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TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP
CURRENCY EQUIVALENT
(as of 1 August 2009 )
Currency Unit – Som Som 1.00 = $0.0233 $1.00 = Som 43.00
ABBREVIATIONS
AD : Anno Domini ADB : Asian Development Bank AIDS : Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome APT : Architectural and Planning Task asl : Above Sea Level ASSR : Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic BC : Before Christ
BOD5 : 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand BRD : Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve Directorate CIS : Commonwealth of Independent States COD : Chemical Oxygen Demand DEP : Department of Environmental Protection EC : European Community EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment EMP : Environmental Management Plan ENE : East-Northeast EU : European Union FSU : Former Soviet Union GDP : Gross Domestic Product GIS : Geographical Information System GTZ : German Society on Technical Cooperation HIV : Human immunodeficiency virus IKNIDEP : Issy-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department of Environmental Protection JICA : Japan International Cooperation Agency kWh : Kilowatt hour LAS : Land Allocation Statement MW : Megawatt NAS : National Academy of Sciences OECD : Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PEE : Public Ecological Expertise PPTA : Project Preparation Technical Assistance SAACM : State Agency on Architecture and Construction Management i TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP
SAEPF : Stage Agency for Environment Protection and Forestry SEE : State Ecological Expertise SEMP : Strategic Environmental Management Plan SER : State Environmental Review SSR : Soviet Socialist Republic TACIS : Technical Assistance for the Commonwealth of Independent States TB : Tuberculosis UK : United Kingdom UN : United Nations UNDP : United Nations Development Programme UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNICEF : United Nations Children Fund USA : United States of America USSR : Soviet Union WHO : World Health Organisation WTO : World Trade Organisation
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CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY viii
I. INTRODUCTION 1 A. Background 1 B. Rationale for this study 1 C. Scope of SEMP study 3
II. APPROACH 5 A. Collection of baseline data 5 B. Analysis of issues and impacts 6 C. Environmental Management Strategy 6
III. POLICY, LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK 7 A. Legal Framework 7 1. Executive and legislative system 7 2. Governance 7 B. Environmental Policy and Law 8 1. Evolution of environmental policy and laws 8 2. Environmental law post-independence 9 C. Development Planning and Control 11 1. The Planning System 11 2. Environmental Assessment and Permitting 12 D. Environmental Management in the Issyk-Kul Basin 14 1. State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry 14 2. Other agencies 16
IV. BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 18 A. Physical Resources 18 1. Geology and topography 18 2. Landscape 22 3. Soil 26 4. Climate 26 5. Air quality 29 6. Noise 30 7. Surface Water 30 8. Water Quality 35 9. Sediment Quality 37 10. Groundwater 37 11. Seismicity and other natural hazards 39 B. Ecological Resources 45 1. Biodiversity and habitats 45 2. Wildlife 49 3. Lake Issyk-Kul 50 4. Fisheries 52 5. Protected Areas 53 6. Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve 54
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C. Economic development 58 1. Industry 58 2. Infrastructure 60 3. Transportation 64 4. Land use 68 5. Land ownership 68 6. Power sources and transmission 72 7. Agriculture 73 8. Tourism 76 D. Social and Cultural Resources 78 1. Population, communities and demography 78 2. Public Health 81 3. Education 82 4. Socio-economics 83 5. Archaeology and cultural heritage 84 6. Indigenous peoples and minority communities 89
V. STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN 91 A. Key Issues 91 1. Environmental 91 2. Social 92 3. Legal and Institutional 93 B. Strategic Environmental Management Plan 94 1. Environmental Issues 103 2. Social Issues 103 3. Legal and Institutional Issues 104
VI. CONCLUSIONS 106
VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 108
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TABLES
Table III-1: Summary of the main current environmental laws in the Kyrgyz Republic...... 10 Table III-2: Summary of the environmental permitting process...... 13 Table IV-1: Air Quality recorded in Cholpon-Ata (Annual average, )g/m3)...... 29 Table IV-2: Water use in the Issyk-Kul basin (million m3)...... 33 Table IV-3: Hydrological features of the main rivers of the Issyk-Kul basin...... 35 Table IV-4: Predicted and permitted yields of the groundwater deposits in Issyk-Kul artesian basin...... 38 Table IV-5: Hazards and their impacts in Issyk-Kul oblast, 2000-2008 ...... 43 Table IV-6: The fish fauna of Issyk-Kul Lake ...... 51 Table IV-7: Reported annual catches (metric tonnes) in Lake Issyk-Kul...... 53 Table IV-8: Protected areas within the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve ...... 57 Table IV-9: Industries in Issyk-Kul oblast (except mining) ...... 60 Table IV-10: Status of electricity distribution infrastructure in Issyk-Kul oblast...... 72 Table IV-11: Percentage of households below the poverty level, 1996-2006...... 81 Table IV-12: Health indicators in the Kyrgyz Republic 1990-97 ...... 82 Table V-1: Strategic Environmental Management Plan for Issyk-Kul Basin...... 95
FIGURES
Figure I-1: Location map of the study area...... 2 Figure III-1: Organisation structure of the State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry...... 15 Figure IV-1: Main physical features of the study area...... 19 Figure IV-2: Topography and geology of the Issyk-Kul basin...... 20 Figure IV-3: Distribution of the main soil types in the study area ...... 27 Figure IV-4: Climatic features of Issyk-Kul oblast, from meteorological station records: a) Przhevalsk (lake-side), 1930-80; b) Bolshaya Kyzylsuu (foothills), 1950-80; c) Koiliu (mountains), 1948-65...... 28 Figure IV-5: Bathymetry of Issyk-Kul Lake ...... 31 Figure IV-6: The rivers of Issyk-Kul basin...... 32 Figure IV-7: Level of the surface of Issyk-Kul Lake, 1925 - 2004...... 33 Figure IV-8: Locations of the main glaciers in the Kyrgyz Republic ...... 34 Figure IV-9: Results of selected water quality parameters recorded in Issyk-Kul Lake (bottom) and inflowing rivers (top) in 2008 and 2009...... 36 Figure IV-10: Areas of seismic risk in Issyk-Kul oblast ...... 40 Figure IV-11: Areas of avalanche risk in Issyk-Kul oblast ...... 41 Figure IV-12: Areas at risk of upland flooding and mud-flows in Issyk-Kul oblast ...... 42 Figure IV-13: Land-use zones and other protected areas in the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve..56 Figure IV-14: The main industries in the Issyk-Kul basin ...... 61 Figure IV-15: Transportation infrastructure in the Issyk-Kul basin ...... 66 Figure IV-16: Land use in the Issyk-Kul basin ...... 69 Figure IV-17: Land ownership in the Issyk-Kul basin...... 70 Figure IV-18: Agricultural Land use in Issyk Kul ...... 73 Figure IV-19: Existing and proposed tourism developments in the Issyk-Kul basin ...... 77 Figure IV-20: Population distribution in the Issyk-Kul basin ...... 79
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PHOTOS
Photo IV-1: Lake Issyk-Kul...... 21 Photo IV-2: Teskei Alatau mountains and foothills...... 21 Photo IV-3: View southwards in Karakol...... 23 Photo IV-4: Agriculture in the lake floodplain...... 23 Photo IV-5: Residential area in Karakol...... 24 Photo IV-6: Poorly maintained water supply pumps in Cholpon Ata...... 24 Photo IV-7: Cholpon-Ata, August 2009...... 25 Photo IV-8: Traditional yurts in the Tungei Alatau foothills...... 25 Photo IV-9: Inter-mountain glacial lake in the Teskei Alatau...... 44 Photo IV-10: Landslide area ...... 44 Photo IV-11: Desert area outside Balykchy...... 46 Photo IV-12: Grassland outside Karakol...... 46 Photo IV-13: Steppe on the northern side of Issyk-Kul basin...... 47 Photo IV-14: Conifer forest in the Teskei Alatau...... 47 Photo IV-15: Deciduous woodland in the lake floodplain...... 48 Photo IV-16: Reeds, shrubs and other vegetation at the edge of Issyk-Kul Lake...... 48 Photo IV-17: Kumtor gold mine in winter...... 58 Photo IV-18: Old uranium quarry and tailings...... 58 Photo IV-19: Pit latrine...... 62 Photo IV-20: Balykchy municipal solid waste dumpsite...... 62 Photo IV-21: People searching for recyclable materials at Cholpon-Ata dumpsite...... 64 Photo IV-22: A363 highway between Balykchy and Cholpon-Ata...... 64 Photo IV-23: Local road...... 66 Photo IV-24: Newly developed lakeside resort near Cholpon-Ata...... 70 Photo IV-25: District heating system in Karakol...... 70 Photo IV-26: Fruit sellers outside Karakol...... 74 Photo IV-27: Hotel in Karakol...... 74 Photo IV-28: Village near Karakol...... 79 Photo IV-29: Traditional farming near Karakol...... 79 Photo IV-30: Petroglyphs...... 85 Photo IV-31: Karakol Regional Museum...... 85 Photo IV-32: Dungan mosque in Karakol...... 86 Photo IV-33: Holy Trinity cathedral in Karakol...... 86 Photo IV-34: Monument to Nikolai Przewalski in Karakol...... 87 Photo IV-35: Former Soviet weapons development site in Karakol...... 87
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1 : Scope of Environmental Management Plan proposed by JICA (2004) 111 Appendix 2 : Water and Sediment Quality Data Provided by Biosphere Reserve 112 Directorate Appendix 3 : Summary of Discussions held with SAEPF, BRD and IKNIDEP 139
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A. Background
1. Issyk-Kul in north-eastern Kyrgyzstan is the world’s second largest saline lake and is internationally important for biodiversity, as well as being a major economic driver in the region, attracting around one million tourists annually. Escalating tourism and development of resorts along the northern shores have increased pressure on already malfunctioning infrastructure and the lake environment. The Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project is the first phase in a long-term initiative by ADB to improve environmental management and urban service delivery in the Issyk-Kul basin. The aims are to: improve infrastructure and urban services, foster tourism growth and protect the environment of the lake and basin; and stimulate institutional, legal and financial reforms to encourage further investment. This first project will improve water supply, sewerage/sanitation and solid waste management in the three main cities of Balykchy, Cholpon- Ata and Karakol and strengthen local government institutions to improve service delivery.
2. An earlier study by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA 2004) produced a plan to foster sustainable development in the Issyk-Kul basin, whilst protecting the environment, demonstrating decentralisation of government administration and promoting social and economic activities. This recommended 78 projects, of which 49 were proposed for immediate implementation because of their sustainability, social impact and effect on poverty reduction. One of the priority projects recommended “formulation and implementation of an environmental management plan for sustainable conservation of the Lake Issyk-Kul ecosystem” focusing on improving water quality via institutional and regulatory reforms, pollution control and monitoring. ADB decided to implement a similar study within this project, adopting a more strategic approach as environmental problems in the lake are mainly caused by inadequate management of activities in the basin. This study therefore examines environmental and social issues in the basin as a whole and develops a Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP), containing individual strategies and specific actions to address the main problems.
B. Approach
3. The work involved three main activities:
• Collection and review of existing data on physical, ecological, economic and socio- cultural resources in the basin; and the legislation and institutions involved in environmental management and development planning; • Identification of the key environmental, social, legal and institutional issues from a review of data and discussion with national experts, including specialists from the main environmental management bodies: State Agency for Environment Protection and Forestry (SAEPF); Biosphere Reserve Directorate (BRD); and Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department of Environmental Protection (IKNIDEP); • Preparation of a Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP), containing a strategy and specific actions to deal with each issue, a detailed explanation of the rationale and a programme giving the sequence and likely duration of each action.
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C. Policy, Legal and Administrative Framework
4. According to the Constitution adopted in 1993 the Kyrgyz Republic is a democratic semi- presidential republic, with an elected President as head of state and the Prime Minister as head of government. Parliament reverted to a unicameral system in 2007, comprising a Legislative Assembly (Joghorku Kenesh) of 90 members, elected from central party lists via a system of proportional representation. The Prime Minister is nominated by the President and confirmed by parliament; and a Cabinet of Ministers is appointed by the President from amongst elected parliamentary deputies on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.
5. The country is divided into seven provinces or oblasts, administered by government- appointed governors and officials. Each oblast comprises a number of districts (rayons) also administered by government-appointed officials (akim); and rayons are subdivided into ayl okmotu, consisting of up to 20 small settlements, with elected mayors and councils (kenesh). Central government is responsible for setting policy, defining standards, establishing legislation, generating state revenue and allocating budgets; and under decentralisation policies of the past decade, responsibility for the day-to-day administration of local affairs now lies at oblast level. Local state administrations are responsible for implementing national programmes locally and supervising the work of local authorities on behalf of the national government; and local government (oblast, rayon and kenesh) manage the delivery of public services.
6. Environmental legislation was first introduced to Kyrgyzstan in the Soviet era, when land, water and other natural resources were designated as national heritage, under state ownership. Since independence in 1991 the government has taken steps to replace much of the outdated legislation and has begun to establish its own system of environmental protection. Legal “codes” (eg land code 1999, forest code 1999, water code 2005) establish the framework for regulating environmental issues, within which other laws specify environmental quality standards, approaches to nature conservation, methods of waste management, etc. The government has also ratified many of the major international agreements of the past two decades, including the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity (1994), the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change (1997) and the Aarhus Convention on Public Participation in Decision-making (2001).
7. Land use planning is administered at all levels of local government (oblast, rayon, city and ayl-okmotu) and the local state administration monitors compliance with national policy as set out in the Country Development Strategy, oblast development strategies, and local physical plans. The main regulator is the State Agency on Architecture and Construction Management, which has a department in each city and oblast. There are procedural safeguards intended to ensure that development complies with standards of environmental and public health; and these include a system of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and State Ecological Expertise (SEE), whereby major developments are required to obtain construction and operation permits, which involve prior consideration of their environmental impacts.
8. The main environmental agencies in Issyk-Kul oblast are IKNIDEP and BRD, which are both departments of the central government environmental regulator SAEPF. IKNIDEP is responsible for implementing SAEPF operations in the region, which includes monitoring industry and developers to ensure compliance with regulations and standards and providing the environmental component of the project permitting process. BRD manages Isyk-Kul biosphere reserve, including collection of entrance fees and awareness-raising; and conducts scientific research and conservation activities.
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Baseline Environmental and Social Conditions
Aspect Summary of Main Features Geology and Issyk-Kul is in the east of the Kyrgyz Republic, between Kazakhstan in the north and China in the south and east. Topography Issyk-Kul lake is 180 km long and 60 km wide at 1,600 m above sea level and is enclosed by mountains: Kungei Alatau in the north (max 4,771 m) and Teskei Alatau in the south (5,216 m). The basin is 22,000 km2 and was formed 400-200 million years ago by tectonic collisions. The lake formed 25 million years ago as rivers drained into the basin. Landscape The landscape is one of rugged beauty, with snow-capped mountains and grass-covered foothills framing most vistas, contrasting with the flat landscape of the lake and floodplain. Population is sparse but man’s influence is very evident, having removed natural vegetation to provide land for agriculture and reduced conifer forest to small areas on hills. Soil Soil varies with altitude. Near the lake, soils are waterlogged and peaty from past vegetation growth. Other lowland soils have a high content of gravel/particles eroded from mountains or left by glaciers; and land is generally fertile in the east and sandy in the west. Mountain soil is shallow and infertile and there are various soils in mountain hollows. Climate Climate is modified by the lake (which never freezes) and mountains (which protect the basin from cold northern and hot southern air). Near the lake average air temperature peaks at 17 °C in July (daytime values reach 30 °C) and falls to -7 °C in January (-25 °C at night). Temperature is around 10 °C lower in the mountains. Precipitation occurs mostly in summer and increases west to east (115 mm/y Balykchy; 600 mm Kungei Alatau). 60% of wind is from the west. Air Quality Air quality is relatively good because the area is sparsely populated so traffic pollution is not excessive; and industrial output has fallen since independence. Road traffic increases in summer so air quality may decline somewhat then. Noise Most parts of the oblast have relatively low levels of noise because of the low population and traffic density and limited industry. Noise increases in summer as traffic and visitor numbers rise but noise volume should not be excessive. Surface Water Issyk-Kul lake covers 6,200 km2 and is the second largest saline lake in the world. It has a maximum depth of 668 m and a floodplain of 3,000 km2. There are 188 rivers in the basin, of which 80 flow into the lake, but there is no outflow. Lake water level fell by 3.5 m in the last century, mainly because of the diversion of river water for irrigation. There are 800 glaciers in the basin covering 650 km2 which feed rivers with relatively clean water in spring when river flows peak Water Quality Previous studies suggest the lake is polluted by: sewage discharged into rivers and percolating in from pit latrines via groundwater; nitrate and phosphate draining from farmland; metals leaching from mining waste; etc. Recent data from BRD however show little evidence of pollution and suggest that the lake is high in oxygen and low in BOD, nitrate, etc. Sediment Quality Previous data and the BRD study show elevated levels of certain metals in lake sediments, which may originate from mine waste; but this cannot be proven without more detailed studies, which should cover a wider range of pollutants. Groundwater There is a large artesian basin under the lake, with 3 strata. Most groundwater is in the upper layer of Quaternary sediment; and the middle stratum of consolidated Mesozoic-Cenozoic rocks contains mostly old waters in sandstone and grit-stone. Groundwater provides most of the domestic water, from public abstraction and private wells. Seismicity The Ministry of Emergency Situations classifies most of the south of the oblast as moderately high seismic risk and parts of the north and east as high risk. The area has a long history of earthquakes, although low population density and low-rise buildings generally limit damage and loss of life. The largest recent incident occurred on 19 August 1992. Other Natural Other natural hazards are mainly related to seismic activity, the mountainous terrain or climate. The most frequent Hazards hazards are mud-flows/flooding (particularly from outburst of glacial lakes), avalanches and earthquakes. However the major source of fatalities (60%, 62 deaths in 2000-2008) was human accidents, mainly caused by road traffic. Biodiversity and Grassland is the dominant terrestrial habitat, covering much of the floodplain and foothills and is part of the vast Habitats steppe region of Central Asia. Desert occurs in the west and northwest and forest is now a minor habitat, covering 3% of the land area. Alpine meadows occur at higher altitudes, plus tundra with dwarf shrubs, grass and mosses. There are certain rare plants in the basin, including nine listed as endangered in the Red Data Book of the Kyrgyz Republic. Wildlife The fauna is diverse as it includes species from many adjacent areas plus endemics that have evolved in the isolated lake and mountains. There are 335 species of terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates, including 4 amphibians, 31 fish, 11 reptiles and 54 mammals. Rare species include snow leopard, Siberian ibex, Tien Shan brown bear, saker falcon, Pallas’ fish eagle, etc. There are also a number of rare and important invertebrates, including 12 endangered insects. Lake Issyk-Kul The lake is internationally important for biodiversity, mainly because it houses 12 endemic fish and attracts large numbers of overwintering and migrating birds. Phytoplankton is dominated by blue-green algae and zooplankton by rotifers and the copepod Arctodiaptomus salinus. There are macrophytes at the margins and on the bed in shallow water, with Chara (pondweed) the most common. There are 26 fish species; and 224 zoobenthic taxa in/on the bed. Fisheries In the Soviet era ten alien fish species were introduced to the lake to improve the yield of the fishery. This involved restocking with hundreds of thousands of eggs or fry annually. Of the introductions only zander, sevan trout and whitefish contribute significantly to catches, and native species have declined, in particular the endemic naked osman, which is almost extinct. Commercial catches peaked at 1,300 t in 1965 but declined to 278 t in 1990 and 10 t in 2003. Protected Areas Issyk-Kul oblast includes almost every category of protected area specified in national legislation. The most important areas are the 20,000 ha Issyk-Kul Nature Reserve, which includes the lake and ten other land plots, Sarychat-Ertash Nature Reserve at 2,000-5,000 m south of Karakol, and Karakol National Park (38,245 ha) in the Teskei Alatau. Issyk-Kul Issyk-Kul Nature Reserve was declared a Ramsar Site (wetland of international importance, especially as waterfowl Biosphere habitat) in 1975. In 2001 UNESCO established Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve, with the same boundary as the oblast. Reserve Biosphere reserves protect important habitats, ecosystems and cultural areas while supporting sustainable economic and social development. There are 4 zones with different levels of protection: core, buffer, transition and rehabilitation. Industry Industrial output in the Soviet era included heavy industry (metal-work, munitions), light industry (electronics, textiles)
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and agriculture (meat, wool, cotton, tobacco). Production has declined dramatically post-independence and the main industries are now agriculture and mining (mainly the Kumtor gold mine, which contributes 10% of national GDP). Infrastructure Spending on public infrastructure has fallen and many systems need rehabilitation. Wells in rural areas have not been maintained and piped water systems in towns lose ~50% by leakage and do not reach new housing. Sewerage covers only the centre of towns; treatment plants do not function; and most people use septic tanks or pit latrines. Solid waste is collected from only a proportion of the population and is deposited an un-engineered insanitary open dumpsites. Transportation This region has long been important for transport and was one of the routes of the Silk Road between China and the west. Today the A363 highway is the main artery, encircling the lake, connecting the main settlements and running east to Kazakhstan/China and west to Bishkek. There are regional airports at Karakol and Cholpon-Ata; and several ports on the lake operating ferries and other craft. Most facilities are however in need of investment and repair. Land Use The basin consists of 6,426 km2 of water (28%) and 16,580 km2 of land, the majority of which is unused. In 1996, 56% of the area was grassland, 21% grass/woodland and 5% forest. Agriculture is the main land use (14% excluding grazing) and only 0.5% (89 km2) is built up, reflecting low population density and lack of major industry. Inhabited areas and farm land are mainly in the floodplain and the east and northern shores are more populated. Land Ownership Land reform progressed rapidly after independence as plots were sold or given by the government to households and private enterprise. Most privately-owned land is in urban and agricultural areas and government owns most other land Power Sources Electricity is generated by hydropower in Naryn and Jalal-Abad oblasts and natural gas is imported. Electricity from and Transmission Naryn is transmitted to Balykchy substation and in a ring around the lake to Karakol. Government claim 100 % access to electricity but many distribution lines and transformers require overhaul/replacement and power cuts are frequent. District heating systems supply only small proportions of urban areas and most people burn wood, coal or dried dung. Agriculture Employment in agriculture has declined but it is still the main economic activity in the republic and in Issyk-Kul oblast where it employs 55% of workers. 80% of farm land in Issyk-Kul is used for pasture (sheep, goats, cattle) and 18% is cultivated (wheat, fodder, potatoes, barley) and the oblast supplies 10-20% of the country’s grain and fruit. People also practice subsistence farming which supplements family income and provides a good proportion of their food. Tourism Tourism is one of the few industries to expand since independence and the lake, mountains and health spas of Issyk- Kul are major attractions. There were around 60,000 visitors in 1999 and a million in 2008 (~70% of the country total). Facilities include resorts, hotels, guest houses and community-based tourism in cottages and yurts. Many privately owned resorts have been built in contravention of planning law, with no consideration of environmental impacts. Population and The population of the Kyrgyz Republic is 5.2 million (2008) and that of Issyk-Kul oblast ~450,000. In the oblast gender Demography distribution is normal at 50:50 and about 40% of people are below working age and 10% above. Household size is 6-7 persons and population density is low at around 10/km2. Around 70% of people live in rural areas and 30% in urban and the main population centres are the cities of Karakol (66,700), Balykchy (43,400) and Cholpon-Ata (12,100). Public Health Healthcare is free, although the quality of service has declined since independence because of under-funding. Doctor/ patient ratios are similar to western countries but facilities are inferior, lacking enough hospitals, clinics, beds, trained staff, drugs and equipment; rural areas are very poorly served. In Issyk-Kul there are 7 polyclinics, 55 group family doctors, 114 first-aid stations and 7 hospitals. The main diseases are brucellosis, TB, hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS, anaemia. Education Education has also declined since independence because of under-funding. Pupil/teacher ratios are good but facilities are often limited, particularly in rural areas. Currently in the oblast 3,800 children attend 38 pre-school institutions (4-6 years) and 91,874 attend 3 primary schools (6-11) and 191 high schools (11-17). There are also vocational schools focusing on developing skills, professional colleges, sports schools, lyceums and 6 universities or university institutes. Socio-economics Economic difficulties following independence were acute in Kyrgyzstan as 98% of exports were to the Soviet Union. Factories and state farms closed as markets disappeared and the government had to end subsidies and reduce public spending. Despite a partial recovery, poverty and unemployment are still high (~40%). Household expenditure is around 25,000 Som/y and average income from farming is 7,500 Som (net) and livestock 10,000 Som (net). Archaeology and Kyrgyzstan has been inhabited for >3,000 years and most occupants have developed settlements in Issyk-Kul, which Cultural Heritage is quite rich in historical sites/relics. These include: Saka burial grounds (6th century BC to 5th century AD); petroglyphs (illustrated glacial boulders) from the Bronze Age to more recent times; finds of jewellery, weaponry, etc on display in local museums; and sites from the Soviet era, including the grave/monument of the explorer N Przewalski in Karakol. Indigenous and There are ~70 nationalities in Issyk-Kul, including Kyrgyz (70%), Uzbek (14.5%) and Russian (8.7%). Several others Minority make up around 1% each of the population: Dungan (Chinese Muslims); Uyghur (Turkic Muslims); Tajik; and Kazakh. Communities These and other groups co-exist with little sign of tension and no obvious discrimination. Large numbers of Russians left in the past 20 years but this has now stabilised. 75% of people are Muslim and 20% are Russian Orthodox.
D. Strategic Environmental Management Plan
9. The review of baseline data summarised above and discussions with national experts highlighted 15 issues, considered to be the key environmental, social and legal/institutional problems in the basin. The table below summarises the Strategic Environmental Management Plan, which was developed to provide solutions to these problems. Further details of the strategies, actions and the rationale are provided in the SEMP report (Chapter V).
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Summary of Strategic Environmental Management Plan for Issyk-Kul Basin
Issue Remediation Strategy and Rationale Actions to Achieve Remediation Resp1 Programme (y) 1. Environmental 1 2 3 4 5 >5 1. Lake Water Quality - said to be reduced Many studies claim that water quality is a problem in the 1. Upgrade the existing laboratory of Interregional Dept of IKNIDEP by pollution from: sewage discharged into lake, but recent BRD data show little evidence of pollution. Environmental Protection to achieve national accreditation rivers and the lake and percolating from pit Water quality may have improved with decline in industry 2. Design/implement water quality monitoring (lake, rivers, Cons latrines via groundwater; runoff of fertilizers and farming over the past 20 years. More data are needed groundwater) to determine levels and sources of pollutants from farm land; industrial discharges; runoff to examine these issues to determine if there is a water 3. Design/implement monthly water quality monitoring (lake IKNIDEP from tailings dumps at mines; etc. quality problem, identify pollution sources and plan rivers, groundwater) of standard parameters and pollutants remedial action if necessary. Laboratory facilities need to be upgraded to enable local analyses. Pollution control 4. Review data from new and historical monitoring; identify IKNIDEP legislation should also be reviewed and revised so that extent and sources of pollutants; propose remedial action and Cons local authorities can apply sanctions to polluters. 5. Review water quality legislation; compare with systems Cons elsewhere (EU, USA); recommend improvements if needed 2. Lake Sediment Quality – likely to be Data from BRD and EU TACIS show elevated levels of 1. Design/implement sediment quality monitoring in lake to Cons reduced by present and past water quality metals in lake sediments, but data cover a limited area determine levels and sources of pollutants problems as sediment is a sink for many and few determinands. More data are needed to 2. Design/implement biannual sediment quality monitoring IKNIDEP toxic/persistent chemicals eg heavy metals, determine the extent of pollution, identify sources and plan in lake, covering standard parameters and main pollutants radioactive elements, pesticides. remedial action if necessary. This should also examine 3. Review data from new and historical monitoring; identify IKNIDEP historical data to analyse pollution trends. extent and sources of pollutants; propose remedial action and Cons 3. Lake Water Level – has declined by ~30 JICA study recommended adding 2 stations to Gidromet’s 1. Add 2 hydrological/meteorological stations to Gidromet Gidromet mm/y throughout 20th century, mainly hydrological and meteorological monitoring network and network; observe upper atmosphere by radio-sonde because of abstraction of river water for observing upper atmosphere by radio-sonde to examine 2. Survey extent and composition of plant habitats at lake BRD irrigation. This has reduced the area of the reasons for water level changes. This should also review margins and compare with historical data to show trends lake and coverage by plants in shallow data on water level, hydrology, meteorology, abstraction; water, which are important in fish life cycles and surveys of plant cover: to determine reasons and 3. Review new and historical data; identify causes of water Cons and remove pollutants from the water. impacts of water level changes and plan remediation. level fluctuations; propose action to maintain optimum level 4. Lake Ecosystem – has been damaged More data are needed before effective remediation can be 1. Survey dynamics of all fish in lake; compare historical Cons by introduction of foreign fish species to planned. Data should examine population dynamics of all data; plan strategy to maintain commercial & native species boost the fishery. Some of these have fish species and compare with historical data to determine 2. Design/implement monthly monitoring of commercial and Fish Dep multiplied at the expense of native species why changes have occurred. A strategy should maintain native fish in the lake: density, size, age, breeding, etc and BRD and one very rare fish is almost extinct. healthy populations of commercial and native species. 5. Terrestrial Habitats – have been greatly It is impracticable to re-convert good quality farm land to 1. Review and revise the current system of land use SAACM reduced by activities of man, in particular natural habitat in the current economic climate. Instead planning in the oblast as recommended in 3.1.1 below and Cons removal of vegetation to provide farm land, effort should focus on reform of the land-use planning 2. Plot farm land on GIS maps; check current use; select BRD felling of trees for timber and fuel, and system to prevent further habitat loss and reinstating unused government land for habitat recreation schemes overgrazing of pasture. Current economic habitat on unused farm land where possible. 3. Prepare plans for habitat creation and fauna introduction; BRD difficulties exacerbating some problems (tree-felling and hunting/poaching). implement and monitor 4 pilot projects 4. Review data on pilot projects; modify approach; select BRD areas for further pilot projects; plan and implement
1 Resp: This shows the agency likely to be responsible for most of the action indicated (Cons = Consultants; IKNIDEP = Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department of Environmental Protection; Gidromet = State Agency for Hydrometeorology; BRD = Biodiversity Reserve Directorate; Fish Dep = State Department of Fisheries; SAACM = State Agency on Architecture and Construction Management; IK Oblast = Issyk-Kul Oblast Administration; SAEPF = State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry).
