A Decade of Ground Deformation in Kunming (China) Revealed by Multi-Temporal Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (Insar) Technique

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

A Decade of Ground Deformation in Kunming (China) Revealed by Multi-Temporal Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (Insar) Technique sensors Article A Decade of Ground Deformation in Kunming (China) Revealed by Multi-Temporal Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) Technique Wu Zhu 1,* , Wen-Liang Li 1, Qin Zhang 1, Yi Yang 2, Yan Zhang 1, Wei Qu 1 and Chi-Sheng Wang 3,4 1 College of Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064, China; [email protected] (W.-L.L.); [email protected] (Q.Z.); [email protected] (Y.Z.); [email protected] (W.Q.) 2 Yunnan Institute of Surveying and Mapping Engineering, Kunming 650033, China; [email protected] 3 The Guangdong Key Laboratory of Urban Informatics, School of Architecture & Urban Planning, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; [email protected] 4 The Key Laboratory of Urban Land Resources Monitoring and Simulation, Ministry of Land and Resources, Beijing 100812, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel./Fax: +86-29-82339261 Received: 18 July 2019; Accepted: 9 October 2019; Published: 11 October 2019 Abstract: Large-scale urbanization has brought about severe ground subsidence in Kunming (China), threatening the stability of urban infrastructure. Mapping of the spatiotemporal variations of ground deformation is urgently needed, along with summarization of the causes of the subsidence over Kunming with the purpose of disaster prevention and mitigation. In this study, for the first time, a multi-temporal interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technique with L-band Advanced Land Observation Satellite (ALOS-1) and X-band Constellation of Small Satellites for Mediterranean basin Observation (COSMO-SkyMed) data was applied to Kunming to derive the time series deformation from 2007 to 2016. The annual deformation velocity revealed two severe subsiding regions in Kunming, with a maximum subsidence of 35 mm/y. The comparison of the deformation between InSAR and leveling showed root-mean-square error (RMSE) values of about 4.5 mm for the L-band and 3.7 mm for the X-band, indicating that our results were reliable. We also found that the L-band illustrated a larger amount of subsidence than the X-band in the tested regions. This difference was mainly caused by the different synthetic aperture radar (SAR)-acquired times and imaging geometries between the L- and X-band SAR images. The vertical time series deformation over two severe subsiding regions presented an approximate linear variation with time, where the cumulative subsidence reached 209 mm during the period of 2007–2016. In view of relevant analyses, we found that the subsidence in Kunming was the result of soft soil consolidation, building load, and groundwater extraction. Our results may provide scientific evidence regarding the sound management of urban construction to mitigate potential damage to infrastructure and the environment. Keywords: ground deformation; multi-temporal InSAR; Kunming; urbanization 1. Introduction Kunming, the capital and largest city of Yunnan province in Southwest China, is located at a longitude of 102◦100–103◦400 east and a latitude of 24◦230–26◦220 north. Situated in the central Yunnan–Guizhou plateau in Southwest China, Kunming is surrounded by the Dian Lake to the south and by mountains on the other three sides [1]. As China’s frontier to Southeast Asia and South Sensors 2019, 19, 4425; doi:10.3390/s19204425 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 31 Sensors 2019, 19, 4425 2 of 29 and by mountains on the other three sides [1]. As China’s frontier to Southeast Asia and South Asia, largeAsia,-scale large-scale urban urbanconstruction construction has been has implemented been implemented in Kunming in Kunming over the over past thetwenty past years. twenty During years. thisDuring procedure, this procedure, a great amou a greatnt of amount cultivated of cultivated land and gardens land and were gardens occupied were by occupied high-rise by buildings, high-rise roads,buildings, and roads,other structures and other structures[2]. However, [2]. this However, large-scale this large-scale urbanization urbanization brought about brought a series about of a geologicalseries of geological hazards, hazards, such as such landslides, as landslides, subsidence, subsidence, and andground ground