Exploring Implicit Cognition: Learning, Memory, and Social Cognitive Processes

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

An Excellent Addition to Your Library! Released: October 2014 Exploring Implicit Cognition: Learning, Memory, and Social Cognitive Processes Part of the Advances in Psychology, Mental Health, and Behavioral Studies Book Series Zheng Jin (Zhengzhou Normal University, China & University of California, Davis, USA) While widely studied, the capacity of the human mind remains largely unexplored. As such, researchers are continu- ally seeking ways to understand the brain, its function, and its impact on human behavior. Exploring Implicit Cognition: Learning, Memory, and Social Cognitive Processes explores research surround- ing the ways in which an individual’s unconscious is able to influence and impact that person’s behavior without their awareness. Focusing on topics pertaining to social cognition and the unconscious process, this title is ideal for use by students, researchers, psychologists, and academicians interested in the latest insights into implicit cognition. Topics Covered: • Brain Mechanisms • Implicit Measures • Human Cognitive System • Implicit Memory • Implicit Learning • Implicit-Explicit Relations ISBN: 9781466665996; © 2015; 337 pp. Print: US $195.00 | Perpetual: US $295.00 | Print + Perpetual: US $390.00 Market: This premier publication is essential for all academic and research library reference collections. It is a crucial tool for academicians, researchers, and practitioners. Ideal for classroom use. Zheng Jin is an Associate Professor in Institute of Educational Science at Zhengzhou Normal University in China. He is also a collaborative researcher in the University of California at Davis since 2012. He has been responsible for the coordination of several funded scientific research projects at National and Ministerial level. In addition to his research into Implicit Cognition, he has published many articles, book chapters, and conference papers on psycholinguistics and perception to understand Ecological Models that link perception with actions in cognitive processing, perceptual and motor skill, research in language, and so on. Publishing Academic Excellence www.igi-global.com at the Pace of Technology Since 1988 An Excellent Addition to Your Library! Order Your Copy Today! Name: _________________________________________________ c Enclosed is check payable to IGI Global in Organization: ___________________________________________ US Dollars, drawn on a US-based bank c c c c Address: _______________________________________________ Credit Card Mastercard Visa Am. Express City, State, Zip: _________________________________________ 3 or 4 Digit Security Code: __________________________________________ Country: _______________________________________________ Name on Card: ____________________________________________________ Tel: __________________________________________________ Account #: ______________________________________________________ Fax: __________________________________________________ Expiration Date: ___________________________________________________ E-mail: ________________________________________________.

Copy Link

Recommended publications

Implicit Stereotypes and the Predictive Brain: Cognition and Culture in “Biased” Person Perception
ARTICLE Received 28 Jan 2017 | Accepted 17 Jul 2017 | Published 1 Sep 2017 DOI: 10.1057/palcomms.2017.86 OPEN Implicit stereotypes and the predictive brain: cognition and culture in “biased” person perception Perry Hinton1 ABSTRACT Over the last 30 years there has been growing research into the concept of implicit stereotypes. Particularly using the Implicit Associations Test, it has been demon- strated that experimental participants show a response bias in support of a stereotypical association, such as “young” and “good” (and “old” and “bad”) indicating evidence of an implicit age stereotype. This has been found even for people who consciously reject the use of such stereotypes, and seek to be fair in their judgement of other people. This ﬁnding has been interpreted as a “cognitive bias”, implying an implicit prejudice within the individual. This article challenges that view: it is argued that implicit stereotypical associations (like any other implicit associations) have developed through the ordinary working of “the predictive brain”. The predictive brain is assumed to operate through Bayesian principles, developing associations through experience of their prevalence in the social world of the perceiver. If the predictive brain were to sample randomly or comprehensively then stereotypical associations would not be picked up if they did not represent the state of the world. However, people are born into culture, and communicate within social networks. Thus, the implicit stereotypical associations picked up by an individual do not reﬂect a cognitive bias but the associations prevalent within their culture—evidence of “culture in mind”. Therefore to understand implicit stereotypes, research should examine more closely the way associations are communicated within social networks rather than focusing exclusively on an implied cognitive bias of the individual.