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2. Social 1. Poverty – because of the harsh These four aspects were also key issues in the 2004 JICA 1. Preparatory studies for implementation of Integrated SAACM economic climate, unemployment and study, which prepared an Integrated and Sustainable Development Plan prepared by JICA: a) new Steering and Cons poverty are high, people have little Development Plan for the Issyk-Kul basin, with Committee chaired by Prime Minister or other high official; opportunity to improve their socio-economic environmental protection as a major component. b) consultants to review/update plan; c) implementation status and the government does not have Although the SEMP and JICA study had different programme; d) secure funding for first wave of projects enough resources to provide an adequate objectives, in the social sector they examined similar safety net through social welfare services. issues and came to the same conclusions regarding the 2. Industry and Agriculture – have both key problems and potential solutions. These are that: 2. Establish management structure (Project Implementation SAACM • declined in the post-Soviet era. Industry is Tourism is the main economic driver in the basin; Unit, Issyk-Kul Development Forum); engage consultants and Cons now almost non-existent (except for Kumtor • Agriculture and industry also need to be rejuvenated to for supporting/coordinating roles; obtain funding, allocate gold mine); and agriculture operates at provide additional employment and economic stimulus; budgets and responsibilities (via legislation if necessary); reduced volume with outdated techniques • There is good potential for niche products and markets, implement the first tranche of JICA priority projects and equipment and poor profit margins. eg agricultural products or local items for sale to tourists 3. Natural Resources – are rich in Issyk- • Under-investment in physical infrastructure has negative 3. Review implementation success after 5 years. Examine: SAACM Kul, which provides an opportunity to social and environmental impacts. achievements vs programme and budget; quality of and Cons develop niche markets to increase The JICA Plan proposes 78 projects to be implemented by infrastructure, materials, training, support; financial prosperity, eg renewable energy, herb stakeholder groups over 20 years at a cost of $380 million. performance; stakeholder feedback; etc. Recommend cultivation, etc. These require investment 49 priority projects were proposed for immediate improvements; prepare plans for next tranche of projects and organisation, plus high standards of implementation. The JICA study provides a blueprint for environmental protection to avoid achieving effective solutions to the key social problems in damaging biodiversity. the basin, which has wide support, from stakeholders 4. Physical Infrastructure – is dilapidated involved in developing the proposals, to the highest level 4. Implement the next tranche of projects following the SAACM of national government via a Steering Committee chaired because of under-investment and this is revised programme, procedure and recommendations and Cons contributing to social deprivation. Water by the Prime Minister. The SEMP thus recommends provided following the review of the first phase of supply does not reach new housing; implementation of the JICA Master Plan as a means of implementation sewers are available only in the centre of solving key social issues identified by both studies. Implementation should be preceded by preparatory urban areas; solid waste is deposited at 5. Conduct a further review every five years before SAACM studies to give the new government the opportunity to open dumpsites; roads are in need of implementing the next tranche of projects taking into and Cons repair; power cuts are frequent; and district amend the plan to comply with current objectives and account recommendations of previous reviews heating serves few people. financial circumstances if necessary.
5. Social Infrastructure – is also greatly The healthcare and education sectors were also reviewed 1. Discuss education needs with ministries, oblast and local Cons under-funded. Medical facilities are often by the JICA study, and again the findings were similar to teachers; review data; prepare prioritised lists of needs; unsanitary and ill-equipped, and schools those reported by the SEMP. However in this case the prepare 1 pilot project at each level (pre-school to tertiary) and colleges are similarly under-resourced. JICA study recommended only three relatively minor 2. Implement pilot projects (one in each rayon). Engage IK Oblast The situation is worse in rural areas. projects, which do not aim to effect large-scale consultants to assess the success of each scheme and Cons improvements throughout the oblast. The SEMP therefore recommends more concerted action by the 3. Replicate pilot projects in other rayons. Continue until all IK Oblast implementation of pilot projects, which could then be improvements identified by initial study (5.1) are provided and Cons replicated in all rayons as budget becomes available. 4. Conduct identical process in the health sector. Discuss IK Oblast needs with government and local professionals; costed lists and Cons of improvements; prepare one pilot project at each level 5. Implement pilot projects (one in each rayon). Engage IK Oblast consultants to assess the success of each scheme. and Cons 6. Replicate pilot projects in other rayons. Continue until all IK Oblast improvements identified by initial study (5.4) are provided. and Cons
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3. Legal and Institutional 1. Environmental Management by the An inadequate land use planning system is a key issue in 1. Implement JICA Master Plan as recommended above. SAACM devolved local government – is ineffective. the basin because of the relationship between human Review and update Plan; ensure that environmental issues and Cons The local authority exerts little control over activity and environmental quality. The JICA study noted are a key decision-making criterion in plan and projects; development or its impacts and is unable or the complexity of the planning and approvals system and complete other preparatory studies; implement projects unwilling to impose sanctions. This is lack of detailed physical plans at local (ayl okmotu) level 2. Assess oblast institutions as outlined in 3.2.1 below. SAEPF exemplified by the recent proliferation of and recommended 3 projects to restructure the spatial Implement recommended strengthening measures tourism facilities that contravene planning planning system and streamline land use approvals. This 3. Assess basin environmental management system and SAEPF law and policy, where no action has been would improve environmental management by allowing implementing institutions as recommended in 3.3 - 3.5 taken against developers. the local authority to exert more control over development, below. Implement recommended strengthening measures so this reinforces the recommendation to implement the JICA study as a means of addressing a further problem identified by the SEMP. Revision of the land use system must establish environmental protection as a key criterion and must also strengthen local institutions (see 3.2 below). 2. Local Government is under-resourced – Items 3.2 -3.5 highlight similar issues, which suggest that 1. Assess environmental management institutions (staff, Cons people, skills, finance are insufficient to the system of environmental management in the basin facilities, training); recommend changes needed to perform allow the authority to perform its duties needs to be restructured and streamlined, and that the roles in revised environmental management system (3.4) adequately. In environmental management institutions involved need to be strengthened considerably. lack of trained manpower is a key issue, This item covers the institutional assessment, which 2. Obtain budget and implement the strengthening IK Oblast and inadequate budget, which does not should be integrated with a revision of the environmental measures recommended by the institutional study. enable basic environmental monitoring management system as described in 3.3 below. 3. Environmental Legislation – is complex Legislative complexity is common to many former Soviet 1. Review environmental legislation; identify contradiction, Cons and difficult to understand and apply. states where new governments have implemented new omission, overlap; review environmental management Environmental legislation includes over 150 legislation without properly reviewing or repealing existing systems; compare with those elsewhere (EU, USA) and IFI legal acts, with many contradictions, laws. Some countries have subsequently simplified their safeguards; recommend changes; develop project conflicts and omissions; and little guidance. systems and that seems to be required here. 2. Obtain budget and implement project to amend Kyrgyz SAEPF environmental legislation. Train oblast staff in new roles 4. Environmental Management in the basin Item 3.3 emphasises the promulgation of straightforward Implement the project proposed in 3.3 above SAEPF – is impeded by the number of responsible legislation and systems, so when implemented this should agencies. The 5 main bodies are BRD, simplify the environmental management system, making it IKNIDEP, Ecological Supervisory Service, easier to understand and comply with. This process IK Hunting Authority and Karakol National should reduce the number of agencies with responsibilities Park Service, but at least 9 other agencies in the environmental management process at oblast level, have some environmental responsibility. so this should address this issue. 5. BRD and IKNIDEP – are the two main Overlap between BRD and IKNIDEP and the uncertain 1. Review roles of BRD and IKNIDEP; revise if necessary; SAEPF agencies responsible for environmental status of BRD is hindering environmental management as ensure no overlap and that all SAEPF responsibilities are protection in the basin and there appears to limited resources are being spent on similar programmes covered; define roles clearly; inform both directors and be confusion regarding their status and (eg water quality monitoring) whilst other elements are make them responsible for inter-agency integration and responsibility, leading to overlap in some being overlooked. Roles will be revised by project 3.3, but cooperation; train staff in duties; hold joint seminars. fields and a lack of coverage in others. SAEPF should clarify present roles to improve operation of 2. Raise profile of BRD in SAEPF via seminars to explain SAEPF the existing system. BRD role/capacity; inform oblast and others via brochure.
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E. Conclusions 10. This study examines the environmental and social issues of the Issyk-Kul basin and the system of environmental management, from an extensive review of existing information and discussions with national experts in these fields.
11. The analysis shows that the basin is internationally important for biodiversity, but its environment has been greatly altered by the activities of man, in particular the removal of natural habitat to provide land for agriculture, inappropriate disposal of domestic and industrial waste, and the introduction of foreign species to the lake in attempts to boost the fishery. These and other environmentally damaging activities were more intensive in the past and have declined in the post-Soviet era and there is some evidence that reduced industrial and agricultural output may be having a beneficial environmental impact.
12. The country has experienced severe economic difficulties since independence and government action to stabilise the economy has increased pressure on people, many of whom currently face significant hardships. Poverty and unemployment are high and social services and public infrastructure are under-resourced and inadequate. Impacts are mitigated to an extent by traditional practices (smallholdings provide a good proportion of household food and family members support each other in difficult times). However Cholpon-Ata is the only area that shows any real sign of prosperity, as the centre of the growing tourism industry.
13. The system of environmental management is operated by the oblast administration as one of the powers devolved to local government by decentralisation policies in the past decade. However environmental legislation is voluminous and difficult to understand and apply; the environmental management system is complex and unwieldy; and responsible agencies are under-resourced in terms of staff, skills and budget. Environmental management is therefore largely ineffective and there is little control over development, as evidenced by the growth of tourist resorts near the lake in contravention of planning law and with little consideration of their environmental impacts.
14. This study identifies 15 issues as the key environmental, social and legal/institutional problems in the basin. A Strategic Environmental Management Plan was developed, which provides a strategy for dealing with each issue, via a series of specific actions. The SEMP explains the rationale for each strategy and action and provides an implementation programme.
15. The SEMP proposes 36 activities to address the 15 issues, to be implemented over a period of 10 years. These are not the only problem areas in these fields in the oblast, but there is general agreement in the literature and amongst experts consulted that these are the main issues; and there is little doubt that socio-economic conditions and the natural environment would be greatly improved if they were remedied in the manner suggested.
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I. INTRODUCTION
A. Background
1. The Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project was identified by the ADB/Kyrgyz Republic joint country support strategy for 2007-10 and is the first phase in a long-term initiative by ADB to support environmental management and improve urban service delivery in the Issyk- Kul basin. The aims are to: improve the infrastructure and quality of urban services, foster tourism growth and protect the environment of the Issyk-Kul Lake and basin; and stimulate institutional, legal and financial reforms to provide a positive climate for further investment (public, private and partnerships). This first project will improve urban infrastructure (water supply, sewerage/sanitation, solid waste and community upgrading) in the three main cities of Balykchy, Cholpon-Ata and Karakol; and implement a programme of institutional strengthening to improve service delivery through enhanced management.
2. ADB’s Country Development Strategy 2009-11 emphasises environmental sustainability and the need to protect Issyk-Kul Lake, and features this project as a strategic investment. In February 2009 the “Concept of Sustainable Development of the Ecological and Economic System of Issyk-Kul (the Issyk-Kul Development Concept)” was passed by Decree of the President of the Kyrgyz Republic; and in May 2009 the Government passed a resolution that prioritizes implementation of this project.
3. Issyk-Kul (“warm lake”) is the world’s second largest saline lake and is internationally important for biodiversity. This is reflected in its recognition by UNESCO as a Biosphere Reserve and the designation of several protected areas in the basin as a Ramsar Site (wetland of international importance for waterfowl). The lake is also a major economic driver in the region, attracting around 1 million tourists annually (~70% of the country’s total), which increases the population by a factor of four in the summer. Escalating tourism and the development of resorts along the northern shores have increased pressure on already malfunctioning municipal infrastructure, and the lake environment.
4. The Issyk Kul Sustainable Development Project is classified by ADB as Environmental Assessment Category A, because it will involve construction work to improve infrastructure within the biosphere reserve (the boundaries of which coincide with those of the oblast, Figure I- 1). The PPTA study through which the project was developed in 2009, therefore included an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) conducted according to ADB’s Environment Policy (2002) and Environmental Assessment Guidelines (2003), and social studies in compliance with the policy on Involuntary Resettlement (1995) and Indigenous Peoples (1998).
B. Rationale for this study
5. This report presents a proposed Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) for the Issyk Kul basin. The stimulus for preparation of a SEMP came from an earlier study, funded by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), “The study on integrated development plan of Issyk-Kul zone in the Kyrgyz Republic” (JICA 2004). This was aimed at promoting sustainable development in the Issyk-Kul region, protecting the environment of the lake and basin, and demonstrating administrative decentralization combined with development of social and economic activities.
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Figure I-1: Location map of the study area
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6. Inter alia the JICA study concluded that: (a) tourism development is the main driver for integrated development in the Issyk-Kul region, but agricultural development and community empowerment should also be accelerated; (b) increasing the number of tourists will affect the natural environment, but negative impacts can be contained if land-use and the environment are properly managed; (c) industries should be orientated towards niche products and markets, to maximise usage of local resources (eg herb cultivation and processing); and (d) infrastructure, including water supply, sewerage, solid waste management, power, telecommunications and transportation, still requires substantial improvement.
7. The study recommended 78 projects and programmes to bring about an appropriate scale of integrated development, aimed at “formation of a regional cluster to obtain the principal objective of creating a ‘healthy and harmonized region of Issyk-Kul’ in the short, medium and longer terms”. From these, 49 projects were selected for immediate implementation, based on their sustainability, efficiency, social impact, effect on poverty reduction and relevance. These covered the fields of: state governance and institutions; environmental management; land use; social and community development; investment promotion and the financial sector; agriculture; tourism; industrial development; and infrastructure.
8. Priority projects in environmental management were:
(i) Formulation and implementation of an environmental management plan for sustainable conservation of the ecosystem of Lake Issyk-Kul; (ii) Reinforcement of laws and institutional systems on the environment of Lake Issyk- Kul; (iii) Environmental education/awareness building (water quality monitoring by secondary school students); (iv) Establishment of a data management system for sustainability of the water environment using GIS; (v) Restoration of the water purification function in the lake transition zone; (vi) Project for the management of water level change.
C. Scope of SEMP study
9. The final report of the JICA study provided outline scopes of work for each of the priority projects and the scope for the environmental management plan (EMP) is shown in Appendix 1 below. This focuses on improving water quality of the lake via institutional and regulatory reforms, water quality control and monitoring.
10. ADB decided to adopt a more strategic approach to the environmental management elements of the Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development project, in recognition of the fact that many of the water quality problems of the lake are derived from inadequate planning and management of activities in the catchment. It was decided therefore to examine the environmental issues in the lake basin as a whole, to determine the causes of the major problems as far as possible from existing data, and to establish a framework within which these can be addressed via future studies. This was accomplished by preparing a Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP).
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11. The aims of the SEMP study were to:
• Review and assess the existing environment of the lake and its basin, and the system for environmental management in the area; • Identify any major environmental issues and develop a strategy for remedial action over the long term; • Consider institutional and legislative measures if necessary, including means to enhance the role of the Biosphere Reserve Directorate (BRD) if appropriate.
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II. APPROACH
A. Collection of baseline data
12. Baseline data is important in many types of environmental study as knowledge of existing conditions is essential in understanding a problem and devising solutions. In this case data collection covered the main elements of the natural and human environments as recommended by ADB Environmental Assessment Guidelines. These are:
Physical Resources: Geology and geomorphology; topography; landscape; soils; climate; air quality; noise; surface water; groundwater; seismology; natural hazards;
Ecological Resources: Fisheries; aquatic biology; wildlife; forests; rare or endangered species; protected areas;
Economic Development: Industries; infrastructure; transportation; land use; power sources and transmission; agricultural development; mineral resources and tourism;
Social and Cultural Resources: Population and communities; health facilities and public health; education facilities and standards; socio- economics; physical or cultural heritage; indigenous peoples and minority communities; structures or sites of historical, archaeological, paleontological or architectural significance.
13. Information was also collected on the organisations and institutions responsible for environmental management in the Issyk-Kul basin, and those involved in development planning, as well as the main instruments of policy and legislation in these fields. This included an analysis of:
• The policy and legal framework for environmental management, including development planning, environmental permitting, environmental quality standards, etc; • The institutional basis for environmental management and protection, including roles, responsibility, capacity and capability of all key organisations; • Current programmes of environmental management and monitoring in the basin and planned future developments.
14. Data collection relied on existing information as there was no provision for survey work in this element of the project. Data were obtained on as many of the above topics as possible, from the most likely sources. These included:
• The State Agency for the Protection of Environment and Forestry; • Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve Directorate; • Other relevant ministries and government departments (Fisheries, Agriculture, Geology, etc);
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• Books, scientific papers and other published literature; • Consultancy reports and other unpublished documents; • Consultation with experts from universities and other academic and research institutes in Bishkek and Issyk-Kul oblast.
B. Analysis of issues and impacts
15. All baseline data collected were reviewed and analysed and used to prepare the written description of the legislative and institutional framework for environmental management in the basin, presented in Chapter III below, and the description of existing environmental and socio- cultural conditions, presented in Chapter IV.
16. Problem areas in the administrative framework were identified by comparing the legislative provisions and institutional roles and capacity with those of other countries and systems elsewhere, and by discussion with experts working in the key institutions. Environmental and social issues were identified by comparing data with established standards and criteria (such as water and air quality standards, habitat and species rarity values, etc), and by using expert judgement based on past experience. Issues were also identified by consultation with experts involved in environmental management and monitoring in the basin.
17. The key issues are identified and discussed in Chapter V below, and the rationale for identifying each issue is given. The nature and extent of the problem are also explained, referring to evidence from the data as far as possible.
C. Environmental Management Strategy
18. A remediation strategy was then developed, including both short-term actions to address critical or urgent issues, and more long-term activities aimed at either maintaining the status quo or achieving sustainable improvements where necessary. This covers all of the main areas of study: legislation, institutions, and the natural and human environments.
19. The Strategic Environmental Management Plan is presented in Chapter V. It describes:
• Key issues, with an explanation of the nature and extent of the problem; • The proposed remediation strategy for dealing with each issue, with a rationale explaining why the strategy was devised and what it is intended to achieve; • A series of specific actions to address each issue, with a description of the action and recommendations regarding the agency that should be responsible for each; • A programme showing the likely scheduling and duration of each action;
20. Derivation of the various measures was largely based on expert judgement, through an understanding of the various environmental or social issues and potential mitigation measures, and knowledge of remedial measures that have been used to address similar problems elsewhere. Reference was also made to available guidelines in this field, in particular the ADB Environmental Assessment Guidelines (2003) and the World Bank Environmental Assessment Sourcebook (1991) and Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook (1998).
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III. POLICY, LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK
A. Legal Framework
1. Executive and legislative system
21. According to the Constitution adopted in 1993, the Kyrgyz Republic is a democratic semi-presidential republic, with the President as head of state and the Prime Minister as head of government. The President is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and the Prime Minister is nominated by the President and confirmed by parliament. A Cabinet of Ministers is appointed by the President from amongst elected parliamentary deputies, on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Executive2 power resides with the President and the Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister. After various changes following referenda in the post- Soviet era, the republic reverted to a unicameral3 legislature in 2007, comprising a Legislative Assembly (Joghorku Kenesh) of 90 members, elected from central party lists via a system of proportional representation.
22. The Constitution is the supreme law of the state, with which all legal acts must comply. Ratified international conventions prevail over national legal acts, providing they do not contradict the Constitution. Precedence in national law is in the order of: Constitution; laws; presidential decrees; government regulations; orders and regulations issued by ministries; and provisions regulating the activities of local administrations. Only parliament may amend the Constitution, change or pass laws or ratify international agreements. If there is a conflict between laws the hierarchy prevails, and if hierarchy is equal, the more recent act prevails. Compliance with legal acts adopted by the authorized state or local government body is mandatory for Kyrgyz citizens and others visiting the country, unless otherwise noted in the act or an international agreement.
23. The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary via a Supreme Court, a Constitutional Court, local courts and a Chief Prosecutor. Most cases originate in local courts, after which they can move via the appeals process to municipal or regional courts, to the Supreme Court as the final court of appeal. The legal system however lacks certain protections of Western jurisprudence, such as trial by jury, the right to counsel and the presumption of innocence, which are guaranteed by law, but not always practiced.
2. Governance
24. The country is divided into seven provinces or oblasts, administered by government- appointed governors and officials. There are also two administratively-independent cities (shaar) - the capital Bishkek and the 2nd largest city Osh, which have a status equal to that of an oblast. Each oblast comprises a number of districts (rayons), also administered by government- appointed officials (akim), and rayons are subdivided into ayl okmotu, consisting of up to 20 small settlements, with elected mayors and councils (kenesh).
2 Day-to-day running of the state bureaucracy 3 One chamber
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25. The “National Strategy for Further Decentralisation and Local Self-Government Development in the Kyrgyz Republic” (2002) and the “Law on Local Self-government and Local State Administration” (2008) were intended to develop an effective system of local self- government by 2010. Key elements included delegation of authority and responsibility for providing basic infrastructure and services, and the devolution of power through three tiers of governance:
(i) State/central government: responsible for setting policy, defining standards, providing guidelines, generating revenue for the state and allocating budgets; (ii) Local state administrations: responsible for managing state property, implementing national programmes locally, and supervising the work of local authorities on behalf of the national government; (iii) Local government (oblast, rayon, kenesh): manage the delivery of public services.
26. The kenesh, oblast and local state administrations are legal entities and are mandated to act independently to resolve the issues within their remit. The kenesh is responsible for issuing basic legal documents and making decisions on issues relating to local communities, approving local budgets and monitoring expenditure; and they can introduce local taxes and duties as necessary. Executive authority lies with the local state administrations, which are responsible for ensuring that the local governments act within national policy and laws. The oblast administration oversees the functioning of the local governments through the rayons and oblasts; and rayon keneshes decide how incomes generated from local taxes and central budgets are distributed.
27. In practice however the functions and authorities of the agencies are not clearly defined, and there are both gaps and overlaps in responsibility and service provision. Local government in general suffers from insufficiently qualified manpower and inadequate budget support, and decentralisation of power is limited as a result.
B. Environmental Policy and Law
1. Evolution of environmental policy and laws
28. Laws relating to environmental protection in Kyrgyzstan were first introduced in the Soviet era of 1919-91 and mainly replicated laws in force in other Soviet Socialist Republics (SSR). Early legislation included decrees “On land” (1917), “On forests” (1918), and “On subsoil” (1920), which nationalized land, water and other natural resources as national heritage, under state ownership. As the Soviet economy strengthened, legislation focused more on protecting important “nature objects” and regulating the rational use of natural resources; and in the 1930’s a number of laws were enacted establishing national parks and wildlife reserves, and defining the role of management authorities.
29. Laws on pollution control were established in the 1940’s, including the 1949 resolution “About the measures on atmospheric air and the improvement of sanitary and hygienic conditions of populated areas”. Further laws on nature protection were enacted in the 1950’s
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30. The principle of nature protection was included in the Constitution of the USSR, but the environmental protection system was based on the free use of natural resources and did not incorporate the principle of sustainable development. Furthermore, although the legislation imposed some quite strict environmental standards, these were often ignored by state industry and enterprise.
2. Environmental law post-independence
31. Post-independence the Kyrgyz Republic has taken steps to update and replace much of the outdated legislation of the FSU and has begun to establish its own system of environmental protection. The Constitution provides the foundation for environmental protection and natural resources management in the republic and Article 4 establishes that all land, subsoil, water, air, forest, flora, fauna and other natural resources are the property of the state. The Constitution also states that citizens have the right to live in an environment that is favourable to life and health, and have the responsibility of preserving the environment for future generations.
32. The Kyrgyz Republic was the first Central Asian country to establish a National Plan for Nature Protection (1995), and has subsequently adopted a number of other policies aimed at modernising its approach to environmental matters. These include The State Strategy for Sustainable Human Development (1997), Concept for Environmental Safety (2007), Country Development Strategy to 2020 (2008) and Strategy to Transfer the Kyrgyz Republic to Sustainable Development (in preparation).
33. A number of legal “codes” have been enacted, which are framework-type laws setting the broad parameters for regulating environmental issues. These include “The land code of the Kyrgyz Republic” (1999), “Forest code of the Kyrgyz Republic” (1999) and “The water code” (2005). These are supplemented by various laws that specify environmental quality standards, approaches to nature conservation and the protection of natural resources, methods of dealing with waste, etc.
34. There are now more than 150 environmental laws and Table III-1 shows the main features of those that are of most relevance to this project. The process of reforming Kyrgyz environmental legislation is still ongoing, as various conflicts and contradictions remain, particularly with provisions of laws from Soviet times. There are also certain omissions in the legislation, particularly when compared with the approach of more developed countries, such as member states of the European Union (EU).
35. The government has also been active internationally in environmental matters and is a signatory to several of the major conventions and agreements of the past two decades. These include: the Convention on Long-Range Trans-boundary Air Pollution (1983); the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity (1994); the UN Framework Convention (1994) and Kyoto Protocol (1997) on climate change; the Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (2001); and others.
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Table III-1: Summary of the main current environmental laws in the Kyrgyz Republic
Title Date Main Provisions Rules on Protection of 1993 Regulate activities that have the potential to negatively affect surface waters, Surface Waters including sewage and effluent disposal, hydro-power generation, etc. Resolution on Protection 1994 Regulations aimed at preserving the quality and quantity of groundwater to of Underground Waters enable use for economic and industrial purposes and as drinking water. Law on Protected Areas 1994 Establishes the status and protection regime of protected areas, including state zapovedniks (including biosphere reserves), national parks, zakazniks (reserves), nature monuments, botanical gardens, forest parks, and natural territories designated for recreation purposes. Law on Water 1994 Regulates the use and protection of water resources with the aim of preventing Resources negative impacts on water resources and structures and improving cooperation in the sphere of water use and distribution (amended 1995). Law on Environmental 1999 Defines state policy and provides regulations on environmental protection and Protection the use of natural resources, environmental monitoring and procedures to be applied in extreme/emergency situations (amended 2003). Law on Biosphere 1999 Sets out legal standards for Biosphere territories with the aim of: preservation, Territories restoration and use of natural territories rich in natural and cultural heritage; and supporting long-term sustainable economic and social development including recreation, restoration of natural resources, long-term ecological control, monitoring and education. Law on Ecological 1999 Aims to: prevent environmental and health impacts due to planned managerial, Expertise economic or other activities, by assessing such activities during pre- implementation, implementation and operation phases. The State Ecological Expertise procedure is mandatory for all plans or projects regardless of their nature and ownership (public or private); and no project can legally operate without a positive SEE conclusion. Forest Code of the 1999 Sets up the legal basis for the rational use, protection, defence and Kyrgyz Republic reproduction of forests to increase their ecological and resource potential. Law on Fauna 1999 Establishes that fauna is the property of the state and sets out rules on protection, use and replenishment of fauna (including endangered species), during design and construction of infrastructure. All such activities must consider habitat, migration routes (including areas for nesting and breeding) and other factors (amended 2003). Law on Protection of 1999 Establishes the system for protecting items of local, state and international Historical and Cultural historical or cultural importance, with the Ministry of Education and Science as Heritage the custodial authority. Law on Use and 2001 Regulations aimed at ensuring effective protection, rational use and Protection of Flora reproduction of flora and vegetation resources. Law on Industrial and 2001 Regulates waste generation, accumulation, storage, handling, use, Consumer Wastes transportation and disposal. Law on Mountain 2002 Aims to create a social, economic and legal basis for sustainable development Territories of the Kyrgyz of mountain territories, rational use and protection of natural resources, and Republic protection of historical, cultural and architectural heritage. Law on Sustainable 2004 Confers legal status on Issyk-Kul lake and establishes the regime for the use of Development of its natural resources, which shall not exceed of the resource available (land Ecological-Economic or water). Also prescribes limits for economic development, such as prohibiting System of Issyk-Kul capital construction within 100 m of the shoreline. Water Code of the 2005 Regulates the use, protection and development of water resources to ensure Kyrgyz Republic guaranteed, sufficient and safe provision of water for the population, protection of the environment and rational development of the water resource of the Republic.
