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Food and Organization Topic A: and Agriculture

MUNUC 31 Update Paper

Case Study: Climate Change’s Effect on ’s Agrarian Society

The challenge in understanding climate change has expanded from simply analyzing its

biological aspects to now gauging the socio-economic impacts of climate vulnerability in developing

countries, and the way it alters the political landscape of agricultural societies. According to a report

by Phys, Honduras currently falls within the top 3 in countries that are most affected by rising

1 temperatures, followed only by and .

Agricultural production, especially coffee and bananas, currently makes up close to 15% of

Honduras’s gross domestic product (GDP). Along with that, nearly 25% of all citizens either work

directly in agriculture or in a related field, such as packaging, inspecting, or landscaping. As a result,

Honduras’s food production and economic well-being often fluctuates based on weather events, like

droughts or hurricanes. Hurricane Mitch, which ripped through Central America in ‘98, caused cash

crop exports to drop by 10%, and the President of Honduras estimated that the harm done to the

2 fields likely set the country back over 50 years. Climate change, however, isn’t a one-time event. It’s

1 "Honduras, Myanmar, Haiti Top Risk List, Says Climate Group," Phys.org - News and Articles on Science and ​ Technology, https://phys.org/news/2015-12-honduras-myanmar-haiti-climate-group.html. 2 "Honduras," The Heritage Foundation, https://www.heritage.org/index/country/honduras. ​

a force that has been worsening as the years go by and has been creating exponential amounts of

economic and social challenges in Honduras.

The effects of climate change have been slow and devastating, causing an innumerable

amount of problems that farmers in Honduras are struggling to adapt to. Since 2008, Honduras has

been hit with waves of droughts and floods. Honduran farmers say that these extreme weather

events are harmful for their crop output, as their plants need consistent temperatures and rain to

thrive. An increase in temperature has also created the perfect breeding ground for species of fungi.

In 2013, the rust fugus “la roya” wiped out 40% of all coffee crops, even leading the government to

3 declare a national emergency. Local decline in production is forcing rural farmers to travel farther ​ and farther during picking season, and export numbers have been consistently declining.

In retaliation to the South American Caravan that is moving towards the southern border of

the , President Trump is in the process of eliminating all economic assistance to

various Central American countries, including Honduras. The proposed cut to the United States

Agency for International Development (USAID) would cut off over $58 million of economic

4 support that largely takes the form of subsidies for poorer export-driven farmers. Honduras’s

government is lost for ways to combat the rising temperatures and litany of problems, mostly

because they do not have the resources themselves to deal with the effects of global warming.

Climate models predict that, “Honduras’s temperatures will continue to rise, water will become

3 Karyn Miller-Medzon, "Struggling Honduran Farmers Cope With Climate Challenges," WBUR, June 20, 2017, ​ https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2017/06/20/honduras-farmers-climate-challenges. 4 IANS, "Trump Vows to End All Aid to , Honduras, ," Business Standard, December 28, 2018, ​ https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/trump-vows-to-end-all-aid-to-guatemala-honduras-el-salva dor-118122900016_1.html.

5 scarcer in certain regions and weather patterns will become even more unpredictable.” One thing is

for certain: something has to be done to combat the issues that are affecting not only Honduras, but

a whole host of agrarian-based countries.

5 Stephanie Leutert, "How Climate Change Is Affecting Rural Honduras and Pushing People North," The Washington ​ Post, November 6, 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/global-opinions/wp/2018/11/06/how-climate-change-is-affecting-rural-h onduras-and-pushing-people-north/?fbclid=IwAR366F5mjugl9UrxDxgdGwMrDK2pWRdEawyvbcX8X5sDd9AK4wuyc oSsTRI&noredirect=on&utm_term=.e5212b9aaa55.

Bibliography

"Honduras, Myanmar, Haiti Top Risk List, Says Climate Group." Phys.org - News and Articles on Science and Technology. https://phys.org/news/2015-12-honduras-myanmar-haiti-climate-group.html. ​

"Honduras." The Heritage Foundation. https://www.heritage.org/index/country/honduras. ​ ​

IANS. "Trump Vows to End All Aid to Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador." Business Standard. December 28, 2018. https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/trump-vows-to-end-all-aid-to-guatemala-ho nduras-el-salvador-118122900016_1.html.