fissures. fissures. Particularly, Particularly, ground ground subsidencesubsidence became became one one of of the the most most prominent prominent geological geological hazards hazards and and caused caused substantial substantial damage damage to to homes,homes, roads, roads, canals, canals, pipelines, pipelines, and and other other infrastructure infrastructure [ 3].3]. Figure Figure 1 shows some photos of the effects e ffects ofof subsidence subsidence in in Kunming, Kunming, where where more more than than fifty fifty individual individual damage damage reports reports were were observed observed through through filedfiled investigations investigations organized inin JuneJune 20162016 [[4].4]. ToTo prevent prevent and and mitigate mitigate future future disasters, disasters, it it is is urgent urgent to tocharacterize characterize and and monitor monitor the the spatiotemporal spatiotemporal variations variations ofof groundground deformationdeformation and summarize the the cacausesuses of of subsidence subsidence in in Kunming. Kunming. FigureFigure 1. Ground 1. Ground deformation deformation investigated investigated in in Kunming Kunming. and (a) the the uplift effects of buildingon buildings steps, and (b) ground roads [4]. crack, (c) ground subsidence, (d) wall crack caused by the groud deformation. Early studies initiated a few years ago using ground-based techniques (e.g., leveling) documentedEarly studies the extent initiated and a causes few years of subsidence ago usingground-based in Kunming [5 techniques,6]. According (e.g., to leveling) their observations, documented thethe subsidence extent and causeswas mainly of subsidence focused inin Kunming two regions, [5,6]. where According the subsiding to their observations, rate reached the 30 subsidencemm/y [5]. Consideringwas mainly focusedlocal geological in two regions, conditions where and the human subsiding activities, rate reached it was reported 30 mm/y that [5]. the Considering subsidence local in Kunminggeological was conditions mainly andcaused human by groundwater activities, it was extraction, reported building that the subsidenceload, and natural in Kunming consolidation was mainly of soilcaused [7]. byAlthough groundwater these extraction,observations building provided load, useful and natural information, consolidation they had of low soil [spatial7]. Although resolution, these andobservations therefore, provided more usefuldetailed information, and comprehensive they had low ground spatial resolution, deformation and therefore,was difficult more detailedto see. Interferometricand comprehensive synthetic ground aperture deformation radar was(InSAR) difficult has to demonstrated see. Interferometric its potential synthetic for aperture high-density radar spatial(InSAR) mapping has demonstrated of ground deformation its potential forassociated high-density with earthquakes spatial mapping [8], volcanoes of ground [9], deformation and other geologicassociated processes. with earthquakes Recent adva [8], volcanoesnced InSAR [9], techniques and other geologichave improved processes. our Recent understanding advanced InSARof the processtechniques of haveground improved deformation, our understanding such as the ofdeep the processlearning of groundapproach deformation, [10], artificial such intelligence as the deep techniquelearning approach [11], optimal [10], artificialphase unwrapping intelligence algorithm technique [[12],11], optimalsignal retrieval phase unwrapping for decorrelating algorithm targets [12], [13],signal four retrieval-dimensional for decorrelating filtering approach targets [ 13[14],], four-dimensional improved synthetic filtering aperture approach radar [ 14(SAR)], improved image coregistrationsynthetic aperture algorithm radar [15], (SAR) atmospheric image coregistration delay correction algorithm method [15 [16],], atmospheric and coherent delay point correction selection algorithmmethod [16 [17].], and Additionally, coherent point an increasing selection algorithmamount of [SAR17]. Additionally,satellites have an provided increasing a large amount set of of multiSAR- satellitessensor SAR have images, provided which a large have set been of multi-sensoremployed to SARreconstruct images, the which spatiotemporal have been employedevolution of to groundreconstruct deformation the spatiotemporal [18]. In this evolution field, current of ground research deformation is focused [ 18on]. three In this aspects. field, currentThe first research aspect is is applyingfocused on the three multi aspects.