Afghanistan, the Taliban, and Osama Bin Laden: the Background to September 11

The Choices Program, Brown University (www.choices.edu)

On May 1, 2011, a group of U.S. soldiers boarded helicopters at a base in Afghanistan, in Afghanistan and the emergence of hoping to find a man named Osama bin Laden. Bin Laden, the leader of the al Osama bin Laden as a global figure in Qaeda terrorist network, was responsible for a number of terrorist attacks around international terrorism. the world, including those of September 11, 2001, that killed nearly 3,000 people in the United States. The United States had been looking for bin Laden for nearly The Rise of the Taliban 15 years. On this May night, U.S. soldiers found him hiding in a large house in The Taliban came to power in Pakistan with members of his family and a few al Qaeda members. The soldiers Afghanistan in the wake of the Soviet killed bin Laden and four others and flew back to their base in Afghanistan. withdrawal from the country in 1989. The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan The U.S. war against al Qaeda began base of operation in Afghanistan. Many during a time of turmoil in December shortly after September 11, 2001, in Taliban and al Qaeda members, includ- 1979 in order to install a new leader who Afghanistan, where al Qaeda had been ing Osama bin Laden, escaped into would protect its political interests in based since 1996. The Taliban, an neighboring Pakistan. the region. The Soviets assumed they extreme Islamist group that controlled Today the United States and its allies would be there for just a few months. In Afghanistan’s government, refused to remain in Afghanistan battling the fact, the invasion provoked a war that give in to U.S. demands to hand over Taliban, who are trying to regain power. would last a decade as Afghans united bin Laden and dismantle al Qaeda. (The The Afghanistan War has become one around a common purpose—resisting term Islamist is used to describe political of the longest in U.S. history. the Soviet invasion. movements based on an interpretation Who was Osama bin Laden and how of the principles of Islam.) On October 7, did he come to be such a wanted man? How did Afghans resist the Soviet 2001, the United States began a military Who are the Taliban and what is their invasion? campaign that overthrew the Taliban role in Afghanistan? In this article, you For almost a century, many Afghans government and eliminated al Qaeda’s will read about the rise of the Taliban believed that resistance to foreign invaders was a form of jihad (a struggle against the enemies of Islam). Armed This reading is excerpted from a new unit to be published by the Choices Program groups opposing the Soviets called at Brown University this September. The United States in Afghanistan includes themselves the mujahideen (a word a student text and teacher guide. Nearly 10 years after U.S. military forces first that means “those who struggle for entered Afghanistan, the United States and its allies remain in the country bat- Islam”). Afghanistan’s geography played tling an insurgency led by the Taliban. Students use primary source documents, an important role in how mujahideen readings, and new media sources to explore the issues at the heart of the conflict groups organized themselves. Without and consider the future of U.S. policy in Afghanistan. The unit will be available any central leadership, the different from the Choices Program at www.choices.edu. regions of the country had different resistance groups led by charismatic

September 2011 185 Why did other countries become become countries other did Why Afghanistan by helping Afghans resist resist Afghans helping by Afghanistan substantially increased fighters Afghan Afghanistan’s rugged and mountainous A number of playedother countries sig Arabia. Arabia. The Soviet Union was a world super world a was Union Soviet The Gulf region from the Soviet Union. He Union. Soviet the from region Gulf President Jimmy Carter (1977–1981) Carter Jimmy President Islamist who believed that Islam should should Islam that believed who Islamist mil of hundreds reached eventually It (ISI),Inter-Services Intelligence which Muhammad Zia al-Haq was a political a political was al-Haq Zia Muhammad lions of dollars per year