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C. Development Planning and Control
1. The Planning System
36. The main document setting out Government policy for current and future development within the Kyrgyz Republic is the “Country Development Strategy (2009-2011)”, prepared by the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade and issued by the President’s Office in March 2009. This has four main priorities, which are: (i) strengthening economic potential; (ii) improving the efficiency of governance; (iii) socially orientated development; and (iv) environmental safety. These are supported by a large number of specific policies, including: the development, approval and updating of town planning documentation for not less than 400 settlements; further definition of the functions and authorities of the different levels of government; and development of a programme to improve human resources management in local self government agencies.
37. There is no ministry of planning within the current government structure; and responsibility for devising and implementing land use plans is devolved to local governments via the legislation described above. Local planning is conducted and administered at all levels: oblast, rayon, city and ayl-okmotu; and the oblast and each local state administration monitor implementation and compliance with national policy to the extent that they are able within the constraints of budget and manpower.
38. The main body regulating the practical implementation of planning policy is the State Agency on Architecture and Construction Management, which has a department within each city administration and at oblast level4 . The functions of these departments are:
(i) City and regional planning and architecture (approving building designs; preparing land use proposals and maps; monitoring land use in compliance with land use plans where available; and coordinating development, including infrastructure); (ii) Providing a service to builders and developers (reviewing architectural and engineering documents; issuing building permits; providing information on city and rural planning and architectural control; certifying materials and providing training in city planning and architectural control).
39. Land use is also planned, supervised and controlled by certain other government agencies, within specific areas and/or sectors for which they are responsible. The three main agencies are:
(i) Gosregister: State Land and Property Registration Agency; (ii) State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry: within forests, reserves and other protected areas; (iii) Ministry of Heath and agencies of the State Sanitary-epidemiological service.
4 Commonly one of the city Departments of Architecture and Construction Management also takes on the planning function for the oblast as a whole (eg Karakol in Issyk-Kul oblast).
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40. The JICA-funded study of 2004 mentioned above proposed an Integrated Development Plan for the Issyk-Kul area, but this has not been incorporated into national law or adopted as government policy either nationally or locally; and the study does not appear to be widely known or used. Current planning policy in this area is prescribed in “The Strategy for the Development of Issyk-Kul Oblast, 2009-11”, published in 2008. This describes: the potential of Issyk-Kul oblast; the current situation; existing problems, and planning aims and goals; management of the implementation process; and monitoring and evaluation.
2. Environmental Assessment and Permitting
41. The planning system includes various procedural safeguards that are intended to ensure that all development plans and projects comply with standards of environmental and public health. The Law on Environment Protection (1999, amended 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005) defines state policy on environmental protection and the use of natural resources, and prohibits the financing or implementation of projects without a positive conclusion from the State Ecological Expertise (SEE) process.
42. The SEE procedure is established by the “Law on State Ecological Expertise” (1999, amended 2003 and 2007), and is a mechanism that originated in the Soviet Union to assess and mitigate the impacts of activities that could affect public health and the environment. SEE comprises an expert examination and review of materials submitted to an authorised agency (in this case the State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry, SAEPF). The necessary materials are prescribed by the law and include information about: the project (purpose, technology, dimensions, location, raw materials, likely emissions, etc); the proponent (developer’s name, organisation, etc); and the environmental impacts of the project and methods by which negative impacts will be mitigated (this may be described by means of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report). The SEE committee is formed by SAEPF from a list of recognised experts in the country.
43. The SEE procedure is mandatory for most types of major development, including: power generation; various industrial developments; sewage treatment plants; domestic water supply; the use and abstraction of groundwater; construction of roads and railways; recreation and tourism facilities; sewerage networks; facilities for the processing, storage and utilisation of industrial and household solid waste; etc.
44. SEE is a key element of the process through which official permission is obtained authorising construction and operation of a development project. The process is described in the SEE law, and under devolved government involves a “one window” system. The proponent submits an application to the appropriate local government agency (normally the city mayor), who forwards it to the relevant agencies as shown in Table III-2. These include Gosregister (State Land and Property Registration Agency), the local Environmental Protection Department (branch of SAEPF), and the local department of the State Agency on Architecture and Construction Management. These bodies consider the suitability of the proposed site, availability of services, proposed layout and other technical aspects, etc.
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Table III-2: Summary of the environmental permitting process
Item Action involved 1. Project proponent submits application to appropriate Gosregister review issues of land use and ownership and local government authority (eg city mayor’s office). issue Land Allocation Statement (LAS). Local Department of Environmental Protection (SAEPF) reviews LAS to screen environmental issues. 2. Package is sent to local department of the State Gosarkhitectura consult local agencies to consider issues Agency on Architecture and Construction Management of location and design, eg: land suitability; environmental (Gosarkhitectura) to review site selection and other impact; public health (Ministry of Health Sanitary matters (one window system). Epidemiological Service); architecture and landscape; fire risk; supply of power and other services. Also consult rayon administration (deputy akim) and others. 3. Postanovlenie (resolution) is issued. If conclusions of the Stage 1 review are positive, Gosregister issue the title for the registered land lot (by State Act) for temporary use for the intended purpose. 4. Architectural and Planning Task (APT) procedure. Preliminary engineering designs are developed, geotechnical/geological and other surveys are conducted and service provision is investigated. 5. Project designs are developed. Designs are reviewed by Gosarkhitectura. 6. Project Proponent submits an application to SAEPF for SAEPF appoint a State Ecological Expertise committee State Ecological Expertise (SEE), supported by materials and instigate the SER process. assessing the environmental impacts of the project, approvals from Gosregister, Gosarkhitectura and other local agencies, and a statement of Public Environmental Review (if conducted). 7. Construction Permit. If the SEE conclusion is positive the local department of Gosarkhitectura issues the Construction Permit. 8. Operation Permit. The central state branch of Gosarkhitectura considers the final project designs (including any amendments during construction) and if there are no objections, issues the Operation Permit. 9. Monitoring during operation. The local Environmental Protection Department is responsible for monitoring environmental impacts during operation.
45. Designs and environmental assessment documents are then prepared taking into account comments received from the Stage 1 review. The proponent then submits the documents necessary for the State Environmental Review (SER) which are:
(i) An assessment of the environmental impacts of the proposed activities; (ii) Approvals from the corresponding state bodies and local administrations regarding the technical layout and land use; and (iii) Statement of Public Environmental Review if carried out (see below).
46. The SER is then conducted by SAEPF, within a period of up to three months from receipt of documents and the necessary fee, with the actual period depending on the complexity of the project. If the SEE conclusion is positive, SAEPF informs the proponent and the State Agency on Architecture and Construction Management, and the latter issues the construction permit. Designs, incorporating any amendments made during construction are then considered
13 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP by the national branch of the State Agency on Architecture and Construction Management, prior to issuing the permit to operate the development. Once the development is operating, responsibility for monitoring environmental impacts lies with the local Environmental Protection Department.
47. It should be noted however that the system of environmental permitting and SEE suffers from the same problems of under-funding and lack of qualified manpower that hinder many of the functions and services of devolved local government. As a result the system in practice is not tightly controlled or widely applied, and developers (public, private and individuals) commonly circumvent both policy and law.
48. The laws on Environmental Protection and Ecological Expertise (1999) and the 2001 law through which the Kyrgyz Republic acceded to the Aarhus Convention provide the legislative framework for public participation in environmental decision-making, through the process of Public Ecological Expertise (PEE). This is organised by citizens, local administrations and public associations, and involves a statement of public opinion on a proposed project being submitted to the body conducting SEE, which is then considered in determining the SEE conclusion. The statement of PEE may also be published in the mass media and forwarded to local state administrations, councils, the project proponent, designers and other stakeholders.
D. Environmental Management in the Issyk-Kul Basin
1. State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry
49. The State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry (SAEPF) is the government environmental regulator and carries the main responsibility for managing the environment in the country, and thus in the Issyk-Kul basin. It is the organisation responsible for developing and enforcing government environmental policy and laws, and for maintaining the safe and healthy environment that is guaranteed to all citizens in the Constitution. SAEPF deals with all environmental issues affecting the country and its citizens, from forestry management, biodiversity protection and rational use of natural resources, to the establishment and maintenance of ambient standards for the quality or soil, water and air, and the safe disposal of waste products.
50. SAEPF has a complex structure with detailed and multi-faceted interrelationships between departments and branches (see Figure III-1). The work of the agency in Issyk-Kul oblast is conducted by two principal departments: Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department for Environmental Protection and Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve Directorate.
51. Issy-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department of Environmental Protection is one of four branches of the Department of Environmental Protection of SAEPF, which were established to deal with environmental issues in the regions. Each Interregional Department covers at least two oblasts (including those of the two main cities Bishkek and Osh). Each DEP is responsible for implementing SAEPF operations in its region, and specific activities include: monitoring producers of waste to ensure compliance with environmental regulations and standards; providing the environmental component of the project permitting process and managing the SEE and PEE processes locally (see Table III-2); and monitoring the impacts of approved projects during construction and operation.
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State Agency on Protection of the Environment and Forestry
Department of Game Management Department of Forest Biosphere Reserve Forest and State Fund for Environmental Ecosystems Development Directorate Hunting Protection and Forestry Issyk-Kul Management Development
Territorial Department for Walnut Ecosystems Development Chui-Bishkek-Talass Chui-Bishkek-Talass Local EP Fund in Dzhalal-Abad Interregional Dept for and Forestry Development Environmental Protection
Forestry Affairs Issyk-Kul–Naryn Interregional Issyk-Kul – Naryn Local EP Local (Leskhoz, Gaming Ranges, Forests, Station for Forest Protection) Dept for Environmental Fund and Forestry Development Protection
Dzhalal-Abad Interregional Dzhalal-Abad Local EP Local Fund Dept for Environmental and Forestry Development Protection
Osh-Batken Interregional EP Osh-Batken Local EP Local Fund Dept for Environmental and Forestry Development Protection
National Parks and Reserves
Figure III-1: Organisation structure of the State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry
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52. Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve was established by government decree 623 “On Biosphere Territory Issyk-Kul” in September 1998 and was recognised by UNESCO as No 411 in its worldwide list of biosphere reserves in September 2001. Management of the reserve is the responsibility of the Biosphere Reserve Directorate (BRD), established by Government Decree 40 “On Regulation of Biosphere Territory Issyk-Kul” (2000) and an Order of the Ministry of Environmental Protection “About Administration of Issyk-Kul Biosphere Territory” (2000). Responsibilities were further defined by the “Regulation on the Issyk-Kul Biosphere General Directorate”, approved by SAEPF in February 2008.
53. The main role of the BRD is to manage and support environmental protection and sustainable development within the boundary of the biosphere reserve. Activities to date have focused mainly on environmental quality monitoring, control and management of natural resources, and scientific analysis, research and forecasting. The BRD is however also responsible for day-to-day management of the reserve, which involves collection of entrance fees via a toll booth, specific conservation activities conducted through the wildlife ranger service, conducting awareness-raising programmes in schools and amongst the general public, etc.
54. The biosphere reserve and the BRD were established with assistance from the German government under the GTZ-funded project “Support of the Biosphere Reserve Issyk-Kul” (1995- 2005). Finance was also provided from the state budget and other sources, including entrance fees to the biosphere reserve. However since 2005 the BRD has been considered a financially independent entity. The headquarters of the BRD are in Balykchy, where 40 staff are employed, and a further 37 staff are employed at the Ecological Checkpoint.
55. Three other agencies are involved in certain elements of environmental management in the Issyk-Kul basin under the supervision of SAEPF. These are:
(i) Government Ecological Supervisory Service: monitors and supervises the flora and wildlife of the oblast; (ii) Issyk-Kul Hunting Authority: supervises and controls hunting; and monitors and controls the wolf population; (iii) Karakol National Park Service: supervises and regulates tree felling and timber use in the oblast.
2. Other agencies
56. There are several other agencies with responsibility for managing specific sectors or activities in the basin that have environmental implications. These include:
• Ministry of Internal Affairs: responsible for civil and criminal codes, which include violations of environmental law and other environmental crimes; also oversees state regulations for the safe transportation of hazardous materials; • Ministry of Health: controls and applies national standards in air, water and food, to protect the public from hazardous substances and toxic pollutants; • Ministry of Health State Sanitary and Epidemiological Service: conducts sanitary and epidemiological studies and activities aimed at preventing disease, infections
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and pollution, and providing an improved environment for citizens. Operated through a network of regional offices; • State Agency on Geology and Mineral Resources: regulates the mining industry and protects mineral resources; implements its own programme of studies in soils and groundwater resources; • Department of Rural Water Supply (formerly part of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Processing Industry, but recently incorporated into the National Agency for Local Self Governance): among other functions, is responsible for the design, construction and operation of all rural water supply and sanitation schemes, and regulating the use of water resources; • Ministry of Emergencies, Department of Hydrometeorology Management (Gidromet): collects meteorological data and monitors chemical and radioactive pollution of air, water and soil; • State Committee on Statistics (Goskomstat): collects and publishes environmental monitoring data gathered by Gidromet and other agencies and conducts annual surveys to monitor toxic wastes; • Local self governments: have environmental protection and management functions, which are conducted in cooperation with the SAEPF Interregional Environmental Protection Offices; • Gidromet and the Institute of Seismology of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS): have systems and stations through which they monitor seismic activity and other potential emergency factors.
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IV. BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS
A. Physical Resources
1. Geology and topography
57. Issyk-Kul is the most eastern of the Kyrgyz Republic’s seven oblasts, lying between Chui and Naryn oblasts in the west, Kazakhstan in the north and China in the south and east (Figure IV-1). This SEMP is focused on the Issyk-Kul basin, which occupies 22,000 km2, approximately half the territory of the oblast. The town of Balykchy (42o 27’ 40” north, 76o 10’ 49” east) at the western end of the lake is approximately 120 km east of the national capital Bishkek; and the oblast capital Karakol (42o 29’ 24” north, 78o 22’ 48” east) at the eastern end is approximately 300 km from Bishkek.
58. Issyk-Kul Lake is around 180 km long and 60 km wide, at an altitude of around 1,600 m above mean sea level (asl), and is almost completely enclosed by mountains (Photo IV-1). The most prominent ranges are the Kungei Alatau in the north, which rise to a maximum of 4,771 m (Chok-Tal), and the Teskei Alatau in the south, which reach 5,216 m (Mount Karakol). Lower and more isolated peaks enclose the eastern and western ends of the basin, including: the Alabel and Chaarzhoon (2,722m); and the Karakuu and Kyzylompol respectively. The ring of mountains is broken only by a narrow valley in the west, Boum Gorge, through which drains the River Chu (Figure IV-1).
59. The Teskei and Kungei Alatau are part of the 3,000 km long Tien Shan mountain range of Central Asia, which was formed 400 to 200 million years ago by collisions between the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic eras. This produced an undulating range of alternating mountains and valleys along the plate boundaries (Figure IV-2). There was then a long period of relative quiescence and readjustment, which was interrupted about 20-30 million years ago by further tectonic activity in the Oligocene and Miocene epochs.
60. Issyk-Kul Lake began to form towards the end of the Oligocene 25 million years ago, as rivers drained into the synclinal depression formed between the mountains. Sediment began to accumulate at the same time, and today reaches depths of up to 3,500 m. In the Neogene period the basin was subject to strong subsidence as a result of ENE trending faults, and the surrounding land was raised by around 1,700 to 2,000 m. In the Quaternary, border faults caused a narrowing of the basin, which collapsed by around 200 m forming the central hollow in the lake bed; and the surrounding mountains were uplifted by a further 1000-1,500 m.
61. The modern relief of the area is complex, and is mainly controlled by north-east and north-west trending faults in the Kungei Alatau (Figure IV-2). The topography is characterised by multiple ranges of mountains, separated by deep and narrow gorges, with more gently undulating foothills, most notably between the mountains and the lake floodplain (Photo IV-2). The topography has also been influenced by climate, particularly by periods of glaciation and the multitude of rivers and streams (fed by melting snow and ice), which cascade down the mountainsides, deepening gorges and transporting sediment. Intermontane areas have gradually filled with sediment as a result, which is mainly of Mesozoic and Cenozoic (recent) origin.
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Figure IV-1: Main physical features of the study area
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Above: 3-D view, from west to east. Below: Satellite image
Source: “Lake Issyk-Kul its environment” International Bureau for Environmental studies: EC Copernicus Project (http://www.uiggm.nsc.ru/issyk-kul/index.htm)
Figure IV-2: Topography and geology of the Issyk-Kul basin
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Photo IV-1: Lake Issyk-Kul
Photo IV-2: Teskei Alatau mountains and foothills
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62. The centre of the basin is dominated by the lake and the surrounding floodplain, which slopes gently down to the water’s edge from a height of around 2,100 m asl. The plain varies in width from a few kilometres to almost 100 km in places and is composed of Quaternary fluvial alluvium (loosely cemented conglomerates5, clays and sand) deposited by the rivers; and deluvial-proluvial material (coarse gravel, shingles, clay and sand), washed from the mountains by rainfall or ephemeral streams.
2. Landscape
63. The landscape of the basin is one of mainly rugged natural beauty, with the distant mountains and foothills forming a spectacular backdrop to most vistas throughout the area (Photo IV-3). The landscape has however come under significant anthropogenic influence as floodplains were drained and natural vegetation was removed during the Soviet era to provide land for huge agricultural projects, and drier regions were irrigated to expand the productive area. Man’s influence is also very evident on the mountains and foothills where little of the original natural coniferous forest remains, having been removed over the centuries to provide timber, mainly for building and fuel. The vegetation on the foothills has been further reduced by grazing of livestock by the mainly nomadic herdsmen; and the resulting low-cropped grassland on the undulating landform provides an interesting visual contrast with the snow-capped jagged mountains behind.
64. The floodplain between the foothills and the lake is gently sloping and largely devoted to agriculture, although there are none of the vast swathes of mono-crops that covered such areas in the Soviet era (Photo IV-4). Now the agricultural activity is relatively low-key, conducted by individual small farmers, and significant parts of the landscape are overgrown as secondary vegetation re-colonises uncultivated land. The lake provides another sharp contrast, as the vivid blues and greens of the water and the orange and gold hues of the beaches complement the greens and browns of the vegetation and occasional brighter colours of crops in flower. The aquatic landscape can change dramatically with the weather, and the calm and tranquil waterway can become fierce and intimidating with the onset of a sudden storm.
65. The area is quite sparsely populated and this is even evident in the few towns, where residences are mainly single-storey and well spaced (Photo IV-3 and IV-5). There is however a general air of neglect in many urban areas, where roads, drains and other infrastructure, including many private houses, are often poorly maintained (Photo IV-6). This is less evident in Cholpon-Ata, where the centre of the town is more prosperous, with newer buildings and better maintenance, because of the revenue generated by tourism, which is mainly centred in this area (Photo IV-7). A positive feature of the urban landscape in most towns and villages is the wide roads and general feeling of space, which is reinforced by the uniformity of the layout, which follows the grid-pattern that was prevalent in the Soviet era.
66. The landscape is a significant contributor to the economy of the area as many visitors, particularly those from other countries, are attracted by the scenic nature, particularly of the upland areas, and the variety of landscapes and environments that are available over sometimes some relatively short distances. The presence of a more traditional way of life in the more remote hills and valleys, and its availability through community-based tourism schemes,
5 Sedimentary rocks in which rock fragments are cemented in a finer-grained matrix
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Photo IV-3: View southwards in Karakol
Photo IV-4: Agriculture in the lake floodplain
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Photo IV-5: Residential area in Karakol
Photo IV-6: Poorly maintained water supply pumps in Cholpon Ata
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Photo IV-7: Cholpon-Ata, August 2009
Photo IV-8: Traditional yurts in the Tungei Alatau foothills
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3. Soil
67. As in most other locations the type and distribution of soil in the study area is a result of complex interactions between a variety of factors, including geography, geology, topography, climate, vegetation; and anthropogenic influences such as land use, irrigation etc. There are three main types of soil in the Issyk-Kul basin, distributed roughly according to altitude as shown in Figure IV-3.
68. The main types are:
(i) Soil in the lowlands and foothills: found in the lake floodplain and in open-ended inter-mountain hollows (from 2,000 – 2,500 m asl); (ii) Soil in enclosed inter-mountain hollows or syrts6 (3,000 – 4,000 m); (iii) Soil on the mountain slopes (2,500 m and above).
69. A distinctive feature of the mountains and syrts is the harsh climate, which means that soils are deeply frozen for much of the year and develop under the influence of cryogenic processes, including seasonal freezing and thawing, and in some areas permafrost. Soils on the mountains are generally shallow and infertile, and are absent from the higher peaks (Figure IV- 3). In the hollows and syrts, a range of soil types can be found, from stony gravel and sandy soils, to more peaty substrates in areas that have supported vegetation in the past.
70. In the foothills, soil tends to be quite stony, with a high content of gravel and other particles eroded from the mountains or left behind by glaciers. Closer to the lake, soils become more peaty in areas that were previously inundated and covered with reeds and other marsh vegetation; and close to the lake-side, soils are waterlogged and swampy, poorly draining because of the high water table, and with a high organic content. In the east the lowland soils are dark chestnut in colour and generally quite fertile, and this is one of the main areas for cultivation. In the north-west the soil becomes a darker brown and then changes to a sandy- gravel consistency in the semi-desert steppe zone found at 2,000 – 3,000 m asl.
4. Climate
71. The climate is somewhat milder than would be expected for an area at this latitude and towards the centre of the Asian land-mass, and this is because of the buffering effect of the lake (which never freezes), and because the mountains protect the area to an extent from the cold Arctic air masses from the north and the hot Central Asian desert air from the south and east. The climate is however still quite harsh in upland and mountainous areas because of the altitude, but is rather more temperate in the lowlands, particularly close to the lake.
72. Figure IV-4 shows the average air temperature, precipitation and wind speed as recorded at government meteorological stations at Przhevalsk, Bolshaya Kyzylsuu and Koiliu, which are located near the lake, in the foothills and in the mountains respectively. This shows that the climate follows the general pattern of the northern hemisphere, with a summer period of
6 A syrt is an upland dissected plateau
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Source: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project, Final Report, Volume 2: Environmental Impact Assessment (ADB, 2009) Figure IV-3: Distribution of the main soil types in the study area
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Figure IV-4: Climatic features of Issyk-Kul oblast, from meteorological station records: a) Przhevalsk (lake-side), 1930-80; b) Bolshaya Kyzylsuu (foothills), 1950-80; c) Koiliu (mountains), 1948-65
28 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP higher temperatures in June, July and August, a winter period of low temperatures in November to March, and relatively short spring and autumn periods between, during which conditions change quite rapidly. There are however quite marked differences in the temperature extremes according to altitude. Near the lake the average temperature reaches a maximum of 17 °C in July when daytime values often rise above 30 °C, and in winter the average falls to a minimum of -7 °C in January, when at night the temperature often reaches –25 °C. In the mountains, temperatures are roughly ten degrees lower throughout the year, averaging 10°C in July and - 18.6°C in January, when the record low is -42°C.
73. Precipitation occurs mostly during the summer, when westerly winds originating in the Atlantic Ocean are warmed over the Central Asian land mass, become saturated with water evaporating from Issyk-Kul, and are then cooled by the mountains in the east of the basin. This produces a gradual increase in precipitation from west to east in the oblast, with average rainfall being 115 mm/y near Balykchy, 200-250 near Cholpon-Ata, 415 at Przhevalsk and 600 mm in Kungei Alatau. Precipitation falls mainly as snow in the higher altitudes throughout the year; and the snow-line (above which snow does not melt fully) is around 3,600m in the north and east, and 4,000-4,300 m in the south and west.
74. Winds in the basin blow from the west for around 60% of the time, and have the local name of ulan or boum, entering through the Boum gorge. Direction changes to easterly, especially in the winter, when the wind is known as santash. In the summer, convection currents cause local differences in direction around the lake, as the land heats up during the day causing winds to blow from the lake towards the land in the afternoon, and in the opposite direction at night.
5. Air quality
75. Air quality in the basin is relatively good, mainly because the area is quite sparsely populated so traffic pollution is generally not excessive; and because many of the industries have either closed down or significantly reduced production because of the economic difficulties that followed independence from the Soviet Union. Funding limitations mean that there are no major programmes of air quality monitoring in the oblast, but the data available (shown in Table IV-1) support the view that air quality is generally good.
Table IV-1: Air Quality recorded in Cholpon-Ata (Annual average, )g/m3)
7 Year SO2 NO2 NO CO NH3 HCOH Dust 1999 10 10 400 40 2006 6 20 National Standard8 Daily average 50 40 60 150 40 3 150 Maximum 500 85 400 500 200 35 500
Source: Hydrometereology Department (Kyryzgidromet) of the Ministry of Extreme Situations
7 HCOH: Formaldehyde 8 “Maximum concentration limit of contaminants in atmospheric air in settlements” (2004), Resolution of the Chief State Sanitary Inspector No 20, of 28 May 2004.
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76. Road traffic increases significantly in the summer when large numbers of tourists visit the area, most of whom arrive by car. Air quality is therefore likely to decline during this time, and this could be compounded by the enclosing effect of the mountains, which may retain atmospheric emissions. Traffic pollution can sometimes be seen as a dark-coloured haze over affected cities, and, although this is not a scientifically sound indication, no such evidence was observed during this study in the summer of 2009. It should however be noted that carbon monoxide, one of the main traffic pollutants was the only one of the monitored substances that was present in levels above the national standard in the data collected from Cholpon-Ata (Table IV-1), which is the main tourist centre in the oblast.
6. Noise
77. Data on noise were collected in Soviet times and noise maps were prepared by the National Science and Physics Institute in Bishkek. However this programme was discontinued soon after independence and there are no currently available noise data for the study area. It would be expected however that most parts of the Issyk-Kul oblast would have very low levels of ambient noise because of the low population density and primarily rural character of the area, and the fact that most of the large industries have either closed or are working at reduced capacity. Even in the few towns and cities, residents are unlikely to be exposed to greatly elevated levels of noise because of the relatively low volume of traffic and the predominantly wide roads and pavements, which serve to maintain a distance between people and traffic at most times.
78. As with air quality, noise levels will increase with the influx of people and particularly traffic in the summer. Levels are however unlikely to rise above accepted norms, except possibly close to roads in the major tourist areas (such as Cholpon-Ata), during any peak traffic periods. Even here, the wide roads and generally freely-moving traffic mean that noise levels are unlikely to be problematic.
7. Surface Water
79. Hydrology is one of the dominant environmental characteristics of the study area, which includes a number of notable features, particularly relating to surface water. The most obvious is Issyk-Kul Lake itself, which has an area of 6,200 km2 and as noted above is the second largest saline lake in the world. The surrounding floodplain is an additional 3,000 km2, in a basin of over 22,000 km2, which covers most of the northern and north-eastern parts of the oblast (Figure IV- 1). The lake reaches a maximum depth of 668 m and has quite large shallow areas (<100 m) at the western and eastern ends, beyond which the bed shelves quite steeply into the greater depths near the centre (Figure IV-5).
80. There are 118 rivers in the basin, of which 80 flow into the lake (Figure IV-6). Somewhat unusually there is no outflow from the lake, although in high water periods there may be some drainage into the River Chu via a natural depression, Kutemaldy channel, at the western end. The volume of water in the lake is currently around 1,700 km3, and there is evidence that the water level has declined by almost 3.5 m throughout the last century, at an average of over 30 mm per year (Figure IV-7). This is mainly because of the diversion of river water for irrigation,
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Figure IV-5: Bathymetry of Issyk-Kul Lake
31 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP 1. Issyk-Kul Rayon 2. Tyup Rayon 1. Kalmaksu 10. Kuuldek 19. Cholponata 28. Karachan 37. Tegirmenti 1. Kichi-Urukti 6. Chon-Saribulak 11. Kouchi 16. Djilbulak 2. Iyri-Taldibulak 11. Duresu 20. Kizilkuyruk 29. Karachan 38. Chet-Baysaur 2. Kuturga 7. Shati 12. Kouchi 17. Zapadniy Kensu 3. Orto-Taldibulak 12. Kultor 21. Toguzbulak 30. Chon-Aksuu 39. Tegirmenti 3. Vostochnie Shin 8. Tup 13. Vostochniy Korumdi 18. Kensu 4. Orto-Taldibulak 13. Kabirga 22. Baktu-Dolonata 31. Karachak 40. Orto-Baysaur 4. Kurmenti 9. Ichkesuu 14. Zapadniy Korumdi 19. Tabilgati 5. Ichke-Taldibulak 14. Tamchy 23. Orto-Dolonaty 32. Uy-Bulak 41. Kamennaya 5. Kichi-Saribulak 10. Taldisuu 15. Chontash 20. Kanal Tupskiy 6. Chon-Taldibulak 15. Chok-Tal 24. Chetki-Dolonaty 33. Ak-Jar 42. Atimkul 7. Toruaigyr 16. Chet-Koysu 25. Sugetty 34. Aksu 43. Chon-Orukti 8. Kizilbulak 17. Orto-Koysu 26. Chon-Sugetty 35. Sutbulak 44. Orto-Orukt 9. Tuzushay 18. Chon-Koysu 27. Korumdu 36. Djelkaragoy
3. Aksu Rayon 1. Jirgalan 4. Ichke-Djerges 7. Turgenaksu 10. Kanal 2. Aksu 5. Bozuchuk 8. Kokkiyaninsu 11. Karakol 3. Djerges 6. Kanal Komsomolskiy 9. Terimtorbulak 12. Kashkasuu
4. Djety-Oguz Rayon 5. Ton Rayon 1. Tamga 7. Chon-Jargilchak 13. Djuukuchak 19. Suttu-Bulak 25.Chelpek 1. Turasu 6. Akterek 11. Konurulen 16. Kol-Tor 21.Tossor 2. Djolbarsti 8. Sarybulak 14. Djuukuchak 20. Kashkator 26. Kyzyldjar 2. Ulahol 7. Karasu 12. Irisu 17. Ak-Tash 22. Toguz-Bulak 3. Chegedek 9. Kichi-Jargilchak 15. Ashu-Kashkasu 21. Djetyoguz 3. Taldi 8. Mambettor 13. Ton 18. Kol-Tor 23. Chetendi 4. Barskaun 10. Akterek 16. Ashu-Kashkasu 22. Kanal 4. Turasu 9. Ichketor 14. Ak-Sai 19. No name 24. Toguzbulak 5. Keregetash 11. Chichkan 17. Kichine-Kizilsu 23. Teleti 5. Kara-Koo 10. Karasu 15. Djerui 20. Kokterek 25. Tuyuksu 6. Tarilga 12. Djuuku 18. Chon-Kizilsu 24. Irdyk Source: “Recommendations for Management of the Issyk-Kul Lake Basin and Integrated Management Plan for Sustainable Development of the Chon-Aksu Watershed”. Safege, Witteveen & Bos and Ecolas (2007)
Figure IV-6: The rivers of Issyk-Kul basin
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Source: Institute of Water Resources, National Academy of Sciences of Kyrgyz Republic
Figure IV-7: Level of the surface of Issyk-Kul Lake, 1925 - 2004
Table IV-2: Water use in the Issyk-Kul basin (million m3)
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Water withdrawn 948 931 579 645 823 763 688 594 574 510 Water consumed 770 717 454 520 701 649 578 484 467 389 Used by industry 5 3 4 4 40 39 42 10 3 10 Domestic use 9 8 7 7 9 8 8 8 17 8 Used in irrigation & agriculture 742 705 438 509 652 602 528 465 446 371 Transportation losses 204 214 113 125 142 129 125 109 107 121 Loss as % of water withdrawn 22 23 20 19 17 17 18 18 19 19 Water discharged untreated - - - - 3 4 3 3 3
Source: National Statistical Committee: “Environmental Protection in the Kyrgyz Republic 2000-2006” and it may therefore be significant that levels have risen since the late 1990’s in the period during which state support for agriculture has ceased and there has been a decline in farming, and as a result much less water has been used in irrigation (see Table IV-2).
