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Biomechanical Evaluation of Movement in Sport and Exercise BIOMECHANICAL EVALUATION OF MOVEMENT IN SPORT AND EXERCISE Biomechanical Evaluation of Movement in Sport and Exercise offers a com- prehensive and practical sourcebook for students, researchers and practitioners involved in the quantitative evaluation of human movement in sport and exercise. This unique text sets out the key theories underlying biomechanical evaluation, and explores the wide range of biomechanics laboratory equipment and software that is now available. Advice concerning the most appropriate selection of equipment for different types of analysis, as well as how to use the equipment most effectively, is also offered. The book includes coverage of: • Measurement in the laboratory and in the field • Motion analysis using video and on-line systems • Measurement of force and pressure • Measurement of muscle strength using isokinetic dynamometry • Electromyography • Computer simulation and modelling of human movement • Data processing and data smoothing • Research methodologies Written and compiled by subject specialists, this authoritative resource provides practical guidelines for students, academics and those providing scientific support services in sport science and the exercise and health sciences. Carl J. Payton is Senior Lecturer in Biomechanics at Manchester Metropolitan University, UK. Roger M. Bartlett is Professor of Sports Biomechanics in the School of Physical Education, University of Otago, New Zealand. BIOMECHANICAL EVALUATION OF MOVEMENT IN SPORT AND EXERCISE The British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Guidelines Edited by Carl J. Payton and Roger M. Bartlett First published 2008 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2008 Carl J. Payton and Roger M. Barlett, selection and editorial matter; individual chapters, the contributors Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereprintedor reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Biomechanical evaluation of movement in sport and exercise: the British Association of Sport and Exercise Science guide / edited by Carl Payton and Roger Bartlett. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-415-43468-3 (hardcover) – ISBN 978-0-415-43469-0 (softcover) 1. Human mechanics. 2. Exercise–Biomechanical aspects. 3. Sports–Biomechanical aspects. I. Payton, Carl. II. Bartlett, Roger. III. British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences. [DNLM: 1. Movement–physiology. 2. Biometry–methods. 3. Exercise–physiology. 4. Models, Statistical. WE 103 B6139 2007] QP303.B557 2007 612.76–dc22 2007020521 ISBN 0-203-93575-6 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0-415-43468-8 (hbk) ISBN10: 0-415-43469-6 (pbk) ISBN10: 0-203-93575-6 (ebk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-43468-3 (hbk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-43469-0 (pbk) ISBN13: 978-0-203-93575-0 (ebk) CONTENTS List of tables and figures vii Notes on contributors xiii 1 Introduction 1 ROGER M. BARTLETT 2 Motion analysis using video 8 CARL J. PAYTON 3 Motion analysis using on-line systems 33 CLARE E. MILNER 4 Force and pressure measurement 53 ADRIAN LEES AND MARK LAKE 5 Surface electromyography 77 ADRIAN BURDEN 6 Isokinetic dynamometry 103 VASILIOS BALTZOPOULOS 7 Data processing and error estimation 129 JOHN H. CHALLIS 8 Research methods: sample size and variability effects on statistical power 153 DAVID R. MULLINEAUX 9 Computer simulation modelling in sport 176 MAURICE R. YEADON AND MARK A. KING vi CONTENTS Appendix 1: The British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences–code of conduct 207 Appendix 2: On-line motion analysis system manufacturers and their websites 213 Index 215 TABLES AND FIGURES TABLES 5.1 Summary of amplifier characteristics for commercially available electromyography systems 81 5.2 Summary of sensor characteristics for commercially available electromyography systems 84 6.1 Summary of the range or limits of angular velocities and moments under concentric and eccentric modes for the most popular commercially available isokinetic dynamometers, including manufacturer website information 118 7.1 Ten measures of a reference length measured by a motion analysis system throughout the calibrated volume 131 8.1 Research design, statistics and data factors affecting statistical power 155 8.2 Statistical analyses available for quantifying variability and, consequently coordination, in two or more trials, across the entire cycle or as an overall measure for the entire cycle. The examples relate to three trials of a healthy, male participant running at 3 m s−1 (see Figures 8.1 to 8.7) 