[Show full text]
Sources of Confidence Judgments in Implicit Cognition
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2005, 12 (2), 367-373 Sources of confidence judgments in implicit cognition RICHARD J. TUNNEY University of Nottingham, Nottingham, England Subjective reports of confidence are frequently used as a measure of awareness in a variety of fields, including artificial grammar learning. However, little is known about what information is used to make confidence judgments and whether there are any possible sources of information used to discriminate between items that are unrelated to confidence. The data reported here replicate an earlier experiment by Vokey and Brooks (1992) and show that grammaticality decisions are based on both the grammati- cal status of items and their similarity to study exemplars. The key finding is that confidence ratings made on a continuous scale (50%–100%) are closely related to grammaticality but are unrelated to all of the measures of similarity that were tested. By contrast, confidence ratings made on a binary scale (high vs. low) are related to both grammaticality and similarity. The data confirm an earlier finding (Tunney & Shanks, 2003) that binary confidence ratings are more sensitive to low levels of awareness than continuous ratings are and suggest that participants are conscious of all the information acquired in artificial grammar learning. For many years, subjective reports of confidence have edge with low confidence may, therefore, not be reported been used to distinguish between conscious and uncon- even if, in fact, conscious. An alternative to verbal report scious cognitive processes in areas as diverse as discrim- is to ask participants to rate how confident they are that ination (Peirce & Jastrow, 1884), perception (Cheesman their judgments are correct or, alternately, to estimate & Merikle, 1984; Kunimoto, Miller, & Pashler, 2001), their overall level of accuracy.
[Show full text]
1 the Psychology of Implicit Intergroup Bias and the Prospect Of
1 The Psychology of Implicit Intergroup Bias and the Prospect of Change Calvin K. Lai1 & Mahzarin R. Banaji2 1 Washington University in St. Louis 2 Harvard University Last updated: June 24, 2020 Correspondence should be addressed to: Calvin Lai at [email protected]. Paper should be cited as: Lai, C. K., & Banaji, M. R. (2020). The psychology of implicit intergroup bias and the prospect of change. In D. Allen & R. Somanathan (Eds.), Difference without Domination: Pursuing Justice in Diverse Democracies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 2 1. Introduction Over the course of evolution, human minds acquired the breathtaking quality of consciousness which gave our species the capacity to regulate behavior. Among the consequences of this capacity was the possibility of internal dialogue with oneself about the consistency between one’s intentions and actions. This facility to engage in the daily rituals of deliberative thought and action is so natural to our species that we hardly reflect on it or take stock of how effectively we are achieving the goal of intention-action consistency. We do not routinely ask at the end of each day how many of our actions were consistent with the values so many individuals hold: a belief in freedom and equality for all, in opportunity and access for all, in fairness in treatment and justice for all. Even if we wished to compute the extent to which we succeed at this task, how would we go about doing it? As William James (1904) pointed over a century ago, the difficulty of studying the human mind is that the knower is also the known, and this poses difficulties in accessing, in modestly objective fashion, the data from our own moral ledger.
[Show full text]
Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Stereotypes
Psychological Review Copyright 1995 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1995, Vol. 102, No. 1,4-27 0033-295X/95/S3.00 Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Stereotypes Anthony G. Greenwald Mahzarin R. Banaji University of Washington Yale University Social behavior is ordinarily treated as being under conscious (if not always thoughtful) control. However, considerable evidence now supports the view that social behavior often operates in an implicit or unconscious fashion. The identifying feature of implicit cognition is that past experience influences judgment in a fashion not introspectively known by the actor. The present conclusion— that attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation—extends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology. Methodologically, this review calls for increased use of indirect measures—which are imperative in studies of implicit cognition. The theorized ordinariness of implicit stereotyping is consistent with recent findings of discrimination by people who explicitly disavow prejudice. The finding that implicit cognitive effects are often reduced by focusing judges' attention on their judg- ment task provides a basis for evaluating applications (such as affirmative action) aimed at reducing such unintended discrimination. Long before they became central to other areas of psycholog- research, also has a long-established history (e.g., James, 1890; ical theory, concepts of cognitive mediation dominated the anal- see overview in Wylie, 1974, 1979). ysis of social behavior. The constructs on which this article fo- Through much of the period since the 1930s, most social psy- cuses achieved early prominence in social psychological theory chologists have assumed that attitudes, and to a lesser extent with formulations that were partly (attitude) or entirely (stereo- stereotypes, operate in a conscious mode.