81. Glaciers are another key hydrological feature of the basin as some retain water for long periods above the snow-line, while others feed the rivers with relatively clean water annually as they melt during spring and summer. There are over 800 individual glaciers in the basin, in the north, south, and mainly in the south-east (Figure IV-8), with a total area of around 650 km2. Most of the glaciers are relatively small (up to 1 km2), located in the mountains at the headwaters of many of the rivers shown in Figure IV-6. The largest glacier in the Kungei Alatau is the Chon-Aksuu with an area of 8 km2 and a length of 6 km, and the largest in the Teskei Alatau is Konurolen (11 km2 and 6 km long) at the head of the Akterek River. As in many other
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Figure IV-8: Locations of the main glaciers in the Kyrgyz Republic
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Table IV-3: Hydrological features of the main rivers of the Issyk-Kul basin
Area of basin Average altitude Total length of Average annual River 2 3 (km ) of basin (m) river (km) flow (m /s) Jyrgalan 2060 2840 250 22.5 Tiup 1130 1960 120 10.6 Karakol 325 3670 6.6 Jetyoguz 263 3340 46 5.3 Juuku 516 3260 55 6.3
Source: “Geography of the Kyrgyz Republic”, Bishkek (2002) parts of the world the glaciers in Central Asia are contracting, and the downstream ends are retreating at a rate of between 3 and 30 m per year overall.
82. The hydrological cycle in the basin shows a peak in river flow during spring when the snow and glaciers in the mountains thaw with the onset of the warmer temperatures in March and April. Flows may then be augmented by rainfall during summer, although the actual cycle is greatly influenced by abstraction of river water for irrigation. This also tends to peak during the summer period, and in the past has caused a cessation of flow in some rivers downstream of major abstraction points. Table IV-2 shows however that this is less likely to be a major problem at present levels of water use. Underground water is also significant in feeding certain rivers, particularly during the period of lower flows in winter and early spring. Table IV-3 shows the hydrological features of five of the main rivers in the basin.
8. Water Quality
83. Appendix 2 shows the results of a recent survey programme conducted by the Chui Laboratory in Kara-Balta on behalf of the Biosphere Reserve Directorate, to monitor the quality of water and sediment in Lake Issyk-Kul and some of the surrounding rivers. Water samples were taken from 29 stations in the lake and 10 stations in larger rivers in August and September 2008 and March and June 2009 and analysed for a variety of determinands, comprising: temperature; pH; redox-potential; conductivity; salinity; suspended solids; dissolved oxygen; oxygen saturation; Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5); Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD); alkalinity; chloride; sulphate; nitrate; ammonia; phosphate; potassium; sodium; calcium; magnesium; iron; chromium and manganese. Some of the data are plotted in Figure IV-9.
84. These results confirm the findings of other studies regarding the overall chemistry of the lake water, which is dominated by sodium and magnesium cations and chloride and sulphate anions, and is slightly saline (around 2-6 ‰) because of the mineral content of the lake bed and evaporation of water from the surface. Mineralization can be quite high in shallow bays in the north and west where there is a relatively low input from rivers.
85. Previous studies (eg Safege et al 2007) have suggested that the lake is polluted by a variety of substances, including: sewage and domestic water discharged into rivers; sewage from septic tanks and pit latrines percolating in via groundwater; nitrates and phosphates draining from agricultural land; metals leaching from mining waste dumps; etc. There is however little evidence of this in the results of the BRD survey programme. River water is low in minerals
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1QH.VI1H:C 67$VJVI:JR^I$LC_510V` 1QC0VR 67$VJ^I$LC_510V` &%]VJRVR&QC1R^I$LC_510V` .1 `: V^I$LC_510V`
#%$R #%$R #%$R #%$R &V]R &V]R &V]R &V]R (:`R (:`R (:`R (:`R *%JR *%JR *%JR *%JR
1QH.VI1H:C 67$VJVI:JR^I$LC_5+7@R-%C 1QC0VR 67$VJ^I$LC_5+7@R-%C &%]VJRVR&QC1R^I$LC_5+7@R-%C .1 `: V^I$LC_5+7@R-%C #%$R #%$R #%$R #%$R &V]R &V]R &V]R &V]R (:`R (:`R (:`R (:`R *%JR *%JR *%JR *%JR
Figure IV-9: Results of selected water quality parameters recorded in Issyk-Kul Lake (bottom) and inflowing rivers (top) in 2008 and 2009
36 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP because of its mainly glacial origin and there are few indications of pollution, apart from occasional elevated levels of ammonium. In the lake, levels of dissolved oxygen are high (8-10 mg/l), BOD5 values are not excessive (maximum of 5.3 mg/l), and concentrations of ammonia, nitrate and phosphate are also generally below levels that would normally be of concern. The data are however limited in coverage, having been collected from near-shore areas only and for a limited range of determinands, and there is clearly a need to collect data from deeper waters, and for a greater variety of potential pollutants, including sewage bacteria, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, pesticides and radioactive elements (to assess the impact of leachate from uranium mines).
9. Sediment Quality
86. Appendix 2 also shows the results of sediment analysis conducted for the BRD in August 2008, which covered 10 stations located in near-shore areas. The results are rather inconclusive as the analysis focused almost entirely on heavy metals and did not look at other chemical or physical features or other pollutants (such as hydrocarbons, pesticides, organic content, etc) and did not investigate sediments in deeper waters. The legislation in this field also does not greatly assist in data interpretation as it only establishes Maximum Permitted Concentrations for 12 of the 33 metals analysed.
87. Regardless of these limitations the data do suggest that the sediments may have elevated levels of certain metals, including arsenic, cobalt, chromium and manganese. This differs from other recent work reported by Safege et al (2007), who conducted a more extensive programme of water and sediment analysis in 1998-2003 and found high levels of copper, zinc, lead and tin in certain deposits. No strong conclusions can be drawn regarding these differences, because of the limitations of the BRD data and the legislative standards. The two surveys do however suggest that there may be elevated levels of certain heavy metals in lake sediments and as mining is a major industry in the basin, then leachate and runoff from tailings dumps is the most likely source. This would however need to be investigated further by the collection of considerably more data, which would also need to assess the contribution from natural sources (for example from runoff over non-exploited metalliferous deposits).
10. Groundwater
88. The nature and distribution of groundwater is normally determined by the physical features of an area, in particular the geology, topography and climate, and the distribution and hydrology of surface-water. In this case the presence of the lake and the morphology and composition of the basin are key factors.
89. There is a large artesian basin underlying the lake, which consists of three hydrogeological strata: (i) an upper stratum of loose Quaternary sediments; (ii) a middle stratum of consolidated Mesozoic-Cenozoic rocks; and (iii) a lower stratum of semi-permeable rocks. The main groundwater supplies are found in the upper strata and the lower layer does not contribute significantly to the resource. The middle aquifer is mostly passive and does not receive significant meteorological water, containing instead mostly old waters, stored in
37 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP sandstone and grit-stone layers, which alternate with clay. The upper stratum is composed of porous sands and clays and is in hydrogeological continuity with the lake and is the major repository for water that drains through the soil surface (Kontar et al, 2000).
90. The groundwater formation cycle begins with precipitation, which falls as rain in the lowlands and snow on the mountains and percolates into the ground through fractures in the rocks. It is then channelled through deep faults or is vented onto the surface as thermal mineral water. The major portion of percolated groundwater again becomes part of the surface runoff within the ridges; and around 15-20% remains as groundwater in the basin. In the next stage, basin water is fed by river flow below the mountains, mainly in the head of alluvial fans and in peripheral streams. Here the main portion of surface runoff infiltrates through the beds of rivers (at around 50 m3/s) and irrigation canals and channels (~20 m3/s). Atmospheric precipitation provides only a relatively minor source of groundwater in comparison, infiltrating through vadose zones and groundwater reservoirs at a rate of around 1.5 m3/s. Irrigation modifies the groundwater regime locally, raising water levels to the soil surface in places and causing waterlogging and salinization.
91. Groundwater provides a substantial proportion of the domestic water needs in the basin, via the public water supply system in population centres, and private boreholes in rural areas. Table IV-4 shows the predicted and permitted yields of the main deposits. The 2007 water supply system inventory showed that there are around 500 domestic wells, the majority in resort areas. Many of the older wells are malfunctioning because of inadequate maintenance and repair, but there has been a plethora of new boreholes, particularly in tourist areas, with little regulation or control. Although there is no direct evidence that the resource is over-exploited, the quality of the water is of concern, given the high water tables and the preponderance of unsanitary methods of sewage disposal, in particular pit latrines.
Table IV-4: Predicted and permitted yields of the groundwater deposits in Issyk-Kul artesian basin
Approved Predicted yield exploitation 3 3 (m /24 h x 1,000) (m /24 h x 1,000) Rybachinskoe 47.0 64.0 Rybachi-Tamchinskoe 279.4 509.4 Karakol 105.2 260.0 Korgulenskoe 102.7 348.7 Akolonskoe 128.1 234.7 Sarybulun 103.7 165.9 Chatkal-Ananievskoe 196.2 500.9
Source: State Agency on Geology and Mineral Resources
92. Groundwater also contributes to the economy of the basin, as many visitors are attracted by the thermal mineral springs that upwell in and around the lake in 50 or more locations. Some of these sites are however poorly maintained and unsanitary, which detracts from their attractiveness and therapeutic value.
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11. Seismicity and other natural hazards
93. Given the geological history of the basin as described above, and the importance of tectonic movements of the earth’s crust in determining the physiography of the area, it is not surprising that this is an area of significant seismic activity. According to the Ministry of Emergency Situations9, most of the south of Issyk Kul oblast is classified as Category 5-6.5 (moderately high) in terms of seismic risk, and parts of the north and east (Issyk-Kul, Tup and Aksuu rayons) are at high risk (Category 7.5 - 8). This suggests that almost anywhere in the oblast is at risk of a seismic event, and that the north and east are at the greatest risk (Figure IV-10).
94. The area has a long history of earthquakes, some of which have been quite severe in terms of movements of the earth’s crust and the extent and magnitude of the resulting shockwaves; there were for example 11 separate incidents reported in 1887, 1889 and 1911 alone10. In general however the low population density and preponderance of single-storey housing have limited the loss of life and the damage to property. Amongst the most severe of recent events were the Jalanash-Tiup earthquake of 25 March 1978, which measured 7 on the Richter Scale and had epicentres in Jalanash in Kazakhstan and Tiup in Kyrgyzstan; and the Suusamyr earthquake of 19 August 1992, which was even stronger and had its epicentre to the west of Issyk-Kul lake. In the earlier event there was significant damage of buildings because of the generally low quality of the construction and materials, but the more recent earthquake occurred in a rural area, where only shepherds’ houses were destroyed.
95. The area is also subject to certain other environmental hazards, which are mainly related to seismic activity and/or other associated features, in particular the mountainous terrain and the climate. Table IV-5 (below) shows the occurrence and impact of hazardous events in Issyk-Kul oblast over the past decade. This shows that mud-flows/flooding, avalanches, accidents caused by people, and earthquakes are the most frequently occurring hazards; and the source of most fatalities (60%) is human accidents (mainly caused by road traffic), followed by avalanches (20%).
96. Avalanches occur when snow falls from the side of a mountain and the event often gains in severity as the snow dislodges more snow plus rock and vegetation as it falls. Such events can be triggered by a seismic tremor, by snow melting in the spring, or by the weight of accumulated snow on an incline. Avalanches only occur in mountainous areas, so the main risks are in the north and south of the study area as shown in Figure IV-11.
97. Flooding in lowland areas occurs mainly during the spring snow-melt period when certain rivers overflow onto low-lying parts of the floodplain, particularly when flows are augmented by heavy rainfall. The areas exposed to these events are generally the same from year to year, and this land has not been used for building to any great extent, so these events are not normally major sources of damage. Their frequency has also been limited by the diversion of water into irrigation schemes.
9 “Disaster monitoring and forecasting in the Kyrgyz Republic (2009)”, Ministry of Emergency Situations, Bishkek. 10 “Destructive earthquakes of the 20th century”, Atnurmagambetov, A, PhD thesis, Institute of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences, Kyrgyz Republic.
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Source: Kyrgyz Republic Institute of Seismology
Figure IV-10: Areas of seismic risk in Issyk-Kul oblast
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Source: Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic
Figure IV-11: Areas of avalanche risk in Issyk-Kul oblast
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Source: “Forecasting Hazardous Processes and Phenomena in the Kyrgyz Republic” Ministry of Emergency Situations
Figure IV-12: Areas at risk of upland flooding and mud-flows in Issyk-Kul oblast
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Table IV-5: Hazards and their impacts in Issyk-Kul oblast, 2000-2008
Event 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Total No V No V No V No V No V No V No V No V No V No V Earthquake 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 17 0 Landslide 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 Avalanche 1 1 0 2 0 5 0 4 12 3 1 4 2 0 0 2 5 22 20 Mud-flow/flood 2 0 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 8 0 8 0 7 3 32 3 Water-logging 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 Intense rain 0 4 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 10 1 Human accidents 0 1 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 4 14 2 7 4 14 7 23 19 62 Infection epidemic 2 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 11 1 Strong wind 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 12 1 15 2 Fire 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 7 8 8 Hailstorm 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 Severe snowfall 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 Rockfall 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 Others 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 3 7 8 Total 13 3 24 6 12 1 11 0 9 16 15 15 21 11 22 14 34 42 161 108
No = Number of each event; V = Number of victims (fatalities) Source: “Disaster monitoring and forecasting in the Kyrgyz Republic (2009)”, Ministry of Emergency Situations.
98. Flooding in areas of glaciation can be rather more severe and unpredictable and may be exacerbated by the presence of large quantities of mud, gravel and boulders if the flood is caused by the outburst of a glacial lake. These lakes are formed in enclosed inter-mountain valleys at high altitudes (Photo IV-9), and outbursts can occur if the lake is exposed to a sudden input of large quantities of water from heavy rain and/or the melting of snow and ice if temperatures rise quickly in spring. If a glacial lake has formed in a valley blocked by glacial moraine, this can be quickly washed out by the force of water, and is often followed by mud that has accumulated on the bed of the lake. The force of the water and the material it contains can be quite destructive, eroding riverbeds and forming new channels; damaging irrigation systems, roads and other infrastructure; and destroying buildings. Table IV-5 shows however that, although there were 32 such incidents between 2000 and 2008, there were only three deaths. Figure IV-12 shows the areas that are most susceptible to upland flooding and mud-flows, and indicates that the risk is greater in the Teskei Alatau in the south.
99. Landslides are also common in mountainous areas, and there is ample evidence of past events on the hillsides and mountain slopes in the oblast (Photo IV-10). Landslides occur when loose strata tumble down a slope, and are often caused by seismic tremors, or heavy rain or snowfall. They can be quite destructive as the falling rocks can damage and crush buildings and infrastructure and can also kill people, although Table IV-5 shows that there have been few landslides and no resulting deaths in the past few years.
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Photo IV-9: Inter-mountain glacial lake in the Teskei Alatau
Photo IV-10: Landslide area
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B. Ecological Resources
1. Biodiversity and habitats
100. Biodiversity is arguably the most significant environmental feature of the Issyk-Kul region, because it is in this field that the area is of international importance. This applies particularly to the lake, which supports a number of rare and important species (several of which are endemic11) and large numbers of visiting waterfowl; and also the surrounding wetlands and terrestrial habitats, which are home to a variety of other rare or otherwise important species.
101. Terrestrial habitats in the basin vary depending on climate, soil type, land-use and particularly altitude, and include deserts, semi-deserts, steppes, meadow-steppes, tundra and forests. The range of altitudes and climatic conditions and the geographical isolation of the basin are key features influencing the region’s rich and diverse ecology.
102. Desert areas are found mainly in the west and north-west, where rainfall is low and soils are granular and sandy, and colonisation by plants is limited by the harsh conditions. As a result the flora consists mainly of drought-resistant and salt-tolerant shrubs, grasses and herbs, such as Sympegma regelii, Kalidium caspica, Eurotia ceratoides, etc (Photo IV-11).
103. Grassland is the dominant terrestrial habitat, and covers much of the lake floodplain and intermontaine areas, and foothills from which the original forest habitat has been removed (Photo IV-12). The steppes of this region are part of the extensive area of grassland habitat that covers much of southern Russia and Central Asia, extending from Ukraine in the west to China in the east, forming the largest area of cold steppe in the world (Photo IV-13). In the Issyk-Kul basin there are dry, meadow and herb steppes as well as vast sub-alpine meadows above the tree-line. The flora in many of these areas has been greatly influenced by the activities of man, in particular arable farming in the lowlands and grazing by livestock in the uplands. There are, however still large areas of natural habitat and areas of secondary re-growth on abandoned farmland. Typical species include Stipa caucasica (feather or needle grass), Stipa splendens (Chee grass) Polygonum karelini (buckwheat or knotgrass), Caragana multiflora (pea shrub), Aconitum rotundifolium (monkshood), etc.
104. Alpine meadows occur at higher altitudes and include species that are more tolerant of cold, including Festuca rubra (red fescue grass), Helictotrichon pubescens (oat grass), Origanum vulgare (oregano), Lamium album (white deadnettle), Geranium collinum (geranium or cranesbill), Leontopodium lutens (edelweiss), etc. There are also numerous shrubs in this zone, including Lonicera altmanni (honeysuckle), Rosa spp (rose) and Hippophae spp (buckthorn).
105. Forest is now a relatively minor habitat in the basin, as it covers only 3% of the land area (around 65,000 ha), which is significantly less than the area occupied only a few hundred years ago. Most of the remaining forest is coniferous, dominated by the endemic Picea schrenkiana (Schrenk’s spruce or Tien Shan spruce) and found mainly on the cold and moist northern slopes, at between 1,900 and 2,800 m (Photo IV-14). There is also some broadleaf woodland, mainly of birch, poplar and oak, and this is found mainly on lower ground (Photo IV-15).
11 Endemic species are only found in a specific location, which is normally geographically isolated, such as a remote island or lake.
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Photo IV-11: Desert area outside Balykchy
Photo IV-12: Grassland outside Karakol
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Photo IV-13: Steppe on the northern side of Issyk-Kul basin
Photo IV-14: Conifer forest in the Teskei Alatau
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Photo IV-15: Deciduous woodland in the lake floodplain
Photo IV-16: Reeds, shrubs and other vegetation at the edge of Issyk-Kul Lake
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106. The high mountain tundra areas by definition support few trees, because of the low temperatures and short growing season. There are some stunted tree forms, but the main vegetation consists of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, plus mosses and lichens. This habitat is found above 3,500 m and is the home of much of the very rare and endangered fauna of the basin, including the snow leopard and its main prey the Marco Polo sheep and Tien Shan ibex, plus golden eagles and Pallas’s cat (Octocolobus manul). One of the most notable features of this habitat is that, because of the short growing season, most of the angiosperms flower at around the same time, in early summer, when the tundra meadows are transformed by the vast array of flowers.
107. Several of the plant species found in the basin are rare, and nine have been listed as endangered in the Red Data Book of the Kyrgyz Republic. These include the sweet-flag sedge Acorus calamus (found in water meadows on the River Tyup), snow lotus Saussurea involucrata (Teskei Alatau, in the upper reaches of the Sary-Djaz river), the legume Chesneya villosa (in the west of the basin), sweet-vetch herb Hedysarum kirgisorum (Teskei Alatau), Kolpakovskiy’s tulip (Chu Valley), European thimbleweed Anemone obtusiloba (Teskei Alatau, in the Sary-Djaz basin) and the rose Siberaea laevigata (Kungei Alatau and Teskei Alatau).
2. Wildlife
108. The fauna of the basin derives largely from the migration of various species from adjacent areas in the post-glacial period, so there are representatives from a wide range of habitats and faunal types, including European, Mediterranean, Central Asian, Mongolian, boreal and Palaearctic. The geographical separation of the area has also resulted in the evolution of a number of endemics, found only in the Tien Shan Mountains and/or Issyk-Kul Lake.
109. There are 335 species of terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates in the basin, including 4 amphibians, 31 fish (including 12 endemics in the lake), 11 reptiles and 54 mammals (of which 10 are Tien Shan endemics). Amongst the rare and endangered animals are the snow leopard (Panthera unica), Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), Tien Shan brown bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus), saker falcon (Falco cherrug) and Pallas’s fish eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus). Other notable inhabitants include the Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), stone or beech marten (Martes foina), black grouse (Tetrao tetrix), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Himalayan griffon vulture (Gyps himalayensis), bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) and griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus).
110. The biological importance of the lake relates mostly to its fish fauna (see below) and because it attracts large numbers of migratory birds and waterfowl. Some of the birds are rare, such as the Ibisbill (Ibidorhyncha struthersii), bar-headed goose (Anser indicus) and others. Between 50,000 – 80,000 birds (from 30-35 species) regularly overwinter on the lake, and many others use the area as a temporary stopover during seasonal migrations. Notable visitors include grebes (great crested Podiceps cristatus, red-necked P grisegena, horned P auritus, black-necked P nigricollis and little Tachybaptus ruficollis), herons (grey heron Ardea cinerea, great egret A alba), swans (whooper Cygnus cygnus, mute C olor), geese (greylag Anser anser, white-fronted A albifrons), pochard (red-crested Netta rufina, common Aythya farina, ferruginous A nyroca, tufted A fuligula), ducks (mallard Anas platyrhynchos, gadwall A strepera, pintail A acuta, garganey A querquedula, Baikal teal A formosa), coots (Fulica atra) and many others.
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111. There are also a variety of rare and important invertebrates in the basin, plus possibly others yet to be discovered as these animals have been less studied than other taxa. Twelve of the insect species are classified as endangered and are included in the Red Data Book of Kyrgyzstan. These include 5 butterflies (Swallowtail Papilio machaon, clouded Apollo Parnassius mnemosyne, banded Apollo P delphius, snow Apollo P actius), 3 bumblebees (Bombus muscorum, B serrisquama), a beetle (Calosoma sycophanta), a wasp (Megascolia maculate) and the alfalfa leafcutter bee (Megachile rotunda).
3. Lake Issyk-Kul
112. The lake is the most important feature in the basin in terms of ecology and biodiversity, because its isolation from other aquatic habitats has allowed endemic species to evolve, and the fact that it never freezes attracts large numbers of aquatic birds, both for the purpose of overwintering, and as a resting and feeding location during annual migrations. The lake therefore provides an attractive and somewhat unusual aquatic habitat, and is one of the main reasons why the area has such a rich biodiversity.
113. Issyk-Kul is rich in phytoplankton, and almost 300 taxa have been identified. Blue-green algae (Cyanophyceae) dominate, but as they are microscopic, their biomass (weight of living tissue) is low. Macrophytes (macroscopic aquatic plants) are found at the edges of the lake and extend to around 1.5 m depth (Photo IV-16). Characeae (pondweeds) are the most common macrophytes, and four species of Chara grow in shallow water and three others at greater depths. Attached algae are also present, extending down to 30-40 m in places.
114. There are 117 taxa of zooplankton, which are mainly rotifers (98 species), plus cladocerans (11) and copepods (8). Plankton density is greater in the shallows than in deeper water, possibly because there are more plant nutrients closer to the shoreline. The copepod Arctodiaptomus salinus is present in all parts of the lake and over the year may represent 75- 95% of the total number of zooplankton and 95-99% of the biomass. During the night, when many species of zooplankton migrate towards the surface, its concentration in the upper few metres of water can reach up to 35,000 individuals/m3 and it is an important food source for some species of fish (Savvaitova and Petr 1999).
115. The zoobenthic community (animals living in or on the lake bed) is also quite rich, comprising 224 taxa. These are also found mainly in shallow water, down to around 40 m depth. The mean annual biomass of zoobenthos is 8-10 g/m2, with typical freshwater taxa such as chironimids, molluscs, gammarids and mysids being the dominant forms. Three mysids (opossum shrimps) introduced from lakes Sevan and Baikal in 1965-68 are now established in large numbers in the shallows, mainly at 1-2 m depth and extending down to 10 m, and their mean biomass is around 1.5 - 2.5 g/m2 (Ivanova 1986).
116. The lake is internationally-renowned for its high degree of endemism, which is evident in many groups of animals and plants, and particularly in the fish fauna. Table IV-6 shows that the lake supports 26 species of fish, of which 12 (46%) are endemic to the lake and its drainage basin, 4 others are central Asian endemics and the remaining ten have been introduced in efforts to develop and expand the fishery. Fish productivity however remains relatively low, calculated at around 1.5 - 2 kg/ha (Konurbaev and Timirkhanov 2003). This is mainly because of the oligotrophic character of the lake (low levels of plant nutrients and primary productivity),
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and is compounded by poaching, inadequate fisheries management, and the disruptions in the ecosystem brought about by the introduction of alien species.
Table IV-6: The fish fauna of Issyk-Kul Lake
Family Species English common name Origin/status Salmonidae Salmo ischchan gegarkuni Sevan trout Introduced in 1930 (salmon, trout) Salmo gairdneri Rainbow trout Introduced Coregonus lavaretus Sevan whitefish Introduced in 1970’s Cyprinidae Leuciscus schmidti Issyk-Kul chebak Endemic (carp, dace) Leuciscus bergi Issyk-Kul chebachok Endemic Phoxinus issykkulensis Issyk-Kul minnow Endemic Gobio gobio latus Issyk-Kul gudgeon Endemic Schizothorax pseudoaksaiensis Issyk-Kul marinka Endemic issykkuli Diptychus dybovskii Naked osman Endemic (mainly in rivers) Diptychus dybovskii lansdelli Issyk-Kul naked osman Endemic (in lake) Diptychus gymnogaster microcephalus Issyk-Kul scaled osman Endemic Cyprinus carpio Carp or sazan Introduced in 1950’s Carassius auratus gibelio Gibel carp or goldfish Introduced in 1950’s Tinca tinca Tench Introduced accidentally in 1950’s Abramis brama Common bream Introduced in 1956-58 Pseudorasbora parva Gudgeon or amur chebachok Introduced Cobitidae Noemacheilus stoliczkai Tibetan loach Endemic to Central Asia (loaches) Noemacheilus elegans Tien Shan loach Endemic to Central Asia Noemacheilus strauchii Thicklip loach Endemic to Central Asia Noemacheilus strauchii ulacholicus Issyk-Kul gubach or “usan” Endemic Noemacheilus strauchii ulacholicus var Spotted thicklip loach Endemic pedaschenko Noemacheilus strauchii dorsaloides Lake gubach Endemic Noemacheilus dorsalis Grey loach Endemic to Central Asia Noemacheilus labiatus Plain stone loach Introduced Percidae (perch) Stizostedion lucioperca Pike-perch or zander Introduced in 1956-58 Eleotridae Hypseleotris cinctus Sleeper goby Introduced (sleeper gobies)
Source: Strengthening policy & regulatory framework for mainstreaming biodiversity into fishery sector (UNDP 2007)
117. The natural fish fauna comprises the 12 endemic species and the four central Asian endemics. Of these, chebachok (Leuciscus bergi) was the dominant species until the early 1970’s, being found down to >100 m and reaching a maximum size of 165 mm and 60 g. The chebak (Leuciscus schmidti) was also common and is present from inshore waters down to 35- 40 m, reaching 310 mm and 650 g and living for up to 11 years, feeding mainly on Characeae. The naked (scaleless) osman appears as Diptychus dybovskii in rivers, and a subspecies (D d lansdelli) in the lake. Both are omnivorous and until the 1970’s formed an important component of capture fisheries. The Issyk-Kul stone loach (Noemacheilus strauchii ulacholicus) is common in inshore meadows but also extends down to 100 m and feeds on benthos, plankton and the
51 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP eggs of other fish. The Issyk-Kul gudgeon (Gobio gobio latus) feeds on benthos, detritus and fish eggs and is important in the ecosystem as it is preyed upon by stone loach, Sevan trout and pikeperch. Marinka (Schizothoraz pseudoaksaiensis issykkuli) is an omnivore and is one of the larger fish species in the lake, reaching a length of 700 mm and a weight of 8 kg.