and included and year per dollars of lions In leaders. spite ethnic, of regional, their down Soviet aircraft. would States United the that declared the against battle large a win not could at and efforts their coordinate not did of Afghans received military training training military received Afghans of follow. easily not could ons fighting the Soviets. U.S. aid to the to aid U.S. Soviets. the fighting involved in the conflict? conflict? the in involved in Pakistan so that they could return return could they that so Pakistan in groups mujahideen to it sent turn in rich Persian Gulf region. In response, response, In region. Gulf Persian rich ment and laws. Al-Haq saw a chance chance a saw Al-Haq laws. and ment become the basis for Pakistan’s become governforthe basis Pakistan’s Pakistan’s to aid military send to began and fight the Soviets. The United The Soviets. the fight and as an attempt to expand towards the oil- in troops Soviet ambush would hideen mujahideen The weapons. heavy and tanks, helicopters, advanced airplanes, called all they differences, political and Soviet army, so instead they fought a fought they instead so army, Soviet States, which had cut off aid to Pakistan Pakistan to aid off cut had which States, (1981–1989). Reagan President under use force to protect the oil of the Persian power and had a powerful military with with military powerful a had and power nificant roles in the war, most notably most war, the in roles nificant the Soviet invasion. Tens of thousands Tens invasion. thousands of Soviet the times even fought each other. terrain where soldiers with heavy weap heavy with soldiers where terrain groups These mujahideen. themselves to increase Pakistan’s influence in influence Pakistan’s increase to Saudi and Pakistan, States, United the guerilla war. Small groups of muja of groups Small war. guerilla surface-to-air missiles that could shootmissiles surface-to-air The odds were against the mujahideen. mujahideen. the against were odds The U.S. leaders saw the Soviet invasion Soviet the saw leaders U.S. aitns iiay dictator, military Pakistan’s ------Why did the Soviets withdraw? withdraw? Soviets the did Why

Arabia and Arabia other countries—came Arab Reuters/Sayed Salahuddin Afghanistan as a religious issue. Its issue. religious a as Afghanistan U.S. cash also strengthened the ISI and and ISI the strengthened also cash U.S. Pakistan’s military dictatorship. During the war, Soviet forces numbered numbered forces Soviet war, the During Taliban continually resisted international pressures to stop supporting Osama bin Laden. bin Osama supporting stop to pressures international resisted continually Taliban intelligence services also played an played also services intelligence billions of dollars through Pakistan Pakistan through dollars of billions channeled oil, selling from money renewed its aid in return for Pakistan’s Pakistan’s for return in aid its renewed because because of its nuclear weapons program, between 90,000 and 110,000, but they they but 110,000, and 90,000 between bin Laden. authoritarian monarchy, flush with with flush monarchy, authoritarian active role, coordinating the distribu the coordinating role, active help getting weapons and assistance to assistance and weapons helpgetting Afghan Taliban soldiers return to Kabul from the frontline north of the capital on June 24, 2001. 24, The June on capital the of north frontline the from Kabul to return soldiers Taliban Afghan Soviet forces. One of them was Osama Osama was them of One forces. Soviet the Afghan mujahideen. The inflows of of inflows The mujahideen. Afghan the to participate in the jihad against the against jihad the in participate to addition, In Pakistan. from aid of tion Arabia’s Saudi mujahideen. Afghan to several hundred Arabs—from Saudi Arabs—from hundred several ad Aai sw h wr in war the saw Arabia Saudi Social EducationSocial 186 - Afghanistan? Afghanistan? Why did a civil war begin in in begin war civil a did Why 1991, the Soviet Union had collapsed, collapsed, had 1991,Union Soviet the Afghanistan and U.S. support with support U.S. and Afghanistan At least 15,000 Soviets were killed and and killed were Soviets 15,000 least At The Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan The Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan where the government controlled the controlled government the where mujahideen. the defeat to unable were leader Mikhail Gorbachev withdrew withdrew Gorbachev Mikhail leader drawn, the rivalries between muja between rivalries the drawn, coincided with the end of the Cold War War Cold the of end the with coincided into Afghanistan. Afghanistan. into ingly ingly unpopular. In 1989, the new Soviet media and press, the war became increas became war the press, and media hideen groups grew into a civil war for for war civil a into grew groups hideen rea little saw government U.S. the and and improved Byrelations. U.S.-Soviet Union, Soviet the like society closed a in Even wounded. were 37,000 another Soviet forces from Afghanistan. Afghanistan. from forces Soviet power and control over Afghanistan. Afghanistan. over control and power son to continue pouring its resources resources its pouring continue to son With the Soviet Union gone from gone Union Soviet the With - - - - The United Nations tried to negotiate How did the Taliban come Islamist government in Kabul, threw its a transfer of power to a new government, to power? resources behind the Taliban. Pakistan but these efforts failed. Afghanistan The Taliban began to generate support provided military advisors, training, essentially had no central government. by protecting the population from the and supplies. Without Pakistan’s sup- For a country devastated by 10 years abuse and crimes of the warlords. The port, the Taliban would not have suc- of war (more than one million Afghans leader of the Taliban was a man named ceeded in taking power. Saudi Arabia were killed and four million had fled Mohammed Omar. Omar was poor and also funneled financial support to the the country), this situation was cata- had little formal education. Taliban. Saudi money bought supplies, strophic. The Taliban had two powerful and provided for training and transport, and The heavily armed mujahideen groups important backers. Pakistan’s military even helped pay other warlords not to fought to capture Kabul and created a and ISI, hoping for a pro-Pakistan oppose the Taliban. lawless environment in which ordinary Afghans paid a terrible cost. Tens of thousands were killed. Murder, coer- cion, rape, corruption, and robbery by these groups were commonplace. The YOUR #1 RESOURCE FOR leaders of these groups became known as “warlords” and the groups remained CURRENT SOCIAL ISSUES divided along ethnic lines. For some of the men who had fought to drive out the Soviet army, the violence and chaos plaguing Afghanistan was a disappointment. Their jihad against the Soviets had succeeded, but clearly a struggle for Afghanistan was continuing. Many returned to their villages to con- sult with elders or attended madrassas “Schools subscribing to this excellent resource will nd that the topics cross multiple disciplines while engaging students in thought-provoking content.” —School Library Journal (religious schools) in Pakistan. They believed that they could solve issues Published 44 times a year, each 13,000-word CQ facing Afghanistan by drawing on reli- Researcher report provides in-depth, unbiased gious principles. A new, armed move- coverage of today’s most important social, political, environmental and health issues. Reports are ment based on an extreme interpreta- structured to increase students’ understanding of tion of Sunni Islam began to develop. 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September 2011 187 After Taliban forces took the city of a new legal system based on their extreme the tragedy was that soon they Kandahar in late 1994, thousands of interpretation of the Islamic legal tradi- were taken over by the ISI and young Afghani Pashtun men flocked to tion, or Shari‘a. (The Shari‘a is a wide became a proxy....” join them. Many had grown up in pov- body of literature that lays out legal —Hamid Karzai, future president of erty in refugee camps in Pakistan, and principles and norms but is not a legal Afghanistan, October 2001 had been educated in madrassas funded code or single document. Consequently, by Pakistan’s Islamist military dictator there are different interpretations of Their unpopularity was strongest in Zia al-Haq. While an earlier genera- Shari‘a.) Women