JAMES K. POLK: TERRITORIAL EXPANSIONIST AND THE EVOLUTION OF PRESIDENTIAL POWER Chris Blubaugh A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS May 2013 Committee: Dr. Scott C. Martin, Advisor Dr. Edmund J. Danziger © 2013 Chris Blubaugh All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Dr. Scott C. Martin, Advisor This thesis argues that through President James K. Polk’s leadership style (micro-managing domestic/foreign issues), his understanding of bureaucracy, and dominating his Cabinet, enabled Polk to achieve what his predecessors could not. Furthermore, Polk’s leadership and administrative style foreshadowed, and perhaps provided a precedent for the modern American presidency. To demonstrate Polk’s leadership style, two areas must be examined. First, explain Polk’s keys to success while in office, in particular his leadership style in relation to his policies. President Polk’s direct involvement in domestic and foreign issues enabled him to achieve his four administrative goals: tariff reduction, creation of an Independent Treasury, settlement of the Oregon Territory between the U.S. and England, and acquiring California. For example, he pushed economic legislation in Congress (Independent Treasury), and micro-managed the Mexican War to accomplish territorial objectives. Secondly, examine the departure that President Polk made from previous administrations in regards to administrative skill. Compared to preceding administrations, President Polk was an excellent leader who firmly managed his Cabinet. He consulted his Cabinet on policy questions, but the final decision was his to make. Furthermore, he knew precisely what he wanted to accomplish as president, and he understood the political channels he needed to consult to achieve his goals. iv For Pat Blubaugh, my Dad who taught me the importance of history at an early age, and inspired me to pursue a career in history. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my thesis committee consisting of Dr. Scott C. Martin and Dr. Edmund J. Danziger. Their patience and constant support for a developing historian allowed me to produce a thesis that everyone could approve. The History Department at Bowling Green which funded my research trip to Washington D.C., providing much needed funds to complete the thesis. The staff at the Library of Congress made my research trip useful and enjoyable, which was much appreciated. Finally, my family whose constant interest in my research kept me focused on completing the thesis. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 1. JAMES K. POLK’S POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND RISE TO THE PRESIDENCY .......... 18 CHAPTER 2. MR. POLK’S OFFICE: 1845-1846 ............................................................... 52 CHAPTER 3. DESTINY FULFILLED: CONQUEST OF THE SOUTHWEST ................ 78 CONCLUSION. POLK’S PRESIDENTIAL LEGACY ....................................................... 109 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 122 1 INTRODUCTION During the 1830s and 1840s, ineffectual leadership plagued the United States. Beginning with Martin Van Buren in 1837 and finishing with John Tyler in 1845, the nation lacked a strong executive who could respond to domestic and foreign crises. Van Buren proved inept at handling the Panic of 1837, and Tyler could not solve territorial disputes and governance questions between Mexican and the U.S. citizens, and Great Britain and the U.S. over the Oregon Territory. In 1844, the populace elected a little known politician from the Volunteer State, James K. Polk. A dark horse Democratic candidate, Polk defeated Whig standard bearer Henry Clay in a close race. Polk considered this victory as a mandate, given to him by the people, to govern the country through strong leadership.1 Coming to the White House in 1845, James K. Polk had a vision for both the country and the office of the presidency. As a Jeffersonian/Jacksonian, Polk supported westward expansion, and believed a nation should focus its attention on agricultural development, an increase in land allowed this possibility. As author Louis Mayo explains, while in office, he revealed to Secretary of the Navy George Bancroft his desired objectives. These were: the settlement of the Oregon question with Great Britain, the acquisition of California and a large district on the coast, the reduction of the Tariff to a revenue basis, the taxes on imported goods would sustain the government, protect industry in the north, and prevent cost increases on goods in the south, and permanent establishment of an Independent Treasury, or, as he liked to call it, a Constitutional 1 Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought The Transformation of America, 1815-1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 686-688. 2 Treasury.2 His goals for the nation focused on expanding the country westward, and placing the U.S. on a course for financial stability. The creation of an Independent Treasury prevented corrupt banks from acquiring money, leaving the Treasury in control to disburse funds, and the reduction of the tariff promoted trade which acquired revenue for the federal government, and protected the interests of the populace. To accomplish these objectives, Polk understood that strong leadership was required. This thesis argues that through his leadership style (micro-managing domestic/foreign issues), his understanding of bureaucracy, and dominating his Cabinet, enabled Polk to achieve what his predecessors could not. Furthermore, Polk’s leadership and administrative style foreshadowed, and perhaps provided a precedent for the modern American presidency. To demonstrate Polk’s leadership style, two areas must be examined. First, explain Polk’s keys to success while in office, in particular his leadership style in relation to his policies. President Polk’s direct involvement in domestic and foreign issues enabled him to achieve his four goals. For example, he pushed economic legislation in Congress (Independent Treasury), and micro-managed the Mexican War to accomplish territorial objectives. Secondly, examine the departure that President Polk made from previous administrations in regards to administrative skill. Compared to preceding administrations, President Polk was an excellent leader who firmly managed his Cabinet. He consulted his Cabinet on policy questions, but the final decision was his to make. Furthermore, he knew precisely what he wanted to accomplish as president, and he understood the political channels he needed to consult to achieve his goals. 2 Louise Mayo, President James K. Polk The Dark Horse President (New York: Nova History Publications, 2006), 67. 3 James K. Polk also had a vision of the presidency. Author Paul Bergeron states that Polk did not conform to the Whiggish notions about weak or limited presidents who yielded to a vigorous and dominant legislative branch. Polk witnessed the ineffectiveness of the administrations that followed President Andrew Jackson, and vowed to be an assertive president like his mentor, Old Hickory. Furthermore, Polk set out to dominate the nation’s capital in just about every respect possible. He knew, as all effective presidents have known, that the office is more than an enumeration of constitutional duties and prerogatives.3 Indeed, the presidency is whatever the occupant can make of it (within constitutional bounds, of course).4 Author Bernard Devoto in his book 1846- The Year of Decision explained that before James K. Polk entered the office, Congress dominated the nation’s capital from 1837 to 1845 by initiating legislation on various issues. After Polk left the presidency in 1849, Congress dominated again until Abraham Lincoln entered office in 1861.5 Under Polk’s leadership, the executive and not the legislative branch initiated bills, similar to the Jackson administration. Throughout Polk’s political career, he fostered a close relationship with Andrew Jackson, the founder of the Democratic Party; this affiliation is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 1. The connection with Jackson greatly shaped how Polk viewed the office. Polk shared the opinion of Jackson that the country required a strong executive to accomplish both domestic and foreign goals. According to Robert Morgan, the election victory provided Polk his chance to define the office. When Polk won the election for president in 1844 by a very slim margin, he quickly let it be known that he would be president, not a mouthpiece or lieutenant for anyone else. “I intend to be myself President of the United States,” Polk wrote his friend Cave Johnson on December 21, 3 Paul H. Bergeron, The Presidency of James K. Polk (Norwalk: The Easton Press, 1987), xi. 4 Ibid. 5 Bernard Devoto, The Year of Decision- 1846 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 7-8. 4 1844. He was ready to move into “the house that Jackson built,” but once there he meant to be the sole lord and master.6 Polk shared Jackson’s belief that the president, popularly elected by all the people, could judge the national interest better than representatives/senators from individual states. Once elected, the president acted on behalf of the people. Although he was appreciative of Jackson for the support during his political career, he intended to define his administration. During his one term as president, national