial NaturalResources Management Advisor, Africa Bureau Ministerede la Cooperation USAID M. Roberto Cogno Mr. Asif Shaikh IngenieurAgro-Economiste President Institut de Recherchede l'Applicationdes Methodesde InternationalResources Group, Ltd. De6veloppement Germany Mr. Thomas Schurig Director PermanentMission to the OECD KuwaitFund for ArabEconomic Development Dr. Abdul-RidhaBahman AgriculturalAdvisor

164 OTHER PARTICIPANTS Secretariat Mr. BruceBenton ORSTOM Head,Onchocerciasis Unit M. MichelLevallois Populationand HumanResources Division Head of Delegation/Chefde De'egation SahelianDepartment President World Bank Dr. Bernard Philippon Mr. Warren Furth DirecteurDI)egue du DepartementSante ConferenceCoordinator Dr. Christian Leveque Mr. Yves Genevier EnvironnementalistPrincipal PublicHealth Specialist, Onchocerciasis Unit SahelianDepartment Dr. Jean-Pierre Hervouet World Bank Directeurde Recherche Department de la Sante' Mr.Sociologist, John ElderOnchocerciasis Unit Dr. Rene Le Berre SahelianDepartment World Bank Club du Sahel Ms. Laura Cooley Mr. Roy Stacy Sociologist,Onchocerciasis Unit Headof Delegation/Chefde Delgation SahelianDepartment Director World Bank Ms. Armelle Faure Ms. Mary Ambatchew Anthropologist SeniorStaff Assistant, OnchocerciasisUnit Mr. jean-Marc Pradelle SahelianDepartment Administrator World Bank Mr. Matthijs Bienefelt Counselor

OTHER PARTICIPANTS Dr. Da-id Baldry Cartographer Committeeof SponsoringAgencies Dr. George Benneh ViceChancellor, University of Ghana,Legon Dr. Davide Calamari Ecotoxicologist Universityof Milan and Chair,Ecological Group, OCP Dr. Della E. McMillan Universityof Floridaand DeputyDirector, LandSettlement Review, Institutefor Development Anthropology

165 Distributors of World Bank Publications

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RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continued)

No. 272 Greaney and Kellaghan, Equity Issuesin PublicExaminations in DevelopingCountries No. 273 Grirnshaw and Helfer, editors, VetiverGrassfor Soil and WaterConservation, Land Rehabilitation,and Embankment Stabilization:A Collectionof Papersand NewslettersCompiled by the Vetiver Network No. 274 Govindaraj, Murray, and Chellaraj, HealthExpenditures in Latin America No. 275 Heggie, Managementand Financingof Roads:An Agendafor Reform No. 276 Johnson, Quality Review SchemesforAuditors: TheirPotentialfor Sub-Saharan Africa No. 277 Convery, Applying EnvironmentalEconomics in Africa No. 278 Wijetilleke and Karunaratne, Air Quality Management:Considerationsfor Developing Countries No. 279 Anderson and Ahmed, The Casefor SolarEnergy Investments No. 280 Rowat, Malik, and Dakolias, JudicialReform in Latin Americaand the Caribbean:Proceedings of a World Bank Conference No. 281 Shen and Contreras-Hermosilla, Environmentaland EconomicIssues in Forestry:Selected Case Studies in India No. 282 Kim and Benton, Cost-BenefitAnalysis of the OnchocerciasisControl Program (OCP) No. 283 Jacobsen, Scobie and Duncan, Statutory Interventionin AgriculturalMarketing: A New ZealandPerspective No. 284 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Roldos and Chiara, Surveillanceof AgriculturalPrice and TradePolicies: A HandbookforUruguay No. 285 Brehm and Castro, The Marketfor Water Rights in Chile:Major Issues No. 286 Tavoulareas and Charpentier, Clean CoalTechnologies for DevelopingCountries No. 287 Gillham, Bell,Arin, Matthews, Rumeur, and Hearn, CottonProduction Prospects for the Next Decade No. 288 Biggs, Shaw, and Srivastiva, TechnologicalCapabilities and Learningin African Enterprises No. 289 Dinar, Seidl, Olem, Jorden, Duda, and Johnson, Restoringand Protectingthe World'sLakes and Reservoirs No. 290 Weijenberg,Dagg, Kampen Kalunda, Mailu, Ketema, Navarro, and Abdi Noor, StrengtheningNational Agricultual ResearchSystems in Easternand CentralAfrica: A FrameworkforAction No. 291 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Errazuriz and Francisco, Surveillanceof Agricultural Priceand Trade Policies:A HandbookforChile No. 292 Gorriz, Subramanian, and Simas, IrrigationManagement Transfer in Mexico:Process and Progress No. 293 Preker and Feachem, Market Mechanismsand the HealthSector in Centraland EasternEurope No. 294 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Sturzenegger and Bebczuk, Surveillanceof AgriculturalPrice and TradePolicies: A HandbookforArgentina No. 295 Pohl, Jedrzejczak, and Anderson, CreatingCapital Markets in Centraland EasternEurope No. 296 Stassen, Small-ScaleBiomass Gasifiersfor Heat and Power:A GlobalReview No. 297 Bulatao, Key Indicatorsfor FamilyPlanning Projects No. 298 Odaga and Heneveld, Girls and Schoolsin Sub-SaharanAfrica: From Analysis to Action No. 299 Tamale, Jones, and Pswarayi-Riddihough, TechnologiesRelated to ParticipatoryForestry in Tropical and SubtropicalCountries No. 300 Oram and de Haan, TechnologiesforRainfed Agriculture in MediterraneanClimates: A Review of World Bank Experiences No. 301 Edited by Mohan, Bibliographyof Publications:Technical Department, Africa Region,July 1987 to April 1995 No. 302 Baldry, Calamari, and Yam6ogo, EnvironmentalImpact Assessment of Settlementand Developmentin the UpperUraba Basin No. 303 Heneveld and Craig, SchoolsCount: World BankProject Designs and the Quality of PrimaryEducation in Sub-SaharanAfrica No. 304 Foley, PhotovoltaicApplications in Rural Areasof the DevelopingWorld No. 306 Muir and Saba, ImprovingState EnterprisePerformance: The Roleof Internaland ExternalIncentives No. 309 The World Bank/FOA/UNIDO/Industry Fertilizer Working Group, Worldand RegionalSupply and Demand Balances for Nilrogen,Phosphate, and Potash,1993/94-2000 THE WORLD BANK rSz s < A partner in strengthening economies and expanding markets to improve the quality of life for people everywhere, especially the poorest

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9 II80821335154 Cover design by Beni Chibber-Rao ISBN 0-8213-3515-4