[Show full text]
Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Conscious and Non-Conscious Components of the Mind
applied sciences Review Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Conscious and Non-Conscious Components of the Mind Anastasia Fabbro 1,5,*, Cristiano Crescentini 2, Alessio Matiz 3, Andrea Clarici 4 and Franco Fabbro 5 1 Department of Psychology, University of Rome La Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy 2 Department of Languages and Literatures, Communication, Education and Society, University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy; [email protected] 3 Perceptual Robotics (PERCRO) Laboratory, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, 56010 Pisa, Italy; [email protected] 4 Psychiatric Clinic, Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, 34149 Trieste, Italy; [email protected] 5 Department of Medicine, University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Academic Editor: Peter Walla Received: 31 January 2017; Accepted: 30 March 2017; Published: 1 April 2017 Abstract: The aim of the present review is to investigate previous studies concerning the effects of meditation and dispositional mindfulness on conscious and implicit or non-conscious attitudes. First we present a brief perspective on conscious and non-conscious states of mind. Then we introduce the fundamental bases of mindfulness meditation. Third we review studies on dispositional mindfulness and meditation that employed either direct or indirect measures to assess explicit and implicit attitudes. Finally, we briefly present how meditation has been associated with the psychotherapeutic practice of psychoanalysis and, hence, as a therapeutic technique to access the unconscious. Until now, few studies have investigated the impact of meditation on non-conscious states of mind and personality; nevertheless, both scientific studies involving implicit measures and reflections from psychotherapy have underlined the importance of meditation in promoting psychological well-being, leading to de-automatization of automatic patterns of responding and to higher levels of self-awareness.
[Show full text]
The Blurry Boundary Between Stereotyping and Evaluation in Implicit Cognition
Alex Madva and Michael Brownstein Draft 2.6.15 Comments Welcome The Blurry Boundary between Stereotyping and Evaluation in Implicit Cognition Introduction Does the distinction between cognition and affect apply to implicit mental states? In the literature on intergroup relations, cognition and affect correspond to stereotypes— beliefs about social groups, or, more concretely, representations of traits associated with social groups (Stangor, 2009)—and prejudice—negative affective or evaluative responses toward others on the basis of social group members (McConahay & Hough, 1976; Dixon et al., 2012). While the distinction between explicit stereotypes and explicit prejudices is widely supported (Fiske & Linville, 1980; Martin & Halverson, 1981; Wol, 1982; Augoustinos & Innes, 1990; Duckitt, 1992; Dovidio et al., 1996; Fiske, 1998; Mackie & Smith, 1998; Fiske et al., 2002), its applicability to implicit mental states is controversial. Understanding the relationship between stereotypes and prejudice is important as it can help illuminate the nature of the mental representations underlying implicit mental states. While some theories propose that stereotyping and prejudice are functionally integrated (Greenwald et al., 2002; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006, 2011), others propose that the cognitive and affective components of implicit states represent separate constructs—namely implicit stereotypes (IS) and implicit evaluations (IE)—which reflect different mental processes and neural systems (Amodio & Devine, 2006, 2009; Amodio & Ratner, 2011).
[Show full text]
Implicit Bias Series PART 1: What Is It and Why Does It Matter?
