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(2016) a Seance Room of One's Own: Spiritualism, Occultism, and the New Woman in Mid­To Late­Nineteenth Century Supernatural Fiction

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(2016) a Seance Room of One's Own: Spiritualism, Occultism, and the New Woman in Mid­To Late­Nineteenth Century Supernatural Fiction Spears, Jamie (2016) A Seance Room of One©s Own: Spiritualism, Occultism, and the new Woman in Mid-to Late-Nineteenth Century Supernatural Fiction. Doctoral thesis, University of Sunderland. Downloaded from: http://sure.sunderland.ac.uk/id/eprint/6503/ Usage guidelines Please refer to the usage guidelines at http://sure.sunderland.ac.uk/policies.html or alternatively contact [email protected]. A SÉANCE ROOM OF ONE’S OWN: SPIRITUALISM, OCCULTISM, AND THE NEW WOMAN IN MID- TO LATE-NINETEENTH CENTURY SUPERNATURAL FICTION JAMIE SPEARS A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Sunderland for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2016 ABSTRACT This thesis will examine the nineteenth-century supernatural stories written by women connected to Spiritualism. These include ‘standard’ ghost stories, esoteric novels and works infused with Spiritualist and occult themes and tropes. The middle- and upper-class Victorian woman was already considered something of a spirit guide within her own home; following the emergence of Modern Spiritualism in the 1850s, women were afforded the opportunity to become paid spirit guides (that is, mediums and lecturers) in the public sphere. Spiritualism was an empowering force for female mediums like Elizabeth d’Espérance and Emma Hardinge Britten, and Spiritualist philosopher Catherine Crowe. In this thesis I will examine how these new power dynamics—to use Britten’s phrasing, the ‘place and mission of woman’—are reflected in society and literature. This thesis sees Spiritualism as the impetus for several occult movements which emerged near to the end of century, including Marie Corelli’s Electrical Christianity, Madame Blavatsky’s Theosophy, and Florence Farr’s Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Each of these women founded, or had significant input in the founding of, their respective creeds. There is an area of critical neglect around the fiction written by these women. Corelli’s works are often analysed in the New Woman framework, but rarely in the spiritual or occult; scholarly interest in Blavatsky focuses on the incredible power she consolidated, but her Theosophical fiction tends to be dismissed in favour of her treatises; d’Espérance’s fiction has not been properly examined thus far. With this thesis I hope to offer a re-reading or re-framing of this supernatural literature by placing it, and its authors, in its socio-political context at the tumultuous end of the nineteenth century. !ii Abstract..................................................................................................ii Table of contents..................................................................................iii Acknowledgements.............................................................................iv Introduction...........................................................................................1 Chapter One: New Spirits; New Women...........................................27 Chapter Two: Elizabeth d’Espérance................................................75 Chapter Three: Catherine Crowe.....................................................114 Chapter Four: Emma Hardinge Britten...........................................155 Chapter Five: Marie Corelli..............................................................198 Chapter Six: Helena Blavatsky........................................................242 Chapter Seven: Florence Farr.........................................................290 Conclusion........................................................................................317 References........................................................................................334 !iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I must first thank my supervisor-mentor, Dr Alison Younger (University of Sunderland) for her passion and enthusiasm. My co-supervisors were, at various times, Professor John Strachan (now of Bath Spa University), Dr Alex Pheby (now of University of Greenwich) and Dr Angela Smith (University of Sunderland). I thank them all for their guidance, support and encouragement. Thanks to Lynne Fenwick of the Graduate Research School for all her help and administrative wizardry. My thanks to my examiners, Dr Ruth Heholt (Falmouth University) and Dr Susan Smith (University of Sunderland). I am grateful for their input into this thesis. I would like to extend my gratitude to Professor William Hughes (Bath Spa University) for his incredible generosity. I thank Dr David Fallon, Dr Susan Mandala, Dr Geoff Nash, Dr Fritz Wefelmeyer, and Mr Colin Younger (all University of Sunderland) for their various