-sensor The InSAR first to aspect derive is applyingthe long- theterm multi-sensor ground deformation, InSAR to derive such theas in long-term Tehran (Iran)ground [19 deformation,], Xi’an (China) such [20], as Baja in Tehran California (Iran) (Mexico) [19], Xi’an [21], (China)Urayasu [ 20(Japan)], Baja [22], California the Italian (Mexico) Peninsula [21], [23],Urayasu Istanbul (Japan) (Turkey) [22], the [24], Italian and PeninsulaSemarang [ 23(Indonesia)], Istanbul [25]. (Turkey) The [sec24],ond and aspect Semarang is resolving (Indonesia) two- [ 25or]. three-dimensional ground motion through the multi-sensor SAR images merging technique, which Sensors 2019, 19, 4425 3 of 29 Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 31 Thehas secondbeen aspectused in is resolvingan urban two- subsiding
Recommended publications
  • Deep Electrical Structure of Chuxiong Basin in Southwest of China
    Abstract, 24th EM Induction Workshop, Helsingør, Denmark, August 12-19, 2018 Deep electrical structure of Chuxiong Basin in southwest of China Lianmu Chen1,2 and Wenbao Hu1,2 1 Key Laboratory of Exploration Technologies for Oil and Gas Resources of MOE, Yangtze University, Wuhan, Hubei 430100, China 2 Hubei Cooperative Innovation Center of Unconventional Oil and Gas, Wuhan, Hubei 430100, China SUMMARY The Chuxiong Basin in southwest China is near the southeastern margin of the Indo-Asia collision zone with highly complex and active tectonic features. The electric structures of this basin have been investigated by carrying out 2D inversion of magnetotelluric data of a large array of 1188 observation sites covering part of the basin. Preliminary interpretation of inverted resistivity sections has revealed the different patterns of deep electric structures below different part of the basin. Double in-crust conductive layers can be delineated below the western and central part of the basin, while only one conductive layer can be identified below northern and eastern part of the basin. It is also inferred that the in-crust conductive layers are dipping southward in large gradient according to the burying depth of the conductive layers for different traverses. 3D inversion of this set of data is underway and better resolution and reliability of inversion results can be expected. Keywords: deep electrical structure, Chuxiong Basin, magnetotelluric sounding system and its adjacent areas since 1980s. Some INTRODUCTION one-dimensional inversion results of MT data for the Nanhua-Tengchong and Menglian-Luoping The Chuxiong Basin in the center of Yunnan profiles have indicated that there is a low resistivity Province is a relatively large Mesozoic tectonic layer in the upper crust of the region (Sun et al., sedimentary basin in southwest of China.
    [Show full text]
  • Experience and Lessons Learned Brief for Lake Dianchi
    26 Dec 2003 Experience and Lessons Learned Brief for Lake Dianchi Jin Xiangcan Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences Beijing, China and others to be named in final brief Introduction Lake Dianchi, the sixth largest freshwater lakes in China and the largest lake in Yunnan Province, is the cradle for the evolution and development of the city of Kunming, the capital of the Province. Belonging to Jinsha (the upper stream of Yangtze) River system, the Lake is a tectonic lake formed by fault. It is bow-shaped shallow lake, 40 km long and 12.5 wide with average depth of 5.4m, water surface area of about 309 km2 and total volume of 1.56 billion m3, when water level reaches to 1887.4 m. The Lake was divided by a natural dyke (now an artificial barrier) into two parts: the Inner Lake (called Caohai) covering 3.3% of the entire Lake’s surface and the Outer Lake (called Waihai) covering 96.7% of the entire Lake’s surface area. The Lake basin hosts about 2.2 million populations. Lake Dianchi is important for the population of the region, because it has multiple functions of water supply, climate regulation, flood regulation, water storage, water purification, aquaculture, tourism, shipping and power generation, and bio-diversity conservation as well. Lake Dianchi is an important drinking water resource for the city of Kunming, the capital and the most densely populated city of Yunnan Province. It also provides water supply for industrial and agricultural uses in the region. Due to its regulation, the micro climate of the lake region is very pleasant, warm in winter and cool in summer, described as “flowers of various colors do not wither in any season and the temperature is pleasant like spring all the year round”.
