Medieval Muslim Cuisine As a Real-Life Foundation for the Meat and Milk Prohibition in Ibn Ezra's Biblical Commentary

Home , Cuisine, Ishmaelites, Lekach, Sin offering, Smen

religions ArticleArticle

ArticleMedievalMedieval Muslim Muslim Cuisine Cuisine as as A AReal-Life Real-Life Foundation Foundation Medievalforfor the the Meat Muslim Meat and and CuisineMilk Milk Prohibition Prohibition as A Real-Life in in Ibn Ibn Foundation Ezra’s Ezra’s forBiblical theBiblical Meat Commentary Commentary and Milk Prohibition in Ibn Ezra’s Biblical Commentary AbrahamAbraham Ofir Ofir Shemesh Shemesh

AbrahamIsraelIsrael Heritage Oﬁr Heritage Shemesh Department, Department, Ariel Ariel University, University, Kiriat Kiriat HaMada‘a, HaMada‘a, Ariel Ariel 40700, 40700, Israel; Israel; [email protected]; [email protected]; IsraelTel.: HeritageTel.: +972-058-7923033 +972-058-7923033 Department, Ariel University, Kiriat HaMada‘a, Ariel 40700, Israel; [email protected]; Tel.: +972-058-7923033 Received:Received: 14 May 14 May 2018; 2018; Accepted: Accepted: 23 May 23 May 2018; 2018; Published: Published: 27 May 27 May 2018 2018 Received: 14 May 2018; Accepted: 23 May 2018; Published: 27 May 2018 Abstract:Abstract: In his In biblicalhis biblical commentary, commentary, R. Abraham R. Abraham Ibn IbnEzra Ezra (c. 1090–1164) (c. 1090–1164) occasionally occasionally voices voices the the Abstract:contentioncontentionIn his that biblical that the language,the commentary, language, culture, culture, R. and Abraham and life-style life-style Ibn of Ezra the of Muslimthe (c. 1090–1164)Muslim world world are occasionally capableare capable of voicescontributing of contributing the contentionto ourto ourunderstanding that understanding the language, of contemporary of culture, contemporary and life-styleaspects aspects of of biblical theof biblical Muslim stories stories world and and laws. are laws. capable The Thecurrent of current contributing paper paper deals deals to ourwith understandingwith the theinfluence influence of contemporaryIslamic of Islamic culinary culinary aspects art inart ofmedieval in biblical medieval times stories times on and Ibnon laws. IbnEzra’s Ezra’s The Biblical current Biblical commentary paper commentary deals on on withthe the meatthe inﬂuence meat and and milk of milk ban. Islamic ban. Ibn culinaryIbnEzra Ezra claims artclaims inthat medieval that the retheality re timesality of the onof Arabthe Ibn Arab Ezra’s kitchen, kitchen, Biblical which which commentary includes includes the onBiblethe Bible thelands, meatlands, andpreserves milkpreserves ban. the Ibntheancient Ezraancient claimsways ways of that eating. of the eating. reality Thus, Th of weus, the wecan Arab canunderstand kitchen, understand which the theBible includes Bible ban thebanin BibleMuslimin Muslim lands,cuisine. preservescuisine. According According the ancient to theto ways themedieval ofmedieval eating. dietary Thus, dietary approach, we approach, can understand cooking cooking themeat Biblemeat and banand milk in milk Muslimis recommended is recommended cuisine. Accordingbecausebecause toboth the both products medieval products have dietary have similar approach,similar properties. properties. cooking The meat Thmeate meat and of young milk of young is goat recommended goat healthier healthier than because than lamb lamb both meat, meat, productsso itso is haveitcommon is common similar to cook properties.to cook it. Muslims it. Muslims The meatbelieve believe of youngthat that the goat kidthe healthierofkid a ofgoat a goat is than better is lambbetter cooked meat, cooked in so its itin own is its common own mother’s mother’s to cookmilk,milk, it.because Muslims because the believe twothe two products that products the derive kid derive of from a goat from the is samethe better same origin. cooked origin. in its own mother’s milk, because the two products derive from the same origin. Keywords:Keywords: biblical biblical commentary; commentary; Islamic Islamic culinary; culinary; Abraham Abraham Ibn IbnEzra; Ezra; Arab Arab kitchen; kitchen; kid kidin itsin its Keywords:mother’smother’sbiblical milk; milk; commentary;milk milk and and meat; Islamic meat; Jewish culinary;Jewish food; Abrahamfood; Maimonides; Maimonides; Ibn Ezra; humora Arab humora kitchen;lism;lism; doctrine kid doctrine in its of mother’s theof thefour four milk;temperaments milktemperaments and meat; Jewish food; Maimonides; humoralism; doctrine of the four temperaments

1. Introduction1. Introduction1. Introduction R. AbrahamR. AbrahamR. Abraham Ibn Ibn Ezra IbnEzra (c. Ezra (c. 1090–1164) 1090–1164) (c. 1090–1164) was was bornwas born born in in Toledo, Toledo, in Toledo, in in MuslimMuslim in Muslim Spain.Spain. Spain. He lived He lived in in Spain Spainin Spain for for forthe the thefirst first first five five fivedecades decades decades of of his of his life,his life, life,and and and during during during this this thisperiod, period, period, he hetravelled he travelledtravelled to different toto differentdifferent countries countries in North in North NorthAfrica,Africa, Africa, such such such as Tunisia,as as Tunisia, Tunisia, Morocco, Morocco, Morocco, and and Algeria. and Algeria. Algeria. Following Following Following the theoccupation the occupation occupation of Al-Andalus of ofAl-Andalus Al-Andalus (Muslim (Muslim -tribes) tribestribes in 1090, inin 1090,1090, and and and then then then the the theAl-Mohads Al-Mohads Al-Mohads (al- (al (مرابطون) n¯مرابطونMuslimSpainSpain Spainor Islamicor orIslamic Islamic Iberia) Iberia) Iberia) by theby by theMur the Mur Murābiṭāūabi¯bin ṭt.(ūun) in 1145, many Jews and Christians, among them Ibn Ezra, were compelled to (الموحدون Muwaḥḥ ḥḥidūn in 1145, many Jews and Christians, among them IbnIbn Ezra,Ezra, werewere compelledcompelled to (الموحدون al-MuwaMuwah. h.ididūun¯n) to migratemigrate toto Christian Christianto Christian countries.countries. countries. ForFor theForthe next thenext next three thr eethr decades decadesee decades he he travelled travelledhe travelled to to Christian Christianto Christian countries countries countries in in in westernwesternwestern Europe—Italy, Europe—Italy, Europe—Italy, France, France, France, and and England—where and England—where England—where he he utilized utilized he utilized the the knowledge knowledgethe knowledge he he had had he amassed had amassed amassed in in in hishis youth youthhis youth and and adulthood andadulthood adulthood to to interpret interpret to interpret biblical biblical biblical literatureliteratu literature (on(onre Ibn(onIbn Ezra’sIbn Ezra’s date date of of birth birthof birth and and andbiography, biography, biography, see see see(Veizer (Veizer(Veizer 1976, 1976 1976, pp., pp. 7–51;pp. 7–51; 7–51; Levine Levine Levine 1970, 19701970, pp., 9–46;pp. pp. 9–46; 9–46;Melame Melame Melamedd 1978,d 1978, vol. 1978 vol.II,, pp. vol. II, 519–20;pp. II, 519–20; pp. Kislev 519–20; Kislev 2009,Kislev 2009, pp. 282–97)).pp. 2009 282–97))., pp.Ibn 282–97)). IbnEzra, Ezra, an Ibn intellectualan Ezra, intellectual an intellectualand and fertile fertile andman man fertileof science, of manscience, ofengaged science, engaged in engaged varied in varied fields: in variedfields: biblical biblical fields: commentary, biblicalcommentary, commentary,linguistics,linguistics, philosophy, linguistics, philosophy, philosophy,liturgical liturgical poems,liturgical poems, mathematics, mathematics, poems, mathematics,astronomy, astronomy, and astronomy, and astrology astrology (Zarfati and (Zarfati astrology 1968, 1968, pp. pp. (Zarfati130–55;130–55; 1968 Langermann, pp. Langermann 130–55; 1993,Langermann 1993, pp. pp.28–85; 1993 28–85; ,Goldsstein pp. Goldsstein 28–85; Goldsstein1996, 19 96,pp. pp. 9–21;1996 9–21;, pp.Sela 9–21;Sela 1999, 1999,Sela pp. 1999 pp.72–85;, pp.72–85; Sela 72–85; Sela and and SelaFreudenthal andFreudenthal Freudenthal 2006, 2006, pp.2006 pp.13–55;, pp. 13–55; 13–55;Simon Simon Simon 2013). 2013). 2013 ). In severalIn severalIn several places places in places his in biblical hisin hisbiblical commentary, biblical commentary, commentary, Ibn Ezra Ibn notes IbnEzra the Ezra notes methodological notes the themethodological methodological principle whereby principle principle thewhereby language,whereby the culture, thelanguage, language, and life culture, customs culture, and of and life Muslim lifecustoms customs society of mightMuslim of Muslim be society used society to might understand might be usedbe realistic used to understand to aspects understand of biblicalrealisticrealistic stories aspects aspects and of laws. biblicalof biblical In hisstories variousstories and interpretations,and laws. laws. In hisIn hisvarious Ibn various Ezra interpretations, presents interpretations, the following Ibn IbnEzra Ezra insights:presents presents the the followingfollowing insights: insights: (1) The customs and material culture of the Arabs reflect biblical reality, since the countries of (1) The customs and material culture of the Arabs reflect biblical reality, since the countries of the (1)the The Bible, customs including and material Eretz Israel, culture are of located the Arabs in the re Arabflect biblical region, reality, while Christian since the countriescountries areof the Bible, including Eretz Israel, are located in the Arab region, while Christian countries are of a different Bible,of a including different Eretz cultural Israel, division are located and therefore in the Arab cannot region, serve while as Christian a basis for countries reaching are conclusions of a different

ReligionsconcerningReligions 2018 ,2018 9, x; life, doi:9, inx; FORdoi: biblical FORPEER PEER timesREVIEW REVIEW ((Ibn Ezra 1976), Long Commentary to Exoduswww.mdpi.com/journal/religionswww.mdpi.com/journal/religions 12: 7; Ibid., 28: 36).

Religions 2018, 9, 174; doi:10.3390/rel9060174 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions ReligionsReligions 2018 2018, ,9 9, ,x x FOR FOR PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW Religions 2018, 9, 174 22 of of 12 12 2 of 12 culturalcultural divisiondivision andand thereforetherefore cannotcannot serveserve asas aa babasissis forfor reachingreaching conclusiconclusionsons concerningconcerning lifelife inin biblicalbiblical timestimes ((Ibn((Ibn EzraEzra 1976),1976), LongLong CommentaryCommentary toto ExodusExodus 12:12: 7;7; Ibid.,Ibid.,An 28:28: example 36).36). AnAn ofexampleexample this interpretative ofof thisthis outlook can be found in Ibn Ezra’s commentary on Exodus 3: 22. interpretativeinterpretative outlook outlook can can be be found found in in Ibn Ibn Ezra’s Ezra’s comm commentaryentary on on Exodus Exodus The3: 3: 22. 22. biblical The The biblical biblical text relates text text relates relates that before the exodus from Egypt, God instructed Moses to command thatthat before before the the exodus exodus from from Egypt, Egypt, God God instruct instructeded Moses Moses to to command command the thethe Israelite Israelite Israelite women women women to to toborrow borrow borrow silver utensils and clothing items from the Egyptian women: “But silversilver utensilsutensils andand clothingclothing itemsitems fromfrom thethe EgyptianEgyptian women:women: “But“But eacheacheach womanwoman woman shallshall shall askask ask ofof of herher her neighbor, and of her who sojourns in her house, jewelry of silver neighbor,neighbor, andand ofof herher whowho sojournssojourns inin herher house,house, jejewelrywelry ofof silversilver andand ofof and gold,gold, of andand gold, clothing,clothing, and clothing, andand youyou and you shall put them on your sons and on your daughters; thus you shallshall putput themthem onon youryour sonssons andand onon youryour daughtdaughters;ers; thusthus youyou shallshall despoildespoilshall despoil thethe Egyptians.”Egyptians.” the Egyptians.” ThisThis This English translation is from the Revised Standard Version (RSV). EnglishEnglish translationtranslation isis fromfrom thethe RevisedRevised StandardStandard VersionVersion (RSV).(RSV). This instruction raises the question: Why would the Egyptian women lend the Israelite ThisThis instructioninstruction raisesraises thethe question:question: WhyWhy wouldwould thethe EgyptianEgyptian womenwomenwomen lendlend the valuablethe IsraeliteIsraelite possessions? womenwomen Was this customary? Ibn Ezra, from his personal experience valuablevaluable possessions?possessions? Was Was this this customary?customary? IbnIbn Ezra Ezra,, from from hishis personalpersonal experienceexperienceand knowledge and and knowledge knowledge of the Muslim ofof culture, claims in his long commentary on this verse that the thethe MuslimMuslim culture,culture, claimsclaims inin hishis longlong commentarycommentary onon thisthis verseverse thatthat thephenomenonthe phenomenonphenomenon of lending ofof lendinglending possessions to neighbors, even valuable possessions, is common among possessionspossessions toto neighbors,neighbors, eveneven valuablevaluable possessiopossessions,ns, isis commoncommon amongamong MuslimMuslim women:women: “Because“Because itit is the women’s custom to borrow from their neighbors more than is isis thethe women’swomen’s customcustom toto borrowborrow fromfrom theirtheir neighborsneighbors moremore thanthan isis customarycustomarycustomary amongamongamong the thethe men menmenarticles of jewelry, gold and silver, to place on the neck of the boys articlesarticles ofof jewelry,jewelry, goldgold andand silver,silver, toto placeplace onon thethe neckneck ofof thethe boysboys andandand girlsgirls girls […][…] [ ... andand] and thisthis this isis isthethe the current-day custom in the land of Ishmael but not in the land of current-daycurrent-day customcustom inin thethe landland ofof IshmaelIshmael butbut notnot inin thethe landland ofof thethethe uncircumcised.”uncircumcised.” uncircumcised.” IbnIbn Ibn EzraEzra Ezra emphasizes that lending feminine possessions is not customary in emphasizesemphasizes thatthat lendinglending femininefeminine possessionspossessions isis notnot customarycustomary inin ChristianChristianChristian countriescountries countries andand thereforetherefore and therefore knowledge of the Muslim culture and its mannerisms might knowledgeknowledge of of the the Muslim Muslim culture culture an andd its its mannerisms mannerisms might might further further clar clarifyify the thefurther verse verse clarify(see (see also also the Simon Simon verse 2013, 2013, (see also Simon 2013, pp. 337–39). pp.pp. 337–39).337–39). (2) It is not always possible to learn from medieval Arab culture about the biblical era, as from the (2)(2) It It isis notnot alwaysalways possiblepossible toto learnlearn fromfrom medievalmedieval ArabArab cultureculture aboutaboutArab thethe biblicalbiblical conquests era,era, from asas fromfrom the seventh thethe century on, transformations are evident in the conduct practiced ArabArab conquestsconquests fromfrom thethe seventhseventh centurycentury on,on, transftransformationsormations areare evidentevidentin inin the thethe countries conductconduct practicedofpracticed the Bible. inin Therefore, in some cases, for example in the matter of the ancient thethe countries countries of of the the Bible. Bible. Therefore, Therefore, in in some some cases, cases, for for example example in in the the matter matterEgyptians’ of of the the ancient ancient contempt Egyptians’ Egyptians’ for eating meat, it is necessary to distinguish between the ancient Egyptian contemptcontempt forfor eatingeating meat,meat, itit isis necessarynecessary toto didistinguishstinguish betweenbetween thethe ancientancientculture EgyptianEgyptian and inhabitants cultureculture of andand the Muslim region who follow the laws of the Quran. Ibn Ezra contends inhabitantsinhabitants ofof thethe MuslimMuslim regionregion whowho followfollow thethe lawslaws ofof thethe Quran.Quran. thatIbnIbn theEzraEzra reservations contendscontends thatthat of the thethe ancient Egyptians concerning consumption of meat are not relevant reservationsreservations ofof thethe ancientancient EgyptiansEgyptians concerningconcerning consumptionconsumption ofof meatmeat arearefor not Muslimsnot relevantrelevant in contemporary forfor MuslimsMuslims Egypt, and are rather closer to the custom of the Indians—Hindus inin contemporary contemporary Egypt, Egypt, and and are are rather rather closer closer to to the the custom custom of of the the Indians— Indians—or Jains—whoHindusHindus or or Jains—who Jains—who do not eat meat.do do He writes: “For all the shepherds are detestable to the Egyptians”, notnot eateat meat.meat. HeHe writes:writes: “For“For allall thethe shepherdsshepherds areare detestabledetestable toto thethe Egyptians”,Egyptians”,indicating indicating thatindicating in those thatthat days inin the Egyptians would not eat meat and would not permit a person thosethose daysdays thethe EgyptiansEgyptians wouldwould notnot eateat meatmeat andand wouldwould notnot permitpermit aa personpersonto sacrifice toto sacrificesacrifice goats and goatsgoats sheep, andand as occurs with the people of India today. One who is a shepherd is sheep,sheep, asas occursoccurs withwith thethe peoplepeople ofof IndiaIndia today.today. OnOnee whowho isis aa shepherdshepherd isisdetested detesteddetested for forfor drinking drinkingdrinking milk. milk.milk. The people of India do not eat nor drink anything originating from TheThe peoplepeople ofof IndiaIndia dodo notnot eateat nornor drinkdrink anythinganything originatingoriginating fromfrom livinglivingliving animalsanimals animals toto to thisthis this dayday day (see(see (see (Ibn Ezra 1976), commentary to Genesis 46: 34, and compare to his (Ibn(Ibn EzraEzra 1976),1976), commentarycommentary toto GenesisGenesis 46:46: 34,34, andand comparecompare toto hishis longlong commentarycommentarylong commentary toto ExodusExodus to Exodus 8:8: 22).22). 8: 22). Indeed, according to the laws of Islam, Muslims are permitted Moreover, eating meat is part of Muslim rituals, for example during .(.( َحَحاللالل Indeed,Indeed, accordingaccording toto thethe lawslaws ofof Islam,Islam, MuslimsMuslims areare permittedpermitted toto eattoeat eat cleanclean clean meatmeat meat ((halal (halalhalal the thethe “Sacrifice Feast”, which honors the willingness of Abraham sacrifice == = عيدعيد األضحىاألضحى)) Moreover,Moreover, eatingeating meatmeat isis partpart ofof MuslimMuslim rituals,rituals, forfor exampleexample duringduring EidEidEid al-Adhaal-Adha al-Adha “Sacrifice“Sacrifice Feast”,Feast”, whichwhich honorshonors thethe willingnesswillingness ofof AbrahamAbraham sacrificesacrifice hishishis son,son, son, asas as anan an actact act ofof of obedienceobedience obedience to God’s command). toto God’sGod’s command).command). (3) In certain cases, ancient cultural continuity was not maintained in Islamic countries and was the (3)(3) In In certaincertain cases,cases, ancientancient culturalcultural continuitycontinuity waswas notnot maintainedmaintained inin IslamicIslamicreality countriescountries in Christian andand Europe waswas thethe that reflected biblical life. One example is beds, which were fairly realityreality inin ChristianChristian EuropeEurope thatthat reflectedreflected biblicalbiblical life.life. OneOne exampleexample isis beds,beds,high. whichwhich Genesis werewere 49: fairlyfairly 29 speaks high.high. of Jacob who drew his feet up into the bed before his death. In GenesisGenesis 49:49: 2929 speaksspeaks ofof JacobJacob whowho drewdrew hishis feetfeet upup intointo thethe bedbed beforebefore hishishis death.death. commentary InIn hishis commentarycommentary on this verse, Ibn Ezra claims that Egyptian beds were high, similar to beds in onon thisthis verse,verse, IbnIbn EzraEzra claimsclaims thatthat EgyptianEgyptian bedsbeds werewere high,high, similarsimilar toto Christianbedsbeds inin ChristianChristian European EuropeanEuropean countries, which was why Jacob had to draw them up: “He drew his feet up countries,countries, whichwhich waswas whywhy JacobJacob hadhad toto drawdraw themthem up:up: “He“He drewdrew hishis feetfeetinto upup the intointo bed—because thethe bed—becausebed—because at first he sat on the bed with his feet hanging down as is the custom today atat firstfirst hehe satsat onon thethe bedbed withwith hihiss feetfeet hanginghanging downdown asas isis thethe custcustomom todaytodayin the inin thethe Edomite EdomiteEdomite countries, countries,countries, not like the beds of the Ishmaelites [=Arabs or Muslims]”. Historical notnot likelike thethe bedsbeds ofof thethe IshmaelitesIshmaelites [=Arabs[=Arabs oror MuMuslims]”.slims]”. HistoricalHistorical sourcessourcessources indeed indeed indicate indicateindicate that that medieval European beds, particularly in the homes of the wealthy, medievalmedieval European European beds,beds, particularlyparticularly in in the the homeshomes of of the the wealthy,wealthy, were were were large,large, large, wide,wide, wide,andand high.high. and TheseThese high. These massive beds were usually canopy beds that had posts in massivemassive bedsbeds werewere usuallyusually canopycanopy bedsbeds thatthat hadhad postpostss inin theirtheir fourfour cornerscornerstheir drapeddraped four corners withwith curtainscurtains draped for withfor curtains for privacy (on the beds in Europe in Medieval Times see privacyprivacy (on (on the the beds beds in in Europe Europe in in Medieval Medieval Times Times see see (Donnelly (Donnelly and and Diehl Diehl(Diehl 1999, 1999, and p. p. 79; 79; Donnelly Johnston Johnston 1999 2011, 2011,, p. 79; Johnston 2011, vol. I, p. 275)). vol.vol. I,I, p.p. 275)).275)). This paper discusses Ibn Ezra’s interpretation explaining the biblical prohibition against eating ThisThis paperpaper discussesdiscusses IbnIbn Ezra’sEzra’s interpretationinterpretation exexplainingplaining thethe biblicalbiblical prprohibitionohibition againstagainst eatingeating meat with milk in light of the culinary and medical reality in his time. In the process, I shall discuss meatmeat withwith milkmilk inin lightlight ofof thethe culinaryculinary andand medicalmedical realityreality inin hishis time.time. InIn thethe process,process, II shallshall discussdiscuss the culinary and nutritional conceptions utilized by Ibn Ezra to explain the prohibition based on their thethe culinary culinary and and nutritional nutritional concepti conceptionsons utilized utilized by by Ibn Ibn Ezra Ezra to to explain explain the the prohibition prohibition based based on on their their sources in the medieval culinary and medical literature of Muslims and Jews. sourcessources inin thethe medievalmedieval culinaryculinary andand medicalmedical literatureliterature ofof MuslimsMuslims andand Jews.Jews.

Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12 Religions 2018, 9, 174 3 of 12 ReligionsReligions 2018 2018, 9, ,9 x, xFOR FOR PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW 3 3of of 12 12 2. The Prohibition of Cooking Meat with Milk—A Review of the Interpretations 2.2. The The Prohibition Prohibition2. The Prohibition of of Cooking Cooking of Meat CookingMeat with with Meat Milk—A Milk—A with Review Milk—AReview of of Review the the Interpretations Interpretations of the Interpretations The prohibition against cooking a kid goat in milk is mentioned in the Bible three times, but no TheThe prohibition prohibitionThe prohibition against against cooking cooking against a akid cookingkid goat goat in ain kidmilk milk goat is is mentioned mentioned in milk is in mentionedin the the Bible Bible three inthree the times, times, Bible but threebut no no times, reason but is given (Exodus 23: 19; Ibid., 34: 26; Deuteronomy 14: 21). Over the generations, reasonreason isis no givengiven reason (Exodus(Exodus is given 23:23: (Exodus 19;19; Ibid.,Ibid., 23: 34: 19;34: 26; Ibid.,26; DeuteronomyDeuteronomy 34: 26; Deuteronomy 14:14: 21).21). OverOver 14: 21). thethe generations, Overgenerations, the generations, commentators, Jewish philosophers, and researchers have offered various explanations for the commentators,commentators,commentators, Jewish Jewish philosophers, philosophers, Jewish philosophers, and and research research and researchersersers have have haveofferedoffered offered variou variou variouss sexplanations explanations explanations for for for the the the purposepurpose of the prohibition and its sources. Several Jewish scholars claimed that cooking the meat of purposepurpose of of the the prohibition prohibition and and its itsits sources. sources.sources. Several SeveralSeveral Jewish JewishJewish scholars scholarsscholars claimedclaimed claimed that that that cooking cooking the the meat meat of of a kida kid goat goat in its mother’s milk is an immoral act and that the purpose of the prohibition is symbolic, a akid kid goat goat inin in itsits its mother’smother’s mother’s milkmilk milk isis is anan an immoralimmoral immoral actact act andand and thatthat that thethe the purposepurpose purpose ofof of thethe the prohibition prohibition prohibition is is is symbolic, symbolic, symbolic, to distanceto distance one from cruelty and gluttony (Philo 1984, chap. VIII, pp. 249–51; ben Meir 1997, Exodus, toto distance distanceone one one from from from cruelty cruelty cruelty and and and gluttony gluttony gluttony ( Philo(Philo (Philo 1984 1984, 1984,, chp. chap. chap. VIII, VIII, VIII, pp. pp. pp. 249–51; 249–51 249–51 ben; ben; ben Meir Meir Meir 1997 1997, 1997,, Exodus, Exodus, Exodus, p. 58;p. Ibid.,58; Ibid., Deuteronomy, p. 189). p.p. 58; 58; Ibid., Ibid.,Deuteronomy, Deuteronomy, Deuteronomy, p. p. 189).p. 189). 189). Maimonides (R. Moses ben Maimon, Rambam, 1138–1204) claimed that cooking meat in milk is MaimonidesMaimonidesMaimonides (R. (R. Moses Moses (R.ben ben Moses Maimon, Maimon, ben Rambam, Maimon,Rambam, 1138–1 Rambam, 1138–1204)204) 1138–1204) claimed claimed that that claimed cooking cooking that meat meat cooking in in milk milk meat is is in an milk idolatrous is act and that the purpose of the prohibition is to distance one from unacceptable customs anan idolatrous idolatrousan idolatrousact act and and that that act the the and purpose purpose that the of of purpose the the prohibition prohibition of the prohibition is is to to distance distance is toone one distance from from unacceptable oneunacceptable from unacceptable customs customs customs(Maimonides 1991, p. 392; ben Gershon 1547, Exodus, p. 98b; Abarbanel 1997, Exodus, p. 218). Others (Maimonides(Maimonides(Maimonides 1991, 1991, p. p. 392; 392; 1991 ben ben, p. Gershon Gershon 392; ben 1547, Gershon1547, Exodus, Exodus, 1547 p., p. Exodus, 98b; 98b; Abarbanel Abarbanel p. 98b; Abarbanel 1997, 1997, Exodus, Exodus, 1979 p., p. Exodus, 218). 218). Others Others p. 218). claimed Others that the prohibition is based on medical/health reasons, as cooking the two foods together claimedclaimed that thatclaimed the the prohibition prohibition that the prohibition is is based based on on is medical/he based medical/he on medical/healthalthalth reasons, reasons, as as reasons, cooking cooking as the the cooking two two foods foods the twotogether together foods togetherproduces harmful culinary combinations (Maimonides 1991, p. 392). producesproduces harmfulproduces harmful culinary culinary harmful combinations combinations culinary combinations (Maimonides (Maimonides (Maimonides 1991, 1991, p. p. 392). 392).1991 , p. 392). Researchers devoted quite a few papers to the reasons for and background of the prohibition as ResearchersResearchersResearchers devoted devoted quite quite devoted a afew few quite papers papers a fewto to the the papers reasons reasons to thefor for and reasons and background background for and backgroundof of the the prohibition prohibition of the as prohibitionas viewed through the Bible and the cultures of the biblical era (Hara 1978, 1979, 1983; Luria 1993; viewedviewed through throughas viewed the the throughBible Bible and and the the the Bible cultures cultures and the of of culturesthe the biblical biblical of the era era biblical (Hara (Hara era1978, 1978, (Haran 1979, 1979, 19781983; 1983;, 1979Luria Luria, 1983 1993; 1993;; Luria Milgrom 1993; 1985; Ratner and Zuckerman 1986; Labuschagne 1992; Cooper 2012). MilgromMilgrom 1985; Milgrom1985; Ratner Ratner 1985 and and; Ratner Zuckerman Zuckerman Robert 19 19861986;86; ;Labuschagne LabuschagneLabuschagne 1992; 19921992; ;Cooper CooperCooper 2012). 20122012).). The Scottish anthropologist James George Frazer (1854–1941) claimed that the prohibition TheThe Scottish ScottishThe anthropologist anthropologist Scottish anthropologist James James George George James Fr Fr Georgeazerazer (1854–1941) (1854–1941) Frazer (1854–1941) claimed claimed that claimedthat the the prohibition thatprohibition the prohibition stemmed from an aversion (taboo) to certain usages of milk for fear of harm to the cows, because of stemmedstemmed fromstemmed from an an aversion aversion from an (taboo) aversion(taboo) to to (taboo) certain certain to usages usages certain of of usages milk milk for offor milkfear fear of for of harm fearharm ofto to harm the the cows, tocows, the because cows,because because of of the of sympathetic/magical the bond between the animal and its milk (Frazer 1919, vol. III, pp. 118–19, 161–62). thethe sympathetic/magical sympathetic/magicalsympathetic/magical bond bond between between bond betweenthe the animal animal the and and animal its its milk milk and (Frazer its(Frazer milk 1919, 1919, (Frazer vol. vol. 1919III, III, pp. ,pp. vol. 118–19, 118–19, III, pp. 161–62). 161–62). 118–19, 161–62).Othmar Keel, scholar of Ancient Near Eastern art and its relationship to the biblical text, suggested OthmarOthmar Keel, Keel,Othmar scholar scholar Keel, of of scholarAncient Ancient of Near Near Ancient Eastern Eastern Near art art Eastern an andd its its artrelationship relationship and its relationship to to the the biblical biblical to the text, text, biblical suggested suggested text, suggested that cooking meat with milk not only breaches the intimate mental connection between the mother thatthat cooking cookingthat meat meat cooking with with meatmilk milk withnot not only milkonly breaches notbreaches only the breachesthe intimate intimate the mental intimatemental connection connection mental connection between between the betweenthe mother mother the motherand her young but also symbolically disrupts the expression of divine generosity and cosmic stability andand her her young youngand herbut but youngalso also symbolically symbolically but also symbolically disrupts disrupts the the disrupts expr expressionession the expression of of divine divine generosity ofgenerosity divine generosityand and cosmic cosmic and stability stability cosmic stabilitymanifested in the act of nursing (Keel 1980, pp. 54–141). The Biblical scholar and commentator Moshe manifestedmanifestedmanifested in in the the act act of inof nursing thenursing act of(Keel (Keel nursing 1980, 1980, ( Keelpp. pp. 54–141 198054–141, pp.).) The. The 54–141). Biblical Biblical The scholar scholar Biblical and and scholar commentator commentator and commentator Moshe Moshe David Moshe (Umberto) Cassuto (1883–1951) showed that cooking meat with milk was a practice customary DavidDavid (Umberto) (Umberto)David (Umberto)Cassuto Cassuto (1883–1951) (1883–1951) Cassuto (1883–1951) showed showed that that showed co cookingoking that meat meat cooking with with meatmilk milk was with was a milk apractice practice was customary a customary practice customary in ancient cults, for example that of the Goddess Anat (Cassuto 1958, p. 40; on the Goddess Anat see inin ancient ancient incults, cults, ancient for for example cults,example for that examplethat of of the the thatGoddess Goddess of the Anat GoddessAnat (Cassuto (Cassuto Anat 1958, (1958,Cassuto p. p. 40; 40; 1958 on on ,the p.the Goddess 40; Goddess on the Anat GoddessAnat see see Anat(Day see 1999, pp. 36–43)). (Day(Day 1999, 1999,( Daypp. pp. 36–43)). 199936–43))., pp. 36–43)). 3. Ibn Ezra’s Approach: “The Scriptures Speak of the Present” 3. Ibn Ezra’s Approach: “The Scriptures Speak of the Present” 3.3. Ibn Ibn Ezra’s Ezra’s Approach: Approach: “The “The Scriptures Scriptures Speak Speak of of the the Present” Present” In his long and short commentaries on Exodus 23: 19, Ibn Ezra claims that the reason for the InIn his his long longIn and and his short longshort andcommentaries commentaries short commentaries on on Exodus Exodus on 23 23 Exodus: :19, 19, Ibn Ibn 23: Ezra Ezra 19, claims Ibnclaims Ezra that that claims the the reason reason that the for for reasonthe the prohibition for the of cooking meat with milk is educational/moral. Ideologically, the prohibition is included prohibitionprohibitionprohibition of of cooking cooking of meat meat cooking with with meatmilk milk withis is educational/moral. educational/moral. milk is educational/moral. Ideologically, Ideologically, Ideologically, the the prohibition prohibition the prohibition is is included included is includedamong other restrictions concerning animals that are aimed at preventing cruel human behavior, such amongamong other otheramong restrictions restrictions other restrictions concerning concerning concerning animals animals that that animals are are aimed aimed that at are at preventing preventing aimed at preventing cruel cruel human human cruel behavior, behavior, human such behavior, such as the such prohibition against slaughtering an animal and its offspring on the same day (Leviticus 22: 28), or asas the the prohibition prohibitionas the prohibition against against slaughteri slaughteri againstngng slaughtering an an animal animal and and an its animal its offspring offspring and itson on offspringthe the same same onday day the (Leviticus (Leviticus same day 22: 22:(Leviticus 28), 28), or or Shiluach 22: 28), ha-Ken, the Jewish law that enjoins one to send away the mother bird before taking her young ShiluachShiluach ha-Ken ha-Kenor Shiluach, the, the Jewish Jewish ha-Ken law law, the that that Jewish enjoins enjoins law one one that to to send enjoins send away away one the the to mother sendmother away bird bird thebefore before mother taking taking bird her her before young young taking or her her eggs (Deuteronomy 22: 6). oror her her eggs eggsyoung (Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy or her eggs 22: 22: (Deuteronomy 6). 6). 22: 6). Ibn Ezra discusses several cryptic questions that arise following the biblical wording. In his long IbnIbn Ezra Ezra discusses discussesIbn Ezra several discusses several cryptic cryptic several questions questions cryptic that questions that ar ariseise following that following arise the following the biblical biblical the wording. wording. biblical In wording. In his his long long In hiscommentary long on Exodus 23: 19 he writes: “A kid (gedi) is only the son of a goat. And in the Arabic commentarycommentarycommentary on on Exodus Exodus on 23: 23: Exodus 19 19 he he writes: 23:writes: 19 he“A “A writes:kid kid ( gedi(gedi “A) )is kidis only only (gedi the the) is son son only of of thea agoat. goat. son ofAnd And a goat.in in the the And Arabic Arabic in the language Arabic it means a young goat, and it is not used to designate other species”. In other words, the languagelanguage itlanguage it means means a it ayoung meansyoung goat, a goat, young and and goat, it it is is andnot not itused used is not to to useddesignate designate to designate other other species”. otherspecies”. species”. In In other other In otherwords, words, words, the the theterm term “kid” (gedi) refers specifically to the young of the domestic goat (Capra hircus mambrica, from the termterm “kid” “kid”“kid” ( gedi(gedi) ( gedi)refers refers) refers specifically specifically specifically to to the the to young young the young of of the the of domestic domestic the domestic goat goat ( goat Capra(Capra (Capra hircus hircus hircus mambrica mambrica mambrica, from, from, fromthe the thegoat goat antelope subfamily Caprinae and a member of the family Bovidae. The biblical goat (in Hebrew: is clearly identified with the modern-day goat, and the Arabic name as well preserves the goat’s (עז goatgoat antelope antelopeantelope subfamily subfamily subfamily Caprinae CaprinaeCaprinae and and anda amember member a member of of the the of family the family family Bovidae BovidaeBovidae. .The The. The biblical biblical biblical goat goat goat (in (in (inHebrew: Hebrew: Hebrew: ez The halakhic (halakha means ‘Jewish law’) prohibition of .( ِم ْع َزة) or miza ( َع ْنز) is is clearly clearlyclearly identified identified identified with with with the the the modern-day modern-day modern-day goat, goat, goat, and and and the the the Arabic Arabic Arabic name name name as as well as well well preserves preserves preserves the the the goat’s goat’s goat’s ancient name hanz( (עז עז ezez The The halakhichalakhic halakhic (halakha (halakha (halakha means means means ‘Jewish ‘Jewish ‘Jewish law’) law’) law’) prohibition prohibition prohibition of cookingof of cooking meat meat with milk includes in practice the meat of all pure animals. If so, why is it worded as a .( ِم.( ِْعم َْعزةَز)ة ) or oror miza mizamiza( َ(ع ْن َع ْنز)ز ) ancientancient name namename hanz hanzhanz cookingcooking meat meatwith with with milk milk milk includes includes includes in practice in in practice practice the the meatthe meat meat of allof of all pure all pure pure animals. animals. animals. If so,If If so, whyso, why why is is it is wordedit it worded worded as as aas prohibitiona a prohibition against cooking a kid goat in its mother’s milk? Moreover, was cooking kid’s meat in milk prohibitionprohibitionagainst against against cooking cooking cooking a a kid akid kid goat goat goat in in in its its its mother’s mother mother’s milk?’s milk? milk? Moreover, Moreover, Moreover, was was was cooking cooking cooking kid’s kid’s kid’s meat meat meat in in inmilk milk milk a commona common culinary phenomenon? a acommon commonculinary culinary culinary phenomenon? phenomenon? phenomenon? Ibn Ezra’s view is that the principle “The scriptures speak of the present”, i.e., according to IbnIbn Ezra’s Ezra’sIbn view view Ezra’s is is that that view the the is principle principle that the “The principle“The scri scriptures “Theptures scripturesspeak speak of of the speakthe present”, present”, of the i.e., present”, i.e., according according i.e., accordingto to prevalent to real-life practice, applies to the wording of the biblical prohibition “a young goat in its prevalentprevalent prevalentreal-life real-life practice, practice, real-life applies practice,applies to to appliesthe the wording wording to the of wordingof the the biblical biblical of the prohibition prohibition biblical prohibition “a “a young young “agoat goat young in in its its goat mother’s in its milk”. Accordingly, the Torah speaks of the cooking of the two products rather than of their mother’smother’s milk”. mother’smilk”. Accordingly, Accordingly, milk”. Accordingly, the the Torah Torah speaks the speaks Torah of of th speaks the ecooking cooking of the of of cooking the the two two ofproducts products the two rather productsrather than than rather of of their their than unspecified of their mixing “as it is not the human custom to eat raw meat”. Current-day Muslim culinary unspecifiedunspecifiedunspecified mixing mixing “as “as mixing it it is is not not “as the itthe ishuman human not the custom humancustom to customto eat eat raw raw to eatmeat meat raw”.”. Current-day meat”.Current-day Current-day Muslim Muslim Muslim culinary culinary culinary art attests art to the ancient biblical tradition whereby cooking meat, particularly kid’s meat, with milk artart attests attests atteststo to the the ancient toancient the ancient biblical biblical biblical tradition tradition tradition whereby whereby whereby cooking cooking cooking meat, meat, particularly meat,particularly particularly kid’s kid’s meat, kid’smeat, with meat, with milk withmilk milkis a ispreferred a culinary practice rooted in medical and nutritional conceptions whereby the mixture isis a apreferred preferred culinary culinary practice practice rooted rooted in in medi medicalcal and and nutritional nutritional conceptions conceptions whereby whereby the the mixture mixture of these two products is beneficial from various aspects. These are his contentions: ofof these these two two products products is is beneficial beneficial from from various various aspects. aspects. These These are are his his contentions: contentions:

Religions 2018, 9, 174 4 of 12

preferred culinary practice rooted in medical and nutritional conceptions whereby the mixture of these ReligionstwoReligions products 2018 2018, 9, ,9 x, is xFOR beneficialFOR PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW from various aspects. These are his contentions: 4 4of of 12 12 ReligionsReligions 20182018,, 99,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 44 ofof 1212 3.1.3.1. In In the the Muslim Muslim Region, Region, Cooked Cooked Dishes Dishes of of Meat Meat with with Milk Milk Are Are Considered Considered Particularly Particularly AgreeableAgreeable Agreeable 3.1.3.1. InIn thethe MuslimMuslim Region,Region, CookedCooked DishesDishes ofof MeatMeat withwith MilkMilk AreAre ConsideredConsidered ParticularlyParticularly AgreeableAgreeable InIn his his short short commentary commentary on on Exodus Exodus 23: 23: 19 19 Ibn Ibn Ez Ezra Ezrara says: says: “And “And “And God God commanded commanded that that the the kid kid not not InIn hishis shortshort commentarycommentary onon ExodusExodus 23:23: 1919 IbnIbn EzEzrara says:says: “And“And GodGod commandedcommanded thatthat thethe kidkid notnot bebe cooked cooked in in its its mother’s mother’s milk, milk, because because [to] [to] this this da day dayy it it is is the the Ishmaelite Ishmaelite custom custom to to cook cook the the kid kid with with bebe cookedcooked inin itsits mother’smother’s milk,milk, becausebecause [to][to] thisthis dadayy itit isis thethe IshmaeliteIshmaelite customcustom toto cookcook thethe kidkid withwith thethe milk, milk, and and they they say say that that it it is is anan an agreeableagreeable agreeable dish”.dish”. dish”. Namely, Namely, MuslimMuslim Muslim culinary culinary art art teaches teaches that that kid’s kid’s thethe milk,milk, andand theythey saysay thatthat itit isis anan agreeableagreeable dish”.dish”. Namely,Namely, MuslimMuslim culinaryculinary artart teachesteaches thatthat kid’skid’s meatmeat and and milkmilk milk productsproducts products are are are ingredients ingredients ingredients whose whose whose mixture mixt mixtureure generates generates generates a quitea a quite quite tasty tasty tasty and and and choice choice choice product, product, product, i.e., meatmeat andand milkmilk productsproducts areare ingredientsingredients whosewhose mixtmixtureure generatesgenerates aa quitequite tastytasty andand choicechoice product,product, i.e.,ai.e., historical a a historical historical continuity continuity continuity is evident is is evident evident with with regardwith re regard togard cooking to to cooking cooking and and food and food preparationfood preparation preparation as well. as as well. well. i.e.,i.e., aa historicalhistorical continuitycontinuity isis evidentevident withwith reregardgard toto cookingcooking andand foodfood preparationpreparation asas well.well. QuiteQuite extensiveextensive Arabic Arabic literature literature was was written written in in the the middlemiddle agesages onon variousvarious aspectsaspects ofof QuiteQuite extensiveextensive ArabicArabic literatureliterature waswas writtenwritten inin thethe middlemiddle agesages onon variousvarious aspectsaspects ofof contemporarycontemporary food food and and nutrition. nutrition. For For example, example, ther there there eare are recipe recipe books books and and in instructions instructionsstructions for for preparing preparing contemporarycontemporary foodfood andand nutrition.nutrition. ForFor example,example, thertheree areare reciperecipe booksbooks andand ininstructionsstructions forfor preparingpreparing literature, literature, literature, i.e., i.e., (lay) (lay) literature literature in in an an array array array of of of subjects subjects subjects aimed aimed aimed at at at presenting presenting presenting wide wide general general( (أدب)أدب ) food;food; Adab Adab literature,literature, i.e.,i.e., (lay)(lay) literatureliterature inin anan arrayarray ofof subjectssubjects aimedaimed atat presentingpresenting widewide generalgeneral ((أدبأدب)) food;food; AdabAdab informationinformation required required by by intellectuals; intellectuals; historical historicalhistorical descriptions descriptionsdescriptions of ofof how howhow various variousvarious types typestypes of of food food werewere informationinformation requiredrequired byby intellectuals;intellectuals; historicalhistorical descriptionsdescriptions ofof howhow variousvarious typestypes ofof foodfood werewere consumedconsumed by byby different differentdifferent soci socialsocialal classes; classes; the the elaborate elaborate elaborate royal royal royal cuisine cuisine cuisine of of ofthe the the ruling ruling ruling class; class; class; and and and more more more (on (on (onthe the consumedconsumed byby differentdifferent socisocialal classes;classes; thethe elaborateelaborate royalroyal cuisinecuisine ofof thethe rulingruling class;class; andand moremore (on(on thethe Muslins’theMuslins’ Muslins’ culinary culinary culinary culture culture culture see see (Arberry (Arberry see (Arberry 1939, 1939, pp. pp.1939 21–47, 21–47,, pp. 189–214; 189–214; 21–47, Rodi 189–214;Rodinsonnson 1949,Rodinson 1949, pp. pp. 95–158; 95–158;1949, Ashtor pp. Ashtor 95–158; 1968, 1968, Muslins’Muslins’ culinaryculinary cultureculture seesee (Arberry(Arberry 1939,1939, pp.pp. 21–47,21–47, 189–214;189–214; RodiRodinsonnson 1949,1949, pp.pp. 95–158;95–158; AshtorAshtor 1968,1968, Ashtorpp.pp. 1017–53; 1017–53; 1968, Waines pp.Waines 1017–53; 1989; 1989; Waines WainesWaines 1992, 19891992, ;pp. pp.1992 725–38; 725–38;, pp. Waines 725–38; Waines 2002, 20022002, ,vol. vol. II, II, II,pp. pp. pp. 216–23; 216–23; 216–23; Marin Marin Marin 1994, 1994, 1994 , pp.pp. 1017–53;1017–53; WainesWaines 1989;1989; WainesWaines 1992,1992, pp.pp. 725–38;725–38; WainesWaines 2002,2002, vol.vol. II,II, pp.pp. 216–23;216–23; MarinMarin 1994,1994, pp.pp. 205–15; 205–15; Levanoni Levanoni 20052005, 2005,, pp. pp. 201–22)). 201–22)). pp.pp. 205–15;205–15; LevanoniLevanoni 2005,2005, pp.pp. 201–22)).201–22)). DidDid Muslim Muslim gourmet gourmet diners diners indeed indeed think think that that meat meat and and milk milk is is recommended recommended combination? combination? DidDid MuslimMuslim gourmetgourmet dinersdiners indeedindeed thinkthink thatthat meatmeat andand milkmilk isis recommendedrecommended combination?combination? CanCan an an appreciation appreciation for for the the combination combination of of farm farm raisedrais raiseded meat meat with with milk milk and and its its products products be be found found in in CanCan anan appreciationappreciation forfor thethe combinationcombination ofof farmfarm raisraiseded meatmeat withwith milkmilk andand itsits productsproducts bebe foundfound inin thethe culinary culinary literature literature of of those those days? days? It It appears appears so so. so. .The The picture picture drawn drawn by by Ibn Ibn Ezra Ezra certainly certainly reflects reflects reflects thethe culinaryculinary literatureliterature ofof thosethose days?days? ItIt appearsappears soso.. TheThe picturepicture drawndrawn byby IbnIbn EzraEzra certainlycertainly reflectsreflects thethe reality reality of of his his time time and and receives receives historicalhistorical historical support support in in medieval medieval Muslim Muslim cookbooks cookbooks that that praise praise the the thethe realityreality ofof hishis timetime andand receivesreceives historicalhistorical supportsupport inin medievalmedieval MuslimMuslim cookbookscookbooks thatthat praisepraise thethe cookingcooking of of meat meat with with milk, milk, although although to to date date I Ihave have found found no no special special reference reference to to the the cooking cooking of of kid’s kid’s cookingcooking ofof meatmeat withwith milk,milk, althoughalthough toto datedate II havehave foundfound nono specialspecial referencereference toto thethe cookingcooking ofof kid’skid’s meatmeat with with milk. milk. Before Before presenting presenting several several sources sources that that address address dishes dishes combining combining meat meat and and milk milk in in meatmeat withwith milk.milk. BeforeBefore presentingpresenting severalseveral sourcessources thatthat addressaddress dishesdishes combiningcombining meatmeat andand milkmilk inin MuslimMuslim cuisine, cuisine, I Imust must must expand expand expand on on on the the the place placeplace of ofof meat meatmeat an andandd milk milkmilk products productsproducts in inin the thethe culi culinaryculinarynary art art of of this this cuisine. cuisine. MuslimMuslim cuisine,cuisine, II mustmust expandexpand onon thethe placeplace ofof meatmeat anandd milkmilk productsproducts inin thethe culiculinarynary artart ofof thisthis cuisine.cuisine. TheThe assumptionassumption is is that that combining combining meat meat and and milk milk is is rooted rooted in in the the Arab Arab way way of of lifelife andand inin TheThe assumptionassumption isis thatthat combiningcombining meatmeat andand milkmilk isis rootedrooted inin thethe ArabArab wayway ofof lifelife andand inin agriculturalagricultural and and economic economiceconomic practices practicespractices of ofof many manymany years. years.years. In In the the Arab-Muslim Arab-Muslim region, region, region, livestock livestock livestock played played played a a agriculturalagricultural andand economiceconomic practicespractices ofof manymany years.years. InIn thethe Arab-MuslimArab-Muslim region,region, livestocklivestock playedplayed aa majoramajor major economic economic economic role, role, role, as as as sheep sheep and and cattle cattle provided provided a avariety varietyvariety of ofof products productsproducts such suchsuch as asas meat, meat,meat, milk milk and and its its majormajor economiceconomic role,role, asas sheepsheep andand cattlecattle providedprovided aa varietyvariety ofof productsproducts suchsuch asas meat,meat, milkmilk andand itsits products,products, skins, skins, and and wool. wool. The The animal animal farm farm had had considerable considerable significance,significance, significance, particularly particularly in in semi-arid semi-arid products,products, skins,skins, andand wool.wool. TheThe animalanimal farmfarm hadhad considerableconsiderable significance,significance, particularlyparticularly inin semi-aridsemi-arid areas,areas, among among migrant migrant shepherd shepherd societies societies whichwhic whichh diddid did notnot not cultivatecultivate cultivate fruitfruit fruit grovesgroves groves oror or fields.fields. fields. areas,areas, amongamong migrantmigrant shepherdshepherd societiessocieties whicwhichh diddid notnot cultivatecultivate fruitfruit grovesgroves oror fields.fields. MilkMilk products products were were eaten eaten on on their their own own but but were were also also an an important important ingredient ingredient in in basic basic cooking cooking MilkMilk productsproducts werewere eateneaten onon theirtheir ownown butbut werewere alsoalso anan importantimportant ingredientingredient inin basicbasic cookingcooking operationsoperations of of Muslim Muslim cuisine, cuisine, which which utilized utilized many many animalanimal- and and plant-based plant-based cooking cooking oils. oils. From From the the operationsoperations ofof MuslimMuslim cuisine,cuisine, whichwhich utilizedutilized manymany animal-animal- andand plant-basedplant-based cookingcooking oils.oils. FromFrom thethe plantplant world, world, olive olive oil oil and and sesame sesame oil oil were were used. used. The The local local common common breed breed of of sheep, sheep, the the Awassi Awassi ( Ovis(Ovis plantplant world,world, oliveolive oiloil andand sesamesesame oiloil werewere used.used. TheThe locallocal commoncommon breedbreed ofof sheep,sheep, thethe AwassiAwassi ((OvisOvis was was utilized utilized to to produce produce fat fat from from the the soft soft tail tail (in (in ( (عواسي عواسي :orientalisorientalis platyura platyura aries aries laticaudata laticaudata, ,in in Arabic: Arabic waswas utilizedutilized toto produceproduce fatfat fromfrom thethe softsoft tailtail (in(in (( ) عواسيعواسي :orientalisorientalisorientalis platyuraplatyura platyura ariesaries aries laticaudatalaticaudata laticaudata,, ,inin in Arabic:Arabic: Arabic which which is is melted melted butter butter, (,(َس َْمسنَْمةنَ)ة ) Milk Milk was was used used to to produce produce yoghurt yoghurt and and smen smen .( .(أَ ْل أَيَ ْلَةْيَ,لِة,يﱠلِةيﱠ ة Arabic:Arabic: lia lia or or alia alia whichwhich isis meltedmelted butterbutter butter ,,,((( َسَس ْمْمنَنَةة) ) MilkMilkMilk waswaswas usedused toto produceproduce yoghurt yoghurt and and smen smen .(.( .( أَأْلليَيَةة,,لِلِيﱠيﱠةة Arabic:Arabic: lialialia ororor aliaaliaalia usuallyusually melted melted above above boiling boiling water water and and purified purified by by distillation. distillation. Smen Smen is is the the popular popular oil oil of of the the Middle Middle usuallyusuallyusually meltedmelted aboveabove boilingboiling waterwater andand purifiedpurified purified byby distillation.distillation. SmenSmen isis thethe popularpopular popular oiloil ofof of thethe the MiddleMiddle Middle EastEast and and it it is is used used to to fry fry and and cook cook meat meat and and vege vegetables.tables. Meat Meat and and milk milk combinations combinations in in Arab Arab cuisine cuisine EastEastEast andand and itit it isis is usedused used toto to fryfry fry andand and cookcook cook meatmeat meat andand and vegevege vegetables.tables.tables. MeatMeat Meat andand and milkmilk milk combinationscombinations combinations inin in ArabArab Arab cuisinecuisine cuisine areare strongly strongly associated associated with with smen, smen, as as it it has has a a major major role role in in adding adding flavor flavor to to meat meat dishes dishes (Waines (Waines 1991, 1991, areareare stronglystrongly strongly associatedassociated associated withwith smen,smen, smen, asas as itit it hashas has aa a majormajor major rolerole role inin in addingadding adding flavorflavor flavor toto to meatmeat meat dishesdishes dishes (Waines(Waines (Waines 1991,1991, 1991 , vol.vol. VI, VI, pp. pp. 807–9). 807–9). Eating Eating meat meat was was an an indication indication of of one’s one’s high high social social class, class, and and only only the the wealthy wealthy and and vol.vol. VI,VI, VI, pp.pp. pp. 807–9).807–9). 807–9). EatingEating Eating meatmeat meat waswas was anan an indicationindication indication ofof of one’sone’s one’s highhigh high socialsocial social class,class, class, andand and onlyonly only thethe the wealthywealthy wealthy andand and affluentaffluent enjoyed enjoyed this this product. product. Meat Meat dishes dishes were were served served at at festive festive meals meals or or to to guests guests (Levanoni (Levanoni 2005, 2005, affluentaffluentaffluent enjoyedenjoyed thisthis this product.product. MeatMeat Meat dishesdishes dishes werewere were servedserved served atat at festivefestive festive mealsmeals meals oror or toto to guestsguests guests (Levanoni(Levanoni (Levanoni 2005, 2005,2005 , pp.pp. 213–17). 213–17). pp.pp. 213–17).213–17). 213–17). TheThe prohibition prohibition against against cooking cooking meat meat with with milk milk is is mentioned mentioned in in the the Torah Torah in in the the section section on on the the TheTheThe prohibitionprohibition prohibition againstagainst against cookingcooking cooking meatmeat meat withwith with milkmilk milk isis is mentionedmentioned mentioned inin in thethe the TorahTorah Torah inin thethe sectionsection onon thethe festivalsfestivals (Exodus (Exodus 23: 23: 14–19; 14–19; Ibid., Ibid., 34: 34: 22–26), 22–26), and and some some have have claimed claimed that that it it is is mentioned mentioned here here because because festivalsfestivalsfestivals (Exodus(Exodus (Exodus 23:23: 14–19;14–19; 14–19; Ibid.,Ibid., Ibid., 34:34: 34: 22–26),22–26), 22–26), andand and somesome some havehave have claimedclaimed claimed thatthat that itit it isis is mentionedmentioned mentioned herehere here becausebecause because meatmeat is is often often eaten eaten in in festivals festivals as as a a festive festive dish, dish, leading leading to to a a greater greater risk risk of of the the mixture mixture of of meat meat and and meatmeatmeat is is often often eateneaten ininin festivals festivalsfestivals as asas a aa festive festivefestive dish, dish,dish, leading leadingleading to to ato greater aa greatergreater risk riskrisk of the ofof thethe mixture mixturemixture of meat ofof meatmeat and and milkand milkmilk ( Chavel(Chavel 2006, 2006, p. p. 282). 282). Ibn Ibn Ezra, Ezra, in in his his long long commentary commentary on on Exodus Exodus 23: 23: 19, 19, states states that that the the milkmilk(Chavel ((ChavelChavel 2006 ,2006,2006, p. 282). p.p. Ibn282).282). Ezra, IbnIbn in Ezra,Ezra, his long inin his commentaryhis longlong commentarycommentary on Exodus onon 23: ExodusExodus 19, states 23:23: that 19,19, the statesstates prohibition thatthat thethe of prohibitionprohibition of of cooking cooking meat meat with with milk milk is is mentioned mentioned in in the the Torah Torah in in close close proximity proximity to to the the festival festival of of prohibitionprohibitioncooking meat ofof cooking withcooking milk meatmeat is mentioned withwith milkmilk inisis mentioned thementioned Torah in inin close thethe TorahTorah proximity inin closeclose to the proximityproximity festival to ofto the Shavuot,the festivalfestival as ofof in Shavuot,Shavuot, as as in in this this season season there there are are young young goats goats and and there there is is a a chance chance that that their their meat meat would would be be cooked cooked Shavuot,Shavuot,this season asas inin there thisthis are seasonseason young therethere goats areare andyoungyoung there goatsgoats is a andand chance therethere that isis aa theirchancechance meat thatthat would theirtheir meatmeat be cooked wouldwould in bebe milk: cookedcooked “It inin milk: milk: “It “It was was only only mentioned mentioned with with the the first first fruit, fruit, as as then then the the kids kids abound abound and and grow.” grow.” ininwas milk:milk: only “It“It mentioned waswas onlyonly mentioned withmentioned the first withwith fruit, thethe as firstfirst then fruit,fruit, the as kidsas thenthen abound thethe kidskids and aboundabound grow.” andand grow.”grow.” ChoiceChoice dishes dishes of of meat meat and and milk milk are are mentioned mentioned in in medieval medieval Muslim Muslim culinary culinary literature. literature. I Ishall shall ChoiceChoiceChoice dishesdishes dishes ofof meatmeat andand milkmilk areare mentioned mentioned inin medieval medieval Muslim Muslim culinaryculinary literature.literature. II I shallshall nownow bring bring several several examples. examples. The The Muslim Muslim author author Mu Muḥḥammadammad bin bin al- al-ḤḤasanasan al-Baghdadi al-Baghdadi (d. (d. 1239/40 1239/40 AD) AD) nownownow bringbring bring severalseveral several examples.examples. examples. TheThe The MuslimMuslim Muslim authorauthor author MuMu Muḥḥammadammadhammad binbin bin al-al-ḤḤ al-asanasanHasan al-Baghdadial-Baghdadi al-Baghdadi (d.(d. 1239/401239/40 (d. 1239/40 AD)AD) on on Muslim Muslim cuisine cuisine in in 1226 1226 (on (on .( (كتاب كتاب الطبيخ)الطبيخ ) .[wrotewrote his his book book “Kitab “Kitab al-Tabihh” al-Tabihh” (=The (=The Book Book of of Dishes] Dishes on on MuslimMuslim cuisinecuisine inin 12261226 (on(on ((كتابكتاب الطبيخالطبيخ)) [wrotewrote hishis bookbook “Kitab“Kitab al-Tabihh”al-Tabihh” (=The(=The BookBook ofof Dishes]Dishes thisthis book book see see (Nasrallah (Nasrallah 2010, 2010, pp. pp. 22–23)). 22–23)). The The book book was was written written about about 60 60 years years after after the the death death of of Ibn Ibn thisthis bookbook seesee (Nasrallah(Nasrallah 2010,2010, pp.pp. 22–23)).22–23)). TheThe bookbook waswas writtenwritten aboutabout 6060 yearsyears afterafter thethe deathdeath ofof IbnIbn EzraEzra and and reflects reflects the the culinary culinary reality reality of of which which Ibn Ibn Ezra Ezra speaks speaks in in his his biblical biblical commentary. commentary. Al- Al- EzraEzra andand reflectsreflects thethe culinaryculinary realityreality ofof whichwhich IbnIbn EzraEzra speaksspeaks inin hishis biblicalbiblical commentary.commentary. Al-Al- BaghdadiBaghdadi devoted devoted a a chapter chapter to to each each of of the the popular popular groups groups of of dishes dishes in in Muslim Muslim cuisine, cuisine, for for example example BaghdadiBaghdadi devoteddevoted aa chapterchapter toto eacheach ofof thethe popularpopular groupsgroups ofof dishesdishes inin MuslimMuslim cuisine,cuisine, forfor exampleexample meatmeat dishes dishes and and sour sour dishes. dishes. In In each each chapter chapter he he lists lists the the necessary necessary ingredients ingredients for for preparing preparing the the meatmeat dishesdishes andand soursour dishes.dishes. InIn eacheach chapterchapter hehe listslists thethe necessarynecessary ingredientsingredients forfor preparingpreparing thethe dishesdishes and and how how they they are are made. made. dishesdishes andand howhow theythey areare made.made.

Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12

3.1. In the Muslim Region, Cooked Dishes of Meat with Milk Are Considered Particularly Agreeable In his short commentary on Exodus 23: 19 Ibn Ezra says: “And God commanded that the kid not be cooked in its mother’s milk, because [to] this day it is the Ishmaelite custom to cook the kid with the milk, and they say that it is an agreeable dish”. Namely, Muslim culinary art teaches that kid’s meat and milk products are ingredients whose mixture generates a quite tasty and choice product, i.e., a historical continuity is evident with regard to cooking and food preparation as well. Quite extensive Arabic literature was written in the middle ages on various aspects of contemporary food and nutrition. For example, there are recipe books and instructions for preparing literature, i.e., (lay) literature in an array of subjects aimed at presenting wide general (أدب) food; Adab information required by intellectuals; historical descriptions of how various types of food were consumed by different social classes; the elaborate royal cuisine of the ruling class; and more (on the Muslins’ culinary culture see (Arberry 1939, pp. 21–47, 189–214; Rodinson 1949, pp. 95–158; Ashtor 1968, pp. 1017–53; Waines 1989; Waines 1992, pp. 725–38; Waines 2002, vol. II, pp. 216–23; Marin 1994, pp. 205–15; Levanoni 2005, pp. 201–22)). Did Muslim gourmet diners indeed think that meat and milk is recommended combination? Can an appreciation for the combination of farm raised meat with milk and its products be found in the culinary literature of those days? It appears so. The picture drawn by Ibn Ezra certainly reflects the reality of his time and receives historical support in medieval Muslim cookbooks that praise the cooking of meat with milk, although to date I have found no special reference to the cooking of kid’s meat with milk. Before presenting several sources that address dishes combining meat and milk in Muslim cuisine, I must expand on the place of meat and milk products in the culinary art of this cuisine. The assumption is that combining meat and milk is rooted in the Arab way of life and in agricultural and economic practices of many years. In the Arab-Muslim region, livestock played a major economic role, as sheep and cattle provided a variety of products such as meat, milk and its products, skins, and wool. The animal farm had considerable significance, particularly in semi-arid areas, among migrant shepherd societies which did not cultivate fruit groves or fields. Milk products were eaten on their own but were also an important ingredient in basic cooking operations of Muslim cuisine, which utilized many animal- and plant-based cooking oils. From the plant world, olive oil and sesame oil were used. The local common breed of sheep, the Awassi (Ovis was utilized to produce fat from the soft tail (in (عواسي :orientalis platyura aries laticaudata, in Arabic which is melted butter ,( َس ْمنَة) Milk was used to produce yoghurt and smen .( أَ ْليَة,لِيﱠة Arabic: lia or alia usually melted above boiling water and purified by distillation. Smen is the popular oil of the Middle East and it is used to fry and cook meat and vegetables. Meat and milk combinations in Arab cuisine are strongly associated with smen, as it has a major role in adding flavor to meat dishes (Waines 1991, vol. VI, pp. 807–9). Eating meat was an indication of one’s high social class, and only the wealthy and affluent enjoyed this product. Meat dishes were served at festive meals or to guests (Levanoni 2005, pp. 213–17). The prohibition against cooking meat with milk is mentioned in the Torah in the section on the festivals (Exodus 23: 14–19; Ibid., 34: 22–26), and some have claimed that it is mentioned here because meat is often eaten in festivals as a festive dish, leading to a greater risk of the mixture of meat and milk (Chavel 2006, p. 282). Ibn Ezra, in his long commentary on Exodus 23: 19, states that the prohibition of cooking meat with milk is mentioned in the Torah in close proximity to the festival of Shavuot, as in this season there are young goats and there is a chance that their meat would be cooked in milk: “It was only mentioned with the first fruit, as then the kids abound and grow.” Religions 2018, 9, 174 5 of 12 Choice dishes of meat and milk are mentioned in medieval Muslim culinary literature. I shall now bring several examples. The Muslim author Muḥammad bin al-Ḥasan al-Baghdadi (d. 1239/40 AD) on on MuslimMuslim cuisinecuisine inin 12261226 (on (كتاب الطبيخ ) [AD)wrote wrote his his book book “Kitab “Kitab al-Tabihh” al-Tabihh” (=The Book Book of of Dishes] Dishes (on thisthis bookbook see see ( (NasrallahNawal 2010 2010,, pp. 22–23)).pp. 22–23)). The The book book was was written written about about 60 years 60 years after after the deaththe death of Ibn of Ibn EzraEzra and reflectsand reflects the culinary the culinary reality ofreality which of Ibn which Ezra speaksIbn Ezra in hisspeaks biblical in commentary.his biblical commentary. Al-Baghdadi Al- devotedBaghdadi a chapter devoted to each a chapter of the popular to each groupsof the popular of dishes groups in Muslim of dishes cuisine, in Muslim for example Religionscuisine, meat 2018 for dishes, example9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12 ReligionsReligions 2018andReligions 2018, 9meat sour,, 9x, FOR x2018 FOR dishes.dishes PEER, 9 PEER, x FOR REVIEW InandREVIEW PEER each sour REVIEW chapter dishes. he In lists each the chapter necessary he ingredientslists the necessary for preparing ingredients the dishes 5for of5 of12preparing and12 5 how of 12 the theydishes are made. and how they are made. In the chapter “Milk dishes” he records half a dozen stews of meat and vegetables boiled at InIn the the chapter InInchapter thethe chapter “Milkchapter “Milk dishes” “Milk dishes”“Milk dishes” hedishes” he records records he he records halfrecords half a half adozen dozenhalf a dozen astews dozenstews stews of of stewsmeat ofmeat meat ofand and meat and vegetables vegetables vegetables and vegetables boiled lengthboiled boiled at inboiled atat “Persian length at milk”, which appears to be yoghurt. One of the conspicuous dishes in this group which consists of meat, onions, leeks, and spices. The ingredients are cooked in ,( ماديرا)lengthlength in inlengthin “Persian “Persian“Persian in “Persian milk”, milk”,milk”, which whichmilk”,which appears appearswhichappears appearsto toto be bebe yoghurt. yoghurt.yoghurt. to be yoghurt. One One of of the One the conspicuous conspicuous of the conspicuous dishes dishes dishes in dishesin inthis this thisis group the ingroup group thismadira group is the consists, consistswhich ofconsists of meat, meat, ofonions, onions, onions,meat, leeks,onions, leeks, leeks, and and andleeks, spices. spices. spices. and The spices.The The ingredients ingredients ingredients The ingredients are are are cooked cookeda cooked pot are atin cooked in length in a pot in until the liquids evaporate and then mixed with sour yoghurt, mint, and lemon juice( ماديراwhich,( which ,(( ,(ماديرا))madiraماديرا ) is isthe the madira madiramadirais the a apot pot at at lengthata lengthpot length at until lengthuntil until the the theuntil liquids liquids liquids the evaporate liquids evaporate evaporate evaporate and and and then then then and mixed mixed mixedthen with mixedwith with sour sour sourwith yoghurt, yoghurt, yoghurt,sour yoghurt, mint, mint, mint, and and mint, and lemon lemon lemonand juice cookedlemonjuice juice juice andagain until thick (Miller 2007, p. 150). Other recipes of meat cooked in milk are customary ,(منسف) andand cooked cookedcookedand again cooked again again until until again until thick thick until thick (Miller (Miller thick (Miller 2007, (Miller 2007, 2007p. p. 150). 2007, 150)., p. Other 150).p. Other 150). recipes Other recipesOther recipes of recipes of meat meat of cooked of meatcooked meat cookedin cooked in milk milk inare in are milk milkcustomary customaryin are aretraditional customarycustomary Muslim cuisine to this day. One of the most prominent of these is the mansaf rice, (or bulgur), mutton, yoghurt, and pine nuts. The mansaf is currently considered a,(( منسفfrom ), ( ,(منسف)mansafمنسف )inin traditional traditionalinin traditionaltraditional Muslim Muslim MuslimMuslimcuisine cuisine to cuisine to this this day. today. this One One day. of of the One the most mostof the prominent prominent most prominent of of these these of is is thethese the mansaf mansafis the prepared preparedpreparedpreparedprepared from from rice rice fromfrom (or (or bulgur), ricerice bulgur), (or(or bulgur),bulgur),mu mutton,tton, mutton,muyoghurt, yoghurt,tton, yoghurt,yoghurt, and and pine pine andand nuts. nuts. pinepine The The nuts.nuts. mansaf mansaf TheThe is mansaf mansaf iscurrently currently isis currentlycurrently considered considerednational consideredconsidered a aJordanian aa dish, but it is eaten in other parts of the Middle East as well (Basan 2006, p. 70). nationalnationalnational nationalJordanian Jordanian JordanianJordanian dish, dish, but but dish,dish, it itis is buteatenbut eaten itit isinis in eateneatenother other inpartsin parts otherother of of partstheparts the Middle ofMiddleof thethe East MiddleMiddle East as as well EastEast well (Basan asas (Basan wellwell 2006, ( (BasanBasan2006, p. p. 2006 70).2006, 70). , p.p. 70).70). 3.2. The Muslims Cook Kid’s Meat in Milk Due to the Nutritional/Medical Compatibility of the Two Products 3.2.3.2. The The Muslims3.2.3.2. Muslims The CookMuslims Cook Kid’s Kid’s Cook Cook Meat Meat Kid’s Kid’s in in Milk Meat Milk Meat Due inDue in Milk to Milk tothe theDue Nutritional/Medical Due Nutritional/Medical to to the the Nutritional/Medical Nutritional/Medical Compatib Compatib Compatibilityility Compatibility of ofthe theility Two Two of Products the Products of theTwo Two Products Products Humoralism, or the doctrine of the four temperaments, is a nutritional/medical theory Humoralism,Humoralism,Humoralism,Humoralism, or or the the ordoctrine or thedoctrine the doctrine doctrineof of the ofthe the four offour the te temperaments, temperaments,fourmperaments, temperaments, isis aisa nutritional/medical anutritional/medical nutritional/medicalis a nutritional/medical theory originatingtheory theory originating theory from the Hellenistic world, utilized in Christian western and Muslim eastern medicine originatingoriginatingfromoriginating from from the Hellenisticthe the from Hellenistic Hellenistic the world, Hellenistic world, world, utilized utilized world,utilized in Christian inutilized in Christian Christian westernin Christian western western and Muslimwesternand and Muslim Muslim easternand Muslimeastern eastern medicine medicineeastern untilmedicine until the medicine the 17th 17th century. According to this doctrine, there are four elements (earth, air, fire, and water), untiluntil the thecentury. until17th 17th thecentury. century. According 17th century.According According to this According to doctrine, to this this doctrine, doctrine,to there this aredoctrine, th there fourere are elementsare th four erefour elementsare elements (earth, four elements air,(earth, (earth, fire, air, and (earth,air, fire, water),fire, andair, and four fire,fourwater), water), and personality water), types (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic), and four humors (blood, fourfour personality personalitytypesfour personality (sanguine, types types (sanguine, choleric,(sanguine,types (sanguine, melancholic,choleric, choleric, choleric,melanc melanc andholic, phlegmatic), melancholic, and andholic, phlegmatic), phlegmatic), and and four phlegmatic), humors and and four (blood,four and humors humors four yellow yellowhumors(blood, (blood, bile, bile, phlegm, (blood, phlegm, and black bile) in nature and in the human body. The humors reflect one’s yellowyellow bile,andyellow bile, blackphlegm, phlegm, bile, bile) phlegm,and inand natureblack black and bile) and bile)black inin in the naturebile) nature human in and natureand body. in in the andthe The human inhuman humors the body.human body. reflect The Thebody. one’s humors humors The temperament humorsreflect reflecttemperament one’s reflectone’s and nature one’s and nature and also influence one’s physical and mental behavior. temperamenttemperamentandtemperament also and and influence nature nature and and one’snatureand also also physical andinfluence influence also and influence one’s mentalone’s physical physical one’s behavior. physicaland and mental mental and behavior. mental behavior. behavior. The combination of the humors and their relative proportion in the body change from person to TheThe combination combinationTheThe combinationcombination of of the the humors humors ofof thethe humorsandhumors and their their andand relative relative theirtheir proportion relativerelative proportion proportionproportion in in the the body body inin thethe change change bodybody from changechange from person person,person fromfrom to personperson to and this toto is the source of people’s different temperaments; some are phlegmatic (indifferent person,person, person,andperson, and this this andandis isthe thisthethis source source isis thethe of source sourceof people’s people’s ofof people’s people’sdiffer differentent differentdiffer temperaments; temperaments;ent temperaments;temperaments; some some are are somesome phlegmatic phlegmatic areare phlegmaticphlegmatic (indifferent (indifferentand (indifferentslow(indifferent by nature), choleric (irritable), or melancholic (inclined to depression). Any disruption of andand slow slowandand by by slowslownature), nature), byby nature), nature),choleric choleric choleric choleric(irritable), (irritable), (irritable), (irritable), or or melancholic melancholic or or melancholic melancholic (inclined (inclined (inclined (inclined to to depression). depression). to depression).to depression). Any Any disruption Any disruption Any disruptionthe disruption balance of of of between the of the elements of which the body is constructed or its humors results in illness, thethe balance balancebalancethe betweenbalance between between between the the theelements elements elements the elements of of which of which which of the whichthe the body body body the is is isconstructedbody constructed constructed is constructed or or its its humors humorshumors or its humorsresults resultsresults in in resultsinwhile illness, illness, illness, ain state whileillness, of a equilibrium is the basis for recovery (on this theory and its application in Medieval whilewhile a astatewhile state of aof equilibriumstate equilibrium of equilibrium isis is thethe the basisbasis basis is the forfor for basis recoveryrecovery recovery for recovery (on(on (on this this this theory theory(on theory this and and theoryand its its applicationits application and application its application in in Medievalin Medieval Medievalmedicine in medicineMedieval see: (Talbot 1978, pp. 391–428)). medicinemedicinesee:medicine see: see: (Talbot (Talbot (Talbot see: 1978 1978, (Talbot 1978,, pp. pp. pp. 391–428).1978, 391–428)). 