4. Fisheries
118. During the Soviet era, fishing was controlled by the state and the lake was viewed more as a source of food and revenue than as a repository of biodiversity. Commercial fishing began in the 1890’s and concentrated on chebachok, chebak, sazan carp, marinka and naked osman. Chebachok (Leuciscus bergi) was dominant in the catches, but was considered low in value, which led to a proposal to introduce the Sevan trout (Salmo ischchan gegarkuni) from Armenia to increase yields. A total of 755,000 fertilised eggs were released into the lake in 1930, followed by a further 800,000 in 1936, but the fish remained low in density because of a lack of suitable spawning sites. Subsequent development of two hatcheries in the 1960’s and release of 150 million eggs and 80 million fry into rivers in the 1970’s produced only minor increases in landings (to 40-50 t/y).
119. Despite not establishing a major population, the Sevan trout did have negative impacts on the populations of certain of the endemic species, as it is an active predator. This stimulated attempts in the 1950’s to diversify the fish stock by introducing species with a broader range of diets, including piscivores, plankton feeders and benthic feeders. Pikeperch (Stizostedion lucioperca) and bream (Abramis brama) were introduced in 1954-56 and established populations in the east of the lake. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was also successfully introduced, and tench (Tinca tinca) and crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) were brought in accidentally at the same time.
120. In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s attempts were made to convert the lake into a reservoir for trout and whitefish, and to gradually reduce the numbers of the little-valued chebachok. Three Coregonids (whitefish) were introduced between 1966 and 1973 (Coregonus autumnalis and C peled from Lake Baikal and C lavaretus from Lake Sevan) by the release of over 80 million fry from the Ton hatchery. These were heavily preyed upon by the endemic fish and may also have been adversely affected by salinity, but C lavaretus has become established as a major component of the Issyk-Kul fauna.
121. The various introductions have however inevitably affected the natural ecosystem in the lake. The numbers of the native species have diminished and some, most notably the naked osman, have almost disappeared entirely; this species was in fact thought to be extinct until a single specimen was captured by a local fisherman in October 2003. Some of the introduced species are thought to be responsible for the reductions, in particular the zander and sevan trout, which are voracious piscivores; and the bream, which feeds on fish eggs.
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Table IV-7: Reported annual catches (metric tonnes) in Lake Issyk-Kul
Year Chebachok Chebak Zander Trout Whitefish Bream Others Total 1965 1,257 32 20 - - - 26 1,335 1965 1,010 23 38 4.5 - 2 12.5 1,090 1975 686 77 112 47 - 2 5 927 1980 224 36 36 40 5 1.5 2 344 1985 86 14 22 13 23 15 1 174 1990 163 32 32 18 21 7 5 278 1992 90 19 21 7 15 15 2 169 2003 5 2.5 1.5 - - 0.5 0.5 10
Source: Savvaitova & Petr (1999), UNDP (2007)
122. Commercial fish catches peaked at around 1,300 t per year in the mid- 1960’s, which is around the theoretical calculated maximum production from the lake (UNDP 2007). At that time an additional 500 t per year was produced in fish ponds surrounding the lake. However the capture fishery was focused on spawning fish, which gathered in the shallows in large numbers; this eventually began to damage stocks and in the late 1970’s catches began to fall (Table IV- 7). Certain protection measures were implemented, such as a ban on fishing for chebak (Leuciscus schmidti) during the breeding season (introduced in 1983). However the industry was then affected by the economic and social changes of the immediate post-independence period in the 1990’s, which included a sharp decrease in public sector involvement and an increased involvement by the private sector, in both fishing and fish farming. Catches have declined significantly in this period (Table IV-7) although the official figures do not include the substantial quantities of fish that are captured illegally. If fishing continues at its present level it may yield biological benefits in the longer term as overexploited stocks would be expected to recover in time.
5. Protected Areas
123. Current laws mandate the responsible state agencies to designate rare and/or important areas, monuments and objects for various levels of protection. In the case of environment there are a variety of designations, including: state reserves; biosphere territories; national parks; nature monuments; health resort and recreational zones; botanical gardens; arboreta; and zoological parks. The general hierarchy of protection is as follows:
(i) State Nature Reserves: where any economic or other activity that may disturb the natural environment is prohibited; (ii) National Parks: in which there is a differentiated regime of protection (preserve, recreation area, etc) depending on environmental and ecological sensitivity; (iii) Nature Monuments, geological reservations, etc: where public access is allowed, although certain activities (eg camping, lighting fires, etc) may be prohibited; (iv) Reservations: created for the protection of separate components in a larger area (eg forest reserves, zoological reserves).
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124. At present almost every category of nature protection designation is represented in the Issyk-Kul basin. These include: a 2 km buffer zone around the coast of Issyk-Kul lake; several wildlife reserves – zoological/hunting (Djety-Oguz, Uzengu-Kuush, Dzhargylchak, Tup, Ken- Suu, etc), botanical (Tup, Malaya, Ak-Suu), topographic/landscape (Barksoon, Djety-Oguz); a national park (Karakol); and two state nature reserves (Issyk-Kul and Sarychat-Ertash). The most important of these nationally designated areas are Issyk-Kul State Nature Reserve, Sarychat-Ertash State Park, and Karakol National Park.
125. Issyk-Kul Nature Reserve was created in 1948 and was the first such reserve in the country. The main conservation area incorporates the lake itself, and there is a 2 km buffer zone inland of the coast. The rationale for designating the reserve was to protect water-birds and the coastal flora and fauna; and to control fishing. The protected area covers almost 20,000 ha and includes 10 separate land plots (in which both hunting and fishing are prohibited), comprising the main areas occupied by birds and other fauna and flora.
126. Sarychat-Ertash Nature Reserve is in Dgety-Oguz rayon, due south of Karakol, on the southern slopes of Teskei Alatau ridge (Figure IV-13). It is the basin of the Sary-Chat at altitudes of 2,000 – 5,000 m asl and was established in 1995 with the aim of conserving the alpine habitats and species on the internal Tien-Shan Mountains. The area is home to six of Kyrgyzstan’s Red Data Book species (snow leopard, manul, Tien-Shan bear, Marco Polo sheep and golden eagle) and many other rare mammals, birds and plants. It is also the centre for research on the snow leopard, conducted via an internationally funded project since 2002.
127. Karakol National Park is located on the northern slopes of the Teskei Alatau, between Sarychat-Ertash State Park and Karakol city (Figure IV-13). The park covers 38,256 ha and was designated in 1997 to protect typical elements of the flora and fauna of north-east Kyrgyzstan and the picturesque landscape of Karakol Gorge, and to provide a recreation area for local people and foreign tourists. There are a number of nature walks and hiking routes in the park, along with cableways and other facilities for tourists.
6. Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve
128. In addition to the nationally designated areas described above, there are two sites in the basin that are of international significance for nature conservation: the Issyk-Kul Ramsar Site and the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve. The first international recognition of the ecology and biodiversity of the area came in 1975 when Lake Issyk-Kul was included by the Ramsar Convention12 on its initial list of “Wetlands of International Importance, Especially as Waterfowl Habitat”. This designation lapsed with the break-up of the Soviet Union, but was reinstated in 2003 when the Kyrgyz Republic became a signatory of the Ramsar Convention. The boundary of the Ramsar site coincides with that of the Issyk-Kul Nature Reserve.
129. The Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve was established at the end of the 1990’s with technical aid from the German Government, following UNESCO’s call for action to preserve the unique
12 The Ramsar Convention (The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat) is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. The convention was adopted by participating nations at Ramsar in Iran in 1971 and came into force on 21 December 1975. The convention publishes a list of Wetlands of International Importance, to which member countries are expected to apply appropriate degrees of protection by national law. There are currently 1,855 Ramsar sites worldwide.
54 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP natural environment of the north-eastern part of the Tien-Shan. A draft plan on the creation of a biosphere reserve was completed in September 1998, and in May 1999 a new law entitled “On Biosphere Reserves in the Kyrgyz Republic” was adopted. This was followed by a government directive “On Ratification of the Statute on the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve” (1 January 2000), which regulates the activity of the General Directorate of the Biosphere Reserve. In September 2001 the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve was recognised by UNESCO as No 411 in the worldwide network of biosphere reserves established under its Man and the Biosphere Programme.
130. Biosphere reserves are established to conserve and protect important natural habitats, ecosystems and cultural areas, whilst at the same time supporting long-term sustainable economic and social development. One of the main objectives of the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve is to protect the rare plant and animal species and other natural communities from the uncontrolled use and destruction that occurred during and after the Soviet period. The BRD is also responsible for other activities, including environmental monitoring, scientific research, promoting sustainable use of natural resources, raising environmental awareness and creating a sense of stewardship of nature by explanation and example.
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Source: Baetov R (2005) “Lake Issyk-Kul: experience and lessons learned brief” World Bank
Figure IV-13: Land-use zones and other protected areas in the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve
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Table IV-8: Protected areas within the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve
Year Name Area (ha) Purpose Main flora and fauna established Issyk-Kul Nature Reserve 18,998 1948 Protection of winter Whooper swan, mute swan, (NSG) habitat, nesting grounds flamingo, white heron, white- and stopover sites for tailed duck, Eurasian spoonbill waterfowl and waders Sarychat-Ertash Nature 135,400 1995 Protection of Arkhar sheep, Marco Polo Reserve (NSG) ecosystems and rare sheep, snow leopard, Pallas’s and endangered species cat, golden eagle, mountain turkey, saker falcon, bearded vulture Karakol National Park 38,256 1997 Preservation of Pine, fir, larch, birch, roe deer, ecosystems unique to ibex, snow leopard, bear, Karakol Gorge Siberian deer, lynx, golden eagle, saker falcon, bearded vulture Tyup Game Reserve 19,085 1978 Protection of roe deer, Roe deer, Siberian deer, wild Siberian deer, wild boar boar, ibex, Marco Polo sheep, Pallas’s cat, marten, bear, lynx, black grouse, mountain turkey, bearded vulture Zheti-Oguz Game 31,300 1958 Preservation of alpine Snow leopard, bear, lynx, Reserve ecosystems, wild game Siberian deer, roe deer, ibex, and rare species wild boar, marten, ermine Chonzhargylchak Game 13,092 1980 Preservation of Bear, ibex, wild boar, roe deer, Reserve ecosystems, wild game Marco Polo sheep and rare species Kensuu Game Reserve 6,878 1989 Preservation and Wild boar, roe deer, Siberian increase of populations deer, ibex, golden eagle, black of Siberian and roe deer, vulture, grouse wild boar and lynx Aksuu Game Reserve 32,014 1958 Preservation of game Bear, marten, lynx, Siberian animals and alpine deer, wild boar, roe deer, black forest ecosystems vulture, grouse, sparrowhawk
Source: Baetov R (2005) “Lake Issyk-Kul: experience and lessons learned brief” World Bank
131. One of the major tasks leading to the recognition of the reserve by UNESCO was an assessment of the natural and socio-economic importance of the main individual components of the reserve and their sustainability with respect to the stresses to which they are exposed. This led to the delineation of four zones, according to UNESCO requirements. These are:
(i) Core Zone: Containing the most important habitats, species and other natural features (glaciers, landscapes, etc). This area is subject to the highest level of protection (all economic activity is prohibited) and occupies 141,022 ha (~3% of the total). (ii) Buffer Zone: To protect the core zone from adverse anthropogenic activity. Some activities are permitted (eg forestry, ecologically sensitive fishing, recreation, agricultural use of summer pastures and alpine meadows); but more damaging activities are prohibited (eg establishment of new settlements, industries,
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manufacturing or tree felling programmes; and introduction of new species of plants and animals). This zone occupies 3,501,516 ha (81% of the total). (iii) Transition Zone: In this area priority is given to the development of sustainable economic activity (eg agriculture, industrial projects, transport, communication, defence and new settlements), which must comply with all relevant environmental and ecological standards. Occupies 688,540 ha (~16%). (iv) Rehabilitation Zone: This is a small area in which past human activity has damaged and degraded habitats, communities and ecological/environmental functioning, so there is a need for regeneration and re-vegetation.
132. The boundary of the biosphere reserve coincides with the border of Issyk-Kul oblast and it incorporates all of the protected areas that already exist in the basin, established under national legislation. These areas, the date and purpose of establishing them and the most important animals and plants they support, are shown in Table IV-8. Figure IV-13 shows the location of these areas and the main zones of the biosphere reserve.
C. Economic development
1. Industry
133. During the Soviet era, industrial output in Kyrgyzstan concentrated mainly on: heavy industry (machine engineering and metal-working, including munitions factories); light industry (producing textiles, electronics, electric lamps, etc); and agricultural production (providing meat and other products for the Soviet Union, including wool, leather, cotton, silk, tobacco and sugar). After independence there were dramatic reductions in government subsidies and demand for industrial products, and the sector was also affected by increases in the cost of raw materials and imported energy. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) almost halved between 1990 and 1995 and the contribution of industry decreased from around 85% to 65%. There has been a slight recovery over the past decade, but economic and industrial growth is still quite slow.
134. Currently the major exports from the Republic are precious metals (around 50% of export value), electric power (10%), cotton and tobacco (~5% each). Smaller contributions are made by scrap metals, mechanical and electrical items, agriculture (milk and dairy products, vegetables, fruit), hides and slate (JICA 2004).
135. The main industry in the Issyk-Kul oblast is mining, and the main contributor is the Kumtor gold mine, located at 4,000 m asl in Djety-Ogyz rayon around 75 km south of Karakol. This is one of the ten largest mines in the world (Photo IV-17) and contributes almost 90% of the industrial output of the oblast and 10% of the country’s GDP. It employs more than 1,000 local people and various local and regional businesses, for the supply of cement, vehicles, catering products, etc. Although the mine is outside the Issyk-Kul basin, it is included in this study because some of its activities (including transportation of materials) occur in the basin.
136. There are a numerous other mineral deposits in the area, and these are exploited by mines in Ak-Shyirak in the River Sary-Djaz basin (tin and tungsten) and Zhyrgalan (black and brown coal). Kumtor is well equipped, active and prosperous, but the same is not true of the other mines as these have suffered from the same problems of reduced markets and lack of government financial support as most other industries in the post-independence period. At
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Photo IV-17: Kumtor gold mine in winter
Photo IV-18: Old uranium quarry and tailings
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Zhyrgalan mine for example, coal production peaked at 100,000 t/y in 1989-91, fell to 75,000 t in 1994 and then continued to fall sharply throughout the rest of the 1990’s. Equipment was inadequately maintained and in a poor state of repair and safety was being compromised; and in 1998 the operation ceased completely because the facility was seriously damaged by a fire.
137. There are also several enterprises in the oblast quarrying building materials, including sand and gravel, limestone, clay, etc, many of which operate without any authorisation or regulation. Production in this sector has also decreased throughout the 1990’s and the Kurmenty cement plant for example, which was established in 1954, ceased production in 2001. There are also a number of former uranium mines in the Oblast, the tailings of which still remain (Photo IV-18).
138. Table IV-9 shows the other industries that are currently operating in each rayon in the oblast and in the two main towns. This shows that the main activities are similar to those of the country as a whole and include agro-processing (meat, vegetables, dairy products), beverages, electrical products, metal products and metal recycling. Figure IV-14 shows the locations of the main industries and mineral deposits.
Table IV-9: Industries in Issyk-Kul oblast (except mining)
Location Main industries Issyk-Kul rayon Dairy products; canned food; alcoholic beverages and wine; mineral water; non- alcoholic beverages; forestry and timber products Tyup rayon Cement; bricks; dairy products; canned food Aksu rayon Canned food Djety-Oguz rayon Flour; dairy products; meat Ton rayon Coal; semiconductors Balykchy town Metal recycling; reinforced concrete products; electric fires; flour; meat; canned food; non-alcoholic beverages Karakol town Coal; reinforced concrete products; alcoholic beverages; shoes; clothes; electric products; meat; dairy products; flour; non-alcoholic beverages; animal feed
Source: Statistical Department of Issyk-Kul oblast; “Kyrgyzstan 2004: Information on Products and Services”
2. Infrastructure
139. Water supply in urban areas is the responsibility of Vodokanals, which are the government-owned water and sewerage utility companies with offices in the main town/city of each rayon. Outside the towns, responsibility lies with the government Rural Water Supply Authority. Government figures suggest that around 80% of the population has access to safe water from a centralised supply system in both urban and rural areas, but these statistics are not considered to be accurate (Cherp 2000).
140. In the Soviet era small-scale village piped systems provided the majority of domestic water needs in rural areas, using pumped groundwater, sometimes from deep wells. These were maintained by collective farms, agricultural enterprises and the rural water supply agency, and required significant financial and technical resources. With the dissolution of collective farms and discontinuation of state subsidies, impoverished rural communities have been unable
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Figure IV-14: The main industries in the Issyk-Kul basin
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to fund the maintenance of these facilities and many have fallen into disrepair. Current estimates are that around half of Kyrgyz villages (and one third in Issyk-Kul oblast) have functioning water supply systems. Where piped water is unavailable, people resort to using untreated surface water (of variable quality) from rivers and irrigation canals.
141. The situation is not vastly different in urban areas. Towns and cities use mainly groundwater, which is supplemented by surface water in places. Most wells and distribution networks were installed in the 1950’s and 60’s and have been poorly maintained since independence and leakage is now a major problem, causing >50% loss in places. Low pressure, interruptions in supply of several hours per day, and inadequate water quality from malfunctioning treatment systems are common in many places. Vodokanals raise their revenue from water and wastewater tariffs, and budgets are generally insufficient for extensive capital works, so new buildings are often not connected to the network, encouraging illegal connections, which cause further leakage and revenue losses. These problems are compounded by the inefficient use of drinking water (for irrigation, livestock, etc) because of ineffective pricing and monitoring.
142. Sewerage is also the responsibility of the Vodokanals in towns and cities and there are large disparities in service provision between urban and rural areas and also within urban areas. Sewerage systems generally only exist in the centres of cities and larger towns (eg Balykchy, Cholpon-Ata and Karakol in Issyk-Kul oblast) and are almost completely absent in the outskirts and in villages and other rural areas. This means that only about 40-50% of the urban population has the benefit of a sewerage system and 10% or less of rural people. Even where sewerage is available the systems frequently do not function adequately, because of leaks and blockages in the networks, and interruptions in the water supply. Pumping stations also malfunction because of a lack of maintenance and repair, and most sewage treatment plants do not work to full capacity, and some do not function at all.
143. Almost all of the population not covered by centralized sewerage systems use individual sanitation facilities, which are mainly pit latrines (Photo IV-19). Most of these, both in individual use and in public institutions such as schools and hospitals, are poorly maintained and unsanitary, particularly in poor areas. Some rural households and public buildings (such as schools) have no toilet facilities. Figures from the National Statistical Committee suggest that in Issyk-Kul oblast only 13% of the population has access to adequate sanitation (and only 24% in the country as a whole).
144. Solid waste collection and disposal is the responsibility of the Municipal authorities in the towns and cities and is conducted by Communal Services Authorities (known as “Cleaning and Greening”). Urban areas are divided into collection zones, and in Issyk-Kul oblast these are generally visited at least once a week. Waste is collected from those residents and companies who have purchased waste disposal agreements, who bring their waste to the garbage truck. This covers a relatively small proportion of the population (24% in Balykchy, 67% in Cholpon- Ata), and the remainder deposit their waste in communal bins located alongside main streets, or by illegal fly-tipping on unused ground, from where the waste is also collected by the municipal service.
145. After collection, the solid waste is taken to dumpsites located outside the inhabited areas. Although referred to as “landfills” these sites are not engineered and waste is not segregated or covered, there is no leachate collection or proper site drainage, and many sites
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Photo IV-19: Pit latrine
Photo IV-20: Balykchy municipal solid waste dumpsite
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have no proper boundaries so waste is blown by the wind across a considerably larger area outside the actual dumpsite (Photo IV-20). There is also a general lack of machinery for moving the waste from the place of deposition; and there is no formal system of recycling (although this is practiced illegally at certain sites by small numbers of people, (Photo IV-21). Household, commercial and industrial waste is all collected and deposited together, and some businesses and industrial units take their own waste to the dumpsites where they pay a fee for deposition.
146. There is no waste collection service in rural areas and residents have to make their own disposal arrangements. This frequently involves burial and/or burning, although there is also some fly-tipping in places. Some residents compost biodegradable household waste or use it as fodder for livestock.
3. Transportation
147. Despite the difficult terrain of parts of Issyk-Kul oblast, the fact that it is close to the capital Bishkek and borders Kazakhstan and China means that transportation into and through this area has long been important. The terrain is favourable for the development of certain types of infrastructure, for example roads in the wide and flat floodplain of the lake and through the narrow gorges at the western and eastern ends of the basin. However the diversity of land- forms means that different transportation modes are both possible and necessary. Thus in the present day there are facilities for transport via all of the major media: road, rail, air and water.
148. The history of transport in this region can be traced back to the first few centuries AD, when one of the routes of the Silk Road (through which commodities were carried between China and the west) is reputed to have passed along the northern shores of Issyk-Kul. The first modern roads were built in the early part of the 20th century under Soviet rule, to provide access to the strategic facilities in the area (which included uranium mining at Kadj-Sai and naval weapons development near Karakol) and to support the settlement and collectivization programmes of the Stalin era. Facilities were improved and expanded in subsequent periods, particularly the 1950’s and 60’s; and the railway from Bishkek to Balykchy was built in 1950.
149. The present transportation facilities in the oblast are shown in Figure IV-15. The main feature is the A363 highway (Photo IV-22), which encircles the lake and connects all of the main settlements in the oblast, including Balykchy, Tamchy, Cholpon-Ata and Tyup on the northern side and Karakol, Kyzyl-Suu, Tamga, Kadji-Sai and Balykchy in the south. The strategic importance of the road lies in the fact that it passes through the Boum gorge and on to Bishkek in the west and through Torugart Pass into Kazakhstan and China in the east, and is therefore an important transportation artery. Almost all goods and passenger traffic in the region utilise this road.
150. Local roads branch from the A363 to most of the larger villages in the vicinity, and the highway itself branches south through the Barskoon Pass and on via a circular route through the major villages in the Teskei Alatau, including Kara Sai and Inylchek before rejoining the lake road at Karakol. The A363 is classified as a Grade 1 road (asphalt or cement-concrete pavement) and has two quite wide lanes throughout all of its length. It is however in a poor state in places as maintenance and repair have been neglected during the difficult economic climate since independence. The local roads are classified as Grade 2 (cobble-stone, crushed stone or gravel) and these are also generally poorly maintained (Photo IV-23).
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Photo IV-21: People searching for recyclable materials at Cholpon-Ata dumpsite
Photo IV-22: A363 highway between Balykchy and Cholpon-Ata
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Figure IV-15: Transportation infrastructure in the Issyk-Kul basin
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151. Air transport is also quite well developed in the oblast as there are regional airports at Karakol and Cholpon-Ata and smaller airfields in Balkychy and Tamchi (Figure IV-15). Flights are operated by a local government enterprise (“Issyk-Kul”) and operate mainly internal flights (Bishkek, Talas, Chatkal, Ata, Osh, Djalal-Abad) plus limited international flights (for example to Tashkent). This infrastructure has also been poorly maintained and the airports now require a major overhaul, with repair of runways and buildings, replacement of faulty lighting, etc.
152. Rail transport in comparison is quite undeveloped, reflecting the situation elsewhere in the country as expansion in this sector is constrained by the mountainous terrain. The only significant railway in the country runs from Taraz in Kazakhstan through Kara-Balta and Bishkek, and then runs east and south-east into Issyk-Kul oblast, terminating at Balykchy (Figure IV-15).
153. There are a number of ports on the lake (Figure IV-15), from where ferries and other craft operate, carrying passengers and cargo via a number of routes, shown on Figure I-1. The Issyk-Kul Steamship Company is the main commercial operator and mainly transports goods between Balykchy and Karakol, linking with the railway. Business has however declined in the years since independence and the total is now less than 50% of the 338,000 tonnes carried in 1992. Coal is now the main cargo.
Photo IV-23: Local road
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4. Land use
154. Land use in the basin was analysed by the 2004 JICA study on the basis of 1996 satellite imagery. This showed that the basin consists of 6,426 km2 of water (28%) and 16,580 km2 of land, and that at that time the majority of the land was unused. Grassland covered the largest area (56%), followed by mixed grassland and woodland (21%); and as noted above, forests covered a relatively small proportion of 5%. Agriculture was the main land use, but occupied only 14% of the total area, although this does not include livestock grazing, which is carried out on significant areas of grassland. Almost 4% of the land was described as “bare” (subject to soil erosion), and only 0.5% (89 km2) was built-up, reflecting the low population density and lack of major industrial development. Land use was similar in the country as a whole, and the main difference was that there was slightly more agriculture in the Issyk-Kul area (14% compared with 11 % in the Kyrgyz Republic).
155. Figure IV-16 shows the location/distribution of the main land uses in the basin. This shows a number of features as follows:
• The inhabited areas are mainly in the floodplain; and the main centres of population are in the east (around Tup and Karakol) and along the northern shores of the lake (Cholpon-Ata, Balykchy) and the south-west is very sparsely inhabited; • Most farm-land is also in the floodplain, in the vicinity of the inhabited areas; • Pasture-land in contrast is somewhat more distant from the towns and villages, on grasslands in the north-west and south-west, and on the foothills of the mountains; • The few remaining forests are mainly on higher ground in the mountainous areas; • Resorts are located close to the lake-side, mainly on the northern shore, which is more easily accessible from Bishkek.
156. Land use is unlikely to have changed greatly since 1996, given the relatively slow rate of economic growth since then. The most significant difference is in the tourism sector, where there has been an increase in the development of resorts and other facilities, particularly close to the lake on the northern side (Photo IV-24). Many of these have been built in contravention of planning laws, in areas where there is no sewerage or other municipal services, with little consideration of the impact of these developments on the environment of the lake or floodplain.
5. Land ownership
157. In the period after independence, land reform progressed more rapidly in Kyrgyzstan than in many of the other former Soviet republics. After the right of private land ownership was introduced into national law, a considerable number of land plots, both urban and agricultural, were given or sold to households and/or private enterprises by the government. There remain certain difficulties however, such as the small size of some agricultural plots, which can make farming economically unviable; and disputes over the legality of certain land holdings, particularly some of those on which tourism facilities have been developed.
158. Figure IV-17 shows that most privately owned land is in the urban zones (where many people now own the land on which their houses are located) and in the agricultural areas. The government however still owns the majority of the land in the oblast, comprising much of the grassland/pastureland, plus forested areas, and land owned by the municipalities.
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Source: JICA (2004) “The study on integrated development plan of Issyk-Kul zone in the Kyrgyz Republic”
Figure IV-16: Land use in the Issyk-Kul basin
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Source: JICA (2004) “The study on integrated development plan of Issyk-Kul zone in the Kyrgyz Republic”
Figure IV-17: Land ownership in the Issyk-Kul basin
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Photo IV-24: Newly developed lakeside resort near Cholpon-Ata
Photo IV-25: District heating system in Karakol
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6. Power sources and transmission
159. Power generation is managed by the government-owned company “Elektricheskie Stansii” and is primarily based on hydropower, from stations located mainly in the west of the country, in Jalal-Abad oblast. Transmission of electricity is the responsibility of the government- owned joint stock company “Nasionalnie Elektricheskie Seti Kirgizstana”, and local distribution is carried out by other government-owned companies. There is no natural gas supply, and importation of gas is the responsibility of the Natural Gas Administration “Kyrgyzgas”. These and other power supply agencies are all under the control of the State Energy Agency.
160. There is currently no power generation capability in Issyk-Kul oblast and electricity is imported from the Naryn oblast cascade hydropower stations and transmitted to the Issyk-Kul substation in Balykchy. From there it is transmitted along the northern and southern shores of the lake to the Przewalski substation in Karakol, via transmission lines which form a ring around the lake. Local distribution is conducted by the joint-stock company “Vostokelektro”, via overhead power lines held on wooden and concrete poles, normally located alongside roads and streets.
161. According to government statistics, access to electricity is 100% for both urban and rural areas. However Table IV-10 shows that a lack of proper inspection, maintenance and repair has resulted in a significant deterioration in the infrastructure, with around 15-34% of distribution lines and 15% of transformers in the oblast classified as requiring complete overhaul or replacement. This is supported by circumstantial evidence as there are frequent power outages, particularly in winter, due to system overloads.