    [Show full text]
  • Resettlement Implementation Plan
    RP598 Public Disclosure Authorized World Bank Financed Yunnan Urban Environmental Project Public Disclosure Authorized RESETTLEMENT ACTION PLAN (SUMMARY REPORT ) Public Disclosure Authorized Yunnan Provincial WB-loaned Environment Protection Project Office September . 2007 Public Disclosure Authorized Yunnan Urban Environment ProjectResettlement Action Plan (RAP) Contents 1 Project Description ......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Project Background............................................................................................... 1 1.2 Project Components and Description..................................................................... 1 1.3 Resettlement Plan ................................................................................................. 8 1.4 Measures to Mitigate Project Impacts.................................................................... 8 1.5 Analysis on Linkage Subprojects .......................................................................... 9 1.6 Implementation of Land Acquisition and House Relocation for Stage I Yunnan Environment Project ................................................................................................... 11 2 Project Impact............................................................................................................... 12 2.1 Determination of project impact scope ................................................................ 12 2.2 Result of project impact investigation
    [Show full text]
  • Sanie and Language Loss in China*
    Sanie and language loss in China* DAVID BRADLEY Abstract Most of the many languages spoken by the large and widely distributed Yi nationality in China are endangered. One such is Sanie, spoken by about 8,000 people from a group of over 17,000 near Kunming in Yunnan. In surveying the area around Kuming, we located Sanie and a number of other undescribed and in most cases unreported endangered languages. Sanie is remarkable in that in some dialects it preserves velar plus /w/ clusters which have been simplified in all other closely related languages. Such a cluster is found in the group name; this gives us a clearer understanding of the original autonym for the Yi languages as a whole. Therefore, the new name Ngwi for this group of languages is proposed, with etymological justi- fications. Sanie also has a large range of internal di¤erences, suggesting that processes of change are speeded up during the process of language death. However it is shown to be a typical Eastern Yi language, like several of the other endangered languages spoken around Kunming including Sa- mataw and Samei. 1. The Yi nationality1 The Yi are one of China’s 55 minority nationalities, with a population of nearly eight million. They live in the southwest of the country; especially in Yunnan, southwestern Sichuan and western Guizhou Provinces, with a few also in western Guangxi. There are a couple of groups within Yi in south central Yunnan who also spread into northern Vietnam, and one into northeastern Laos. They are extremely heterogeneous but classified together by the Chinese.
    [Show full text]
  • The Hydraulic Driving Mechanisms of Cyanobacteria Accumulation and the Effects of Flow Pattern on Ecological Restoration in Lake Dianchi Caohai
    International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Article The Hydraulic Driving Mechanisms of Cyanobacteria Accumulation and the Effects of Flow Pattern on Ecological Restoration in Lake Dianchi Caohai Peng Zhang 1, Rui-Feng Liang 1,*, Peng-Xiao Zhao 2, Qing-Yuan Liu 1, Yong Li 1, Kai-Li Wang 1, Ke-Feng Li 1, Ying Liu 3 and Peng Wang 3 1 State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China; [email protected] (P.Z.); [email protected] (Q.-Y.L.); [email protected] (Y.L.); [email protected] (K.-L.W.); [email protected] (K.-F.L.) 2 Power China Hua Dong Engineering Corporation Limited, Hangzhou 310014, China; [email protected] 3 Power China Kunming Engineering Corporation Limited, Kunming 650051, China; [email protected] (Y.L.); [email protected] (P.W.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 30 December 2018; Accepted: 24 January 2019; Published: 28 January 2019 Abstract: Due to rapid increases in socioeconomic development and the human population over the past few decades, the shallow lakes in China have suffered from eutrophication and poor water quality. The conditions in Lake Dianchi Caohai, which is in the northern part of Lake Dianchi, are considered the most serious. The ecological restoration of Lake Dianchi Caohai began in the late 1980s. Lake managers and the public have been puzzled by the lack of a significant response of the water quality to the flow pattern despite the tremendous investment in water quality improvements. Therefore, lake managers desperately need to understand the responses of pollutant behaviors to proposed management measures.