kindnesses. I am indebted to Mr Steve Watts, our Head of Department, for his support of Spectral Visions. I thank Stephanie Gallon for being my wonderful partner in crime for all SV matters. I thank my fellow PhD student Marjan Shokouhi for her encouragement throughout the process. I thank Imelda McTiernan for her incredible support at the start of my PhD. My family (Art, Mary, Tom, Bea and Brian) have supported me in every endeavour I have ever undertaken. I cannot thank them enough for their patience, their trust, and their love. Finally, I am grateful for these perfectly cromulent people: Andrew Clark, Kez Dent, Cheryl Dixon, Graeme Jones, Robert Jones, Sam Keane, Gavin Knox, Scott Lockey, Rhi Pounder, Emily and Josh Wall, Amy Wilson, Caitlin Wilson, Tom Wilson, and Greg Wood. !iv INTRODUCTION John Wilkes Booth is reported to have manifested to a certain American [séance] circle. The remorse that besets him can be sufficiently judged of [sic] from his communication. ‘I and Lincoln,’ he remarked, ‘often have a cosy chat up here. We agree that it was just as well I shot him’. (Daniel Dunglas Home, 1877: 362-363) I do not make use of the supernatural as a get-out; it is inseparable (whether or not it comes to the surface) from my sense of life. (Elizabeth Bowen, 1965: 9) When Modern Spiritualism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, few were prepared for the effect it would have on the cultural understanding of ghosts and spirits. Suddenly ghosts had their own agency; spirits were free to move about in their world—The Other World—as well as pop into this one, if they so chose. Spiritualist teachings instructed the faithful that heaven and hell were no more; all people, good and evil, rich and poor, went to the same place. This explains why Messrs Booth and Lincoln were able to have their ‘cosy chats’. What is less well- documented, however, are the writings of women associated with the spirits through Spiritualism, Theosophy and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. These were courageous women who attempted to negotiate a place for themselves, in-between this and the other world; between the feminine domestic sphere and the masculine public sphere. Spiritualism has been a topic of scholarly interest in the last dozen years or so, and yet 1 there has been relatively little critical attention paid to the fiction, the supernatural stories, written by women associated with Spiritualism and the occult. I hope this thesis will begin to unearth these women’s voices, and thus, the fears, anxieties, triumphs and negotiations experienced by these women. Mediumship, I contend, with its open access to the ‘truths’ of the other plane became an impetus for new women’s writing at this time. Female Spiritualists and occultists in the nineteenth century were liminal beings; not wholly belonging to This World, not quite belonging to The Other World. They transgressed patriarchal constraints, but, very often, did not intentionally do so. As writers, then, they were doubly subversive, violating the patriarchally-sanctioned rules which silenced (or sought to silence) the female voice in the public sphere. Directly or indirectly; consciously or unconsciously, they questioned woman’s role in society, posed the Woman Question, and used their supernatural or esoteric stories to explain or explore their beliefs concerning gender roles and authority. ‘Their activities were in implicit dialogue with the gender issues of the day, and whilst there was conformity to the dominant norms, there was also resistance.’1 The Spiritualist and 1 Owen, 2004: 39 2 Theosophist movements, by necessitating not just female involvement but female leadership, created a new woman—which helped contribute to the birth of the New Woman. This thesis will examine supernatural and esoteric stories written by Elizabeth d’Espérance, Catherine Crowe, Emma Hardinge Britten, Marie Corelli, Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and Florence Farr. d’Espérance and Hardinge Britten represent different perspectives on mediumship by mediums. d'Espérance largely understands that her phenomena were natural—she claims to have had these gifts from birth —but questions the origins of the phenomena: God, the Devil or her own mind. Hardinge Britten puts forth her religious messages of purity and morality which she felt were integral to Spiritualism. Crowe did not practise Spiritualism herself, but elected to write about spirit phenomena from a scientific point of view. Corelli ardently denied she was a Spiritualist, and decried the ‘tricksters’ who held séances: yet I would argue her close associations with the spirit world and her belief in what she termed ‘electrical Christianity’ place in her the category of self- loathing Spiritualist. Madame Blavatsky developed Theosophy after studying Spiritualism, and deciding that she needed a system which 3 offered her greater power and authority over the worlds. Blavatsky, as founder of Theosophy,
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