170 FIGURES 2.1 (a) High-speed video camera (Photron Fastcam Ultima APX) capable of frame rates up to 2000 Hz at full resolution (1024 × 1024 pixels); (b) Camera Processor unit 12 2.2 Apparent discrepancy in the lengths of two identical rods when recorded using a camera-to-subject distance of 3 m (image a) and 20 m (image b). Note that the rods are being held shoulder width apart 19 viii TABLES AND FIGURES 2.3 Distortion of angles when movement occurs outside the plane of motion. The true value of angles A and B is 90◦ (image a). In image b, angle A appears to be greater than 90◦ (A ) and angle B appears to be less than 90◦ (B), as the frame is no longer in the plane of motion 20 2.4 The effect of camera frame rate on the recording of a football kick. At 50 Hz (top row) the foot is only seen in contact with the ball for one image; at 250 Hz (middle row) the foot remains in contact for four images; at 1000 Hz (bottom row) the foot is in contact for sixteen images (not all shown) 23 2.5 Calibration frame (1.60 m × 1.91 m × 2.23 m) with 24 control points (Peak Performance Technologies Inc.) 25 2.6 Calibration frame (1.0m× 1.5m× 4.5 m) with 92 control points (courtesy of Ross Sanders) 25 3.1 (a) The L-frame used in the static calibration of a motion capture system and its relationship to the laboratory reference frame; (b) The wand used in the dynamic calibration 39 3.2 Marker sets used in on-line motion analysis: (a) Standard clinical gait analysis marker set; (b) Cluster-based marker set 43 3.3 Different ways of presenting the same multiple-trial time-normalised kinematic data: (a) mean curve; (b) mean ± 1 standard deviation curves; (c) all individual curves. The example shown is rear-foot motion during running 49 4.1 Force (or free body diagram) illustrating some of the forces (contact, C, gravity, G and air resistance, AR) acting on the runner 54 4.2 The force platform measurement variables 55 4.3 The three component load cells embedded at each corner of the force platform 56 4.4 Typical force data for Fx, Fy, Fz, Ax, Az and My for a running stride 63 4.5 Typical graphical representation of force variables (Fx, Fy, Fz, Ax and Az). Note that My is not represented in this format 65 4.6 Free body diagram of a person performing a vertical jump 67 4.7 Derived acceleration, velocity and displacement data for the vertical jump. Units: force (N); acceleration (m s−2) × 70; velocity (m s−1) × 700; displacement (m) × 1000 68 4.8 Plantar pressure distribution measurements inside two soccer boots during landing from a maximal jump in the same participant. Higher pressures under the ball of the forefoot (towards the top of each pressure contour map), where studs are located, are experienced while using boot A 70 TABLES AND FIGURES ix 5.1 An EMG signal formed by adding (superimposing) 25 mathematically generated motor unit action potential trains (from Basmajian and De Luca, 1985) 78 5.2 The influence of electrode location on EMG amplitude. (a) Eight electrodes arranged in an array, with a 10 mm spacing between each electrode. The lines (numbered 1 to 8) above the array indicate the different combinations of electrodes that were used to make bi-polar recordings. Inter-electrode distances are 10 mm for pairs 1, 2 and 3; 20 mm for pairs 4 and 5; 30 mm for pair 6; 40 mm for pair 8; and 50 mm for pair 7. (b) EMGs recorded using the array shown in (a) when placed on the skin overlying the biceps brachii at 70 per cent of MVC (adapted by Enoka, 2002 from Merletti et al., 2001) 85 5.3 (Top) EMG signal amplitude and force during an attempted constant-force contraction of the first dorsal interosseus muscle. (Bottom) Power spectrum density of the EMG signal at the beginning (a) and at the end (b) of the constant force segment of the contraction (from Basmajian and De Luca, 1985) 96 6.1 The application of a muscle force F (N) around the axis of rotation (transmitted via the patellar tendon in this example) with a position vector r relative to the origin. This generates a muscle moment M (N m) that is equal to the cross product (shown by the symbol ×) of the two vectors (r and F). The shortest distance between the force line of action and the axis of rotation is the moment arm d(m). θ is the angle between r and F. M is also a vector that is perpendicular to the plane formed by F and r (coming out of the paper) and so it is depicted by a circular arrow 104 6.2 Schematic simplified diagram of the main components of an isokinetic dynamometer 106 6.3 Schematic simplified diagram of the feedback loop for the control of the angular velocity by adjusting the resistive moment applied by the braking mechanism of the dynamometer.
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