    [Show full text]
  • Report on the State of the Environment in China 2012
    2012 The “2012 Report on the State of the Environment in China” is hereby announced in accordance with the Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic of China. Minister of Environmental Protection The People’s Republic of China May 28, 2013 2012 Reduction of the Total Load of Major Pollutants .................................. 1 Freshwater Environment ......................................................................... 4 Marine Environment ............................................................................... 16 Atmospheric Environment ..................................................................... 22 Acoustic Environment ............................................................................. 29 Solid Waste ............................................................................................... 31 Radiation Environment .......................................................................... 34 Nature and Ecology ................................................................................. 38 Rural Environmental Protection ........................................................... 44 Forest ........................................................................................................ 47 Grassland ................................................................................................. 48 Climate and Natural Disasters ............................................................... 50 12th Five-Year Plan for Energy Conservation and Pollution Reduction ............ 2 Source
    [Show full text]
  • Study on Lake Eutrophication and Its Countermeasure in China
    Study on Lake Eutrophication and Its Countermeasure in China State Environmental Protection Administration of China China Environmental Science Press 图书在版编目(CIP)数据 Study on Lake Eutrophication and Its Countermeasure in China /State Environmental Protection Administration of China —北京:China Environmental Science Press ,2001.12 ISBN 7—80163—234—6 Ⅰ.中… Ⅱ.国… Ⅲ.湖泊—富营养化—污染防治—研究 Ⅳ.X524—53 中国版本图书馆 CIP 数据核字(2001)第 085790 号 责任编辑 陈金华 黄晓燕 封面设计 吴 艳 版式设计 郝 明 出 版 中国环境科学出版社出版发行 (100036 北京海淀区普惠南里 14 号) 网 址:http://www.cesp.com.cn 电子信箱:cesp @public.east.cn.net 印 刷 北京联华印刷厂 经 销 各地新华书店经售 版 次 2001 年 12 月第 1 版 2001 年 12 月第 1 次印刷 开 本 787×1092 1/16 印 张 31 字 数 770 千字 定 价 100.00 元 CONTENTS Emerging Global Issues-Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) and Cyanotoxins Saburo Matsui and Hidetaka Takigami ..............................................................................................................................1 Eutrophication Experience in the Laurentian Great Lakes Murray N. Charlton............................................................................................................................................................................. 13 Series of Technologies for Water Environmental Treatment in Caohai,Dianchi,Yunnan Province Liu Hongliang ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 21 Towards Development of an Effective Management Strategy for Lake Eutrophication Takehiro Nakamura............................................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • 6. Waste Management
    TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering Final Thesis Miikka Ristkari SANITATION IN RURAL CHINA: WASTE MANAGEMENT AND HYGIENE MANAGEMENT IN KUNMING MUNICIPALITY, YUNNAN PROVINCE Supervisor Senior Lecturer Eeva-Liisa Viskari Commissioned by TAMK University of Applied Sciences Kunming Institute of Environmental Science Tampere 2007 TAMK University of Applied Sciences Final Thesis 2(67) Environmental Engineering Miikka Ristkari Miikka Ristkari Sanitaatiohuolto Kiinan Maaseudulla:Jätehuolto ja Hygieniahuolto Kunmingin Kunnassa, Yunnanin Maakunnassa Tutkintotyö 43 sivua + 23 sivua liitteissä Työn valvoja Lehtori Eeva-Liisa Viskari Työn teettäjä Tampereen ammattikorkeakoulu Joulukuu 2007 Hakusanat Kiina, Yunnan, Kunming, maaseutu, sanitaatio, jätehuolto, kuivakäymälä, ekosanitaatio Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli tutustua maaseudun sanitaatiohuoltoon Kunmingin Maakunnassa, Yunnanin Provinssissa, Kiinassa. Pienimuotoiseen tutkimukseen sisällytettiin jätehuollon, vesihuollon ja julkisen hygienian hallintatavat, pääpainon ollessa ekosanitaatiossa. Hallintapoja löydettiin useita, mutta sanitaatiohuollon tilanne maaseudulla on vielä riittämätön. Sanitaatiohuollon osa-alueissa löydettiin joko infrastruktuurin tai itse hallinnan vaihtelevia puutteita. Osa ongelmista johtuu rahoituksen puutteesta, osa keskitetystä hallinnosta ja osittain tilanne johtuu vajavaisista paikallishallinnon ”työkaluista”, toimintatavoista. Koska tutkimus toteutettiin yhteistyössä Kunming Institute of Environmental Science:n kanssa, on tutkimukseen
    [Show full text]
  • Formation, Distribution and Risk Control of Landslides in China
    Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. 2011, 3 (2): 97–116 Formation, distribution and risk control of landslides in China Runqiu Huang, Weile Li State Key Laboratory of Geohazards Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, 610059, China Received 18 March 2011; received in revised form 8 May 2011; accepted 16 May 2011 Abstract: China is a country with a large population as well as frequent landslides. The formation and distribution of landslides in China are determined by its special topography, complex geological environment, active earthquake environment and unusual climate features. This paper analyzes the main features and distribution of 200 catastrophic landslides that occurred in China since 1900. The relationships among the distribution of landslides and topographic conditions, geological structure, climate features and strong earthquake environment are analyzed. The features of landslide-triggering factors and critical conditions in different areas have also been considered. Based on the above-mentioned work, the authors have undertaken the studies of landslide susceptibility assessment. The study is performed according to the topographic and geological features, which are the main triggering factors that affect the landslides. The Mainland China can be divided into 12 zones, including 4 high susceptibility zones, 7 medium susceptibility zones and 1 low susceptibility zone, according to landslide proneness. Considering the number of life loss and extent of property loss caused by landslides in those 12 zones, the risk evaluation results are listed as follows: 2 extremely high-risk zones, 5 high-risk zones, 2 medium-risk zones and 3 low-risk zones. Taking the number of life loss caused by landslides as the standard of risk level, the paper also analyzes the change in landslide risk level and main risk control measures in China since 1990s.