Table IV-10: Status of electricity distribution infrastructure in Issyk-Kul oblast
100% deteriorated 60-90% deteriorated 30-50% deteriorated Infrastructure Total (requires (requires complete (requires scheduled replacement) overhaul) maintenance) 35 kV distribution lines 338 km 12 37 86 10 kV distribution lines 3,865 km 315 264 1,240 0.4 kV distribution lines 3,525 km 486 699 1,334 35/10 kV substations 25 7 18 10/0.4 kV transformers 2,667 87 315 1,241
162. The government has adopted a strategy of exporting power to neighbouring countries as a means of attracting foreign investment and generating the revenue necessary to construct new power plants and upgrade the existing infrastructure. At present around 16% of electricity is exported to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, from the hydropower station at Toktogul reservoir on the Naryn River. Supply to the domestic market is around 11 billion kWh, but only 7 billion kWh is available to customers, because of power losses especially from transmission lines.
163. There are also systems of district heating in urban areas, through which piped hot water is supplied during winter to individual houses and apartment blocks (for heating and domestic hot water), from a central boiler plant (Photo IV-25). There are around 100 such systems in Issyk-Kul oblast, mainly operated by the municipal authorities. The largest unit is in Karakol and was built in 1956; it operates on coal and has a capacity of 60 MW. These units were developed during the Soviet era and although they are generally reasonably well maintained they service
72 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP only a relatively small proportion of the housing stock (26% in Karakol for example). People who have no access to the public heating system, including those in rural areas, generally use coal, firewood and dried dung as fuel to heat their houses, which is burnt in stoves, cookers and small boiler houses. Most hotels and resorts use electric boilers, although a few also use solar power.
164. It is generally recognised that there is a good potential for the development of renewable forms of energy generation in Issyk-Kul oblast, and research has been conducted on the use of cascade hydropower on the River Sary Jaz, wind turbines at Balykchy, plus solar power and biomass energy plants. However development is constrained by a lack of investment and no commercially viable systems are yet in operation.
7. Agriculture
165. According to figures from the 2004 JICA study, agriculture remains the main economic activity in the country, but like other forms of employment this sector has declined steadily in the years since independence. Between 1992 and 2002 the area of cultivated land fell from 1.3 million ha to under 1.1 million ha, a reduction of 2.8%. Issyk-Kul oblast has 191,000 ha of arable land, 15% of the country total, and of this, 90% is regularly planted, 3.5% is not used and 6.5% (123,484 ha) has not been distributed to farmers by the Ayl okmotus. The proportion of land under cultivation is the highest of any of the oblasts and Issy-Kul makes a significant contribution to the country’s agriculture sector, which provides around 35% of the national GDP. The number of people engaged in agriculture in Issyk-Kul fell from 86,000 in 1999 to just over 74,000 in 2002, but this still represented 55% of the employed population.
Pasture Cultivated Unused/undistributed Fruit
Source: Results of the First Agricultural Census of the Kyrgyz Republic, 2002/2003
Figure IV-18: Agricultural land use in Issyk Kul
166. Figure IV-18 shows the proportions of the various types of agriculture in the oblast, based on the land area used for each activity. This indicates that around 80% of the agricultural
73 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP land is used as pasture, for grazing of sheep, goats and cattle, and another 18% is cultivated. Data from the National Statistics Committee13 indicate that the main crops are wheat, fodder, potatoes and barley, with cereals covering around 50% of the sown area, fodder crops 25%, potatoes and other vegetables 20% and industrial crops (tobacco, sugar beet, seed-oil) <1%. The lack of variety in the cultivation and inadequate crop rotation stems from the vast mono- culture programmes of the Soviet era and are the main reasons why agricultural profitability is low.
167. Issyk-Kul oblast produces around 12% of the country’s grain supply (>170,000 tonnes/y) and of this, around 40% is sold to the local community, 20% is retained as seed, 30% is exported and the remaining 10% is used as animal feed. The oblast also produces around 20% of the country’s fruit and berry harvest (around 40,000 tonnes/y). Animal husbandry has increased in recent years, mainly because meat production is generally more profitable than crops. Between 2006 and 2008 the number of sheep rose from 588,000 head to 630,000 head and poultry increased from 604,000 birds to 728,000. Horse breeding also increased in the same period, from 64,000 to 70,000.
168. There are some agricultural processing industries in the oblast, including manufacture of fruit juices and jams, but production is hindered by lack of good quality fruit and faulty and obsolete equipment installed in the Soviet period. High quality fruits (around 30% of the total production) are exported to neighbouring countries, including Kazakhstan and Russia, and much of the remainder is fed to livestock.
169. The JICA study conducted a questionnaire survey of local farmers and this identified a number of issues that were considered as constraints upon agricultural production. According to farmers the main difficulties they face are:
• Shortage of irrigation water: although 84% of arable land is served by irrigation, up to a third of abstracted water is lost through leakage so repairs are urgently needed; • Lack of capital: more than 40% of farmers considered that lack of funds for investment in machinery and materials was a severe constraint, particularly as micro-financing initiatives have been largely discontinued; • Price and quality of seeds: 90% of farmers complained of the high price of seeds and 70% noted their poor quality; • Low economic yield of products: almost all farmers sell their products to merchants and visiting dealers as they lack the infrastructure to market to wholesalers or sell directly to hotels or stores. Prices therefore remain low because of a lack of alternative buyers.
170. Subsistence farming is also an important activity because it is practiced by large numbers of people, in both villages and urban areas, and provides an important supplement to the family income as well as a significant proportion of their food, particularly vegetables, grain (for bread and fodder), fruit and dairy products. Labour is provided by family members, relatives or neighbours via informal arrangements. Produce is used by the family and any excess is sold to neighbours, at the roadside, or in local markets (Photo IV-26). Some produce, particularly milk, is purchased by food processing enterprises.
13 “Agriculture of the Kyrgyz Republic”, National Statistical Committee: 2005, 2006, 2007
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Photo IV-26: Fruit sellers outside Karakol
Photo IV-27: Hotel in Karakol
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8. Tourism
171. Tourism is one of the few industries that has expanded in the years since independence as areas and attractions that were previously mainly visited by people from within the Soviet Union have become available to larger numbers of people from a greater variety of origins. Both government and private entrepreneurs have invested in this sector as foreign visitors have increasingly been seen as a potentially important source of revenue.
172. Government statistics indicate that the number of foreign visitors to the Kyrgyz Republic increased from 87,000 in 1997 to 250,000 in 2003, but the 2004 JICA study considered this to be an underestimate because of poor data collection and under-reporting. The same study reviewed data from a variety of sources and estimated that visitors to Issyk-Kul oblast were around 60,000 in 1998 and 250,000 in 2003. Current estimates of a million visitors in 2008 suggest that numbers are increasing by around 300% every five years. Around 60% of visitors are from the CIS (mainly Kazakhstan, Russia and Uzbekistan) and the rest are from a variety of countries, amongst which the USA, China, Germany and Turkey predominate14.
173. According to the State Committee for Sports, Tourism and Youth Policy, 64% of foreign visitors are on holiday and a further 29% visit the country for business purposes but also participate in tourist pursuits during their stay. The average length of stay was 6.3 days/person in 2003, 4-6 days for domestic tourists and CIS visitors and 1-3 days for those from elsewhere.
174. Issyk-Kul is one of the major tourist destinations in the country and the JICA study estimated that of the 250,000 visitors in 2003, around 65% were foreign and 35% were domestic tourists. The oblast has a wide variety of attractions, some of which are shown in Figure IV-19. These include: the scenic beauty and environmental interest of the lake and Tien- Shan mountains; health resorts and thermal springs in and around the lake; rambling, hill- walking, horse-riding and skiing in the mountains and lower slopes; and community-based tourism for those wishing to sample a more traditional way of life. There are also a variety of important cultural and historical sites and monuments dating from the recent Soviet era to the Bronze Age and even earlier (see below). There are also a wide range of facilities available, including resorts, hotels, sanatoria, guest houses, mountain lodges and cottages; and participants in the community based tourism enterprises stay in private houses and traditional yurts in rural and mountain areas (Photos IV-8 and IV-27). Data from the National Statistical Committee indicates that in 2003 there were 110 facilities in the oblast offering accommodation for tourists, of which 61 were public owned, 36 were privately owned and 13 others were not registered. This equated to almost 30,000 beds, in around 10,000 rooms.
175. Figure IV-19 shows various tourism developments that were planned via funding from international agencies including the Aga Khan Foundation, the EU TACIS programme, GTZ and others. Some of these have subsequently progressed and a number of other facilities have been built by private entrepreneurs, so the number of available beds and rooms has increased significantly in the past few years. The profusion of privately-funded developments is causing concern because as noted above, many have been built with little or no regard for national or local development policy or laws and with no consideration of their impacts on the sensitive and highly valuable environment of the lake and its surroundings, which could easily be damaged by the many pressures produced by increased visitor numbers.
14 National Statistical Committee: Tourism 2006
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Source: JICA (2004) “The study on integrated development plan of Issyk-Kul zone in the Kyrgyz Republic”
Figure IV-19: Existing and proposed tourism developments in the Issyk-Kul basin
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D. Social and Cultural Resources
1. Population, communities and demography
176. The population of the Kyrgyz Republic was estimated at 5.2 million in January 2008, an increase of 187,000 since 2004 (almost 4%)15. The population of Issyk Kul oblast was 423,380 in 2003, so it is likely to be around 450,000 in 2009. Housing around 8-9% of the inhabitants of the country, Issyk-Kul is not one of the most heavily populated oblasts (Osh contains 25% and Jalal-Abad 18%) and neither is it one of the least populated (Talas contains 4% and Naryn 5%). The ethnicity of the population is similar to that of the country as a whole as there are 70 nationalities, with Kyrgyz (70%), Uzbek (14.5%) and Russian (8.7%) being the most numerous, followed by Dungan (1.2%), Uyghur (1%), Tajik (1%) and Kazakh (0.7%).
177. Gender distribution follows the normal 50:50 male/female ratio in all age groups and the age distribution is as would be expected in an emerging economy, with around 40% of the population below working age, 50% of working age and 10% retired. This contrasts with more developed countries where there are greater numbers of older people as life expectancy is longer, and fewer people in the younger age brackets as families are generally smaller. Average household size is around 6-7 persons in rural areas and slightly lower in the towns, and overall population density is quite low, at around 10 persons/km2, compared with 25 in the republic, because of the rural character of Issyk-Kul. Figure IV-20 shows that population density is highest in the eastern part of the oblast where the soil is more fertile and irrigation is more widely available so farming is more productive. The main population centres are the cities of Karakol (66,700 people), Balykchy (43,400) and Cholpon-Ata (12,100), and the large villages of Tyup (11,300), Bokonbaevo (10,900), Teploklyuchenka (10,600), Ananyevo (7,800), Bosteri (6,800), etc. These are mainly located in the lake floodplain, alongside the A363 highway.
178. Around 70% of people in the oblast live in rural areas (Photo IV-28) and 30% in the towns/cities (Photos IV-3 and IV-7, Figure IV-20), which is a slightly higher proportion of rural dwellers than in the country as a whole (~65%). There was a gradual decline in the urban population in the 1990’s (from 32% in 1989 to 29% in 2002) and a consequent increase in the rural population, mirroring demographic changes in the republic. This is largely because of the decline in employment opportunities in urban areas as state-owned factories and other businesses closed or reduced production during the harsh economic climate at that time. There have been population increases in the past few years in Karakol the oblast capital and in Cholpon-Ata the main centre of the tourism industry, but declines have continued in Balykchy where there have been no substantial new employment opportunities.
179. As noted above, agriculture is the main economic activity in Issyk-Kul oblast, employing more than 50% of the working population (Photo IV-29). This has decreased slightly in recent years as more opportunities have become available in service sectors, such as tourism. There is however a relatively high rate of unemployment in certain areas, reported by the JICA study at 25% in Karakol and 35% in Balykchy in 1999. Not surprisingly therefore, the level of poverty is high in the oblast, reported in government statistics at 52% of households in 2005 and 44% in 2006, compared to the national average of around 40% (Table IV-11). Poverty is higher in rural areas, where up to 70% of families are below the poverty level in certain villages, particularly in the mountains.
15 National Statistical Committee data
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Source: JICA (2004) “The study on integrated development plan of Issyk-Kul zone in the Kyrgyz Republic”
Figure IV-20: Population distribution in the Issyk-Kul basin
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Photo IV-28: Village near Karakol
Photo IV-29: Traditional farming near Karakol
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Table IV-11: Percentage of households below the poverty level, 1996-2006
1996 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Kyrgyz Republic 43.5 62.6 56.4 54.8 49.9 45.9 43.1 39.9 Issyk-Kul oblast 53.7 70.9 62.6 53.9 52.1 54.1 51.5 43.9
Source: National Statistical Committee (from a random survey of 3,000 households in 2000-02 and 5,016 households in 2003-06)
2. Public Health
180. The principle of free universal health care was established in Kyrgyzstan in the Soviet era and this has been continued by the government after independence. However government investment has reduced significantly in recent years, falling from 3.7% of GDP in 1990 to 2% in 2002, and this has caused a serious deterioration in the quality of service. The system is now experiencing various problems, including insufficient hospitals and clinics, inadequate numbers of properly trained staff, and a lack of materials including drugs, dressings and basic equipment. As is often the case worldwide, such difficulties are generally most acute in the rural areas. Healthcare policy has also changed, largely in response to the reduced funding, and the focus is now more on providing first aid on site rather than hospitalisation.
181. The doctor/patient ratio in Issyk-Kul oblast (21.4 per 10,000 people) is below the national average (26.0), but is still similar to that of many western countries. There are however significant differences between locations, with Karakol for example being very well provided (63.2 doctors per 10,000 patients) compared with more rural areas, such as Jety-Oguz (9.7) and Ak-Suu rayons (9.1). This reflects the poor facilities and support services available in the countryside (where a lack of vehicles means that doctors often have to visit patients on foot), with the result that many doctors prefer to work in the towns.
182. According to the municipal authorities, in Issyk-Kul oblast there are currently 7 family health centres (polyclinics), 55 group family doctors (General Practitioners), 114 first-aid stations, 5 district territorial hospitals, an urban territorial hospital and an oblast joint hospital. In total there are 1,259 beds, which is a ratio of 30 beds per 10,000 people, which is very similar to the provision in both the USA (32) and the UK (36) (OECD Health Data 2009). These ratios however should not be viewed in isolation as many of the beds are located in wards that are dilapidated from a lack of maintenance, unsanitary and poorly equipped.
183. The major diseases in Issyk-Kul are brucellosis (from consumption of unsterilized milk or meat), tuberculosis, hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS, anaemia, iodine deficiency, etc. Many of these are indicative of poor and unsanitary living conditions, limited access to safe drinking water, poor hygiene, inadequate food of poor nutritional value, etc. Some of the health indicators reflect an increase in risk-taking behaviour (such as drug use and unsafe sex), which are commonly associated with an adverse social environment.
184. Table IV-12 provides data on various features that are indicators of the general health of the population. The results are similar to those of many former Soviet countries that are experiencing economic difficulties in the early years of independence, where social services have declined from a lack of investment, and people and communities are facing social and economic hardship. Key features are: the relatively low life expectancy, particularly amongst
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Table IV-12: Health indicators in the Kyrgyz Republic 1990-97
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Life expectancy females 73.0 72.7 72.2 71.1 69.9 69.9 71.0 71.2 Life expectancy males 64.4 64.6 64.2 62.5 61.1 61.3 62.5 62.5 Infant mortality (per 1,000 30.2 29.7 31.6 32.9 29.6 27.7 26.6 28.6 live births) Maternal mortality (per 62.9 55.6 49.9 44.5 42.7 44.3 31.5 62.7 100,000 live births) Abortions per 1000 live 41.6 37.7 34.2 31.9 28.5 23.1 22.4 21.2 births Ischaemic heart disease 103 104 109 135 158 152 153 136 per 100,000 males Cerebrovascular disease 60.7 67.7 71.1 79.8 96.0 103.9 91.1 85.8 per 10,000 Syphilis incidence per 1.9 2.1 2.8 4.4 23 74 153 151 100,000 Tuberculosis incidence 52.9 56.9 57.9 54.5 61.4 75.4 90.1 114 per 100,000
Source: Maternal mortality data from UNICEF TransMONEE database; all other statistics from WHO Health for All
3. Education
185. Education is another sector that has suffered a decline in funding since independence, as the education budget fell from 7.6% of GDP in 1990 to 4.5% in 2002 and then increased again to 5.7% in 2005-200716. Regardless of these fluctuations the pupil/teacher ratio has remained very low, ranging from 10.9 in Tong oblast to 18.4 in Balykchy city17, which compares well with values in many western countries (for example the ratio is around 17 in state-funded schools in the UK).
186. There is a wide range of educational establishments in the oblast, including: 38 pre- school institutions (age 4-6 years) currently attended by 3,800 children; 3 primary schools (6-11 years) and 191 high schools (11-17 years), with a total of 91,874 pupils and 7,488 teachers18. There are also a variety of vocational institutions, focusing on developing skills rather than providing a purely academic education, and these include 6 vocational schools, 9 professional colleges, 8 sports schools (with 1,500 pupils) and 2 lyceums. Higher education is also well represented as there are 6 universities or university institutes, four in Karakol and two in Balykchy. These are:
• Issyk-Kul State University;
16 Kyrgyz Republic Country Development Strategy 2009-11 17 Data from Issyk-Kul oblast administration 18 Development Strategy for Issyk-Kul oblast 2008-11
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• International University of Kyrgyzstan Institute of Law, Business and Computer Technology; • Karakol branch of the Moscow Institute of Management and Enterprise; • Law Faculty of Kyrgyz State Law Academy (Issyk-Kul Institute of Cooperation); • Balykchy Socio-Economic Institute; and • Issyk-Kul branch of the Kyrgyz University of Construction, Transport and Architecture (Balykchy).
187. Education is provided free of charge at the elementary, middle and high-school levels and is partially funded by the state at university level (although scholarships are very limited). The main problems in the educational system are those that occur in many developing economies: a) a lack of provision in rural areas, as most institutions beyond the primary school level are located in urban areas; b) low rates of attendance, particularly in poorer areas; and c) a low rate of completion as many children drop out of formal education during the high school years. The government has taken steps to address these issues, for example by providing subsidies to encourage the University of Central Asia to locate into Naryn oblast, and requiring schools to keep attendance registers and contact parents when children are repeatedly absent. These measures have met with some success and these and other programmes are ongoing.
4. Socio-economics
188. In common with most of the former Soviet states, the Kyrgyz Republic experienced economic difficulties in the initial years of independence, as noted above. The difficulties were mainly caused by the loss of markets, illustrated by the fact that in 1990, 98% of Kyrgyz exports were to other parts of the Soviet Union. This fact alone meant that the economic problems were more severe in Kyrgyzstan than in most other former Soviet republics. Factories and state farms closed as their markets disappeared, and the government was forced into action that exacerbated the problems for citizens in the short term, including reducing state expenditure, ending price subsidies and introducing a value-added tax. These and other reforms however stabilised the economy and led to Kyrgyzstan’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in December 1998. There has been a partial recovery over the past decade, but growth is still slow and government revenue is severely limited, which prohibits any large scale investment in much-needed social programmes, such as welfare, health, education and employment generation.
189. Agriculture remains a mainstay of the national economy, accounting for 30-40% of GDP and about half of the employment. However this does little to alleviate economic hardship as profit margins are traditionally sparse, so wages are low and investment in modern equipment and techniques almost non-existent and the sector is unable to advance significantly. Mining is the other major industry, but this is constrained by the substantial investment needed to commence operations and the volatility in the precious metals markets, particularly during the recent global economic crisis. The success of the Kumtor gold mine (Photo IV-17), which was developed in partnership with Centerra Gold of Canada and now accounts for around 40% of the industrial output of the republic and 50% of exports, could provide a model for further development in this sector.
190. Low incomes, high unemployment and under-employment, a mainly agrarian economy and under-resourced social services and infrastructure are key features of the socio-economic
83 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP climate throughout the country. In such conditions it is inevitable that poverty will be high, in comparison with levels in the stronger economies of the industrialised nations. The official poverty level established by the government is an income of 963 Som per month (22 US$), and currently around 40% of people throughout the country are below this level. The figure is slightly higher in Issyk-Kul oblast (Table IV-11), although both locally and nationally there has been a steady decrease over the past few years, which is indicative of the gradually improving economy. It is also worthy of note that certain aspects of the traditional Kyrgyz way of life help to alleviate the more severe aspects of poverty, including subsistence agriculture as practiced in both rural and urban areas to the extent that many people are practically self-sufficient in food, and the extended family system through which those in work support their relatives.
191. The JICA study in 2004 estimated the annual gross income from farming at around 11,000 Som per household, which reduces to 7,500 Som net after allowing for expenditure on seed, fertilizers, irrigation charges, etc. The income from livestock was slightly higher, at 13,000 Som gross and 10,000 Som net. Households engaged in cultivation and livestock had significantly higher incomes (27,700 Som gross) than those engaged in either activity alone, and as the average household expenditure is around 25,000 Som per year, only those engaged in both activities earn enough to survive on farming alone. Households spend significant sums on basic essentials such as electricity and winter heating, and services that are ostensibly free including healthcare and education, where charges are levied to supplement inadequate government expenditure. People also pay for repairs to community facilities, such as school buildings, maintenance of public wells, etc.
192. When a country faces economic hardship it is often those regions with niche commodities or markets that survive best and subsequently prosper as conditions improve. Capital cities frequently benefit in this way as they attract foreign visitors and service industries are able to grow as a result (hotels, restaurants, consultancy, etc). Jalal-Abad oblast, with its proliferation of hydropower stations is another example. Issyk-Kul should be well placed in this regard because it has several natural advantages over other parts of the country, which include:
• The lake, mountains and scenery, which are attracting increasing numbers of tourists and enabling the development of a tourist industry and service sector; • Kumtor mine, which is an important employer locally as well as making major contributions to the local and national economies and has reserves that should enable production to continue for at least the next 20-30 years; • Other mineral deposits, which could be exploited to a greater extent in the future; • The potential for renewable energy development, via hydropower, wind turbines or solar power as discussed above.
The challenge for government both nationally and locally is to raise the investment needed to develop and implement suitable schemes, whilst avoiding the pitfalls of inappropriate development, which include environmental damage, plus social hardship if enterprises fail.
5. Archaeology and cultural heritage
193. Kyrgyzstan has been inhabited for more than 3,000 years, and almost all occupants have developed settlements in the Issyk-Kul region, presumably attracted by its relatively mild climate and abundance of natural resources, and the protection offered by the surrounding
84 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP mountains. The area is therefore quite richly endowed with archaeological and historical sites and relics, and also with interesting locations from the more recent Soviet history. Some material is no longer available in the area having been taken to museums in Russia, but enough remains in and around the original locations to make this a nationally important resource in terms of both Kyrgyz history and modern-day tourism.
194. The earliest notable settlers were the warrior clans of Saka (a tribe of the Scythian people of Central Asia) who occupied Kyrgyzstan and southern Kazakhstan from around the 6th century BC to the 5th century AD. Bronze and gold relics from this period have been found in burial mounds near the village of Barskoon west of Karakol and although most of the material is now held in museums in St Petersburg there are similar mounds near Belovodsk west of Tup, which are thought to date from the same period and have not yet been excavated.
195. The other notable relics from early history are the numerous petroglyphs, most of which are still in situ north of Balykchy and Cholpon-Ata and in several other locations around the lake (Photo IV-30). These are glacial boulders, often arranged in mounds in fields, on which illustrations and scripts have been scratched or picked out, depicting hunters and animals such as ibex, wolves and deer. Some date from the late Bronze Age (~1,500 BC), others are from the Saka era when these sites were used for sacrifices and other rites to the sun god, and others are from more recent times.
196. From the 6th to the 12th centuries AD Kyrgyzstan was under the control of various Turkic alliances, including the Karakhanids (10th - 12th centuries), who established Islam in the region. Ancestors of today’s Kyrgyz people are thought to have lived in Siberia’s upper Yenisey Basin until the 10th century, when Mongol incursions forced them to migrate south into the Tien Shan. The area was incorporated into the Mongol empire by Genghis Khan in the 13th century and in 1685 the Mongol Oyrats drove vast numbers of Kyrgyz south into the Fergana region and present-day Tajikistan. After the Manchu defeat of the Oryats in 1758 the Kyrgyz were ruled by the Chinese, who mainly left them to their nomadic lifestyle.
197. Relics from this period include some of the petroglyphs described above and a number of artefacts that are on display in local museums (the Issyk-Kul Museum in Cholpon-Ata and the Regional Museum in Karakol, Photo IV-31), including jewellery, weaponry, pottery, etc. There are also several interesting sites, including a mound of stones in the Karkara valley east of Tup said to have been used to estimate troop losses by the Mongol emperor Timur/Tamerlane who had a summer headquarters in the area. There is also a Chinese mosque in Karakol, built for the local Dungan community (Photo IV-32), the wooden Holy Trinity Cathedral in Karakol (Photo IV-33) and several other locations.
198. Russian interest in the area began in the 19th century when Kyrgyz land was first incorporated into the Russian provinces of Fergana and Semireche and then became part of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) in 1918 and the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast in 1924. Kyrgyzstan became a separate ASSR in 1926 and a full Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) in 1936. This brought a degree of order and prosperity, but at considerable cost as nomadic peoples were forcibly settled during land reform and collectivization campaigns and numerous lives were lost in the purges of the Stalin era. The remoteness of Issyk-Kul made it an ideal location for certain activities that the Soviet Government wished to conceal from the west, including uranium mining at Kadj-Sai and naval weapons development and testing near Karakol.
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Photo IV-30: Petroglyphs
Photo IV-31: Karakol Regional Museum
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Photo IV-32: Dungan mosque in Karakol
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Photo IV-33: Holy Trinity cathedral in Karakol
Photo IV-34: Monument to Nikolai Przewalski in Karakol
Photo IV-35: Former Soviet weapons development site in Karakol
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199. Many sites, buildings and monuments still exist from the Soviet period and its history is described in some detail in the museums. There is also a museum devoted to the life and work of the Russian explorer Nikolai Przewalski, who explored Mongolia, China, Tibet and the Tien Shan between 1870 and 1885 and died in the military hospital in Karakol in 1888. Przewalski’s grave and monument (Photo IV-34) overlook Mikhaylovka inlet, where secret torpedo research was conducted in the mid-20th century, which now houses a variety of rusting cranes, docks and warehouses (Photo IV-35). There are also a number of sanatoria around the lake and along some of the rivers, which were developed during the Soviet period but are now less-used and in general need of refurbishment. One of these, alongside the Jeti-Oghuz river west of Karakol, was the location where Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin decompressed after the first manned space flight in 1961, and also where Russian president Boris Yeltsin met the new Kyrgyz president Askar Akaev in 1991.
200. The lake itself contains other important sites and relics from all of these periods, originating from coastal settlements that have become immersed during phases of water level rise. Artefacts have been recovered from the submerged city of Chigu at the eastern end of the lake, dating from the 2nd century BC; and there are at least ten other documented settlements currently under the water. Although many of these sites have been damaged by divers and treasure hunters who have removed numerous items, some relics are available in local museums and the sites would undoubtedly yield further material and information if they were properly examined by the Department of Antiquities or other appropriate body. The lake bed probably also contains less desirable remains from the torpedo testing programme.
6. Indigenous peoples and minority communities
201. Kyrgyzstan is a country in which a wide range of ethnic groups co-exist in apparent harmony with little sign of tension and with no obvious discrimination in terms of employment, housing, or other social or economic factors. The ethnic diversity has been created by a variety of factors, including the following:
• For long periods, Kyrgyzstan has been part of two of the largest and most powerful empires in history (Mongol and Soviet), in which country borders were modified and national identities suppressed; • The original Kyrgyz people followed a mainly nomadic lifestyle, initially migrating into the area from Siberia and then moving at various times in the country’s history in response to invasions and economic factors; • Northern Kyrgyzstan and the Issyk-Kul region were on one of the routes of the ancient Silk Road and have therefore been visited by a wide range of ethnic groups over a long period; • Many of the surrounding countries and populations have similar histories and lifestyles, so ethnicity and nationhood in the region have tended to become intermingled by the mobility of the population, inter-marriage and other factors.
202. There are currently around 90 nationalities in Kyrgyzstan and 70 of these are represented in Issyk-Kul oblast. The majority population of the oblast is Kyrgyz (70%) and there are also significant numbers of Uzbek (14.5%) and Russians (8.7%). The Uzbeks are generally economic migrants and live mainly in the urban areas; and many of the Russians came to
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Kyrgyzstan during the land reform programmes of the Soviet era, when settlers were given land to encourage migration. Other significant minorities that each make up around 1% of the oblast population are: Dungan (Muslims who fled China after the Hui Minorities’ war in the 19th century); Uyghur (Turkic Muslims who left Xinjiang after persecution by the Chinese in the late 19th century); Tajik (originally Persian speaking of Iranian origin, and now found in significant populations in many countries of the region, particularly Tajikistan and Afghanistan); and Kazakh (nomadic people who settled in Kazakhstan in the 15th century and are now also found in many Central Asian countries, particularly Kazakhstan, China, Uzbekistan and Russia). There are also small numbers of several nationalities that were deported to the area during the Second World War, including Koreans, Germans, Turks, Chechens and others.