Implicit Bias Series PART 1: What Is It and Why Does It Matter? Implicit biases are subconscious assumptions about people of different races/ethnicities, cultures, nationalities, religions, sexualities, gender identities, abilities, etc., that can influence how a person perceives of and/or interacts with someone else. Within a higher education context, these biases often appear in the form of harmful stereotyping, particularly when it comes to perceived academic ability, identity, or viewpoint (Ambrose et al., 2010). For example, some instructors may unconsciously believe that certain groups are not as capable as others, which may unconsciously influence classroom interactions. Experts Define Implicit Bias In their 2017 State of the Science Report, the Kirwan Institute defined implicit bias as: "the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner. Activated involuntarily, without awareness or intentional control. Can be either positive or negative. Everyone is susceptible.” (Kirwan Report, 2017, p.10). Though implicit in nature, these biases do not necessarily align with explicit beliefs nor to positions we may explicitly endorse (Kirwan Report, 2015; Beattie, et al., 2013). All of us can engage in this type of “unthinking discrimination” without even being aware (Wilkerson, 2013). Still, a sizeable amount of research shows, implicit bias has the potential to impact behavior (Keng et al., 2012), yet is malleable and can be “unlearned” (Dasgupta, 2013; Roos, et al., 2013). Implicit Biases, Inequalities, and Cognitive and Social-Psychological Processes In society at large, inequalities are created and reproduced via two mechanisms: (1) the allocation of people to social positions and (2) an institutionalization of practices that allocate resources disparately across these positions.
[Show full text]
The Implicit Association Test As a Measure of Implicit Consumer
Polish Psychological Bulletin 2001;32(1):DOI://10.1066/S10012010002 ORIGINAL PAPER © Blackhorse Publishing, 2001 Dominika Maison, Anthony G. Greenwald, The Implicit Association Test as a measure of Ralph Bruin implicit consumer attitudes D. Maison ✉, Abstract This article reports two experi- explicit measures of attitudes and Department of Psychology ments that sought to determine if the behavior toward these product University of Warsaw Implicit Association Test (IAT; categories. The second experiment 5/7 Stawki Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998), investigated implicit attitudes of female PL–00183 Warsaw a method for assessing strengths of Ss toward low calorie products and high Poland automatic associations, can be applied calorie products. The IAT attitude to measure consumer attitudes. The first measure correlated with dieting activity: Tel.: +48 22 / 531 78 27 experiment compared implicit attitudes Ss who had eating habits restricting high Fax: +48 22 / 831 91 93 toward juices and sodas. Analysis calorie food intake showed implicit [email protected] revealed significant correlation between attitudes favoring low calorie products. IAT-measured implicit attitudes and A. G. Greenwald Department of Psychology University of Washington Box 351525 207 Guthrie Seattle, WA 98195–1525 USA Tel.: +1 206 / 543 7227 Fax: +1 206 / 685 3157 [email protected] R. Bruin Medical Data Management 1 Sengera Cichego PL–02790 Warsaw Poland Tel.: +48 22 / 645 77 33 [email protected] Received: 07.11.2000 Accepted: 18.01.2001 a000000000 One method of researching automatic processes that has Introduction become very popular over the last 5 years is the Implicit Association Test (Greenwald et al.
[Show full text]
Conscious and Unconscious Processes in Cognition
Cleeremans: Int. Encyc. Social and Behavioral Sciences 1 To appear in International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Abstract Characterizing the relationships between conscious and unconscious processes is one of the most important and long-standing goals of cognitive psychology. Renewed interest in the nature of consciousness — long considered not to be scientifically explorable —, as well as the increasingly widespread availability of functional brain imaging techniques, now offer the possibility of detailed exploration of the neural, behavioral, and computational correlates of conscious and unconscious cognition. This entry reviews some of the relevant experimental work, highlights the methodological challenges involved in establishing the extent to which cognition can occur unconsciously, and situates ongoing debates in the theoretical context provided by current thinking about consciousness. Conscious and unconscious processes in cognition Axel Cleeremans Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium Everyday experience suggests that we often seem to know more than we can tell. Riding a bicycle, playing tennis or driving a car, for instance, all involve mastering complex sets of motor skills, yet we are at a loss when it comes to explaining exactly how we perform such physical feats. These dissociations between our ability to report on cognitive processes and the behaviors that involve these processes are not limited to action but extend to higher-level cognition as well. Most native speakers of a language are unable to articulate the grammatical rules they nevertheless follow when uttering expressions of the language. Likewise, expertise in domains such as medical diagnosis or chess, as well as social or aesthetic judgments, all involve intuitive knowledge that one seems to have little introspective access to.