Leutert, Stephanie. "How Climate Change Is Affecting Rural Honduras and Pushing People North." The Washington Post. November 6, 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/global-opinions/wp/2018/11/06/how-climate-change-is- affecting-rural-honduras-and-pushing-people-north/?fbclid=IwAR366F5mjugl9UrxDxgdGwMrDK 2pWRdEawyvbcX8X5sDd9AK4wuycoSsTRI&noredirect=on&utm_term=.e5212b9aaa55.

Miller-Medzon, Karyn. "Struggling Honduran Farmers Cope With Climate Challenges." WBUR. June 20, 2017. https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2017/06/20/honduras-farmers-climate-challenges. ​ ​

Food and Agriculture Organization Topic A: Climate Change and Agriculture

MUNUC 31 Update Paper

Capturing Emissions from Manure

It is a well-known fact that animals produce methane, a 25 times more

6 7 potent than (CO2), as a byproduct of their digestive process. Though the methane ​ ​ gas exhaled by the ruminant animals cannot be captured, that produced by the manure of the

8 livestock can. The public sector is well-aware of methane’s effect on climate change and has developed strategies to encourage its capture and utilization. The United States government, for example, published the “Biogas Opportunities Roadmap” in 2014 to promote the adoption of

9 biogas capture systems, developing financial incentives and the domestic market for biogas.

Recently, however, private sector companies have also initiated efforts to harness the methane gas generated on animal farms to combat climate change. Smithfield Foods and utility company

Dominion Energy have agreed to cooperate, and each has invested $125 million over the period of ten years to install methane gas capture systems in hog lagoons in North Carolina, Virginia, and

Utah, feeding potentially 85,000 metric tons of captured and purified methane gas annually into the

6 M. Premalatha, Tasneem Abbasi, S.M. Tauseef, and S.A. Abbasi, "Methane Capture from Livestock Manure." Journal of Environmental ​ Management 117 (January 12, 2012): 187. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.12.022. ​ 7 Steven Mufson, "Companies Launch Plan to Capture Methane from Hog Manure Lagoons." The Washington Post. November 27, 2018. Accessed December 29, 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/energy-environment/2018/11/27/companies-launch-plan-capture-methane-hog-manure-lagoons /?utm_term=.7c9e820dfc63. 8 M. Premalatha, Tasneem Abbasi, S.M. Tauseef, and S.A. Abbasi, "Methane Capture,” 187. 9 Sandra Vijn, "The Biogas Solution: Turning Manure into Profit." WWF. July 31, 2014. Accessed December 29, 2018. https://www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/sustainability-works/posts/the-biogas-solution-turning-manure-into-profit#. 10 pipelines of Dominion to potentially heat homes. This cooperation is one of the latest efforts of such kinds in North Carolina, where Duplin County alone hosts more than 500 feeding operations

11 and Smithfield owns roughly 2.3 million hogs. Previously, Duke Energy, Duke University, and

Google have also jointly invested in the area in 2011 to capture methane produced by the hog farm

12 near Yadkinville.

Such efforts are not limited to the United States, however, as dairy farms in also began to install methane capture systems to generate electricity. Huishan Dairy near Shenyang, China has installed gas-powered generators that would use methane captured from the manure of 60,000 cows,

13 generating enough electricity to power roughly 3500 American-households. Sufficiently explaining

14 the upfront cost, the large scale of the program also makes it more appealing and economical.

The difficulties of such projects are apparent. The large upfront-cost, together with the long approval process and the competitive nature of the energy sector, have posed significant barriers for

15 especially small farms to install methane capture systems. There are only 236 systems of such type

16 installed in U.S. farms by 2014, whereas the potential market is estimated to be over 2,600 farms. It must be noted that primitive systems directly using the captured gas for cooking or lighting on small

17 farms have been widely deployed. However, systems generating electricity and heating homes are recently developed, and are still a difficult and relatively expensive method to utilize the captured

10 Steven Mufson, "Companies Launch Plan to Capture Methane.” 11 Joel K. Bourne, "Harnessing the Power of Poo: Pig Becomes Electricity." National Geographic. July 13, 2016. Accessed December 29, 2018. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2016/07/pig-waste-energy-north-carolina/. 12 Ibid. 13 Kevin Bullis, "Chinese Project Puts Cow Dung to Work." MIT Technology Review. October 22, 2012. Accessed December 29, 2018. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/421771/chinese-project-puts-cow-dung-to-work/. 14 Ibid. 15 Sandra Vijn, "The Biogas Solution." 16 Ibid. 17 Kevin Bullis, "Chinese Project." 18 gas.