were banned from the cities. The Taliban’s interpretation tion embraced the religious idea of jihad working. Schools for girls were shut of Islam was radical and represented against the Soviets in Afghanistan, a down and women were forced to be com- a sharp departure from Afghanistan’s new generation found in the Taliban pletely veiled. All games were banned. traditions. For example, although Islam another religious ideal to rally around. Music and television was prohibited. had always played a role in shaping Radical Islamists from outside of Criminals faced severe punishment Afghanistan’s laws and policies, reli- Afghanistan came by the thousands to including amputations of limbs or death gious leaders had never ruled the coun- train and participate in an international by stoning. try. In addition, although Afghanistan’s jihad—a struggle against those they saw Led by Mullah Omar, who was people had always been pious Muslims, as enemies of Islam around the world. called “Commander of the Faithful,” there was also a history of tolerance of The international jihadists—many of the Taliban thought that Afghanistan different forms of Islam, other religions, them from Pakistan—helped Taliban should be ruled by a group of six reli- and more modern lifestyles. forces gain control of the country. gious leaders. At first, the population The Taliban’s Pashtun leadership The civil war was brutal. More than was generally grateful for the peace and believed that its interpretation of Islam 100,000 Afghans died, and Kabul was order that had been established. But as would unite Afghans, but the harsh badly damaged by bombing and rocket the Taliban imposed their strict rules, policies against non-Pashtun groups attacks. Former president Najibullah, they became more and more unpopu- alienated many. The leaders, who had who sought refuge in a UN build- lar. received only basic religious educa- ing, was dragged from the building tion at best, did not have the skills or and hung by the Taliban in 1996. By “Like so many mujahideen, I knowledge to rule Afghanistan effec- 1998, the Taliban was in control of all believed in the Taliban when tively. And after years of violence, war, of Afghanistan except the Northeast, they first appeared in 1994 and and economic devastation, the Afghan which remained in the hands of Ahmed promised to end warlordism, people needed effective rulers and help Shah Masud. Masud’s forces received establish law and order, and from the outside world. weapons from Russia and Iran, both then call a Loya Jirga to decide Since the earliest years of British and of whom saw the Taliban as a threat to who should rule Afghanistan. Russian involvement, Afghanistan relied their security. The first Taliban I met told on money from foreign countries to help me that the jihad had become prop up its government and economy. What was the rule of the Taliban a disgrace and the civil war was During the Cold War, billions of dollars like? destroying the country.... They from the Soviet Union and the United After taking power, the Taliban imposed were good people initially, but States helped build roads and schools,

Osama bin Laden and Islam Osama bin Laden used his beliefs about Islam to justify his methods and attacks against the United States. For many around the world this raised concerns about Islam. Some wondered whether there are justifications for terrorism within Islam. For others, the events seemed to confirm a perception of Islam as a violent and fanatical faith. Many Muslims worried that their religion would be wrongly associated with the beliefs of bin Laden. Like all religions, Islam is subject to interpretation. Most interpretations of Islamic tradition note a history of tolerance and peace. (The word Islam is related to the Arabic word salaam, which means peace.) Throughout much of history, Muslims have lived peacefully with followers of other religions. For example, many Jews fled the persecutions in Christian Europe for the relative freedom of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. Islam permits the use of force in self-defense, but not the killing of innocents or civilians. After September 11, numerous important Islamic clerics from many branches of Islam and different countries condemned bin Laden.

