TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments 1

Introduction 3

Chapter I: History and Documentation of the Paintings 5 A. Political Factors 6 B. Religious Factors 8 1) The Maronites 8 2) The East Syrians (Nestorians) 10 3) Syrian Orthodox, West Syrians or Jacobite 10 4) The Greek Orthodox and Melchites 11 5) The Abyssinians 11 C. Effects of Climate and Geography 13 D. Commerce and Trade 14 E. Tripoli as a Center of Learning 15 F. Historical Documents and Sources 17 1) Inscriptions 17 2) The Language of the Inscriptions 17 (i) Greek Inscriptions 17 (ii) Syriac Inscriptions 18 (iii) Latin Inscriptions 19 3) Written Sources 19

Chapter II: Architecture 21 A. Architectural Styles 21 B. The Prothesis and the Diaconicon 21 1) Mar Saba, Edde, Batroun 21 2) Mar Charbel, Ma'ad 22 3) Mar Girgius, Raskida 23 C. Double-Naved Churches 23 1) Double-Naved Churches in the Lebanon 23 2) The Church with a Double Apse and a Single Nave 24 3) The Double Basilica Church 24 4) Double-Naved Churches Outside the Lebanon 25 3) The Purpose of Double-Naved Churches 26 D. Summary 28 E. Problems of Restoration and Authenticity (by Jean Yasmine) 28

Chapter III: Questions of Iconography 31 A. The Main Apse 32 1) The Majestas Domini 32 2) The Deesis 34 3) The Virgin Blachernitissa and the Burning Bush 36 4) The Cross 37 5) The Anastasis 39 (i) Mar Phocas, Amioun 39 (ii) Mart Shmuni 41 B. The Side Apses 42 1) The Enthroned Virgin with Child, the Nikopoios 42 2) The Galaktotrophousa 43 3) The Baptism 46 C. The Bema 48 1) The Apostles 48 (a) Mar Phocas 48 (b) Mar Tadros 48 (c) Deir es-Salib 49 (d) Mart Shmuni 51 VIII Table of Contents

2) Church Fathers and the Prophet Elijah 51 (a) Mar Mitri 51 The two Sts. Saba 51 St. Nicholas of Myra 52 St. James of Jerusalem 52 St. Gregory Nazianzus 52 (b) Kafr Qahel 53 St. Basil 53 The Prophet Elijah 53 St. Gregory Nazianzus 53 3) Other Saints 53 (a) Mar Charbel 53 St. Cyprian, St. Maron, St. Charbel, Justina (?) 53 Peter and Paul 55 The Evangelists 55 D. The Triumphal Arch 55 1) Ancient Prophets 55 2) Christ Emmanuel 56 3) The Sun and the Moon 56 4) Sacrifice of Isaac 56 5) Moses Receiving the Tablets of the Law 57 6) The Annunciation 57 E. The Walls 59 1) Old Testament 59 St. Elijah Carried to Heaven in his Chariot 59 Narrative Scenes: the Festival Cycle 60 2) The Nativity 60 3) The Transfiguration 61 4) The Crucifixion 61 5) The Dormition 63 6) The Last Judgment 66 7) Other Narrative Scenes 66 Marina/Margaret of Antioch, and Marina the Monk 66 8) An Archangel 69 F. Individual Icons 69 1) Christ Pantocrator 69 2) The Riding Cavalier, St. George 70 3) The Riding Cavalier, St. Theodore Stratelates 72 4) The Riding Cavalier, Other Saints 72 5) St. Philip 75 6) St. Simeon Stylites 75 7) St. Demetrios, standing 77 8) St. Bartholomew 78 9) St. Salomone 78 10) St. Barbara 79 11) St. Marina of Antioch 79 12) St. Helen 80 13) St. Stephen 80 14) Daniel in the Lion's Den (?) 80 15) Zacchaeus, or a Dendrite Saint? 81 16) Temptation of St. James (?) 82 17) St. Phocas 83 18) St. Nicephorus of the Long Beard 83 19) Unidentified Saints 83 G. Donors 84 1) Mar Phokas, Amioun 84 2) Mar Charbel, Ma'ad 84 3) Mar Tadros, Bahdeidat 85 Table of Contents IX