203. The ethnic mix in the oblast and in the country as a whole has varied throughout history as people have continued to migrate in response to political and economic factors. In the early years of independence there was a major exodus because of the economic hardships and lack of job prospects, and at the peak in 1993, 130,000 people left the country, of whom 90,000 were Russians. The government made efforts to reduce these trends, including retaining Russian as an official language along with Kyrgyz. The “tulip revolution” of 2005 (in which President Akayev was overthrown by public demonstrations after allegations of corruption and electoral malpractice) prompted another exodus, again mainly of Russians.
204. As in many other countries, the religion followed by the different communities is greatly influenced by their ethnic roots. Around 75% of the people are Muslim (mainly of the Sunni denomination, with regional interpretations), and these are mainly the peoples of Turkic origin, including the Kyrgyz. A further 20% are Russian Orthodox and there are a variety of other religions, including Jewish, Roman Catholic, Baptist, Lutheran and Buddhist. All religions were suppressed under the atheist Soviet regime and the post-independence years have seen a resurgence of religious faith and activity.
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V. STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
A. Key Issues
205. The key issues affecting Lake Issyk Kul and its basin have been discussed by a number of studies, many of which have been reviewed during the course of this assignment. These include studies and documents funded by national and local government (eg Kyrgyz Republic Country Development Strategy 2009-11, Development Strategy for Issyk-Kul Oblast 2008-11) and international agencies (GTZ 1999, JICA 2004, Baetov 2005, Safege et al 2007, ADB 2009); and work conducted as scientific or academic research (Shnitnikov 1979, Jeenbaeva 2000, Toktosunov, 2000). During the present study, discussions were also held with senior experts from the key agencies responsible for environmental management in the basin (State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry, Biosphere Reserve Directorate and Issy- Kul/Naryn Interregional Department of Environmental Protection) to ensure that their experience and views were also taken into account (see Appendix 3).
206. These sources highlighted a number of issues and problem areas, and others were identified by this study, from the review of baseline date presented above. Issues vary to an extent, but there are certain common topics that most experts seem to agree represent the key problem areas. These cover a variety of sectors (environmental, social, administrative and legal) and are described below.
1. Environmental
207. The basin is internationally important for biodiversity, mainly because of the presence of the lake. However the lake has been misused in the past (by the disposal of waste, introduction of alien species, etc) and is presently coming under further pressure from escalating tourism development and increasing visitor numbers. It is not surprising therefore that the main environmental issues relate to the quality of the lake and the maintenance of its unique yet fragile ecosystem. The key issues are as follows:
• Water quality in the lake is said to be reduced by various pollutants, in particular: sewage discharged into rivers and the lake, and percolating via groundwater from the numerous pit latrines in the area; runoff of chemical fertilizers from agricultural land; industrial discharges; runoff from tailings dumps at functioning and defunct mining operations; etc. • Sediment quality is likely to be compromised by present and past water quality problems, because sediment is a sink for many of the more toxic and persistent materials, including heavy metals, radioactive elements, pesticides, etc, which become adsorbed onto mud particles. • Water level in the lake has declined by about 30 mm per year for much of the 20th century, mainly as a result of abstraction of river water for irrigation purposes. This has reduced the area of the lake and the coverage of certain important habitats, including reeds and other aquatic plants found at the lake margins, which have important roles in the reproduction and early growth of fish and other species and in removing certain pollutants (including heavy metals) from the water.
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• The lake ecosystem has been greatly altered by the introduction of various fish species from other countries during the Soviet era in attempts to boost the production of the fishery. Some of these have multiplied at the expense of indigenous species, and at least one very rare (endemic) fish has been brought to the edge of extinction. • Terrestrial habitats have been greatly reduced by the activities of man, in particular the removal of natural vegetation to provide land for agriculture, felling of trees for timber and fuel, and overgrazing of pastureland preventing re-growth of shrubs, trees and other plants. The present economic difficulties are compounding some of these problems (eg tree-felling) and creating others, for example loss of biodiversity from increased and hunting and poaching.
2. Social
208. Kyrgyzstan has experienced severe economic difficulties in the post independence period, because of the loss of Soviet markets, upon which the country’s exports were almost entirely dependent; and because the government was forced to take a series of measures (reducing spending, ending state subsidies, etc) that increased the difficulties faced by citizens, at least in the short term. In common with most other parts of the country, poverty, unemployment, ineffective social services and the need to stimulate the economy and improve the economic status and quality of life of the people, are the key social issues in Issyk-Kul oblast:
• Poverty is the main social issue in this area and in the country as a whole, with around 40% of people living below the official minimum subsistence level. Unemployment and under-employment are high, and many social indicators (eg public health, levels of crime) point to a society that is under increasing pressure, in which individuals have little opportunity to improve their socio-economic status; and where government does not have the resources to provide an adequate safety net through social welfare services. • Industry and agriculture prospered in the area in the Soviet regime, with the benefit of state subsidies, which have long been discontinued. Industry is now almost non- existent, except for mining, which is still buoyant, but only because of the Kumtor gold mine, which is wholly-owned by a Canadian company. Agriculture is still the main employer in the oblast, but operates at a greatly reduced volume, with little central organisation, limited access to markets, outdated techniques and equipment, and poor profit margins. • Issyk-Kul is an area rich in natural resources, which provide an opportunity to develop or expand certain niche markets to increase the level of prosperity, even in the present difficult economic climate. Tourism and mining are fields in which development has already begun, and there may be others, such as renewable energy, herb cultivation, etc. These require investment and organisation, and any such development must include high standards of environmental protection to avoid damaging the area’s internationally important biological resources. • Physical infrastructure is suffering from years of under-investment since independence, and the dilapidated and malfunctioning systems and services are contributing to social deprivation. Water supply systems do not extend to new housing and lose up to 50% of the resource through leakage; sewers are available
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only in the centre of urban areas, so most people use pit latrines, which are often unsanitary; solid waste is collected from a small proportion of the population and dumpsites are not engineered or controlled; most roads are badly in need of repair; the electricity supply is overloaded and subject to frequent outages; and district heating systems supply only a relatively small proportion of the urban population. • Social infrastructure is also greatly under-funded, with the result that, despite staff ratios that indicate a high level of commitment and dedication, medical facilities are dilapidated, often insanitary and ill-equipped, and schools and colleges are similarly under-resourced. The situation is worse in rural areas, where communities often have to pay for or conduct much-needed repairs themselves.
3. Legal and Institutional
209. The political changes and economic climate of the past 20 years have also left their mark on the country’s administrative system and institutions. The devolution of powers to oblast authorities occurred when resources were already stretched, and most regional administrations have had difficulty fulfilling their new responsibilities. In Issyk-Kul this has hindered the management of environmental matters, and this is compounded by a complex legislation and confusion regarding the roles of the two main administrative bodies. The main legal and administrative issues in the oblast are therefore the following:
• Environmental management in the basin is ineffective, with the devolved local government exerting little or no control over development or its impacts, unable to collect adequate data to determine the nature and extent of problems, and unable or unwilling to impose any meaningful sanctions upon those who transgress. The most obvious manifestation of this problem is the array of new tourism resorts and other developments that have been constructed near the lake over recent years in contravention of planning law and policy, without any assessment of their environmental impacts, and with no redress having been sought against the developers. • One of the main issues faced by local government is a general lack of resources, both financial and human, which are often insufficient to enable the authorities to perform their duties adequately. In terms of environmental management the lack of properly trained manpower is a key issue, together with insufficient budgetary provision to support even the most basic environmental monitoring or supervision. • A further issue is the amount of environmental legislation. There are currently over 150 legal acts relating to environmental matters in Kyrgyzstan, plus several others that relate to Issyk-Kul. This includes laws that have existed since the Soviet era, and a variety of new instruments passed by the government since independence. There are many contradictions, conflicts and omissions, plus areas where the meaning of the law is unclear. This causes confusion amongst both government and the public, which is compounded by a general lack of informative guidance. • There are also a large number of agencies with responsibility for managing environmental issues in the basin. The five main bodies are the Biosphere Reserve Directorate, Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department of Environmental Protection, Government Ecological Supervisory Service, Issyk-Kul Hunting Authority and Karakol National Park Service; but there are at least nine other ministries, state agencies or departments with some responsibility for environmental matters in the
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oblast. Roles are not always clearly defined and there are areas of overlap, and little evidence of effective inter-agency coordination or integration. • This is most evident in the two main agencies (Biosphere Reserve Directorate and Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department of Environmental Protection). These are both departments of the State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry, yet there appears to be confusion regarding their respective status and responsibility, which is leading to overlap in some fields (for example they both have programmes of water quality monitoring), and a lack of coverage in others.
B. Strategic Environmental Management Plan
210. The proposed Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) is shown in Table V- 1. It was developed by considering each of the key issues in turn, planning a strategy to remedy the problem and then identifying the specific actions necessary to implement that strategy. These elements are all shown in the SEMP, which also explains the rationale behind each strategy and actions, and gives an indicative programme showing the sequence in which the actions should be taken and their likely duration.
211. The SEMP is by definition a strategic document and it therefore focuses deliberately on the major issues in the basin, which number 15 in total, as discussed above. These are not the only problem areas in these sectors, but there is general agreement that these are the key issues; and there is little doubt that if they were addressed in the manner suggested, the natural environment and social conditions in the basin would be improved significantly.
212. The SEMP adopts a broad focus and includes certain topics (such as poverty and employment generation) that might be considered to be outside the scope of an environmental management plan. However, socio-economic factors are included as they should be integral to any consideration of environmental matters, because: a) most of the environmental damage that occurs worldwide is caused either directly or indirectly by the activities of man; and b) a community’s interaction with the environment is directly linked to their economic status and degree of development.
213. To the extent possible the SEMP proposes direct action to remediate specific issues. However this is not always feasible because in some cases additional data or studies are required to clarify the nature and extent of a problem, and certain issues require more specialised expertise to plan the remedial action in detail. Such cases are however relatively few and most of the SEMP proposes specific action aimed at solving the particular issue. The SEMP should therefore provide a framework for tackling the major environmental and social problems of the basin, by implementing the recommended actions.
214. Further work will be needed to prepare the specific projects through which the action is implemented. However in each case the SEMP describes the action in some detail, with the intention of providing sufficient information from which Terms of Reference for consultants or project proposals for funding applications can be developed without a great deal of additional data collection or research. The following section provides some additional explanation of the rationale behind the strategies in the three main subdivisions of the SEMP.
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Table V-1: Strategic Environmental Management Plan for Issyk-Kul Basin
Issue Remediation Strategy and Rationale Actions to Achieve Remediation Resp19 Programme (y) 1. Environmental 1 2 3 4 5 >5 1. Lake Water Quality - said to be reduced Recent data provided by BRD show little evidence of 1. Upgrade the existing laboratory of Interregional Dept of IKNIDEP by pollution from a variety of sources, pollution and it is possible that water quality may have Environmental Protection (new facilities, equipment, staff, including: sewage discharged into rivers improved as industrial activity and farming have declined analytical procedures and training) to achieve and maintain and the lake and percolating via ground- over the past 20 years. More data are needed to examine national accreditation. water from pit latrines; runoff of fertilizers these issues in detail, to determine whether there is a 2. Design and implement an intensive programme of water Cons from farm land; industrial discharges; runoff water quality problem and if so, to assess its nature and quality monitoring throughout the lake and inflowing rivers from tailings dumps at mines; etc. extent and identify pollution sources and plan remedial and groundwater, to determine levels and sources of all action if necessary. Laboratory facilities and expertise pollutants. Analyses should cover physical and chemical should be upgraded to enable these and other analyses to parameters, plus suspected pollutants, eg sewage bacteria, be conducted locally. Pollution control legislation should nitrate, phosphate, pesticides, heavy metals, radioactive also be reviewed and revised if necessary to enable local elements, etc. authorities to apply meaningful sanctions to any major 3. Design and implement a regular monthly programme of IKNIDEP polluters. water quality monitoring in the lake, inflowing rivers and groundwater, covering standard physical, chemical and sanitary parameters, and the main pollutants identified by the intensive water quality monitoring programme 4. Review data from the intensive and routine monitoring IKNIDEP programmes and compare with historical data and current and Cons national and international standards to determine the nature, extent and sources of any pollutants present and the overall quality of the water. Propose appropriate action to reduce any significant pollutants to acceptable levels. 5. Review all existing legislation pertaining to water quality Cons and the system for water quality control, including such aspects as EIA, SEE, permits to construct and operate new developments, effluent discharge standards, monitoring and control by government bodies, etc. Compare with systems in economically developed countries (eg EU, USA) and make recommendations for improvement if necessary. 2. Sediment Quality in the lake – likely to Recent data (from BRD and EU TACIS) show elevated 1. Design and implement an intensive programme of Cons be reduced by present and past water levels of certain metals in lake sediments, but data have sediment quality monitoring throughout the lake to quality problems because sediment is a limited coverage in area and determinands, so more data determine levels and sources of all pollutants. Analyses sink for many toxic and persistent are needed to determine the nature and extent of should cover physical and chemical parameters, plus chemicals eg heavy metals, radioactive pollution, identify sources and plan remedial action if suspected pollutants, eg nitrate, phosphate, pesticides, elements, pesticides, etc. necessary. This should also examine historical data to heavy metals, radioactive elements, etc. analyse pollution trends. 2. Design and implement a regular biannual programme of IKNIDEP sediment quality monitoring in the lake, covering standard physical and chemical parameters, and the main pollutants
19 Resp: This shows the agency likely to be responsible for most of the action indicated (Cons = Consultants; IKNIDEP = Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department of Environmental Protection; Gidromet = State Agency for Hydrometeorology; BRD = Biodiversity Reserve Directorate; SAACM = State Agency on Architecture and Construction Management; IK Oblast = Issyk-Kul Oblast Administration; SAEPF = State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry).
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identified by the intensive sediment monitoring programme. 3. Review data from the intensive and routine monitoring IKNIDEP programmes and compare with historical data and current and Cons national and international standards to determine the nature, extent and sources of any pollutants present and the overall quality of the sediment. Propose appropriate action to reduce significant pollutants to acceptable levels. 3. Water level in the lake – has declined by This issue was examined by the JICA study (2004), which 1. Implement the recommendations of the JICA study by Gidromet about 30 mm/y for much of the 20th century, concluded that there was insufficient data to enable adding at least 2 new hydrological and meteorological mainly because of abstraction of river water effective remedial action to be planned and recommended stations to the Gidromet network and observing the upper for irrigation. This has reduced the area of strengthening Gidromet’s hydrological and meteorological atmospheric layer by radio-sonde. the lake and coverage of certain important monitoring network by adding 2 new stations and 2. Survey composition, distribution, coverage and health of BRD habitats, eg reeds and other plants at the observing the upper atmospheric layer by radio-sonde. the plant habitats at the lake margins and compare these lake margins, which are important in fish This action should be coupled with an examination of with historical data to determine long-term trends. growth/reproduction and in removing recent and historical data on lake water level (from Kyrgyz 3. Collect and review all recent and historical data on: lake Cons certain pollutants from the water. Academy of Science), hydrology and meteorology water level; hydrology and meteorology; abstraction of (Gidromet), and abstraction of surface water for irrigation surface water; composition, distribution, health and (Ministry of Agriculture); and surveys to examine the coverage of plant habitats at lake margins; and other health and spatial coverage of plant communities at the relevant topics if necessary (eg volume of glaciers). lake margins, comparing data with historical records to Determine with reasons the causes of the historical and detect long term trends. The extent, reasons and impacts recent fluctuations in water level in the lake and propose of water level changes should then be determined and a appropriate action to restore the lake to its optimum depth remediation strategy planned. and maintain this level over the long term 4. The Lake Ecosystem – has been This is a complex problem and a solution needs to 1. Conduct an intensive survey to collect data on the Cons damaged by introduction of fish species balance the legitimate aims of improving the fishery to population dynamics of all fish species currently inhabiting from other countries in attempts to boost provide local and national economic and social benefits the lake and their main prey items. This should cover production of the fishery. Some of these and maintaining a healthy balance between species that density, distribution, sex ratio, size and age distribution, have multiplied at the expense of preserves the unique elements of the ecosystem, in reproductive cycle, breeding, feeding and nursery grounds, indigenous species and one very rare particular the endemic species of fish. This is another etc. Compare the new data with historical data (from the (endemic) fish is almost extinct. issue that requires more data before an effective Department of Fisheries) and analyse how and why remediation plan can be devised. In this case data should populations have fluctuated in the past. Devise a strategy examine the present population dynamics of all fish that will maintain healthy populations of commercially species and their main prey items, and compare these valuable species and all native fish, explain the rationale in with historical data to determine when, how and why detail, and demonstrate the expected results of the strategy changes have occurred. A strategy should then be by means of predictive software and/or other tools. devised comprising action to maintain healthy populations 2. Design and implement a regular monthly programme to Fisheries of both commercially valuable and all native species, monitor the status of the commercial and native fish Dept without involving further introductions of alien species. populations in the lake to record the recovery planned in and BRD Item 1.4.1 (above) and provide early detection of any future problems. This should monitor such elements as density, distribution, size, age, sex, gravidity, feeding, etc. 5. Terrestrial habitats – have been greatly As most of the habitat destruction occurred during the 1. Review and revise the current system of land use SAACM reduced by activities of man, in particular Soviet era and earlier it is impracticable to attempt to planning in the oblast as recommended in Item 3.1.1 below and Cons removal of vegetation to provide land for reverse this in a significant manner. This is also not 2. Obtain and review oblast records of land use BRD agriculture, felling of trees for timber and desirable given the key role of agriculture in the economy designations and land ownership and plot the location of all fuel, and overgrazing of pasture land and the increased dependence on this sector in the agricultural land on GIS maps. Check the current use of all preventing re-growth of trees, shrubs, etc. current economic climate. Efforts should be concentrated such land by ground-truthing and landowner surveys; and Current economic difficulties are instead on preventing further habitat loss and reinstating
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compounding some problems (tree-felling) natural habitats on un-used agricultural land as much as plot the locations of land designated for agriculture that has and creating others (eg increased hunting). possible. This should include a review of the system of not been used for this purpose for say 5, 10 and >20 years. land use planning to determine whether it needs to be Select areas for habitat re-creation on the grounds that the strengthened to protect natural habitats, an analysis of the land: a) has favourable environmental characteristics availability of un-used agricultural land, and plans for (location, size, soil, drainage, etc; b) is owned by the habitat recreation in such areas if appropriate. Item 3.1 government or a private owner who is willing to sell the below recommends action to improve the system of land plot; and c) has been un-used for a substantial period. use planning in the oblast, so this item focuses on habitat 3. Review data from study 5.2 above and select four areas BRD recreation measures. for habitat re-creation pilot projects. Prepare plans for the re-creation of plant habitats and reintroduction of native fauna. Implement the plans and conduct regular monitoring to assess the success of each scheme in re-creating natural biotopes. 4. Review data on the success or otherwise of the habitat BRD re-creation schemes and modify the approach as necessary. Select suitable areas for a further batch of pilot projects and plan and implement additional habitat re- creation schemes. Areas should be selected with the aim of generating substantial areas of declining habitats, with suitable corridors and buffer zones, rather than isolated small areas. This exercise should be repeated in the future as further funds become available. 2. Social 1. Poverty – is high because of the harsh These four aspects were also key issues in the JICA study 1. Conduct preparatory studies to provide a sound basis for SAACM economic climate and about 40% of people completed in 2004, which prepared an Integrated implementing the Integrated Development Plan prepared and Cons live below the official minimum subsistence Development Plan for the Issyk-Kul basin. The aims of by the JICA (2004) study. This should include: a) forming a level. Unemployment is also high and that study were to plan the sustainable development of new project Steering Committee chaired by the current people have little opportunity to improve Issyk-Kul, whilst protecting the environment of the lake Prime Minister or other high-ranking government official their socio-economic status and the and mountains and demonstrating administrative and with a similar membership to the committee that government does not have enough decentralization combined with enhancement of social and served during the JICA study; b) engaging consultants to resources to provide an adequate safety economic activities. review the JICA study (in conjunction with national and net through social welfare services. local stakeholders) in the light of the current economic Although the focus of the JICA project was on climate, present government policy and international best development and this SEMP is primarily aimed at practice in environmental and social safeguards, and revise environmental protection and rehabilitation, the two the Master Plan if necessary; c) reviewing the list of priority studies deal with many of the same issues, because projects and developing a detailed programme for practical development in the basin is a key determinant of implementation, within a realistic timescale in relation to environmental quality, and sustainable development must expected budget availability; d) securing funding for the first be environmentally acceptable as well as economically wave of projects through discussion with relevant agencies viable. Both studies identify tourism as the key economic and officials in national government and international driver in the basin and also recognise the need to reform funding agencies. 2. Industry and agriculture – have both agriculture and rejuvenate industry to provide additional 2. Establish the administrative and institutional structure SAACM declined with the ending of government employment opportunities and economic stimulus. They necessary for the management of the Master Plan project and Cons subsidies in the post-Soviet era. Industry is also recognise the potential for developing niche markets (including Project Implementation Unit, Issyk-Kul now almost non-existent (except for the in this region, via for example specialised agricultural Development Forum, etc) and engage consultants for Kumtor gold mine); and although products and locally manufactured items aimed at the supporting and coordinating roles as determined by the agriculture is still the main employer it tourist trade. The JICA study emphasises community preparatory studies. Obtain funding, allocate budgets and operates at a greatly reduced volume with empowerment as the main vehicle for effecting change, responsibilities, via legislative measures as appropriate,
97 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP outdated techniques and equipment and and would provide training and support to organise, and proceed with the implementation of the first tranche of poor profit margins. upgrade and expand activity in the agricultural, industrial priority projects from the JICA study, according to the and tourism sectors. It also notes the social and programme developed by the preparatory studies. 3. Natural resources – are rich in the Issyk- environmental impact of under-investment in physical 3. Conduct a review of the implementation success after SAACM Kul oblast and this provides an opportunity infrastructure (specifically water supply, sewerage, solid five years, examining: achievements against programme and Cons to develop niche markets to increase waste, electricity, telecommunications and transport). It and budget; quality of infrastructure, materials, training, prosperity. Development has already recognises the need for substantial investment in these support, etc; financial performance, records and propriety; begun in tourism and mining and there may sectors and in view of the ongoing financial and economic technical and financial performance of consultants and be other sectors such as renewable difficulties in the republic, proposes an initial focus on the contractors; stakeholder feedback; etc. Make detailed energy, herb cultivation, etc. These require most urgent rehabilitation needs. recommendations for improvement if necessary and investment and organisation, plus high The JICA study examines different development scenarios prepare revised plans for implementing the next tranche of standards of environmental protection to and recommends medium growth as the model that best projects accordingly. avoid damaging biodiversity, which is the combines achievability with optimum results. This involves natural resource that is internationally 78 projects to be implemented by stakeholder groups, at important. an estimated cost of $380 million, comprising $330 million 4. Physical infrastructure – is dilapidated for infrastructure, $30 million on industrial development 4. Implement the next tranche of projects following the SAACM and $20 million on social and community development. 49 and malfunctioning because of under- revised programme, procedure and recommendations and Cons investment since independence and this is priority projects were proposed for immediate provided following the review of the first phase of contributing to social deprivation. Water implementation based on their urgency, impact on the implementation (see above). supply systems do not reach new housing social environment and poverty reduction and their and lose 50% of the water by leakage; sustainability; and six were subject to pre-feasibility study. sewers are available only in the centre of urban areas so most people use pit In the social sector the SEMP and the JICA study latrines, which are unsanitary; solid waste examined similar issues and came to the same 5. Conduct a further review every five years before SAACM is only collected from a small proportion of conclusions regarding the key problems and potential implementing the next tranche of projects taking into and Cons the people and is deposited at un- solutions. The JICA study provides a blueprint for account recommendations of previous reviews in each engineered dumpsites; most roads are achieving effective solutions, which has widespread case. badly in need of repair; electricity supply support, from the local stakeholders who were involved in suffers frequent outages; and district developing the proposals, through to the highest level of heating serves only a small proportion of national government via a Steering Committee chaired by urban dwellers. the Prime Minister. This SEMP thus recommends implementation of the Master Plan developed by the JICA project as a means of solving the key social issues identified by both studies. Implementation will need to be preceded by certain preparatory studies (to determine whether calculations, assumptions and conclusions made in 2003-04 remain valid five years later, and to give the new government the opportunity to amend the plan to comply with current objectives and financial circumstances if necessary). These studies should be relatively straightforward and should therefore not require significant expenditure.
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5. Social infrastructure – is also greatly The healthcare and education sectors were also reviewed 1. Discuss local needs in the education sector with the Cons under-funded. Medical facilities are by the JICA study, and again the findings were similar to relevant national ministries, oblast authorities and dilapidated, often insanitary and ill- those reported by the SEMP. However in this case the education professionals working in the basin. On the basis equipped, and schools and colleges are JICA study recommended only three relatively minor of these discussions and a detailed review of available similarly under-resourced. The situation is projects in these fields, which do not aim to effect large- data, develop detailed lists (with costs) of improvements in worse in rural areas. scale improvements throughout the oblast. The SEMP facilities and services needed in each rayon (covering staff, therefore recommends more concerted action by the training, buildings, other facilities, equipment, materials, implementation of pilot projects, which could then be etc). Prioritise improvements on the basis of suitable replicated in all rayons as budget becomes available. criteria and prepare one pilot project at each level (pre- school, primary, secondary, tertiary) in different rayons. 2. Obtain the necessary budget and implement the four IK Oblast pilot projects (2.5.1 above). Engage consultants to conduct and Cons an independent assessment of the success of each scheme, demonstrated by means of appropriate criteria (eg graduate numbers, educational achievement). 3. Replicate successful pilot projects in the other four IK Oblast rayons in each case; and re-design and re-implement any and Cons unsuccessful pilot projects. Continue the replication process until all improvements identified by the initial study (Item 2.5.1 above) have been provided. 4. Conduct an identical process in the health sector. IK Oblast Identify local needs in discussion with national and local and Cons government and local healthcare professionals, and by review of data. Prepare costed lists of improvements in each rayon; determine priorities and prepare one pilot project at each level (polyclinic, group family doctor, first aid station, territorial hospital, oblast joint hospital) in different rayons. 5. Obtain budget and implement the five pilot projects (Item IK Oblast 2.5.4 above). Engage consultants to conduct an and Cons independent assessment of each scheme on the basis of suitable criteria (eg public health, patient numbers, etc). 6. Replicate successful pilot projects in the other four IK Oblast rayons in each case; and re-design and re-implement any and Cons unsuccessful pilots. Continue replicating pilots until all improvements identified by the initial study are provided. 3. Legal and Institutional 1. Environmental management by the The inadequacy of the land use planning system is one of 1. Implement the Integrated Development Plan prepared by SAACM devolved local government – is ineffective. the key issues in the basin, because of the relationship the JICA (2004) study as recommended in Items 2.1.1 and and Cons The local authority exerts little or no control between anthropogenic activity and environmental quality. 2.1.2 above. Ensure that all recommended preparatory over development or its impacts, is unable Inappropriate land uses and inadequate disposal of waste studies are conducted, including a review by consultants to to collect adequate data to investigate have led to extensive and unnecessary environmental revise the Master Plan if necessary to comply with the problems, and is unable or unwilling to damage in many countries - developed and developing. current economic climate, present government policy and impose sanctions. This is exemplified by The system of land use planning in Issyk-Kul oblast was international best practice in environmental and social the recent proliferation of tourism facilities reviewed in detail by the JICA study. This highlighted the safeguards. Ensure that this review considers the role of that contravene planning law and policy, complexities of the planning and approvals system and the environmental matters in the decision-making process where no action has been taken against lack of detailed physical plans at the local (Ayl okmotu) (both in devising the Integrated Development Plan and in
99 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 5 – SEMP developers. level as key problems; and recommended remedial action the projects through which the plan will be implemented) by means of three projects, aimed at restructuring the and establishes environmental matters as a key criterion. spatial planning system and streamlining the land use 2. Conduct the assessment of the oblast institutions as SAEPF approval procedures. outlined in Item 3.2.1 below and implement the These actions would almost certainly improve strengthening measures recommended by the completed environmental management in the basin, so this is further study. support for the recommendation made above for the 3. Conduct the assessment of the environmental SAEPF government to implement the JICA study to deal with management system in the basin and the implementing many of the problems highlighted by this SEMP. In view of institutions as recommended in Items 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 the widely recognised importance of the environment of below and implement the measures recommended by the the basin, a revision of the systems of spatial planning and completed studies. land use approval must establish environmental protection as a key criterion in the decision-making process. Furthermore the responsibilities of the local agencies must be clearly defined and their activities supported by institutional strengthening measures (see 3.2 below). 2. Local government is under-resourced – Items 3.2 -3.5 highlight similar issues, which suggest that 1. Conduct an assessment of the institutions involved in Cons in terms of people, skills and finance, which the system of environmental management in the basin environmental management in the basin, ensuring that this are often insufficient to enable the authority needs to be restructured and streamlined, and that the is integrated with the study to review and revise the to perform its duties adequately. Regarding institutions involved need to be strengthened considerably. environmental management system (Item 3.3.1). The environmental management, lack of trained To identify and address the deficiencies in the institutional study should encompass all agencies involved manpower is a key issue, and inadequate organisations, an institutional assessment should be in environmental management (see Item 3.4) and in each budget, which at present does not enable conducted to devise the necessary staff complement, case should assess staff, facilities, equipment, materials, even the most basic environmental skills mix, training needs and budget requirements. This training and other support, comparing current provisions monitoring or supervision. should be integrated with the review and revision of the with those required under the revised system of environmental management system described below (Item environmental management. It should produce a detailed 3.3). budget to cover the necessary improvement and annual recurrent costs. 2. Obtain budget and implement the strengthening IK Oblast measures recommended by the institutional study. 3. Environmental legislation – comprises Legislative complexity, duplication, contradiction and 1. Review all current environmental legislation in the Cons over 150 legal acts, plus others relating to omissions are common to many of the former Soviet Kyrgyz Republic (including laws and regulations relating to Issyk-Kul, and includes laws remaining states where new governments have implemented new Issyk-Kul) and identify areas of overlap, duplication, from the Soviet era and others passed legislation hurriedly, without properly repealing existing contradiction and unnecessary complexity, plus areas/ since independence. There are many laws or considering their coverage or adequacy. There topics in which legislation is needed but absent. Review contradictions, conflicts and omissions, and have been moves to revise and simplify legislative also all specific environmental management systems and areas where the meaning is unclear, which systems in certain emerging democracies and that frameworks established by the legislation (environmental causes confusion amongst government appears to be required in the environmental sector in the assessment, water quality, air quality, ambient noise, etc). and the public. This is compounded by a Kyrgyz Republic. A study to review national environmental Compare the legislation with those of more economically lack of informative guidance. legislation and propose revisions where necessary should developed countries (eg EU, USA) and with the safeguards therefore be conducted, and this should also incorporate requirements of IFIs (eg ADB, World Bank). Identify the those instruments specific to Issyk-Kul. deficiencies of the present Kyrgyz legislation and propose remedial action, drafting new laws where necessary, focusing on straightforward legislation that is easy to understand and apply. Examine and re-define the roles of agencies involved in environmental management at oblast level and reduce the number of agencies where possible. Develop an implementation project, including a realistic
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programme and budget.