Social Education 188 and buy food. These sources had dis- After the withdrawal of Soviet troops ments of the Middle East to fall, and appeared. Into their place stepped the in 1989, the U.S. government had largely create one large nation ruled by a single UN. The UN provided desperately lost interest in Afghanistan. In fact, the Islamic ruler. For its part, the Taliban needed food, medicine, and medical United States closed its embassy and was not interested in international jihad. care, though it clashed with Taliban withdrew its diplomats that same year. Instead, they were focused on destroy- authorities about their consistent vio- Aid programs also ended. The United ing what they saw as the enemies of Islam lations of human rights. For its part, States was content to let Pakistan inside Afghanistan. Nevertheless, the the Taliban realized that it needed the and Saudi Arabia take the lead in Taliban welcomed international jihad- UN to provide food; any government Afghanistan. But a development in 1996 ist groups who provided fighters and with a population that was starving was convinced the United States to recon- resources in Afghanistan’s ongoing civil unlikely to remain in power. Despite sider its policy: the arrival of Osama war. Taliban policies that appalled many bin Laden. In Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden in the UN, and a lack of cooperation trained thousands of fighters from from the Taliban on other issues, aid Osama bin Laden Pakistan, the Middle East, and North continued to flow. Osama bin Laden was the founder Africa to fight for the Taliban in their and leader of an international terror- battles against Ahmed Shah Masud. Al What were the Taliban ist organization known as al Qaeda Qaeda camps also trained Pakistani government’s relations with (loosely translated as “the base”). Bin militants to fight against India in the other countries? Laden came from a wealthy and influ- disputed region of Kashmir. At the Only three countries established diplo- ential Saudi family. In the 1980s, he same time, Pakistan provided mili- matic relations with the Taliban govern- had fought the Soviets in Afghanistan. tary officers to coordinate the attacks ment: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the When Saddam Hussein’s Iraq invaded against Masud. Bin Laden also began United Arab Emirates. Kuwait in 1990, bin Laden proposed to to organize international terror opera- Pakistan became the Taliban’s the Saudi government that he be allowed tions. From Afghanistan, he directed most important ally. Pakistan hoped to raise volunteers to fight like he had the attacks on the U.S. embassies in a Taliban-led Afghanistan would be in Afghanistan. Bin Laden saw Saddam Tanzania and Kenya in 1998 that killed helpful to Pakistan in its ongoing con- Hussein’s secular government as an 224 and wounded nearly 5,000, and frontation with India. (Pakistan and enemy of Islam. The Saudi government the attack on the USS Cole in Yemen by India had fought three wars since 1947. rejected his suggestion. It had grown suicide bombers in 2000 that killed 17 Both countries had nuclear weapons and concerned about his increasingly radi- and wounded 39 U.S. sailors. saw the other as a threat.) The Taliban cal ideas and eventually took away his government relied heavily on the ISI citizenship. Bin Laden fled to the Sudan Why did Osama bin Laden launch for weapons and Pakistan’s madrassas in the early 1990s. When the U.S. and a terror campaign against the for recruits. Pakistan saw the training Saudi governments began to pressure United States? camps in Afghanistan as a good source Sudan’s government to hand bin Laden Osama bin Laden’s public statements of fighters for an ongoing guerilla war over, he fled to Afghanistan. outline his justifications for the attacks in Kashmir—a territory held by India against U.S. citizens and others. He but claimed by Pakistan. Why did Osama bin Laden go to expressed anger about the presence With the exception of Pakistan, bor- Afghanistan? of U.S. troops in Arabia, the sacred dering countries were not pleased with Afghanistan was an attractive place for lands of Islam. (Like the Taliban, bin their new neighbors. For example, the bin Laden to go. The Taliban govern- Laden had an extreme interpretation Taliban nearly provoked a war with ment and bin Laden shared beliefs about of Sunni Islam.) He saw their presence Iran by murdering Iranian diplomats, what an ideal Islamic society should as a way for the United States to fight massacring Afghans who practiced be. The Taliban also resisted relation- against and humiliate the peoples of Shi‘i Islam, and criticizing the Shi‘i ships with the outside world, which put Islam in the region. He objected to religion practiced in Iran. Uzbekistan bin Laden out of reach of the United U.S. support of Israel and Israel’s pres- and Tajikistan worried about Taliban States and other governments. At the ence in the holy lands, as well as to the insurgencies against their secular gov- same time, the Taliban government was deaths of Muslims at the hands of Israel. ernments. Russia sent 20,000 troops very weak and had little influence over Bin Laden believed that U.S. actions to both countries’ borders to protect al Qaeda’s actions. amounted to a declaration of war by the against this. Both Iran and Russia sent Bin Laden wanted to start an inter- United States on God and Muslims. He aid to Ahmed Shah Masud’s fighters, the national jihad that would end U.S. and presented his call to arms as a defense last holdout against the Taliban. European dominance, cause the govern- of Islam, a struggle against an enemy

