Important People: James K. Polk

James K. Polk (1795-1849) was the eleventh president of the United States. His name is perhaps most closely associated with Manifest Destiny, as the term was coined by a fellow Democrat in 1843, the year before he began his presidency. Manifest Destiny—the belief that Americans were destined by God to conquer the continent to the Pacific Ocean—soon came to represent the governing philosophy of the Polk administration and its expansionist aims. Polk successfully campaigned for president on an expansionist platform. He promised to both annex the independent Republic of Texas and acquire the Oregon Territory, a Northwestern territory claimed by the British. Two days after he took office, however, diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States were severed over the American annexation of Texas. Tensions continued to escalate as Polk settled the Oregon boundary with Britain at 49ºN, far south of the initial demanded border 54º40'. Polk, believing the territorial claims of Oregon and Texas were insufficient in reaching America’s goal of Manifest Destiny, then set his sites on the Mexican controlled state of California. Polk sent an envoy to offer Mexico up to $20 million for California, which was immediately rejected by the Mexican government. Meanwhile, border disputes between Mexico and Texas continued. To pressure Mexico into surrendering the lands, Polk sent General Zachary Taylor and American forces to the disputed territory along the Rio Grande. To Mexican troops, this deployment of American soldiers was an act of aggression. A confrontation in 1846 ended when Mexican troops launched an attack on American soldiers in the disputed region of Texas. Polk used the attack on American soldiers as justification for declaring war on Mexico. The entire premise for the war was controversial from the start and widely criticized by Polk's political opponents in Congress. In March 1847, Polk sent Nicholas P. Trist, the chief clerk in the State Department, to Mexico along with Gen. Winfield Scott's troops in order to start treaty negotiations. Against Polk's orders, Trist signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in early February 1848. Polk had wanted more land cessions—in addition to California and the Southwest—but was forced to "settle" for what Trist's treaty got him: California, Nevada, Utah, most of New Mexico and Arizona, and the disputed regions of Texas. In all, it was the largest single land acquisition since the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. President Polk is known for being one of the most expansionist presidents in American history. During his presidency, nearly two-thirds of Mexico’s land was transferred to the United States. Some criticize Polk for the methods used to obtain the lands. Others believe Polk was justified in pursing war with Mexico after Mexican soldiers attacked American troops. In addition, the issue of slavery in the new Western territories became more divisive than ever within the United States. Polk left office in 1849 after promising to serve only one term as president. In poor health, he died shortly after leaving office.

Important People: Henry David Thoreau

Henry David Thoreau (1817-62) was an author, essayist, naturalist, and poet whose work went on to influence some of the greatest literary figures of the twentieth century. Thoreau described his love of nature and philosophy in Walden (1854), and passionately defended civil liberties and pacifist (non-violent) protest in the essay "Civil Disobedience" (1849).

Thoreau's essay, "Civil Disobedience," emerged out of his experience opposing the Mexican-American War. He had refused to pay a poll tax as a demonstration against what he felt to be an unjust, imperialistic war (a war to take over territory). He also speculated that the war would expand the practice of slavery, to which he was opposed. He spent the night in jail before someone paid the tax to set him free. In his essay, Thoreau argued that not all civil laws are just, and that humans have an obligation to obey a higher law—their sense of morality or conscience. In other words, some laws are bad laws and, in order to change bad laws, citizens should disobey them. Thoreau advocated that others who disapprove of the war follow his lead and refuse to pay their taxes as a gesture of protest. "Civil Disobedience" received little notice at the time it was written but enjoyed a revival in the twentieth century with the self-determination movement of Mahatma Gandhi and the Civil Rights Movement of Martin Luther King, Jr.

Important People: Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln was a freshman congressman from Illinois during the Mexican-American War. He was a member of the Whig party and vocal critic of President James K. Polk and his war policy. Born in 1809 in Kentucky to a family of modest means, Lincoln moved to Indiana as a child and grew up doing farm work. By 1830, he had moved to New Salem, Illinois where he studied law and became a lawyer. By 1834, Lincoln began pursing a career in politics. Lincoln began attracting national attention in 1847, shortly after being elected to Congress. As a member of the House of Representatives, he helped lead the Whig charge against the war. Hoping to make a name for himself, Lincoln argued that the war had been unprovoked and unnecessary. His so-called “Spot Resolution” speech in January 1848 marked him as a scrappy, bold and ambitious politician. He questioned whether American troops had actually been attacked on American soil, and called for President Polk to mark the exact “spots” where blood had been shed. In Lincoln’s words, the purpose of his proposed resolution was to “obtain a full knowledge of all the facts which go to establish whether the particular spot of soil on which the blood of our citizens was so shed was, or was not, our own soil at that time.” Although Lincoln received praise from his Whig colleagues, his timing was poor. Congress never acted on Lincoln’s resolution and Lincoln lost his next election. He returned to his law practice shortly thereafter. Lincoln re-emerged from the shadows in the 1850’s with a series of well-crafted speeches and debates in a run for the U.S. Senate against Democratic challenger Stephen Douglas. Although Lincoln lost his bid for the Senate, Lincoln ran for office again as a Republican candidate for the presidency in 1860. This time, Lincoln found success. Lincoln became the 16th President of the United States and the first Republican to hold the office in U.S. history. While in office, he held the nation through the American Civil War. He was assassinated at the end of the conflict in 1865. Mexican Perspective: Jesus Velasco-Marquez Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México

The most dramatic event in the history of relations between Mexico and the United States took place a century and a half ago. US historians refer to this event as “The Mexican War,” while in Mexico we prefer to use the term “The U.S. Invasion.” From Mexico’s point of view, the annexation of Texas to the United States was inadmissible (unacceptable) for both legal and security reasons. Thus, when the Mexican government learned of the treaty signed between Texas and the United States in April 1844 (Texas’s annexation), it would consider such an act “a declaration of war.” In early 1846, on President Polk’s orders, the troops commanded by General Zachary Taylor arrived at the Río Grande, across from the city of Matamoros, thus occupying the territory in dispute and increasing the possibilities of a confrontation. In the eyes of the Mexican government, the mobilization of the US army was an outright attack on Mexico. As a consequence, the Mexican government reaffirmed its instructions to its troops to protect the border, meaning the territory located between the Río Grande and the Nueces River—an order which led to the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Even before these incidents, President Polk had already decided to ask the U.S. Congress to declare war against Mexico, but the battles provided a reason to mobilize the opinions of both U.S. legislators and the public in favor of such a measure. He held that Mexico had crossed over the U.S. border, had invaded American territory and had caused the shedding of American blood in U.S. territory. Polk immediately ordered the occupation of the territory south of the Río Grande, as well as the New Mexico and California territories and the blocking of Mexican ports. The question was and continues to be: were these actions in defense of U.S. territorial security or an invasion of Mexican territory? From the viewpoint of Mexicans, the answer was clear: the U.S. government was not seeking to protect its territorial security, nor did it have other supposed demands. Rather, it was determined to take over a territory legitimately belonging to Mexico. This posture was reiterated in an article in the daily "El Tiempo" which stated: "The American government acted like a bandit who came upon a traveler."