4) Mar Saba, Edde 85 5) Mart Barbara, Beirut 85 H. Ornament 85 1) The Decorated Arcade 85 2) The Syrian Cloth 86 3) Red and Ochre Earth 86 4) The Red Star 86 5) Other Patterns 86 I. Unclassified 87 Summary and Conclusion 87

Chapter IV: The Style of the Paintings 89 A. Cappadocia 89 1) Deir es-Salib, the Crucifixion 89 2) Mart Shmuni 89 3) Sayyidat ad-Darr 90 4) Sayyidat Haqle 91 B. Cyprus and Byzantium 91 1) Deir es-Salib, Hadchit, Main Program 92 2) Deir Hamatura, Kousba 93 3) Mar Phokas, Amioun 93 4) Mar Mitri, Kousba 94 5) Mar Elias, Kafr Qahel 94 C. The Syrian Orthodox 95 1) Bahdeidat and Ma'ad 95 2) Sayyidat Naya, Kafr Shleiman 96 3) Other Paintings 96 D. European Painters 96 1) Mar Charbel, Ma'ad, the Apse and Twelfth Century Program 96 2) Mar Phokas, Amioun, Head of Christ 97 E. The Dormition, Mar Saba, Edde, Batroun 97 The Dormition in Edde, Batroun 97 F. Summary and Conclusion 99

Conclusions 101 The Perpetuation of Early Christian Themes 101 The Relevance of the Liturgy 101 Congregations 102 Stylistic Groupings 102 Jerusalem 103 Artistic Relationships with the West during the Crusades 104

Colour Plates 105

Catalogue of Monuments 155 Map of the Lebanon with Locations of Monuments 156 Introduction to the Catalogue 157 1) Amioun, Mar Phokas 158 2) Kafr Qahel, Mar Elias 180 3) Bkeftine, Deir Sayyidat 187 4) Kousba, Mar Mitri 192 5) Kousba, Kanisset es-Sayyidat 202 6) Kousba, Deir Hamatura 208 7) Barghoun, Mart Barbara 218 8) Enfe, Sayyidat ar-Rih 224 9) Bziza, Mar Elias 228 10) Hamat, Mar Girgius 233 11) Hadchit, Sayyidat ad-Darr 238 X Table of Contents

12) Hadchit, Deir es-Salib 250 13) Hadchit, Mart Shmuni 262 14) Raskida, Mar Girgius 272 15) Edde, Batroun, Mar Saba 280 16) Qalamoun, Mar Marina 292 17) Kafr Shleiman, Sayyidat Naya 306 18) Ma'ad, Mar Charbel 316 19) Bahdeidat, Mar Tadros 338 20) Saqqiyat el-Hait, Mar Sim'an 362 21) Beirut, Mart Barbara (?) 374 22) Jbeil, Sayyidat Qassuba 380 23) Blat, Mar Elias 384 24) Dedde, Mar Mtanios 390 25) Bsarma, Sayyidat Haqle (Badiya?) 394 26) Qannoubine, Kanisset es-Sayyidat 399

Comparative Plates 401

List of Selected References and Abbreviations 419 List of Abbreviations and Frequently Cited Sources 419 Reference Works Cited in Abbreviation 423 Arabic Sources Cited in Abbreviation 423

List of Plates 425 List of Colour Plates 425 List of Black and White Plates 426 List of Figures 432 List of Comparative Plates 433

Indexes 434 1. Iconographical Index 434 2. Index of Personal Proper Names 438 3. Index of Monuments, Sites, Manuscript and Icon Repositories 441 4. General Index 447