On a positive note, both private and public sectors have realized the necessity to capture methane gas released by animal farms and have begun to actively promote the adoption of the methane capture systems. Besides the private sector companies and U.S. Government mentioned above, WWF, for instance, partners with The Innovation Center for U.S. Dairy to help farms install ​ ​ 19 biogas digesters. It can be hoped that as more individuals, companies, and governments realize the importance of combating climate change in the future, more resources would be directed to such projects and prevent the escape of methane gas to the atmosphere, which could increase by as much

20 as 16.5% from the 2005 level by 2030 if remains unchecked.

18 Ibid. 19 Sandra Vijn, "The Biogas Solution." 20 M. Premalatha, Tasneem Abbasi, S.M. Tauseef, and S.A. Abbasi, "Methane Capture,” 187. Bibliography

Bourne, Joel K. "Harnessing the Power of Poo: Pig Waste Becomes Electricity." National Geographic. July 13, 2016. Accessed December 29, 2018. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2016/07/pig-was te-energy-north-carolina/.

Bullis, Kevin. "Chinese Project Puts Cow Dung to Work." MIT Technology Review. October 22, 2012. Accessed December 29, 2018. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/421771/chinese-project-puts-cow-dung-to-work/.

Mufson, Steven. "Companies Launch Plan to Capture Methane from Hog Manure Lagoons." The Washington Post. November 27, 2018. Accessed December 29, 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/energy-environment/2018/11/27/companies-launch-pla n-capture-methane-hog-manure-lagoons/?utm_term=.7c9e820dfc63.

Premalatha, M., Tasneem Abbasi, S.M. Tauseef, and S.A. Abbasi. "Methane Capture from Livestock Manure." Journal of Environmental Management 117 (January 12, 2012): 187-207. ​ ​ doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.12.022.

Vijn, Sandra. "The Biogas Solution: Turning Manure into Profit." WWF. July 31, 2014. Accessed December 29, 2018. https://www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/sustainability-works/posts/the-biogas-solution-turnin g-manure-into-profit#.

Food and Agriculture Organization Topic B: Food Security in Political Conflicts

MUNUC 31 Update Paper

The Crisis and Child Hunger

A civil war in Yemen has escalated to become what is considered by the United Nations as the

1 world’s worst humanitarian crisis. ​ Yemen, one of the world’s poorest Arab countries, has been in ​ political chaos since the Arab spring of 2011, when its authoritarian president Ali Abdullah Saleh ​ was forced to hand over power to his deputy Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi. However, the transition was far from smooth; President Hadi faced several national threats including attacks from Al Qaeda, a separatist movement in the south, food insecurity, corruption, unemployment, and strong political

2 opposition from Saleh loyalists. ​ In 2014, Houthi rebels capitalized on the new president’s weakness ​ by taking control of north-western Yemen.

All of this came to a climax in 2015 when a Saudi-Arabian led coalition backed by the US and other Arab countries began an air campaign and blockade. The coalition has claimed the blockade is necessary to prevent smuggling of weapons to rebels by , but a UN report has said that the blockade could, “trigger the largest famine the world has seen for many decades.”21 More than 7,000 people have been killed by the fighting alone, but that number is dwarfed by the 85,000 children who have died from acute malnutrition as a direct consequence of the war. About 75% of

21 BBC, "Yemen crisis: 85,000 children 'dead from malnutrition," BBC, Last modified November 21, 2018, Accessed December 16, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-46261983. the population - 22 million people - is in need of humanitarian assistance, roughly 18 million people do not know if they will get to eat their next meal, and 8.4 million people are at risk of starvation.22

How did the situation get so desperate? Nearly every disaster can be attributed to the war and the blockade: it is an extremely arduous process to import food into the country and this causes food prices to skyrocket. Additionally, because nearly a quarter of the Yemeni population was employed by the government before the war, the government’s failure to pay its workers has essentially put tens of millions of people into unemployment and severe poverty. The blockade in combination with food scarcity has put nearly the entire country at risk of famine.23

Based on historical studies, if acute malnutrition is left untreated, around 20-30% of affected children will die each year. Tamer Kirolos, Yemen director of the charity Save The Children, said in a BBC interview, "Children who die [from acute malnutrition] suffer immensely as their vital organ functions slow down and eventually stop. Their immune systems are so weak they are more prone to infections, with some too frail to even cry. For every child killed by bombs and bullets, dozens are

24 starving to death and it's entirely preventable".