    [Show full text]
  • Lake Dianchi Experience and Lessons Learned Brief
    Lake Dianchi Experience and Lessons Learned Brief Jin Xiangcan*, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China, [email protected] Wang Li, Yunnan Environmental Project Offi ce, Kunming, China He Liping, Yunnan Institute of Environmental Sciences, Kunming, China * Corresponding author 1. Introduction by plankton. Introduced species also have had negative effects on the lake’s ecosystem. Additionally, the region as a whole Lake Dianchi is an ancient tectonic lake (approximately 3.2 has limited water resources, so water scarcity is also an issue. million years old) located in Yunnan Province in southwestern China. It is the 6th largest freshwater lake in China and the The last ten years or so have seen a comprehensive, integrated largest in Yunnan. The lake and its basin (Figure 1) are located response from the national, provincial and municipal levels to wholly within the jurisdiction of Kunming Municipality, which reduce the pollutant loads to the lake and restore it to a better contains Kunming City, the largest city in Yunnan Province condition. These efforts include a large World Bank loan for the (Figure 2; Section 2.2.1 describes the jurisdictional features. Note that Kunming Municipality is much large than, and contains the urban area called Kunming City). The lake is /$.(',$1&+,%$6,1 1 divided into two parts by an artifi cial causeway: the northern, &+,1$ 2 'UDLQDJH%DVLQ%RXQGDU\ inner part is called Caohai and has a surface area of 7.5 km 5LYHU and average depth of 2.5 m; the southern, outer part is called /DNH Waihai and has a surface area of 292 km2 and average depth of 6HOHFWHG&LW\ 4.4 m.
    [Show full text]
  • Greater China Factbook (2007) —————
    ————— THE GREATER CHINA FACTBOOK (2007) ————— PART II: TTHE CCHINESE PPROVINCES The provinces of China today Currently, there exist two states in China: the PRC and the ROC. The PRC consists of the provinces on the Chinese mainland and Hainan; the ROC controls Taiwan and several islets close to PRC’s Fujian Province. Though Taiwan does not belong to the PRC, the PRC regards Taiwan as a “renegade province” and part of the PRC. Thus, Taiwan’s inclusion in descriptions of China’s administrative organization reflects Beijing’s point of view, not the author’s. Today, China has 23 provinces (sheng 省)—one province (Taiwan) not part of the PRC; 5 Autonomous Regions (AR—zizhiqu 自治區); 4 special municipalities (zhixiashi 直轄市); and 2 Special Administrative Regions (SAR—tebie xingzhengqu 特別行政區). At the time of Mao Ze- dong’s death in September 1976, the PRC consisted of 21 provinces, 5 autonomous regions and 3 special municipalities—Hainan was part of Guangdong Province until April 1988, Chongqing was part of Sichuan Province until March 1997, Hong Kong was a British crown colony until July 1997, and Macau was a Portuguese possession until December 1999. The 5 Autonomous Regions were established after WW II—Guangxi in March 1958, Inner Mongolia in May 1947, Ningxia in October 1958, Tibet in September 1965, and Xinjiang in October 1955. Guangxi is an AR of the Chuang/Zhuang nationality (zhuang zu 壯族), Ningxia of the Chinese Muslims/Hui (huizu 回族), and Xinjiang of the Uighurs (weiwuer zu 維吾爾族). Additionally, 5 Special Economic Zones (SEZ—jingji tequ 經濟特區) were established in 1980 that are economic units but not provinces/regions/municipalities: Shenzhen 深圳 (Guang- dong Province), Shantou 汕頭 (Guangdong Province), Zhuhai 珠海 (Guangdong Province), Xiamen 廈門 (Fujian Province) and the whole of Hainan Province.
    [Show full text]