[Show full text]
ABSTRACT VAUGHN, AUDREY KATHERINE. Evaluating Implicit
ABSTRACT VAUGHN, AUDREY KATHERINE. Evaluating Implicit and Explicit Components of Human Attitudes Toward Snakes. (Under the direction of Dr. Lara Pacifici). Human fear and antipathy toward snakes make conservation of this taxa difficult, as negative attitudes are not generally linked to public support. However, our understanding of the psychological mechanisms underlying human aversion to snakes is limited. We attempted to gain more insight into these psychological mechanisms by implementing two separate approaches aimed at evaluating both implicit and explicit components of attitudes toward snakes. To gain insight into implicit biases related to snakes as well as whether human aversion to snakes is more innate or learned, respondents aged 7 to 76 completed an implicit association test (IAT) designed to examine implicit attitudes toward snakes. Parents had more negative implicit attitudes toward snakes than cHildren, but we detected no effects for sex or race/ethnicity, and overall ability for demographic variables to predict implicit attitudes was low (R2 = 0.035). Approximately 13% of overall variance was explained by the random effect for family unit (r = 0.132), indicating membership within a given household unit had small effects on the development of implicit biases against snakes. Collectively, these results support the hypothesis that human aversion to snakes is implicit and provide more evidence tHat aversion may be innate within our biological or cultural memory. Implicit bias training may be critical to mitigate the effects of negative implicit attitudes toward snakes. Although future research is needed to understand socio-demographic correlates of implicit biases against snakes, our results indicate interventions may be crafted without concern about unique responses to snakes across sex and ethnicities.
[Show full text]
Can the Implicit Association Test Serve As a Valid Measure Of
PPSXXX10.1177/1745691620904080Kurdi et al.What We (Don’t) Know About the IAT 904080research-article2020 ASSOCIATION FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Perspectives on Psychological Science 1 –13 Can the Implicit Association Test Serve as © The Author(s) 2020 Article reuse guidelines: a Valid Measure of Automatic Cognition? sagepub.com/journals-permissions DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620904080 10.1177/1745691620904080 A Response to Schimmack (2020) www.psychologicalscience.org/PPS Benedek Kurdi1 , Kate A. Ratliff2, and William A. Cunningham3 1Department of Psychology, Cornell University; 2Department of Psychology, University of Florida; and 3Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Abstract Much of human thought, feeling, and behavior unfolds automatically. Indirect measures of cognition capture such processes by observing responding under corresponding conditions (e.g., lack of intention or control). The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is one such measure. The IAT indexes the strength of association between categories such as “planes” and “trains” and attributes such as “fast” and “slow” by comparing response latencies across two sorting tasks (planes–fast/trains–slow vs. trains–fast/planes–slow). Relying on a reanalysis of multitrait–multimethod (MTMM) studies, Schimmack (this issue) argues that the IAT and direct measures of cognition, for example, Likert scales, can serve as indicators of the same latent construct, thereby purportedly undermining the validity of the IAT as a measure of individual differences in automatic cognition.
[Show full text]
The Memory of What We Do Not Recall: Dissociations and Theoretical Debates in the Study of Implicit Memory
Psicológica (2017), 38, 365-393. The memory of what we do not recall: Dissociations and theoretical debates in the study of implicit memory Tania Ramos*1,2, João Marques3, & Leonel Garcia-Marques1 1 CICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa 2 New York University 3William James Center for Research, ISPA – Instituto Universitário Implicit memory reflects itself on situations in which previously acquired information is expressed, without awareness or intention. The study of implicit memory has had a profound impact on how researchers have investigated the human memory. In this paper, we review the main studies which have revealed dissociations between direct and indirect tests of memory, and address the two main theoretical approaches used to explain these dissociations: the processing view and the multiple systems view. We then describe recent neuroscience studies and discuss its contributions to help clarify the debate about the mechanisms involved in explicit and implicit memory. Finally, we critically analyze some questions and controversies surrounding this literature, such as (a) the transparency assumption and the contamination issue; and (b) the theoretical utility of the dissociations. We emphasize that the biggest challenge for future research is to develop comprehensive theories that integrate behavioral and neuroscience findings. The memory of a past event can influence our subsequent behavior, even on the absence of explicit recall of that episode. This type of memory is called “implicit memory”. The emergence of the study on implicit memory definitely impacted the literature about human memory. Some * The research was supported by a grant to the first author from the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (SFRH/BPD/64826/2009).
[Show full text]