391–428)). pp. 391–428)). Muslim doctors influenced by the Hellenistic medical heritage claimed that the way in which MuslimMuslim MuslimMuslimdoctors doctors doctorsinfluenceddoctors influenced influencedinfluenced by by the the Hellenistic byHellenistic thethe HellenisticHellenistic medical medical medicalmedicalheritage heritage heritageheritageclaimed claimed claimedclaimedthat that the the thatway way thethein foodin which wayway which is inpreparedin whichwhich affects one’s temperament and health. How meat is prepared, for example by frying foodfood is ispreparedfood foodprepared isis preparedprepared affects affects one’s affectsaffectsone’s temperament temperament one’sone’s temperamenttemperament and and heal heal andandth.th. How health.heal How th.meat meat HowHow is isprepared, meatmeat prepared, isis prepared,prepared, for for example example forfor exampleexample by versusby frying frying bybycooking, fryingfrying and the ingredients with which it is cooked (for instance vinegar, salt, water, and versusversus cooking,versus versuscooking, cooking,cooking, and and the the and andingredients ingredients the the ingredients ingredients with with which withwhich with whichit whichitis iscooked itcooked isit cookedis (forcooked (for instance (for instance (for instance instancevinegar, vinegar, vinegar, vinegar,salt, salt, salt, water, water, olive water,salt, and oil)water,and and has olive andan effect on the temperament that the meat creates in the human body (Mayer-Chissick 2011, oliveolive oil) oil)oil) olivehas has hasan oil) an effect an effecthas effect onan on effectthe onthe temperament the temperamenton temperamentthe temperament that that the that the meat that meat the thecreates meat creates meat creates in createsin the the human in human in the the humanbody human body (Mayer-Chissick (Mayer-Chissick body body ( Mayer-Chissick(Mayer-Chissickp. 161).2011, 2011, In his 20112011, long, commentary on Exodus 23: 19, Ibn Ezra claims that for practical/medical reasons p.p. 161). 161). Inp.p. In his161).161). his long long InIn hishiscommentary commentary longlong commentarycommentary on on Exodus Exodus onon Exodus23:Exodus 23: 19, 19, Ibn 23:23:Ibn Ezra 19,19, Ezra IbnIbn claims claims EzraEzra that claims claimsthat for for thatpractical/medicalthat practical/medical forfor practical/medicalpractical/medical Muslimsreasons reasons reasonsreasons cook kid’s meat in milk, rather than lamb. In general, meat and milk have a different nature MuslimsMuslimsMuslimsMuslims cook cook kid’s kid’s cookcook meat meat kid’skid’s in in milk,meatmeat milk, inratherin rather milk,milk, than ratherthanrather lamb. lamb. thanthan In In lamb. lamb.general, general, In general,meat meat and and meat milk milk and have have milk a differenta havedifferent a and different nature nature in order nature to cook them it is necessary to adapt them to each other. It takes more time to cook solid andand in in order andandorder ininto to orderordercook cook them toto them cookcook it itis themthem isnecessary necessary itit isis necessarynecessary to to adapt adapt tototh th adaptemadaptem to to each themth eachem other. toto other. eacheach It It other.takesother. takes more ItIt more takestakes time time moremore to to cook timetime cookmeat solid toto solid than cookcook it solidsolid does milk. Moreover, the meat of different animals has unique features and not all types meatmeat than thanmeatmeat it itdoes thanthandoes milk. it itmilk. doesdoes Moreover, Moreover, milk.milk. Moreover,Moreover, the the meat meat the the of of meat differentmeat different of of different different animals animals animals hasanimals has unique unique has has unique features unique features features featuresand and not andnot allandof all not typesmeat nottypes all all typesare types suitable of for cooking in milk. He writes: “For it is not the custom today in the land of ofof meat meat meatofare are meat suitable aresuitable are suitable suitablefor for cooking forcooking cookingfor cookingin in milk. inmilk. milk. inHe He milk. Hewrites: writes: writes: He “For writes: “For “For it itis it “For is isnot not not itthe theis customnot customcustom the todaycustom todaytoday in in intoday the the the Ishmaelland landin the of of Ishmaeltoland eat oflamb cooked in milk, as lamb has in it much phlegm as does milk, and this is harmful IshmaelIshmael toIshmaelto to eateat eat lamblamb lamb to cookedeatcooked cooked lamb in in cooked milk,in milk, milk, as asin lambas lambmilk, lamb has hasas has inlamb in it in it much ithasmuch much in phlegm phlegmit phlegmmuch as asphlegm does as does does milk, milk,as milk, anddoes and and this milk, this isthis harmful andis isharmfuland harmfulthis thus andis harmful thusis not is eaten, and because kid’s meat has no phlegm, and when it is young it is hot, kid’s andand thus thusnotand is is eaten,not thusnot eaten, eaten,is and not and because andeaten, because because and kid’s becausekid’s meatkid’s meat has meat kid’s no has has phlegm,meat no no phlegm, hasphlegm, and no when phlegm,and and when it when is and young it itwhenis isyoung it young is it hot, is it young it kid’sis ishot, hot,meat meat itkid’s iskid’s is ishot, cooked cooked kid’s in milk”. meatmeat is iscookedinmeat cooked milk”. is in cooked in milk”. milk”. in milk”. Aside from the agreeable taste of dishes that include meat and milk, Ibn Ezra is of the opinion AsideAside from AsidefromAside the the fromfrom agreeable agreeable thethe agreeable agreeable taste taste of tasteof dishestaste dishes of of dishesthat dishesthat in in thatclude cludethat include meatin meatclude and meat and meat milk, andmilk, and milk,Ibn Ibn milk, Ezra IbnEzra Ibn Ezrais isof Ezra of isthe the of isopinionthat the opinionof opinionathe dish opinion of that kid’s meat in milk has healthy nutritional qualities. According to Ibn Ezra, judging by thatthat a adish dishathat dish of ofa kid’s dish ofkid’s kid’s meatof meat kid’s meat in in milkmeat inmilk milk has in has milk hashealthy healthy healthyhas nutrhealthy nutr nutritionalitionalitional nutr qualities. itionalqualities. qualities. qualities. According According According According to to Ibn toIbn Ezra, Ibn Ezra,to Ezra,Ibn judging judging Ezra,the judging doctrine byjudging by by the ofby temperaments kid’s meat is considered “dry” and “hot”, while lamb is cold and thethe doctrine doctrinedoctrinethe doctrineof of temperaments oftemperaments temperaments of temperaments kid’s kid’s kid’s meat meat kid’s meat is is isconsideredmeat considered considered is considered “dry” “dry” and andand“dry” “hot”, “hot”,“hot”, and while while “hot”,while lamb lamb lambwhile is is coldlambcold containscold and andis and coldcontains much and phlegm. Other medieval doctors voice similar opinions. The Spanish doctor Rabbi containscontainsmuch containsmuch much phlegm. phlegm. phlegm.much Other phlegm.Other Other medieval medieval medievalOther doctorsmedieval doctors doctors voice vodoctors voice similarice similar similarvo opinions.ice opinions.similar opinions. The opinions. The SpanishThe Spanish Spanish The doctor Spanishdoctor doctor RabbiNathan Rabbi doctorRabbi Nathan ben Rabbi benYoel Falaquera, who lived in the second half of the 13th century, writes: “Lamb is very NathanNathan YoelbenNathan ben Yoel Falaquera, Yoel ben Falaquera, Falaquera, Yoel who Falaquera, livedwho who lived in lived thewho in secondin thelived the second second halfin the of half second thehalf of 13th of the halfthe century, 13th 13thof thecentury, century, writes: 13th century,writes: “Lamb writes: “Lamb iswrites: “Lamb verymoist is moist“Lamb isvery very and and is cold coldvery and sticky and it has many excesses [=“secretions” of unnecessary harmful waste, in .(in]” (Amar and Buchman 2004, p. 127 فضالت moistmoist and andandmoist cold cold sticky and and and andcold sticky sticky itand has and andsticky many it ithas hasand excesses many many it has excesses [=“secretions” excessesmany excesses[=“secretions” [=“secretions” of [=“secretions” unnecessary of of unnecessary unnecessary harmfulof unnecessary harmful waste, harmful in harmfulwaste, Arabic: Arabic:waste, in waste, in Amar (Amar Buchman]” and (Amarand Buchman 2004Buchman and, p. Buchman 127).2004, 2004, p. p. 127).2004, 127). p. 127). This is also stated by the physician and poet Ibn Zuhr of Seville (1094–1162), who said that)فضالت ”[ and ”[فضالت Arabic:Amarفضالت) :Arabic:Arabic young sheep, i.e., lamb) contains much phlegm and produces excess = َص ِغير َالغنَم) ThisThis is isalsoThisThis also stated is isstated also also statedby statedby the the by physician byphysician the the physician physician and and poet and poet and poetIbn Ibn poet IbnZuhr Zuhr ZuhrIbn of of Zuhr ofSeville Seville Seville of (1094–1162), Seville(1094–1162), (1094–1162), who whowho said saidtzaraharsaid who that that that said al-ghanamtzarahar that sheep,sheep, youngsheep, i.e.,i.e., sheep,i.e., lamb)lamb) lamb) i.e., containscontains containslamb) contains muchmuch much phlegmphlegm phlegmmuch andandphlegm and producesproduces produces and phlegmproduces excessexcess excess phlegmin excess the body (Ibn Zuhr 1992, p. 21). Nonetheless, it is notable that other opinions were also = َص ِغyoung يرyoung young = َالغ=نَ َصم ِ)غ َ ص ِغير ير َالغنَمَالغ)نَ م) tzarahartzarahar al-ghanamtzarahar al-ghanam al-ghanam phlegmphlegm ininphlegm in thethe the bodybody bodyin the ((IbnIbn (Ibn body ZuhrZuhr Zuhr (Ibn 1992 1992, 1992, Zuhr, p. p. p. 21). 1992,21 21). Nonetheless, )Nonetheless,. p.Nonetheless, 21). Nonetheless, it it is itis notable isnotable notable it is that thatnotable that other other other that opinions opinions opinions other wereopinions were werevoiced also also also were voicedin medieval also in Arab literature. Muslim physician and poet Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Khalṣūn (!) lamb) is very hot = َخ ُروف) n ), whoṣūn lived in Andalusia in the 13th century, says that kharufابنKhal Ibnṣūṣnū Khalخلصون voicedvoiced in voicedin medieval medieval in medieval Arab Arab literatur literatur Arab e.literatur e.Muslim Muslime. physicianMuslim physician physician and and poet poet and Mu Mu poetḥammadḥammad Muḥ ibnammad ibn Y ūYsufū sufibn Ibn IbnY ūKhal(suf .(is = islamb)very veryand hot ishot moist very(!) (!) andhot (!)is not suitable for those who have a humid stomach or white bile (Ibn Khalṣūn 1996, p. 84 َخ ُر(lamb وف= (lamb) = َخ ُرَخ ُروفkharuf) وف) lived )lived, who in in Andalusialived Andalusia in Andalusia in in the the 13th 13th in thecentury, century, 13th century,says says that that says kharuf kharuf that ابن who, who( ,(ابنخلصون )ابن خلصون)خلصون) andand moist moistand and and moist is isnot not and suitable suitable is not for suitable for those those forwho who those have have who a humida humidhave astomach humidstomach stomachor or white white orbile bile white (Ibn (Ibn Khalbile Khal (Ibnṣūṣnū Khaln1996, 1996,ṣ p.ū np. 84). In1996, 84). any p. case, 84). Ibn Ezra expresses the outlook that milk is similar in its qualities to lamb and it too InIn any any case, Incase, any Ibn Ibn case, Ezra Ezra Ibnexpresses expresses Ezra expresses the the outlook outlook the thatoutlook that milk milk that is issimilar milk similar is in similar in its its qualities qualities in its qualities to to lamb lamb andto andhas lamb it a ittoo high tooand levelit too of phlegm. Hence, their combination creates a mixture with considerable phlegm that hashas a higha highhas level levela high of of phlegm. level phlegm. of phlegm.Hence, Hence, their Hence, their combination combination their combination creates creates a creates mixturea mixture a withmixture with considerable considerable with considerable phlegm phlegmmight thatphlegm that create that an imbalance in the body and harm it. Kid’s meat is more suitable for cooking in milk mightmight create createmight an ancreate imbalance imbalance an imbalance in in the the body bodyin the and and body harm harm and it. it. harmKid’s Kid’s it.meat meat Kid’s is is moremeat more suitableis suitable more suitablefor for cooking cooking for notcookingin in milk only milk duein milk to their phlegm-related differences but also because of its “hot” temperament while milk notnot only only notdue due only to to their theirdue phlegm-related to phlegm-related their phlegm-related differences differences differences bu but alsot also becausebu becauset also ofbecause of its its “hot” “hot” of itstemperament temperament “hot” temperament while whileis “cold” milk milk while and milk thus they balance each other. Due to the excess phlegm in lamb, Arab physicians is is“cold” “cold”is and “cold”and thus thus and they they thus balance balance they balanceeach each other. other. each Due other.Due to to theDue the excess toexcess the phlegm excessphlegm phlegmin in lamb, lamb, in Arab Arablamb, physicians physiciansArab physicians

Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12 Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12 In the chapter “Milk dishes” he records half a dozen stews of meat and vegetables boiled at In the chapter “Milk dishes” he records half a dozen stews of meat and vegetables boiled atlength in “Persian milk”, which appears to be yoghurt. One of the conspicuous dishes in this group which consists of meat, onions, leeks, and spices. The ingredients are cooked in ,(ماديرا) length in “Persian milk”, which appears to be yoghurt. One of the conspicuous dishes in this groupis the madira which consists of meat, onions, leeks, and spices. The ingredients are cooked ina pot at length until the liquids evaporate and then mixed with sour yoghurt, mint, and lemon juice ,(ماديرا) is the madira a pot at length until the liquids evaporate and then mixed with sour yoghurt, mint, and lemon juiceand cooked again until thick (Miller 2007, p. 150). Other recipes of meat cooked in milk are customary ,(منسف) and cooked again until thick (Miller 2007, p. 150). Other recipes of meat cooked in milk are customaryin traditional Muslim cuisine to this day. One of the most prominent of these is the mansaf prepared from rice (or bulgur), mutton, yoghurt, and pine nuts. The mansaf is currently considered a,(منسف) in traditional Muslim cuisine to this day. One of the most prominent of these is the mansaf prepared from rice (or bulgur), mutton, yoghurt, and pine nuts. The mansaf is currently considered anational Jordanian dish, but it is eaten in other parts of the Middle East as well (Basan 2006, p. 70). national Jordanian dish, but it is eaten in other parts of the Middle East as well (Basan 2006, p. 70). 3.2. The Muslims Cook Kid’s Meat in Milk Due to the Nutritional/Medical Compatibility of the Two Products 3.2. The Muslims Cook Kid’s Meat in Milk Due to the Nutritional/Medical Compatibility of the Two Products Humoralism, or the doctrine of the four temperaments, is a nutritional/medical theory Humoralism, or the doctrine of the four temperaments, is a nutritional/medical theoryoriginating from the Hellenistic world, utilized in Christian western and Muslim eastern medicine originating from the Hellenistic world, utilized in Christian western and Muslim eastern medicineuntil the 17th century. According to this doctrine, there are four elements (earth, air, fire, and water), until the 17th century. According to this doctrine, there are four elements (earth, air, fire, and water),four personality types (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic), and four humors (blood, four personality types (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic), and four humors (blood,yellow bile, phlegm, and black bile) in nature and in the human body. The humors reflect one’s yellow bile, phlegm, and black bile) in nature and in the human body. The humors reflect one’stemperament and nature and also influence one’s physical and mental behavior. temperament and nature and also influence one’s physical and mental behavior. The combination of the humors and their relative proportion in the body change from person to The combination of the humors and their relative proportion in the body change from person toperson, and this is the source of people’s different temperaments; some are phlegmatic (indifferent person, and this is the source of people’s different temperaments; some are phlegmatic (indifferentand slow by nature), choleric (irritable), or melancholic (inclined to depression). Any disruption of and slow by nature), choleric (irritable), or melancholic (inclined to depression). Any disruption ofthe balance between the elements of which the body is constructed or its humors results in illness, the balance between the elements of which the body is constructed or its humors results in illness,while a state of equilibrium is the basis for recovery (on this theory and its application in Medieval while a state of equilibrium is the basis for recovery (on this theory and its application in Medievalmedicine see: (Talbot 1978, pp. 391–428)). medicine see: (Talbot 1978, pp. 391–428)). Muslim doctors influenced by the Hellenistic medical heritage claimed that the way in which Muslim doctors influenced by the Hellenistic medical heritage claimed that the way in whichfood is prepared affects one’s temperament and health. How meat is prepared, for example by frying food is prepared affects one’s temperament and health. How meat is prepared, for example by fryingversus cooking, and the ingredients with which it is cooked (for instance vinegar, salt, water, and versus cooking, and the ingredients with which it is cooked (for instance vinegar, salt, water, andolive oil) has an effect on the temperament that the meat creates in the human body (Mayer-Chissick 2011, olive oil) has an effect on the temperament that the meat creates in the human body (Mayer-Chissick 2011,p. 161). In his long commentary on Exodus 23: 19, Ibn Ezra claims that for practical/medical reasons p. 161). In his long commentary on Exodus 23: 19, Ibn Ezra claims that for practical/medical reasonsMuslims cook kid’s meat in milk, rather than lamb. In general, meat and milk have a different nature Muslims cook kid’s meat in milk, rather than lamb. In general, meat and milk have a different natureand in order to cook them it is necessary to adapt them to each other. It takes more time to cook solid and in order to cook them it is necessary to adapt them to each other. It takes more time to cook solidmeat than it does milk. Moreover, the meat of different animals has unique features and not all types meat than it does milk. Moreover, the meat of different animals has unique features and not all typesof meat are suitable for cooking in milk. He writes: “For it is not the custom today in the land of of meat are suitable for cooking in milk. He writes: “For it is not the custom today in the land ofIshmael to eat lamb cooked in milk, as lamb has in it much phlegm as does milk, and this is harmful Ishmael to eat lamb cooked in milk, as lamb has in it much phlegm as does milk, and this is harmfuland thus is not eaten, and because kid’s meat has no phlegm, and when it is young it is hot, kid’s and thus is not eaten, and because kid’s meat has no phlegm, and when it is young it is hot, kid’smeat is cooked in milk”. meat is cooked in milk”. Aside from the agreeable taste of dishes that include meat and milk, Ibn Ezra is of the opinion Aside from the agreeable taste of dishes that include meat and milk, Ibn Ezra is of the opinionthat a dish of kid’s meat in milk has healthy nutritional qualities. According to Ibn Ezra, judging by that a dish of kid’s meat in milk has healthy nutritional qualities. According to Ibn Ezra, judging bythe doctrine of temperaments kid’s meat is considered “dry” and “hot”, while lamb is cold and the doctrine of temperaments kid’s meat is considered “dry” and “hot”, while lamb is cold andcontains much phlegm. Other medieval doctors voice similar opinions. The Spanish doctor Rabbi contains much phlegm. Other medieval doctors voice similar opinions. The Spanish doctor RabbiNathan ben Yoel Falaquera, who lived in the second half of the 13th century, writes: “Lamb is very Nathan ben Yoel Falaquera, who lived in the second half of the 13th century, writes: “Lamb is verymoist and cold and sticky and it has many excesses [=“secretions” of unnecessary harmful waste, in .(Amar and Buchman 2004, p. 127) ”[فضالت :moist and cold and sticky and it has many excesses [=“secretions” of unnecessary harmful waste, inArabic Amar and Buchman 2004, p. 127). This is also stated by the physician and poet Ibn Zuhr of Seville (1094–1162), who said that) ”[فضالت :Arabic young sheep, i.e., lamb) contains much phlegm and produces excess = َص ِغير َالغنَم) This is also stated by the physician and poet Ibn Zuhr of Seville (1094–1162), who said thattzarahar al-ghanam Religions 2018, 9, 174 6 of 12 young sheep, i.e., lamb) contains much phlegm and produces excessphlegm in the body (Ibn Zuhr 1992, p. 21). Nonetheless, it is notable that other opinions were also = َص ِغير َالغنَم) tzarahar al-ghanam phlegm in the body (Ibn Zuhr 1992, p. 21). Nonetheless, it is notable that other opinions were alsovoiced in medieval Arab literature. Muslim physician and poet Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Khalṣūn (!) lamb) is very hot = َخ ُروف) who lived in Andalusia in the 13th century, says that kharuf ,(,(ابن خلصون )voiced in medievalmedieval Arab Arab literatur literature.e. Muslim Muslim physician physician and and poet poet Mu ḥh.ammadammad ibn Yusufū¯ suf Ibn KhalKhals.ṣun¯ūn .(lamb) is very hot hot (!) (!)and and moist moist and is not suitable for those who have a humid stomach or white bile (Ibn Khalṣūn 1996, p. 84 = = َخ ُروف) who who lived lived in in Andalusia Andalusiain in thethe 13th13th century,century, sayssays thatthat kharufkharuf,(ابن خلصون) and moist andand is isnot not suitable suitable for for those those who who have have a humid a humid stomach stomach or white or white bile (Ibn bile Khal (Ibnṣ Khalsūn 1996,.un¯ 1996p. 84)., p. 84).In any case, Ibn Ezra expresses the outlook that milk is similar in its qualities to lamb and it too In any case,In Ibn any Ezra case, expresses Ibn Ezra the expresses outlook the that outlook milk isthat similar milk in is its similar qualities in its to qualitieslamb and to it lamb toohas and a high it too level of phlegm. Hence, their combination creates a mixture with considerable phlegm that has a high levelhas aof high phlegm. level Hence, of phlegm. their combination Hence, their creates combination a mixture creates with a considerable mixture with phlegm considerable thatmight phlegm create an imbalance in the body and harm it. Kid’s meat is more suitable for cooking in milk might createthat an mightimbalance create in anthe imbalance body and inharm the bodyit. Kid’s and meat harm is it.more Kid’s suitable meat isfor more cooking suitable in milk fornot cooking only due in to their phlegm-related differences but also because of its “hot” temperament while milk Religionsnot 2018only, 9 due, x FORReligionsmilk to PEERtheir not 2018 onlyREVIEWphlegm-related, 9, x due FOR to PEER their REVIEW differences phlegm-related but also differences because butof its also “hot” because temperament of its “hot” while6 temperamentof 12 milk is “cold” while6 of 12and thus they balance each other. Due to the excess phlegm in lamb, Arab physicians is “cold” andmilk thus is “cold” they balance and thus each they other. balance Due each to other.the excess Due tophlegm the excess in lamb, phlegm Arab in lamb,physicians Arab physicians recommended thatrecommended it be avoided that or it that be avoided the phlegm or that be modifiedthe phlegm by be skewer modified modified roasting, by skewer oven baking,roasting, or oven baking, or cooking in vinegarcooking or spices in vinegar (Ibn Zuhr, or spices 1992, ((IbnIbn p. 21; ZuhrZuhr, Ibn 1992 1992,Khal, p.ṣp.ūn 21;21; 1996, Ibn Ibn Khalsp.Khal 84)..ṣun¯ ūn 1996 1996,, p.p. 84).84). I have found noI havehaveexplicit foundfound recommendations no no explicit explicit recommendations recommendations by Muslim physicians by by Muslim Muslim to physicians combine physicians tokid’s combine to meatcombine kid’swith kid’s meat meat with milk,with milk, and theremilk,and is even there and an isthere impression even is aneven impression thatan impression kid’s that me kid’sat that is considered meat kid’s is me consideredat fine is considered enough fine enoughwithout fine enough without needing without needing to needing to balance to balance it by cooking.balanceit by cooking. Init bycontrast, cooking. In contrast, medieval In contrast, medieval culinary medieval culinary literature culinary literature includes literature includes recipes recipesincludes that combine that recipes combine lamb that lambcombine and lamb milk and milk products.products.and milk For example, Forproducts. example, anFor anonymous anexample, anonymous an Andalusian anonymous Andalusian recipe Andalusian recipe book book from recipe from the the book13th 13th fromcentury century the published13th century by published by CandidapublishedCandida Martinelli Martinelli by Candida includes includes Martinelli several several includes reci recipespes severalof of lamb lamb reci with withpes milk milkof lamb products, products, with milksuch such products,as as a a dish dish such called asTharida a dish lamb, lamb,that contains spinach,spinach, moistlamb,moist cheese,spinach,cheese, and andmoist butter. butter. cheese, In In another andanother butter. recipe recipe In the anotherthe author recipe suggests the ( ثاريدا) thatthatTharida containscontains (ثاريداcalled Tharida (called author suggestsauthorstuffing stuffing suggests lamb with stu ffingcheese cheese lamb and and with black black cheese pepper, pepper, and cinnamon, cinnamon,black pepper, onions, onions, cinnamon, and and eggs eggs onions, (Martinelli (Martinelli and eggs2012, 2012 (Martinelli , pp. 43, 2012, 86), pp. 43, 86), andpp.and some 43, some even 86), even andrecommended recommendedsome even recommendedadding adding milk milk products adding products tomilk mutton to products mutton in certain in to certain mutton circumstances. circumstances. in certain circumstances. For example, theFor Persian example, physician the Persian Mu ḥ physicianammad ibn Mu Zakariyyḥh.ammadā ibn al-R Zakariyyāzī’s (Rhazes,āa¯ al-R (865–925)āaz¯zī¯ı’s’s (Rhazes, (865–925) claimed that muttonclaimed is “hot”that mutton and thus is “hot”recommended and thus recommendedth at those who ththatneedat those to “cool” who theneed body to “cool” cook it the body cook it coriaria), sumac), and((Rhus pomegranate coriaria coriaria),), and and seeds pomegranate pomegranate (al-Rāzī’s seeds seeds1984, (al-Rp. (al-R 125;āazz¯ īand’s¯ı 1984 1984, see, p.atp. 125;125; andand see atَم ْصل sumac ( (matzal (Rhus ,( َم ْ صwhey ل in whey (matzalin length (Nikaeinlength et al. 2012)). ((NikaeinNikaein Hence, et al. 2012the2012)). nutritional/medical)). Hence, thethe nutritional/medicalnutritional/medical outlook expressed outlook outlook by Ibn expressed expressed Ezra was by by not Ibn Ibn Ezra was not necessarily acceptednecessarily by everyone accepted and by there everyone were andother there opinions. were otherIt is quite opinions. possible It is that quite some possible did not that some did not strictly adhere tostrictly these adhere views, to i.e., these there views, was a i.e., discrepancy there was between a discrepancydiscrepancy theoretical between health theoretical directives health and directives and actual practice.actual practice.