Recently, the government of Yemen and Houthi rebels met in and made one of the most significant advances yet for peace in Yemen. The two sides agreed to a ceasefire in the port city of Hodeidah, through which the vast majority of the country’s aid and imports flow. Both sides have ​

22 Alyssa Cogan, "Quick facts: What you need to know about the crisis in Yemen," Mercy Corps, Last modified December 13, 2018, Accessed December 20, 2018, https://www.mercycorps.org/articles/yemen/quick-facts-what-you-need-know-about-crisis-yemen. 23 BBC, "Yemen crisis: 85,000 children 'dead from malnutrition," BBC, Last modified November 21, 2018, Accessed December 16, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-46261983. 24 Ibid. 1 a two-week deadline to remove all barriers to humanitarian aid. ​ Separately, and its ally, ​ 25 the UAE, have pledged $500m in food aid to reach 10 to 12 million Yemenis.

25 P​ BS NewsHour, Yemen's spiraling hunger crisis is a man-made disaster, Photograph, Youtube, July 2, ​ ​ 2018, Accessed December 16, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQsjM_dfU9Y. Bibliography

BBC. "Yemen crisis: 85,000 children 'dead from malnutrition.'" BBC. Last modified November 21, 2018. Accessed December 16, 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-46261983.

Cogan, Alyssa. "Quick facts: What you need to know about the crisis in Yemen." Mercy Corps. Last modified December 13, 2018. Accessed December 20, 2018. https://www.mercycorps.org/articles/yemen/quick-facts-what-you-need-know-about-crisis- yemen.

PBS NewsHour. Yemen's spiraling hunger crisis is a man-made disaster. Photograph. Youtube. July 2, 2018. ​ ​ Accessed December 16, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQsjM_dfU9Y.

Food and Agriculture Organization Topic B: Food Security in Political Conflicts

MUNUC 31 Update Paper

Food Insecurity in the

The Central African Republic relies heavily on agriculture to sustain its population.

However, in recent years, there has been political instability and a shortage of food production that has led to food insecurity throughout the country. People are forced to leave their homes because of political turmoil, so there is no one to tend to the fields. Due to over 75% of the working population relying on agriculture for sustenance, the lack of food production has negatively impacted the economy as well as the well-being of the people.26 There are a few concrete ways to rectify this situation, but solutions require effort from multiple parties, including the government, the people involved in the conflict, and potentially outside powers.

The overthrowing of the Central African Republic President by Muslim rebels and the revenge attacks by Christian militia have caused major political turmoil within the country.27 This has caused people to be displaced from their homes, forcing them to cut off their food source and not have any income to find a new food source or living situation in their temporary homes. People have had to flee to urban areas where making a living is more difficult, and many rural people do not

26 “Central African Republic : FAO in Emergencies,” accessed January 10, 2019, http://www.fao.org/emergencies/countries/detail/en/c/161545. 27 “UN Warns of Famine in Violence-Hit Central African Republic,” accessed January 10, 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/warns-famine-violence-hit-central-african-republic-181121170805260. html. have the skills to succeed in these new areas. Because of the displacement and the political insecurity, over 63% of the population is facing food insecurity, and the government is more focused on the political situation in the country rather than the food insecurity.

There are possible solutions to the problems that are pervading the Central African

Republic. These include the actions that humanitarians around the world can and have taken in order to reduce the possibility of famine, and emergency response teams that go into impacted areas and deliver food, water, and health supplies.28 If these efforts are continued and the areas where the most need for food exists are pinpointed, people around the world could contribute to the well-being of the citizens of the Central African Republic. Another solution that people around the world and within the country have practiced is training people to provide for themselves even in the direst of situations. Offering people training and expanding their skills past simply agriculture can help people survive and thrive without continued external help.

28 Ibid. Bibliography

“Central African Republic : FAO in Emergencies.” Accessed January 10, 2019. http://www.fao.org/emergencies/countries/detail/en/c/161545.

“UN Warns of Famine in Violence-Hit Central African Republic.” Accessed January 10, 2019. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/warns-famine-violence-hit-central-african-republic- 181121170805260.html.