September 2011 189 whom he believed wanted to destroy we will not allow it to happen. ists, killed Masud with a bomb hidden Islamic culture and religion. —Major General Ghulam Ahmad in a television camera. Two days later, In public statements and interviews Khan, May 15, 2000 planes hijacked by al Qaeda terrorists with news organizations, bin Laden crashed into the World Trade Center warned repeatedly that he would take When President George W. Bush took buildings in New York, the Pentagon revenge on the United States for humili- office in 2001, U.S. national security building in Washington, D.C., and ating Muslims. officials began to brief the new admin- a field in Pennsylvania. The suicide istration about their growing concerns attacks killed nearly 3,000 people. “We call upon Muslim scholars, about bin Laden. They worried that an The attacks would have profound their faithful leaders, young attack was coming. It was just uncertain effects that would ripple around the believers, and soldiers to launch where and when it would be. world. In the United States, disbelief, a raid on the American soldiers patriotism, and anger were followed by of Satan and their allies of the “There will be a significant ter- sharp changes in U.S. laws and foreign Devil.” rorist attack in the next weeks or policy. They would also change the —Osama bin Laden, 1998 months.... Multiple and simul- course of Afghan history. taneous attacks are possible and What was the response to bin they will occur with little or no Laden’s terror campaign? warning.” Questions for Discussion Bin Laden’s actions and the support —CIA official, in a briefing he received from the Taliban regime to National Security Advisor Why did the United States and began to focus international atten- Condoleezza Rice, July 10, 2001 Pakistan cooperate after the Soviet tion on Afghanistan. After the attack invasion of Afghanistan? on the embassies in 1998, President U.S. diplomats began to pressure Clinton ordered 75 missiles fired at Pakistan to end its support of the Taliban How did the Taliban initially gather al Qaeda camps in Afghanistan. That and to stop al Qaeda from recruiting support among the population of Afghanistan? attack killed some Pakistani militants, new members in Pakistan. France and and some members of the ISI, but no Russia presented information at the What was life like under the Taliban? senior members of al Qaeda. The CIA UN showing that Pakistan was violat- formed a group devoted to finding bin ing UN resolutions and still arming the Why did the people of Afghanistan Laden. They worried that he was trying Taliban. There were other diplomatic change their attitudes toward the to obtain chemical, biological, or even efforts including one in Europe where Taliban over time? nuclear weapons. Iranian and U.S. officials met to discuss At the UN, the United States helped a plan to arm the Northern Alliance Why did Osama bin Laden go to pass resolutions demanding that the and undermine the Taliban. This was Afghanistan? Taliban turn over bin Laden and stop remarkable because Iran and the United harboring terrorists, and that all nations States had not had an official relation- What was the relationship between stop sending weapons to the Taliban. ship since 1979 and were generally hos- the Taliban and Osama bin Laden Saudi Arabia demanded that Mullah tile to each other in public. before September 11, 2001? Omar hand over bin Laden. When he As the international community refused, Saudi Arabia withdrew its tried to figure out how to deal with the What evidence is there that the ambassador from Kabul. In the midst Taliban, bin Laden was planning a big United States and the international of international efforts to pressure attack on the United States. He knew community were extremely concerned the Taliban, Pakistan remained a firm this attack would lead to pressure on about Osama bin Laden before supporter. The ISI organized political the Taliban to hand him over. To pre- September 11, 2001? support in Pakistan to help the Taliban serve his sanctuary in Afghanistan, bin resist international pressure and contin- Laden needed the Taliban’s leaders in ued sending weapons. his debt and willing to shield him from the outside world. He offered to assas- “We are trying to stop the U.S. sinate Ahmed Shah Masud, the leader from undermining the Taliban of the Northern Alliance and the last regime. They cannot do it with- organized resistance to the Taliban. out Pakistan’s help, because On September 9, 2001, two Tunisian they have no assets there, but men, disguised as television journal-

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