3.3. Kid’s Meat is3.3. Preferable Kid’s Meat to Lamb is Preferable as It Is Healthier to Lamb as It Is Healthier Ibn Ezra furtherIbn contends EzraEzra furtherfurther that contends combiningcontends that that milk combining combining and kid’s milk milkmeat, and and rather kid’s kid’s meat, than meat, ratherthe rather meat than ofthan the other meatthe meat of other of other farm farm animals, isfarmanimals, associated animals, is associated with is associated the positive with thewith qualities positive the positive of qualities this qualities meat: of this of meat: this meat: And do not beAnd surprised do not that be surprisedpeople in thatthese people places inare these not placesaccustomed are notnot [should accustomedaccustomed be: are [should[should be: are accustomed] toaccustomed] eating the meat to eating of young the meatgoats. of Because young goats.all the Because physicians all the admit physicians that no admit that no meat equals it, meatand they equals even it, permitand they it for even the permit sick. It it is for also the eaten sick. inIt is Spain also and eaten Africa in Spain and and Africa and Eretz Israel, andEretz Persia, Israel, and and Babylon. Persia, This and was Babylon. also the This custom was also of the the ancients, custom of“two the choiceancients, “two choice young goats” (Genesisyoung goats” 27: 9), (Genesis“we prepare 27: 9), a “weyoung prepare goat for a youngyou” (Judges goat for 13: you” 15), (Judges and the 13: 15), and the priest would eatpriest one male would goat eat for one a malesin offering goat for (Leviticus a sin offering 6: 19; (Leviticus(Leviticus 23: 19–20). 6:6: 19; 23: 19–20).

Ibn Ezra projectsIbn from EzraIbn the Ezraprojects reality projects from of his from the time reality the to reality bibl of hisical of time times. his time to Hebibl to saysical biblical times.that times.in He extensive says He says that parts thatin extensive of in the extensive parts parts of the of Muslim world Muslimthekid’s Muslim meat world is world preferred kid’s kid’s meat over meat is preferredother is preferred types over of over meatother other because types types of it meat is of healthy meat because because and it choice.is ithealthy is healthy Ibn and andchoice. choice. Ibn Ezra does not stateEzraIbn Ezrathe does nature does not notstate and state thequalities thenature nature of and goat and qualities milk qualities as ofperceived goat of goat milk by milk as contemporary perceived as perceived by physicianscontemporary by contemporary as physicians physicians as he does with regardheas hedoes doesto withthe with valueregard regard of to kid’s tothe the valuemeat. value ofIn of kid’sany kid’s case, meat. meat. from In In any biblical any case, case, times from from goat’sbiblical biblical milk times times was goat’s goat’s milk was considered a foodconsidered with positive aa foodfood qualities withwith positive positive (Book qualities qualities of Proverbs (Book (Book 27: of of Proverbs27). Proverbs This 27:milk 27: 27). was27). This alsoThis milk preferredmilk was was also inalso preferred preferred in the in the classical eratheclassical because classical era it was becauseera consideredbecause it was it was considered easier considered to digest easier easier(Plinius to digest to 1938,digest (Plinius Book (Plinius 1938 XXVIII,, 1938, Book chap. Book XXVIII, 33; XXVIII, chp. 33; chap.Preuss 33; 1994 , Preuss 1994, p.p.Preuss 561) 561) and1994, and medieval medievalp. 561) andphysicians physicians medieval as as wellphysicians well indicated as well its medicalmedical indicated beneﬁtsbenefits its medical (Amar(Amar benefits andand Buchman (Amar 2004 and, Buchman 2004,p.Buchman p. 126).126). 2004, p. 126). The basis of theThe outlook basis presentedof the outlook by Ibn presented Ezra on by the Ibn quality Ezra ofon kid’sthe quality meat is of not kid’s a norm meat that is not a norm that developed amongdeveloped the masses, among but the rather masses, the but sweep rather ing supportthe sweepingsweep it ingreceived support among it received contemporary among contemporary physicians whophysicians recommended whowho recommended recommendedit as a routine it itfood as as a routineaand routine even food foodfor and the and even sick. even for This thefor sick.nutritional/medicalthe sick. This nutritional/medicalThis nutritional/medical view view is embeddedviewis embedded in is the embedded compositions in the in compositions the of compositions other medi of othereval of medievalother physicians medi physicianseval of Span physiciansish of descent. Spanish of Span descent.Maimonidesish descent. Maimonides Maimonides (Spain (Spain and Egypt(Spainand 1138–1204) Egypt and 1138–1204) Egypt recommended 1138–1204) recommended recommendedkid’s kid’smeat meatin severalkid’s in several me ofat hisin of hisseveralmedical medical ofworks. his works. medical In Inhis his works. composition In his composition “Aphorisms“Aphorismscomposition of of“Aphorisms Moses” hehe writes:writes:of Moses” “The “The he choicest choicest writes: meat meat“The originating originatingchoicest frommeat from four originating four legged legged animals from four is pork legged and animals is porkanimals and the is closest pork and to it the is kid’sclosest meat” to it (Maimonidesis kid’s meat” 1961, (Maimonides p. 230). He 1961, writes p. 230). similarly He writes similarly further on: “Amongfurther the on: meat “Among of all fourthe meat legged of animalsall four legged kid’s meat animals is unique kid’s meatas it is is the unique choicest” as it is(see the choicest” (see Maimonides 1961,Maimonides p. 239; and 1961, compare p. 239; to and Maimonides compare to 1965, Maimonides pp. 147, 149). 1965, pp. 147, 149). ʾAbū l-Walīd MuʾAbḥūammad l-Walī dIbn Mu ʾAḥḥammadmad Ibn Ibn Rushd ʾAḥmad (Averroes, Ibn Rushd Córdoba (Averroes, 1198–1126) Córdoba claims 1198–1126) that claims that kid’s meat is preferablekid’s meat to islamb preferable because to it lamb is a better because producer it is a better of kimos producer, i.e., digestive of kimos juices, i.e., digestive (Ibn Rushd juices (Ibn Rushd 1987, p. 227). In1987, addition, p. 227). Rabbi In addition, Nathan ben Rabbi Yoel Nathan Falaquera ben Yoelnoted Falaquera his preference noted for his kid’s preference meat: “Kid’s for kid’s meat: “Kid’s meat is moist andmeat average is moist in andtemperament average in as temperament it has neither as the it hasdryness neither of thethe [=mature]dryness of goat the [=mature]nor the goat nor the considerable phlegmconsiderable of the lambphlegm […] of The the meatlamb of[…] the The young meat goat, of the which young is thegoat, kid, which is average is the kid,[=in is average [=in temperament] andtemperament] it is the choicest and it of is all the four-l choicestegged of animals”all four-l egged(Amar animals” and Buchman (Amar 2004, and Buchmanpp. 120, 139).” 2004, pp. 120, 139).” In another placeIn Falaqueraanother place speaks Falaquera of the inferiority speaks of ofthe lamb, inferiority and writes: of lamb, “Lamb and writes:[…] is harmful“Lamb […]for is harmful for

Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12 recommended that it be avoided or that the phlegm be modified by skewer roasting, oven baking, or cooking in vinegar or spices (Ibn Zuhr, 1992, p. 21; Ibn Khalṣūn 1996, p. 84). I have found no explicit recommendations by Muslim physicians to combine kid’s meat with milk, and there is even an impression that kid’s meat is considered fine enough without needing to balance it by cooking. In contrast, medieval culinary literature includes recipes that combine lamb and milk products. For example, an anonymous Andalusian recipe book from the 13th century published by Candida Martinelli includes several recipes of lamb with milk products, such as a dish that contains lamb, spinach, moist cheese, and butter. In another recipe the (ثاريدا) called Tharida author suggests stuffing lamb with cheese and black pepper, cinnamon, onions, and eggs (Martinelli 2012, pp. 43, 86), and some even recommended adding milk products to mutton in certain circumstances. For example, the Persian physician Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī’s (Rhazes, (865–925) claimed that mutton is “hot” and thus recommended that those who need to “cool” the body cook it sumac (Rhus coriaria), and pomegranate seeds (al-Rāzī’s 1984, p. 125; and see at ,( َم ْصل in whey (matzal length (Nikaein et al. 2012)). Hence, the nutritional/medical outlook expressed by Ibn Ezra was not necessarily accepted by everyone and there were other opinions. It is quite possible that some did not strictly adhere to these views, i.e., there was a discrepancy between theoretical health directives and actual practice.

3.3. Kid’s Meat is Preferable to Lamb as It Is Healthier Ibn Ezra further contends that combining milk and kid’s meat, rather than the meat of other farm animals, is associated with the positive qualities of this meat: And do not be surprised that people in these places are not accustomed [should be: are accustomed] to eating the meat of young goats. Because all the physicians admit that no meat equals it, and they even permit it for the sick. It is also eaten in Spain and Africa and Eretz Israel, and Persia, and Babylon. This was also the custom of the ancients, “two choice young goats” (Genesis 27: 9), “we prepare a young goat for you” (Judges 13: 15), and the priest would eat one male goat for a sin offering (Leviticus 6: 19; 23: 19–20). Ibn Ezra projects from the reality of his time to biblical times. He says that in extensive parts of the Muslim world kid’s meat is preferred over other types of meat because it is healthy and choice. Ibn Ezra does not state the nature and qualities of goat milk as perceived by contemporary physicians as he does with regard to the value of kid’s meat. In any case, from biblical times goat’s milk was considered a food with positive qualities (Book of Proverbs 27: 27). This milk was also preferred in the classical era because it was considered easier to digest (Plinius 1938, Book XXVIII, chap. 33; Preuss 1994, p. 561) and medieval physicians as well indicated its medical benefits (Amar and Buchman 2004, p. 126). The basis of the outlook presented by Ibn Ezra on the quality of kid’s meat is not a norm that developed among the masses, but rather the sweeping support it received among contemporary physicians who recommended it as a routine food and even for the sick. This nutritional/medical view is embedded in the compositions of other medieval physicians of Spanish descent. Maimonides Religions 2018, 9, 174 7 of 12 (Spain and Egypt 1138–1204) recommended kid’s meat in several of his medical works. In his composition “Aphorisms of Moses” he writes: “The choicest meat originating from four legged theanimals closest is topork it is and kid’s the meat” closest (Maimonides to it is kid’s 1961 meat”, p. 230). (Maimonides He writes 1961, similarly p. 230). further He on:writes “Among similarly the meatfurther of on: all four“Among legged the animals meat of kid’s all four meat legged is unique animals as it kid’s is the meat choicest” is unique (see Maimonides as it is the choicest” 1961, p. (see 239; andMaimonides compare 1961, to Maimonides p. 239; and 1965 compare, pp. 147, to Maimonides 149). 1965, pp. 147, 149). ʾAbuū¯ l-Wal¯ıdīd MuMuhḥ. ammadammad Ibn ʾAAhḥ. mad Ibn RushdRushd (Averroes, CCórdobaórdoba 1198–1126)1198–1126) claims that kid’s meat meat is is preferable preferable to lamb to lamb because because it is a it better is a producer better producer of kimos, ofi.e.,kimos digestive, i.e., juices digestive (Ibn Rushd juices (1987,Ibn Rushd p. 227). et In al. addition, 1987, p. Rabbi 227). Nathan In addition, ben Yoel Rabbi Falaquera Nathan noted ben Yoel his preference Falaquera notedfor kid’s his meat: preference “Kid’s formeat kid’s is moist meat: and “Kid’s average meat in istemperament moist and average as it has inneither temperament the dryness as itof has the neither[=mature] the goat dryness nor the of theconsiderable [=mature] phlegm goat nor of the lamb considerable […] The phlegmmeat of ofthe the young lamb goat, [ ... which] The is meat the kid, of the is average young goat, [=in whichtemperament] is the kid, and isit is average the choicest [=in of temperament] all four-legged and animals”Religions it is the (Amar2018 choicest, 9, xand FOR Buchman PEER of all REVIEW four-legged 2004, pp. 120, animals” 139).” 7 of 12 (InAmar another and place Buchman Falaquera 2004 ,speaks pp. 120, of the 139).” inferiority In another of lamb, place and Falaquera writes: “Lamb speaks […] of theis harmful inferiority for phlegm, phlegm, usually white, which is cold and moist] and is more = البلغم :of lamb, and writes: “Lamb [ ... ] is harmful for thosethose with withalbalgam albalgam [in[in Arabic:Arabic usually white, which is cold and moist] and is moresuitable suitable for forthose those with with a hot a hottemperament temperament and the gaunt [=because it is cold it is suitable for those and the gaunt [=because it is cold it is suitable for thosewith witha contrary a contrary temperament temperament and not and for not those for with the same temperament]. And in general, the those with the same temperament]. And in general,physicians the physicians agree agree that thatit is ita isharmful a harmful food” food” (Amar and Buchman 2004, p. 127. On the differences (Amar and Buchman 2004, p. 127. On the differences betweenbetween kidkid andand lamblamb accordingaccording toto thethe doctrine doctrine of temperaments, see also Mayer-Chissick 2011, of temperaments, see also Mayer-Chissick 2011, pp. 164–69).pp. 164–69). Ibn Ezra cites several verses as proof that in biblical timesIbn Ezra people cites preferred several theverses meat as ofproof kid that goats in biblical times people preferred the meat of kid goats to that of other farm animals, as customary in his ownto time.that of Rebecca other farm cooked animals, young as goats customary for Isaac in his own time. Rebecca cooked young goats for Isaac (Genesis 27: 9), Manoach’s wife suggests to the angel(Genesis that she cook27: 9), him Manoach’s a young wife goat suggests (Judges 13:15),to the angel that she cook him a young goat (Judges 13:15), and the priests too ate a kid goat as a sin offering in theand tabernacle the priests (Leviticus too ate a 6: kid 19; goat 23: 19–20). as a sin Notably, offering in the tabernacle (Leviticus 6: 19; 23: 19–20). Notably, the kid goat is not speciﬁcally characteristic of the priests’the kid food goat and is not this specifically is certainly characteristic not indicated of by the priests’ food and this is certainly not indicated by the sin offering. In the same way, other types of animalsthe sin were offering. also mentioned In the same as offeringsway, other and types were of animals were also mentioned as offerings and were eaten by the priests. The verses also seem to indicate layeaten consumption by the priests. of other The verses farm animals, also seem such to indicate as lay consumption of other farm animals, such as the “calf” (ben bakar, Genesis 18: 7) or “fattened calf” (egelthe marbek“calf” 1(ben Samuel bakar 28:, Genesis 24), however 18: 7) or he “fattened may not calf” (egel marbek 1 Samuel 28: 24), however he may see these as proof because they speak of hospitality situationsnot see these that doas proof not indicate because a routinethey speak custom. of hospitality situations that do not indicate a routine Moreover, even the verses that refer to ritual settingscustom. (Leviticus Moreover, 6: 19; 23: even 19–20) the areverses no proof,that refer as the to ritual settings (Leviticus 6: 19; 23: 19–20) are no proof, Israelite rituals included a variety of farm animals. as the Israelite rituals included a variety of farm animals. It is to be assumed that kid goats were suitable for slaughteringIt is to be assumed and eating that in kid the goats home were and with suitable for slaughtering and eating in the home and with the family for two reasons: kid’s meat is soft and duethe to family the fairly for two small reasons: size of kid’s the animalmeat is itsoft does and due to the fairly small size of the animal it does not not require lengthy preservation in the absence of refrigeration.require lengthy When preservation slaughtering in the a kid absence goat forof refrigeration. When slaughtering a kid goat for one’s one’s family no pieces of meat are left over, which mightfamily rot. no The pieces impression of meat is thatare Ibnleft Ezraover, uses which the might rot. The impression is that Ibn Ezra uses the nutritional/medical attitude to kid’s meat in his ownnutritional/medical time to learn about attitude biblical to times, kid’s although meat in inhis own time to learn about biblical times, although in practice the ancients might have preferred this meat forpractice other reasons.the ancients might have preferred this meat for other reasons.