2. Obtain budget and implement the project to amend the SAEPF environmental legislation of the Kyrgyz Republic and Issyk- Kul oblast over the proposed timescale. Provide detailed training to staff of each oblast with responsibilities under the revised legislation and provide initial consultancy assistance in establishing the management systems needed to facilitate operation of the new processes (land use planning, EIA, environmental permitting, pollution control, waste disposal, construction and operation monitoring, etc). 4. Environmental management in the basin The project proposed in Item 3.3 above emphasises the Implement the project proposed in Item 3.3 above, as SAEPF – is impeded by the number of responsible promulgation of straightforward legislation and systems, described in Item 3.3.2 agencies. The 5 main bodies are BRD, so when implemented this should simplify the system of IKNIDEP, Ecological Supervisory Service, environmental management in the oblasts, making it much IK Hunting Authority and Karakol National easier to operate and comply with. The simplification Park Service, but at least 9 other agencies process should reduce the number of agencies with have some responsibility for environmental responsibilities within the environmental management matters. Roles are not always clearly process at oblast level, which should therefore address defined and there are areas of overlap and this issue. little evidence of coordination or integration. 5. BRD and IKNIDEP – are the two main The overlap in responsibility between BRD and IKNIDEP 1. Review and revise if necessary the current roles of BRD SAEPF agencies responsible for environmental and the uncertain status of BRD within SAEPF is hindering and IKNIDEP in environmental management in Issyk-Kul protection in the basin and there appears to environmental management in the basin as effort is being oblast. In this SEMP for example, responsibility for be confusion regarding their status and expended competing for status and budget, and limited monitoring and other action related to the various media in responsibility, leading to overlap in some resources are being spent on similar programmes (eg the basin (water, air, soil) is assigned to IKNIDEP and fields and a lack of coverage in others. water quality monitoring) whilst other elements are being monitoring and action related to the inhabitants of the overlooked (eg monitoring the impacts of development in media (biodiversity and ecology) is assigned to BRD. the basin). Roles and responsibilities of these agencies Ensure there is no overlap and that all responsibilities are will be revised by the project proposed in Item 3.3 above, clearly specified. Ensure also that all responsibilities of but SAEPF should clarify their present roles to improve the SAEPF in the basin are covered by one or other of the operation of the existing system and take further action to agencies. Inform the directors of both organisations of the promote cooperation and integration between these and responsibilities in writing and ensure that the new roles and other agencies. SAEPF should also take action to raise functions are taken on immediately. Provide staff in each the profile of the BRD within SAEPF and the oblast as agency with training in their respective duties and hold joint their role and capability is not widely understood at seminars with both agencies to improve communication present. and integration. Make the achieving of inter-agency integration and cooperation a specific task of each director.
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2. Raise the profile of BRD within SAEPF by organising seminars at which BRD directors explain their role, capacity and skills and services offered and discuss and agree cooperation with other SAEPF departments. Prepare and distribute a circular or brochure providing this information to the oblast authorities and other local agencies.
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1. Environmental Issues
215. Although in the Soviet era scientific research and data collection was well supported by the state and a great deal of information was collected on a wide range of topics, this has not been the case in the recent period of self-government, when reduced funding has been a major issue for most government agencies. Many agencies have less than optimum staff numbers and have cut back their programmes of routine monitoring, which are now significantly less extensive than under the previous regime, and in many cases have ceased entirely. This means that environmental data are now much less widely available than they were 20 years ago, so several strategies in this sector require collection of new data before remedial action can be planned in detail.
216. The SEMP indicates the body that is considered most appropriate to be responsible for the majority of the work in implementing each action. This includes consultants and various government agencies. In the environmental sector the main agencies are Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department for Environmental Protection (IKNIDEP) and the Biosphere Reserve Directorate (BRD), which are the two branches of the State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry (SAEPF) that operate in the oblast. The SEMP distributes responsibilities between these agencies according to what we suggest should be their primary focus: IKNIDEP on physical and chemical conditions in the various environmental media (land, air and water); and BRD on the biology and ecology of the organisms inhabiting those media. This is intended to assist in the process of re-defining their roles to avoid overlap (see SEMP Item 3.5).
217. Two of the five strategies in the environmental sector also involve a review of the legislation pertaining to specific aspects of environmental management (water quality and land use planning). This is because many of the inadequacies of the present system of environmental management are rooted in the legislation, which is complex and unwieldy and thus difficult to interpret for the public, developers/industrialists, and government officials. This theme is taken further in the third part of the SEMP, relating to legislation and institutions.
2. Social Issues
218. The second part of the SEMP recommends action to address the most serious social problems currently facing the oblast (and the country as a whole), which are: poverty; unemployment; the regeneration of agriculture and industry, the search for new markets for local products, rehabilitation of physical infrastructure (water supply, wastewater, etc) and the rehabilitation of social services including education and healthcare. Tourism is seen as the main opportunity for bringing increasing prosperity to Issyk-Kul oblast (along with revitalised agricultural and industrial sectors), but unchecked and unplanned development in the tourism sector is already causing damage to the fragile lake and its environs.
219. It is clear that what is needed to plan development in these sectors to maximise economic and social benefits without causing extensive and unacceptable environmental damage, is a Master Plan that will provide economically and environmentally sustainable development. Such a plan has already been prepared, by the 2004 JICA study, the aims of which were “To plan sustainable development in the Issyk-Kul zone, protecting the environment
103 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 1 – SEMP of the Issyk-Kul Lake and mountainous areas, as well as demonstrating administrative decentralization combined with development of social and economic activities”. The study and the Master Plan it proposes were reviewed in the course of preparing the SEMP and it is clear that if the Master Plan was implemented it would dramatically improve the socio-economic status of large numbers of citizens and the oblast as a whole, without causing widespread environmental damage. It would go a long way towards solving the key social problems identified by the present study (Section V.A above), so implementation of the proposals of the JICA project is the main recommendation of this part of the SEMP.
220. The JICA Master Plan could not be implemented without being embraced by the present government, which would also need to raise substantial revenue to fund the 78 projects through which the plan would be implemented (estimated cost $380 million). The SEMP therefore recommends a number of preparatory studies prior to implementation, including a review and revision of the plan if necessary in the light of: a) the current economic climate; b) present government policy; and c) international best practice in environmental and social safeguards. These studies should be conducted and/or managed by the State Committee on Architecture and Construction Management, which is the nominated Executing Agency for the JICA project.
3. Legal and Institutional Issues
221. Solving the deficiencies in the system of environmental management in the oblast is fundamental to sustaining the planned improvements in environmental quality over the long term, as allowing development to continue largely unregulated would almost certainly result in continued environmental degradation. There are three main difficulties: a) the legislation is voluminous and unwieldy, and difficult to understand for all parties (developers, the public and oblast officials); b) the responsible agencies are under-resourced and are thus unable to properly apply the legislation, check compliance or apply sanctions; and c) the complexities in the environmental management system are compounded by the number of agencies involved and a lack of clarity in their respective roles.
222. These issues are complex and inter-linked, and the proposed solutions will require some quite deep-rooted action, because local systems of environmental management are established by national legislation, so this needs to be reviewed and revised if the systems are to be simplified and made more functional. The framework for land use planning and development approval should be included in this exercise, given that inappropriate and environmentally damaging development is one of the key concerns. This is another topic that has already been highlighted by the JICA study, which proposes appropriate remedial action via projects to restructure the spatial planning system and streamline land use approval procedures. The SEMP therefore again proposes implementation of the recommendations of the JICA study as the means of addressing an issue highlighted by the present study. This provides further support for the recommendation above that the government should execute the JICA Master Plan in order to solve many of the key environmental and social problems in the oblast.
223. Action to improve the legislative framework for environmental management in the oblast needs to be conducted in parallel with an assessment and upgrading of the institutions with responsibilities in this field; and the two studies should be properly integrated so that the institutions can be strengthened as needed to enable them to fulfil their new roles. The SEMP recommends that this analysis is conducted by independent consultants and that it covers all
104 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 1 – SEMP aspects of the institutions, including: roles and responsibilities; staff complement; skills and training needs; equipment; materials; capital and running costs; etc.
224. The final recommendation of the SEMP provides short term action to resolve the current overlap in activities between IKNIDEP and BRD (the two departments of SAEPF that operate in Issyk-Kul oblast), which is currently affecting their functioning. This should be remedied by the legislative and institutional changes in the long term, but more immediate action to clarify present roles would be beneficial, given that the existing system will operate until any changes are implemented, which could be a substantial period of time. The opportunity is taken to also recommend activities to raise the profile of BRD within SAEPF and the wider oblast community, which is one of the issues inhibiting their present role.
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VI. CONCLUSIONS
225. This study has examined the environmental and social issues in the Issyk-Kul basin and the system of environmental management, from an extensive review of existing information from a wide variety of sources, and discussions with national experts in these fields.
226. The basin is internationally important for biodiversity, but its environment has been greatly altered by the activities of man, in particular the removal of natural habitat to provide land for agriculture, inappropriate disposal of domestic and industrial waste, and the introduction of foreign species to the lake in attempts to boost the fishery. However these and other environmentally damaging activities were much more intensive in the past and have declined significantly in the difficult economic climate since independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. There is some evidence (from water quality data for example) that reduced industrial and agricultural output may be having a beneficial impact on the environment, but this is tentative and needs to be confirmed by more data.
227. The country has experienced severe economic difficulties since independence, as exports were almost entirely dependent on markets in the Soviet Union. Action taken by government to stabilise the economy (reducing spending, removing subsidies, etc) has increased the pressure on individuals in the short term, and many people currently face significant hardships. Poverty and unemployment are high and social services and public infrastructure are under-resourced and providing an inadequate service. The impacts of these strictures are mitigated by traditional practices to an extent, as most households have smallholdings that provide a good proportion of their food, and family members support each other in difficult times. However Cholpon-Ata is the only area that shows any real sign of prosperity, as the centre of the growing tourism industry.
228. The system of environmental management is operated by the oblast administration as one of the powers devolved to local government by decentralisation policies over the past decade. However the environmental legislation is voluminous and difficult to understand and apply; the environmental management system is complex and unwieldy; and the responsible agencies are under-resourced in terms of staff, skills and budget. Environmental management is therefore largely ineffective and there is little control over development, as evidenced by the proliferation of tourist resorts near the lake over the past decade in contravention of planning law and policy, with little consideration of their environmental impacts, and with no redress being sought from developers.
229. The study identified 15 issues as the key problems in the basin in the environmental, social and legal/institutional sectors. A Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) was developed, which provides a strategy for dealing with each issue, via a series of specific actions. The SEMP explains the rationale for each strategy and actions, identifies the agency likely to be responsible for each, and provides a programme showing the timing and approximate duration of each action.
230. In the environmental sector the key issues are: water and sediment quality in the lake; the reduction in water level that has occurred throughout the last century; restoration of a balanced lake ecosystem in which endemic and commercially valuable fish are able to thrive; and protecting terrestrial habitats from further damage by the activities of man, and restoring habitats where feasible. For several items (water and sediment quality, water levels and the lake ecosystem) additional data need to be collected to enable a better understanding of the problem
106 TA 7228-KGZ: Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project Final Report Volume 1 – SEMP before solutions can be devised. The SEMP therefore describes the studies and surveys and the action to be taken once the data become available. In the case of the terrestrial habitats, proposed action includes a review and revision of the system of land use planning, and pilot projects to restore viable natural habitats on land that is unused and unoccupied.
231. Problems in the social sector relate to: poverty, unemployment and the decline in agriculture and industry; under-investment in social and physical infrastructure, which increases social deprivation; the need to stimulate the economy to improve the economic status and quality of life of the people; and the opportunity presented by the natural resources in this area to expand the tourism industry and develop other niche markets (eg mining, agricultural products, etc). In this case there is already a plan in existence that would solve these issues and stimulate sustainable economic development in the oblast without causing widespread environmental damage, which was prepared by a study conducted by JICA in 2004. The SEMP therefore recommends implementing the proposals of the JICA study, after completing preliminary studies to update the Master Plan in the light of the current economic climate and present government policy, and to comply with international best practice in environmental and social safeguards.
232. The key legal and institutional issues all relate to the inadequacies of the system of environmental management in the oblast, in particular: the amount and complexity of the republic’s environmental legislation; the lack of resources in the agencies charged with implementing environmental management in the basin; and the number of agencies involved and the lack of clarity in their respective roles, which is most evident in the two departments of SAEPF that operate in the oblast, BRD and IKNIDEP. The SEMP recommends a number of actions to address these issues, including: a review and revision of national environmental legislation to provide a more straightforward system of environmental management; a detailed assessment and upgrading of the institutions involved in environmental management to enable them to fulfil their responsibilities effectively; and short-term action to clarify the roles of BRD and IKNIDEP and raise the profile of BRD within SAEPF and the wider oblast community.
233. The SEMP proposes 36 separate activities to address the 15 key issues, which would be implemented over a period of approximately 10 years if executed according to the recommended programme. These are not the only problem areas in these fields in the oblast, but there is general agreement in the literature and amongst the experts consulted that these are the main issues; and there is little doubt that socio-economic conditions and the natural environment would be greatly improved if they were remedied in the manner suggested.
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VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX 1: SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN PROPOSED BY JICA (2004) B-1) Formulation and Implementation Sector Land Use/Environment of Environmental Management Plan for Sustainable Conservation JSoftware JHardware of Ecosystem of Lake Issyk-Kul Outline • Due to its characteristics of an enclosed area, the lake is especially susceptible to accumulation of pollutants when compared to rivers and seas. Therefore, lakes have difficultly recovering their water quality after pollution. The disturbance of the lake ecosystem soon appears as a change in lake water quality. Proper water quality management of lake water leads to the overall conservation of the lake ecosystem. • Preservation of water quality of Issyk-Kul Lake is realized through the implementation of the environmental management plan. The environmental management plan requires formulation based on establishment of the “Law on Clean Lake Issyk-Kul”. The environmental management plan includes the following contents: ɝ Institutional and regulatory reforms: • Introduction of area-wide total pollutant load control system, • Setting up of target values of water quality: Targeted water quality of Issyk-Kul Lake is set as less than 1.0ppm BOD (currently 0.61ppm), less than 0.2ppm of T-N (currently less than 0.15ppm), and less than 0.005ppm of T-P (currently less than 0.001ppm). • First Management Plan will target five years from 2005 -2010 and will be reviewed every 5 years. • Review and modification of existing regulations and standards. ɝ Promotion of measures for water quality control including: • Renovation of the existing sewerage treatment facilities in Cholpon-Ata. • Effective practice concerning wastewater treatment control of sanatoriums/hotels and factories. • Integrated septic treatment system in rural communities. • Management of inflow river water quality and quantity. • Promotion of meadow restoration project in order to revive the natural purification mechanism. ɝ Formulation of monitoring program for lake water and inflow river waters Cost Issyk-Kul area Target Area Target Year J2005 2010 2025 Responsible Ministry of Ecology and Emergency Situations Organization Finance Source Evaluation Sustainability low medium Jhigh (note: ) Efficiency low medium Jhigh (note: ) Impact on Social no impact Jgood impact adverse impact Environmental (note ) Effect on Poverty Jlow medium high Reduction (note: ) Relevance low medium Jhigh (note: ) Note: 1) Sustainability: Availability of necessary manpower, organization, resources 2) Efficiency: B/C 3) Relevance: Understanding of stakeholders
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APPENDIX 2: WATER AND SEDIMENT QUALITY DATA PROVIDED BY BIODIVERSITY RESERVE DIRECTORATE
1. Water Quality: lake and inflowing rivers, August 2008 113-117 2. Water Quality: lake and inflowing rivers, September 2008 118-122 3. Water Quality: lake and inflowing rivers, March 2009 123-127 4. Water Quality, lake and inflowing rivers, June 2009 128-132 5. Sediment Quality: lake, August 2008 133-136 6. National Water Quality Standards 137 7. National Sediment Quality Standards 138
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Maximum Permissible Concentration and other limiting values for surface water in the Kyrgyz Republic: a) domestic and fisheries use; b) saline water; c) recommended MPC
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Maximum Permissible Concentration for soil/sediment in the Kyrgyz Republic
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APPENDIX 3: NOTES OF MEETINGS WITH ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AGENCIES Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department for Environmental Protection (IKNIDEP)
Date: 3 September 2009, 2 pm Venue: Nippon Koei Project Office, Karakol Present: Mrs Anara Bukarova, Head of Monitoring Department IKNIDEP Dr R J Snowden, International Environmental Specialist, Nippon Koei Mr Aibek Orozakunov, Interpreter, Nippon Koei
Dr Snowden thanked Mrs Bukarova for visiting him and explained that he is a member of the Nippon Koei team appointed by ADB to conduct a Technical Assistance study, which is preparing a project on behalf of the Kyrgyz government, entitled Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project. The project is focusing on improving water supply, wastewater and solid waste management infrastructure in Karakol, Cholpon-Ata and Balykchy and funding will be sought from ADB.
Mrs Bukarova explained that IKNIDEP had been informed that the PPTA team intended to recommend that the project should allocate budget to IKNIDEP to enable them to upgrade their laboratory. Mrs Bukarova provided a copy of a letter addressed to the Nippon Koei Team leader in which IKNIDEP set out their justification for upgrading the laboratory, and a list of equipment required. Their main rationale is that a modern laboratory facility would enable IKNIDEP to fulfil their role of monitoring compliance with environmental laws throughout two oblasts and provide data to enable action to be taken against persons and enterprises that are found to be in violation of the law. They would also be able to resume their routine monitoring of air and water quality, which have been greatly reduced in recent years because of funding limitations.
Dr Snowden explained that his task is to produce a Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) for the Issyk-Kul basin, which identifies the main environmental and social problems in the basin and recommends a strategy and action plan to address each issue. He said that he had requested the meeting so that he could discuss preliminary ideas with Mrs Bukarova regarding environmental and social problems and potential solutions, given that IKNIDEP are one of the main agencies involved in environmental management in the basin and are therefore a key stakeholder in the project.
Mrs Bukarova said that in her opinion the main issues are as follows:
• Water quality in the lake is reduced by sewage, discharged into the lake and inflowing rivers and percolating in via groundwater from pit latrines and septic tanks; • Resorts have been built in recent years near the lake without any regard to planning law or their environmental impacts; for example swamps have been drained for such developments; • Vehicle numbers increase significantly in Issyk-Kul oblast in the summer tourist season, but there is no monitoring of impacts on air quality; • Mining activity also pollutes the lake, via runoff from tailings dumps, including radioactive elements from uranium mines. The Kumtor gold mine discharges waste into the River Narin; • Radioactivity is elevated in the water in some locations, but there has been no analysis of the radioactive content of sediments;
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• There has not been enough analysis of wastewater from private sewage treatment plants serving lakeside resorts, some of which operate throughout the year (most operate only in summer); • IKNIDEP monitoring is limited by a shortage of vehicles and fuel, and because staff numbers are insufficient (at present the monitoring department comprise three staff and ideally they require four others, to cover analysis of water, air and soil).
Dr Snowden thanked Mrs Bukarova for meeting him and for providing the information and opinions discussed.
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Biodiversity Reserve Directorate (BRD)
Date: 22 September 2009, 1.30 pm Venue: BRD Office, Balykchy Present: Mr Jusumbaev Sulaimankul Jusupovich, Vice Director, Issyk-Kul Biodiversity Reserve Directorate Dr R J Snowden, International Environmental Specialist, Nippon Koei Mr Aibek Orozakunov, Interpreter, Nippon Koei
Dr Snowden thanked Mr Jusumbaev for agreeing to the meeting and explained that he is part of the Nippon Koei team that is working on the Issyk-Kul Sustainable Development Project on behalf of ADB. Mr Jusumbaev said that he is aware of the project, having attended a seminar run by ADB and the project team, and had some further correspondence with the ADB project officer. Dr Snowden explained that his task is to prepare a Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) for the Issyk-Kul basin, to recommend solutions for the major social and environmental problems in the basin. He wished to meet Mr Jusumbaev to discuss some preliminary ideas regarding the key issues and potential solutions, and to exchange views with the BRD as a major stakeholder in the basin.
Mr Jusumbaev explained the history and role of the BRD. He said that in his view the BRD should be the main agency controlling environmental issues in the Issyk-Kul basin because of the Directorate’s special status. He explained that there is confusion regarding the role of the BRD and that because of this BRD is not able to fulfil its potential. He said that the main problems are that:
• At the moment the Directorate’s position, role and authority in environmental control is not properly acknowledged by other co-controlling agencies, departments and ministries at oblast level and at the national level; • The Directorate has a prominent status internationally but is not recognised or appreciated within the country; • There are too many agencies involved in environmental management in the basin and in some cases responsibilities overlap, for example BRD and Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department for Environmental Protection (IKNIDEP) cover some of the same areas; • There is a lack of coordination between agencies, so environmental management in the basin is ineffective. For example, no data are collected on hunting permits or fishing activity so these activities are not properly controlled; • Many of the agencies with responsibility for environmental management have no competence in these fields and are complicit in concealing violations of environmental law. Ayl okmotu village administrations for example neglect their responsibilities to conserve rare plants and allow the destruction of such species by grazing.
Mr Jusumbaev was anxious to discuss the project’s recommendations to ADB regarding future funding for IKNIDEP and BRD, including the allocation of budget to IKNIDEP to upgrade their laboratory facility. He explained that he has been informed that the project is recommending a budget of USD 189,000 for IKNIDEP and only USD 45,000 for BRD and he feels very strongly that more budget should be given to the BRD. He said that if IKNIDEP is given budget for a laboratory this will serve two oblasts (as IKNIDEP covers Issy-Kul and Naryn), whereas if the laboratory was managed by the BRD it would serve only Issyk-Kul oblast. Dr Snowden said that this is a good argument for allocating the funds to IKNIDEP as the facility would then achieve a greater coverage; but Mr Jusumbaev said that he would continue to press for the USD 189,000
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to be allocated to the BRD. Dr Snowden explained that he is unable to comment further on this because, as explained to Mr Jusumbaev in an earlier telephone call, these recommendations have been made by the institutional assessment, which is not Dr Snowden’s area of expertise.
Mr Jusumbaev then commented on the EIA study conducted as part of this project and said that there were a number of deficiencies in the document and that national institutions had not been properly consulted (including the State Agency on Architecture and Construction Management, National Sanitation and Epidemiology Inspectorate and the State Ecological Expertise Committee). Mr Jusumbaev said that the EIA did not comply with the requirements of the national legislation because it assesses the impacts of several proposed developments (water supply, wastewater and solid waste) in three cities, whereas under the national system a separate EIA is required for each of these developments.
Dr Snowden said that he did not prepare the EIA, but he is able to comment on these issues because he is familiar with ADB procedure. He explained that ADB Environmental Assessment Guidelines require that environmental issues are taken into account at all stages of development, including this early phase. This study is a Project Preparation Technical Assistance (PPTA), aimed at preparing a project on behalf of the Kyrgyz government, which would be suitable for funding by an ADB loan. A PPTA is equivalent to a pre-feasibility study, and the EIA was prepared to comply with ADB requirements. Kyrgyz legislation only requires EIA at a later stage, when the project is designed in detail, and ADB procedure also requires EIA at that stage; so if the project progresses to the design stage ADB will require the government to conduct EIA studies then, which will probably involve one EIA per project. Mr Jusumbaev thanked Dr Snowden for clarifying this issue.
Mr Jusumbaev also said that he is keen to expand the role of the BRD through involvement in the tendering process through which consultants and contractors are appointed to design, supervise and build infrastructure projects funded by ADB and other agencies. He said that he personally is very qualified to evaluate tenders because he is a qualified civil engineer. Dr Snowden said that these are matters for the government and ADB and suggested that Mr Jusumbaev should discuss these issues with the appropriate officials in these agencies.
Dr Snowden thanked Mr Jusumbaev for the meeting and the information he had provided.
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State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry (SAEPF)
Date: 23 September 2009, 10 am Venue: SAEPF Office, Bishkek Present: Mrs Valentina Nekrasova, Head of Division, SAEPF Dr R J Snowden, International Environmental Specialist, Nippon Koei Mrs Tatiana Volkova, Domestic Environmental Specialist, RAM Engas Mr Samat Kuvatbekovich, Interpreter, RAM Engas
Dr Snowden thanked Mrs Nekrasova for agreeing to the meeting and explained that the project is a PPTA study being funded by ADB with the aim of preparing a project for potential ADB funding. This is part of a long-term initiative by ADB to support sustainable development and environmental management in the Issyk-Kul oblast and improve the delivery of urban services. Nippon Koei is currently preparing the first project, which will improve the infrastructure for water supply, wastewater collection/treatment and solid waste management in Karakol, Cholpon-Ata and Balykchy. Dr Snowden also explained that he and Mrs Volkova are environmental specialists who have been asked by ADB to prepare a Strategic Environmental Management Plan (SEMP) for the Issyk-Kul basin, which will identify the main environmental and social problems in the basin and develop a strategy and action plan to address these.
Dr Snowden also explained that he requested the meeting in order to inform SAEPF (as a key stakeholder) about the project and the SEMP study and to seek Mrs Nekrasova’s views on the main social and environmental issues affecting the lake and basin and the manner in which they should be addressed. He explained that he and Mrs Volkova have some preliminary ideas regarding key issues and potential solutions and that they would like to discuss these with SAEPF.
Mrs Nekrasova responded that the State Agency for Protection of the Environment and Forestry is not in favour of this project as they consider it to be a waste of time and money.
She added that the government already has a development plan for the Issyk-Kul oblast and that this project is essentially the same as a previous study conducted by JICA. SAEPF consider that ADB should not waste the Kyrgyz government’s money paying consultants to repeat work that has already been done.
Dr Snowden explained that this project is a Technical Assistance, which is funded by ADB not the Kyrgyz government and that the aims of the SEMP study are to provide a framework for improving environmental management in Issyk-Kul oblast. He explained that the study is preparing an environmental management strategy not a development plan and ADB is well aware of the previous JICA study and that there is no duplication of that work.
Mrs Nekrasova repeated several times that ADB is wasting the government’s money appointing consultants to conduct this work and stated that the government does not require more strategy; they require more action.
Dr Snowden asked about the availability of data on air quality, noise, water quality in the lake, etc. Mrs Nekrasova said that a few years ago exhaust emissions were measured from every vehicle entering the Issyk-Kul oblast and data were used to assess air quality. However this programme has been discontinued and now such checks are only made when cars are tested annually for their roadworthiness.
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Dr Snowden asked Mrs Nekrasova for her views on the apparent overlap in responsibility between the two departments of SAEPF present in Issyk-Kul oblast, the Biodiversity Reserve Directorate (BRD) and Issyk-Kul/Naryn Interregional Department for Environmental Protection (IKNIDEP). Mrs Nekrasova explained that the BRD is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the Biosphere Reserve and conducts scientific research and investigations but does not charge fees from industry. IKNIDEP is SAEPF’s main representative in the oblast and conducts environmental monitoring to ensure that industries and developers comply with the conditions of their environmental permits.
Dr Snowden asked Mrs Nekrasova for her views on the social and environmental problems in the basin. Mrs Nekrasova responded that SAEPF’s main concerns are that:
• Current laws protect the basin and regulate industry but there is widespread non- compliance: buildings are constructed and wastewater is discharged without the necessary permits; • Tourist numbers are increasing and there has been no proper calculation of the capacity of the area regarding how many visitors can be accepted in the future without causing environmental damage (Dr Snowden pointed out that the JICA study includes calculations of the carrying capacity of the lake and oblast); • Proposed improvements in infrastructure should be taken into account in estimates of permitted visitor numbers; • Mining is causing environmental degradation and should not be a priority area for expansion.
Dr Snowden thanked Mrs Nekrasova for an interesting meeting and hoped that he had been able to address some of her concerns regarding the funding, scope and relevance of the project.
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