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Surveying and Projecting Sustainability and Urban-Water-Energy-Nexus Applications in Rhode Island" (2017)

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Surveying and Projecting Sustainability and Urban-Water-Energy-Nexus Applications in Rhode Island University of Rhode Island DigitalCommons@URI Open Access Master's Theses 2017 Surveying and Projecting Sustainability and Urban-Water-Energy- Nexus Applications in Rhode Island Fabian Wagner University of Rhode Island, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/theses Recommended Citation Wagner, Fabian, "Surveying and Projecting Sustainability and Urban-Water-Energy-Nexus Applications in Rhode Island" (2017). Open Access Master's Theses. Paper 1079. https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/theses/1079 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@URI. It has been accepted for inclusion in Open Access Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@URI. For more information, please contact [email protected]. SURVEYING AND PROJECTING SUSTAINABILITY AND URBAN-WATER-ENERGY-NEXUS APPLICATIONS IN RHODE ISLAND BY FABIAN WAGNER A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLAND 2017 MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS OF FABIAN WAGNER APPROVED: Thesis Committee: Major Professor Ali Shafquat Akanda Farhad Atash Thomas Boving Nasser H. Zawia DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLAND 2017 ABSTRACT Rhode Island is both the smallest and 2nd most densely populated state, which already characterizes its unique situation within the United States of America. About 90.7% of the inhabitants live in urbanized areas, creating a more beneficial situation for the state's cities and towns equates to establishing improved conditions for a majority of its citizens. This thesis constitutes a comprehensive approach on assessing sustainability in Rhode Island and its communities via implementation of a municipal ranking with 75 social, environmental and economic indicators. The rating is based on the best and worst performances of various indicators, thus allowing for concise comparison within the local context of the state. In this analysis, while the communities around Providence tend to perform unfavorably, the southeastern coastal communities are above average performers. The ranking results also show a certain link to both income and population density of the municipalities. The proposed tool allows for comprehensive evaluations and identification of areas for improvement for all municipalities of the state. The second research focus is to evaluate linkages between water and energy provision in the state with a distinct focus on the urban environment. Both water supply and power generation exhibit advantageous characteristics, but rely on adequate data gathering to enable more refined research approaches. In addition, interactions between these vital resources were assessed by evaluating pollution sources and urban heat island implications. The latter reveals a high share of people residing in areas with significantly increased temperatures, which results in considerable, potential benefits by mitigating the associated UHI. Accordingly, abatement thereof may increase resilience of the public water supply infrastructure. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To begin, I want to thank both my parents and grandparents for their ongoing support, thus enabling me to partake in graduate studies at the University of Rhode Island. Next to raising me and thus shaping me into the person I am today, their confidence and advice has pushed me to take the step towards studying in the United States. Additionally, I want to thank my girlfriend Hannah Jucknischke, with whom I hope to spend many years of life together, for her support and love even though not less than an entire ocean separated us for most of the previous year. Furthermore, I would like to express my gratitude to my academic advisor Professor Ali Shafqat Akanda. His support and advice during lengthy discussion sessions helped considerably to both improve and finalize this thesis. Accordingly, I would also like to thank the other two member of my defense committee, Prof. Farhad Atash and Prof. Thomas Boving, for their time and effort regarding this project. My graduate study group also deserves reference, as ventures such as this piece of work are more easily carried out together. Additionally, my other course instructors, such as Prof. Peter August, Prof. Vinka Craver and Prof. Reza Hashemi, are deserving of gratitude for their teaching and for sharing their experiences. Lastly, I want to thank Prof. Joerg Gatterman from the Technische Universitt Braunschweig and Prof. Christopher Baxter from the University of Rhode Island for coordinating the dual degree program and thus enabling me to partake in learning experiences from both countries. Lastly, I want to thank my friends back home in Germany and in the USA for their support and kind words to boost my ongoing motivation to work on this thesis. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . iii TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................... iv LIST OF FIGURES . viii LIST OF TABLES ............................... xii LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................xvi LIST OF UNITS ................................xix CHAPTER 1 Introduction ............................... 1 1.1 Justification for the Study . 1 1.1.1 Measuring Sustainability . 1 1.1.2 Nexus Applications . 11 1.1.3 Pressures posed by Urban Environments . 14 1.1.4 Future Trends and Developments . 15 1.2 Thesis Objective . 20 1.3 Hypotheses . 20 1.4 Thesis Structure . 21 2 Analysis of Relevant Sectors in Rhode Island . 22 2.1 Overview . 22 2.2 Climate . 26 iv Page 2.3 Climate Change Projections . 30 2.4 Administrative Boundaries . 34 2.5 Statewide and Municipal Planning . 35 2.6 Urbanized Areas . 36 2.7 Municipalities . 39 2.8 Utility Provision and Important Sectors . 44 2.8.1 Energy . 44 2.8.2 Water and Waste Water . 50 2.8.3 Waste Management . 56 2.8.4 Transportation System . 60 2.8.5 Air Quality Monitoring . 66 2.8.6 Land Use and Conservation Lands . 69 2.8.7 Economy . 73 3 Sustainability Ranking ........................ 76 3.1 General Approach . 76 3.2 Methods . 76 3.2.1 Compilation and Evaluation of the Ranking . 77 3.2.2 Derivation of the Indicators . 82 3.3 Data Resources . 87 3.4 Indicators . 90 3.4.1 Social . 90 3.4.2 Environment . 98 3.4.3 Economy . 106 v Page 3.5 Results . 111 3.6 Evaluation . 117 3.6.1 Spatial Patterns . 120 3.6.2 Relation to Municipal Parameters . 122 3.7 Ranking Significant Findings . 126 4 Urban Water-Energy-Nexus Evaluation . 127 4.1 General Approach . 127 4.2 Methodology . 129 4.2.1 Derivation of Land Surface Temperature . 129 4.2.2 Validation of obtained LST values . 134 4.2.3 Water Withdrawals for Thermoelectric Power Plants . 138 4.2.4 Spatial Analysis of Pollution Sources . 140 4.3 Energy for Water . 141 4.4 Water for Energy . 146 4.5 Urban Interactions . 156 4.5.1 Urban Heat Island Implications . 157 4.5.2 Point Pollution Sources . 164 4.6 Urban-Water-Energy-Nexus Significant Findings . 169 5 Evaluation ................................171 5.1 Summary . 171 5.2 Discussion . 173 5.3 Limitations of this study . 176 5.4 Conclusion . 178 vi Page LIST OF REFERENCES ..........................179 APPENDIX A National Ambient Air Quality Standards . 193 B Ranking Scores per Category and Segment . 195 C Data for Derivation of Municipal Water Demand . 206 D Criteria for Derivation of Residential Energy Demand . 211 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...............................213 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 Sustainability paradigm . 3 1.2 Introduction to LEED with rating systems and credit categories 4 1.3 LEED for neighborhood development categories and indicators . 6 1.4 LEED criteria on assessing cities . 7 1.5 Number of indicators per category for ISO standard 37120:2014 9 1.6 Distribution of US population by size of incorporated place . 10 1.7 Development of US population and share in urban or rural areas from 1800 to 2010 . 16 1.8 Projected development of global mean temperature till 2100 and assessment of associated risks . 18 2.1 Rhode Island municipalities, urbanized areas and population distribution . 24 2.2 Rhode Island counties with population figures for 2015 . 25 2.3 Monthly climate normals 1981 to 2010 NOAA Providence station temperature and precipitation . 26 2.4 Comparison of climate normals 1981 to 2010 heating and cooling degree days . 27 2.5 Monthly temperature and precipitation Providence and North Foster from 2010 to 2015 . 28 2.6 Observed and projected annual tidal floods for Providence . 31 2.7 Observed and projected temperature change with low and high emission scenario till 2100 for Rhode Island . 32 2.8 Expected change in precipitation till 2050 for the entire USA . 33 viii Figure Page 2.9 Urban and rural population of RI municipalities and total popu- lation density based on Census 2010 block data . 40 2.10 Comparison of electricity, thermal and transportation sector regarding energy demand . 45 2.11 Time-line of total monthly electricity generation in Rhode Island 2013 to 2015 . 46 2.12 Total electricity generation in Rhode Island from 2013 to 2015 and key statistics . 47 2.13 Power plants, transmission lines and natural gas pipelines in RI 48 2.14 Water usage in Rhode Island 2010 . 53 2.15 Water Supply Elements in Rhode Island . 55 2.16 RI averages by waste category for RIRRC, other and in total . 57 2.17 Location of solid waste facilities by type in Rhode Island . 58 2.18 Annual municipal solid waste and processing rates 2012 to 2016 60 2.19 Transportation infrastructure features in Rhode Island . 62 2.20 Modal split and mean travel time to work for the USA, Rhode Island and four communities for 2015 . 65 2.21 Percentage of days by AQI status in 2011 . 67 2.22 Continuous air quality monitoring sites in Rhode Island for AQI 69 2.23 Land Use and Land Cover Rhode Island 2011 . 71 2.24 Private employment sectors with share on total job figures . 73 2.25 Job and GDP growth for USA and Rhode Island 1979 to 2009 .
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