3.4. Kid’s Meat Is Particularly Well Suited for Cooking in3.4. Its Mother’s Kid’s Meat Milk Is Particularly Well Suited for Cooking in Its Mother’s Milk Ibn Ezra further explains why the Torah mentioned cookingIbn Ezra a further kid goat explains in its mother’s why the milk Torah and mentioned cooking a kid goat in its mother’s milk and not in milk in general. He says that it is recommendednot to in cook milk a kidin general. goat specifically He says that in its it mother’sis recommended to cook a kid goat specifically in its mother’s milk because the combination of the two may producemilk a because more choice the combination culinary result of the than two cooking may produce a more choice culinary result than cooking in in the milk of other goats, and certainly of other farmthe animals. milk of He other writes: goats, “And and certainly the Ishmaelites of other too farm animals. He writes: “And the Ishmaelites too agree agree that if the kid is cooked in its mother’s milk, whichthatcomes if the fromkid is the cooked same source,in its mother’s then it is milk, more which comes from the same source, then it is more enjoyable, and the Scriptures speak of the present.” Theenjoyable, assumption and is the that Scriptures the young speak or products of the thatpresent.” The assumption is that the young or products originate from an animal (or human being) naturally bearthat originate similar qualities from an to animal their source. (or human being) naturally bear similar qualities to their source. The affinity between the qualities of the newborn to itsThe mother affinity particularly between among the qualities human beings,of the newborn to its mother particularly among human among other things due to consuming its mother’s milk,beings, was expressedamong other by Rabbenu things due Behaye to consuming ben Asher its mother’s milk, was expressed by Rabbenu Behaye Ibn Haliwa (Spain 1250–1340). He writes: “As the fetusben is Asher formed Ibn from Haliwa the menstruation(Spain 1250–1340). blood He and writes: “As the fetus is formed from the menstruation grows in its mother’s stomach for a set amount of time,blood and and after grows it is in born its mother’s and enters stomach the world for a it set amount of time, and after it is born and enters the nurses from its mother’s breasts, so it its nature is necessarilyworld it nurses linked from with its the mother’s mother’s breasts, nature so more it its nature is necessarily linked with the mother’s nature than with the father’s” (Behaye 1994, Leviticus 24: 11).more Moreover, than twowith products the father’s” that are (Behaye affiliated 1994, with Leviticus 24: 11). Moreover, two products that are a shared source bear its qualities and thus might mix well,affiliated in our with case a theshared meat source of the kidbear goat its qualities and the and thus might mix well, in our case the meat of the milk originating from its mother. kid goat and the milk originating from its mother. Ibn Ezra adds that understanding the verse “Do not cook a young goat (gedi) in its mother’s milk” (Exodus 23: 19) as indicating specifically a kid goat is justified by the Arabic. He objects to the famous Medieval commentator of the Bible, Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki’s (Rashi, North France 1040–1105), understanding that the word gedi is a collective noun designating young individuals of all pure domestic animals (goats, sheep, cows). Rashi’s interpretation is based on the Mishna and Talmud1 in

1 The Mishna (‘repeated study’) was redacted by R. Judah the Prince at the end of the second century CE. The Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions and laws. The Talmud (also Gemara, means ‘study’ or ‘learning’) is a collection of commentaries on and elaborations of the Mishnah and certain auxiliary materials. The term ‘Talmud’ refers to the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi) which was compiled in the Land of Israel (c. 400 CE), and the collection known as the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli), compiled by the scholars of Babylonia (c. 500 CE).

Religions 2018, 9, 174 8 of 12

Ibn Ezra adds that understanding the verse “Do not cook a young goat (gedi) in its mother’s milk” (Exodus 23: 19) as indicating specifically a kid goat is justified by the Arabic. He objects to the famous Medieval commentator of the Bible, Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki’s (Rashi, North France 1040–1105), understanding that the word gedi is a collective noun designating young individuals of all pure Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12 ReligionsReligions 2018 2018, 9, 9x, FORx FOR PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW 8 of8 of12 12 1 ReligionsdomesticReligionsReligionsReligions 2018 animals2018 2018, 20189, ,x, , 9 FOR9,, , x9 xx , FOR FORxFOR(goats, PEER FOR PEER PEERPEER PEERREVIEW sheep, REVIEW REVIEWREVIEW REVIEW cows). Rashi’s interpretation is based on the Mishna and Talmud8 of8 812 of 8of of12 12 12 in Bavli Hulin 113a that the meat of any pure animal must not be cooked in milk (of a pure animal), BavliBavliBavli Hulin HulinHulin 113a 113a113a that thatthat the thethe meat meatmeat of ofof any anyany pure purepure animal animalanimal mu mumustst stnot notnot be bebe cooked cookedcooked in inin milk milkmilk (of (of(of a apurea purepure animal), animal),animal), not notnot BavlinotBavliBavli onlyBavli Hulin Hulin theHulin Hulin 113a meat 113a 113a 113athat of that that a thethat goat. the themeat the meat meat meat of anyof of of any any pureany pure pure pure animal animal animal animal mu mu must mu notstst stnot not be not be cookedbe be cooked cooked cooked in milkin in in milk milk milk (of (of (ofa (ofpure a a pure apure pure animal), animal), animal), animal), not not not not onlyonlyonly the thethe meat meatmeat of ofof a agoat.a goat.goat. onlyonlyonly onlyThethe the themeat Talmudthe meatmeat meat of a of reachesof goat.of aa goat.agoat. goat. this conclusion from the two words “young goat” (gedi izim) in the story of TheTheThe Talmud TalmudTalmud reaches reachesreaches this thisthis conclusion conclusionconclusion from fromfrom the thethe two twotwo words wordswords “young “young“young goat” goat”goat” (gedi ((gedigedi izim izimizim) in)) inin the thethe story storystory of ofof JudahThe andTheThe TalmudThe Tamar TalmudTalmud Talmud inreaches Genesis reachesreaches reaches this (38: thisthis conclusionthis 17–20). conclusionconclusion conclusion There from from from mentionfrom the the thetwo the twotwo iswordstwo made wordswords words “young specifically “young “young “young goat” goat”goat” ofgoat” ( agedi young( (gedigedi (izimgedi izimizim goat,)izim in)) the in)in indicatingin the thestory the story story story of of of of JudahJudahJudah and andand Tamar TamarTamar in inin Genesis GenesisGenesis (38: (38:(38: 17–20). 17–20).17–20). There ThereThere mention mentionmention is is ismade mademade specifically specificallyspecifically of ofof a aayoung youngyoung goat, goat,goat, JudahthatJudahJudahJudah in and other andand andTamar places TamarTamar Tamar in that inGenesisin in mentionGenesisGenesis Genesis (38: an(38:(38: (38:17–20). unspecified 17–20).17–20). 17–20). There ThereThere Theregedi mention mention(youngmention mention is animal) ismadeis is mademade made specifically the specificallyspecifically specifically meaning of is ofaof moreof youngaa ayoungyoung young general goat, goat,goat, goat, indicatingindicatingindicating that thatthat in inin other otherother places placesplaces that thatthat mention mentionmention an anan unspecified unspecifiedunspecified gedi gedigedi (young (young(young animal) animal)animal) the thethe meaning meaningmeaning is is ismore moremore indicatingandindicatingindicatingindicating wide (seethat thatthat Mishnainthat other inin in otherother other Hulinplaces placesplaces places8: that 4 thatthat and mentionthat mentionmention in mention the an Talmudic anunspecifiedan an unspecifiedunspecified unspecified discussion gedi gedigedi (younggedi (young there,(young (young animal) 113a–b). animal)animal) animal) the However, the themeaning the meaningmeaning meaning theis more isisfact is moremore more generalgeneralgeneral and andand wide widewide (see (see(see Mishna MishnaMishna Hulin HulinHulin 8: 8: 8:4 44and andand in inin the thethe Talmudic TalmudicTalmudic discussion discussiondiscussion there, there,there, 113a–b). 113a–b).113a–b). However, However,However, generalthatgeneralgeneralgeneral only and young andand andwide widewide goatswide (see (see(see (seeMishna are MishnaMishna mentionedMishna Hulin HulinHulin Hulin 8: in 4 8:8: the and 8: 44 4and Bibleand andin inthein andin the the Talmudicthe not TalmudicTalmudic Talmudic “young discussion discussiondiscussion sheep”discussion there, creates there,there, there, 113a–b). doubts 113a–b).113a–b). 113a–b). However, as However,However, to However, this thethethe fact factfact that thatthat only onlyonly young youngyoung goats goatsgoats are areare mentioned mentionedmentioned in inin th ththe eBiblee BibleBible and andand not notnot “young “young“young sheep” sheep”sheep” creates createscreates doubts doubtsdoubts as asas to toto theunderstandingthe thefactthe fact fact thatfact that that onlythat only only (the onlyyoung young coupleyoung young goats goats goats words goats are are arementioned aregedi mentioned mentioned mentioned izim is in mentioned thin in ine th thBible thee Bible eBible Bible and in and and thenotand not not “young Toranot “young “young “young more sheep” sheep” times.sheep” sheep” creates creates Seecreates creates fordoubts doubts example:doubts doubts as toas as as to to to thisthisthis understanding understandingunderstanding (the (the(the couple couplecouple words wordswords gedi gedigedi izim izimizim is is ismentioned mentionedmentioned in inin the thethe Tora ToraTora more moremore times. times.times. See SeeSee for forfor example: example:example: Judgesthisthisthis understandingthis understanding understanding 6: understanding 19; Ibid., (the 13: (the (the couple(the 15; couple couple Ibid., couple words 15:wordswords words 1;gedi 1gedi gedi Samuelizimgedi izim izim isizim mentioned is is 16: ismentioned mentioned mentioned 20). Notably, in thein in in the theTora the Ibn Tora Tora Tora more Ezra more more more times. does times. times. times. notSee See See objectfor See for forexample: for example: toexample: example: the JudgesJudgesJudges 6: 6: 6:19; 19;19; Ibid., Ibid.,Ibid., 13: 13:13: 15; 15;15; Ibid., Ibid.,Ibid., 15: 15:15: 1; 1; 1;1 11Samuel SamuelSamuel 16: 16:16: 20). 20).20). Notably, Notably,Notably, Ibn IbnIbn Ezra EzraEzra does doesdoes not notnot object objectobject to toto the thethe JudgesrabbinicalJudgesJudgesJudges 6: 19;6: view6: 6: 19; 19; Ibid.,19; thatIbid.,Ibid., Ibid., 13: the 13: 13: 15;13: prohibition 15; 15; Ibid.,15; Ibid.,Ibid., Ibid., 15: 15: 15: includes1;15: 11;1; 1;Samuel 11 1SamuelSamuel theSamuel milk16: 16: 16: 20).16: and 20).20). Notably,20).meat Notably,Notably, Notably, of Ibn all IbnIbn otherEzraIbn EzraEzra Ezra domesticdoes doesdoes does not notnot object animals,not objectobject object to buttotheto to the the the rabbinicalrabbinicalrabbinical view viewview that thatthat the thethe prohibition prohibitionprohibition includes includesincludes the thethe milk milkmilk and andand meat meatmeat of ofof all allall other otherother domestic domesticdomestic animals, animals,animals, but butbut rabbinicalaccordingrabbinicalrabbinicalrabbinical toview hisviewview view that understanding thatthat thatthe the the prohibitionthe prohibitionprohibition prohibition the Torah includes includesincludes includes used the the the the milkthe word milkmilk milk andgedi andand andmeatbecause meatmeat meat of ofallof itof allotherall is all aotherother popularother domestic domesticdomestic domestic animal animals, animals,animals, usedanimals, but for butbut but accordingaccordingaccording to toto his hishis understanding understandingunderstanding the thethe Torah TorahTorah used usedused the thethe word wordword gedi gedigedi because becausebecause it it itis is isa apopulara popularpopular animal animalanimal used usedused for forfor accordingconsumptionaccordingaccordingaccording to his toto and to his hisunderstanding his preferred understandingunderstanding understanding over the other the theTorah the TorahTorah farm Torah used animals. usedused used the the theword the wordword word gedi gedigedi becausegedi becausebecause because it is itit ait isis popular is aa popularapopular popular animal animalanimal animal used usedused used for for for for consumptionconsumptionconsumption and andand preferred preferredpreferred over overover other otherother farm farmfarm animals. animals.animals. consumptionconsumptionconsumptionconsumptionIbn Ezra and claims andand preferredand preferred thatpreferred preferred in over the overover Arabic overother otherother other farm language, farmfarm farm animals. animals.animals. animals. which is close to the language of the Bible (on the IbnIbnIbn Ezra EzraEzra claims claimsclaims that thatthat in inin the thethe Arabic ArabicArabic language, language,language, which whichwhich is is isclose closeclose to toto the thethe language languagelanguage of ofof the thethe Bible BibleBible (on (on(on the thethe affinityIbnIbnbetweenIbn EzraIbn EzraEzra Ezraclaims claims Hebrewclaims claims that thatthat thatin and theinin in Arabic the theArabic the ArabicArabic Arabic in language, Ibn language,language, language, Ezra which commentary whichwhich which is close isis is closeclose seeclose to theGenesistoto to the thelanguage the languagelanguage language 30: 37; of Leviticus theofof of the theBible the BibleBible Bible (on 11: (on(on 13),the(on the the the affinityaffinityaffinity between betweenbetween Hebrew HebrewHebrew and andand Arabic ArabicArabic in inin Ibn IbnIbn Ezra EzraEzra commentary commentarycommentary see seesee Genesis GenesisGenesis 30: 30:30: 37; 37;37; Leviticus LeviticusLeviticus 11: 11:11: 13), 13),13), affinitygediaffinityaffinityservesaffinity between between tobetween between designate Hebrew HebrewHebrew Hebrew only and and aand and youngArabic ArabicArabic Arabic goat,in inIbnin in while IbnIbn EzraIbn EzraEzra theEzracommentary commentary youngcommentary commentary of other see see see Genesissee domestic GenesisGenesis Genesis 30: animals 30: 30:37; 30: 37; 37;Leviticus 37; Leviticus haveLeviticus Leviticus different 11: 11: 11:13), 11: 13),13), 13), gedigedigedi serves servesserves to toto designate designatedesignate only onlyonly a ayounga youngyoung goat, goat,goat, while whilewhile th ththe eyounge youngyoung of ofof other otherother domestic domesticdomestic animals animalsanimals have havehave different differentdifferent gedidesignations,gedigedi servesgedi serves serves serves to designate andtoto to designate designate designate this is only evident only only onlya young a a from young ayoung young goat, the goat, goat, wordsgoat, while while while while oftheother th thyoung thee young eyoung medievalyoung of otherof of of other other grammariansother domestic domestic domestic domestic animals animals asanimals animals well: have have have have different different different different designations,designations,designations, and andand this thisthis is is isevident evidentevident from fromfrom the thethe words wordswords of ofof other otherother medieval medievalmedieval grammarians grammariansgrammarians as asas well: well:well: designations,designations,designations,designations, and andand thisand thisthis isthis evident isis is evidentevident evident from fromfrom from the the thewords the wordswords words of other ofof of otherother other medieval medievalmedieval medieval grammarians grammariansgrammarians grammarians as well: asas as well:well: well: 1.1. 1. AccordingAccordingAccording to to to the thethe Jewish JewishJewish grammarian grammariangrammarian and andand lexicographer lexicographerlexicographer Judah JudahJudah ibn ibnibn Kuraish KuraishKuraish (Tiaret, (Tiaret,(Tiaret, North North North Africa, Africa, Africa, ,According AccordingAccordingAccording to theto to to the theJewish the Jewish Jewish Jewish grammarian grammarian grammarian grammarian and and and lexicographerand lexicographer lexicographer lexicographerْ Judah Judah Judah Judah ibn ibn ibnKuraish ibn Kuraish Kuraish Kuraish (Tiaret, (Tiaret, (Tiaret, (Tiaret, North North North North Africa, Africa, Africa, Africa.1 .1.1 .1 and,, andand for forfor a aayoung youngyoungyoung goat goatgoat ( gedi ((gedigedi izim izimizim)—)—)—gadigadigadi( ,((,َجَج(ْددَج ْيدي))ي ) ninthninthninth century), century),century), in inin Arabic ArabicArabic the thethe word wordword for forfor gedi gedigedi is is isgadi gadigadi andand, forand for fora for young aa youngayoung young goat goatgoat goat(gedi ((gedi gedi (izimgedi izimizim )—izim)—gadi)—)—gadigadi gadi ( ,,َ(ج(ْدandَجََ جْدْ,يْد()ي يَج))ْد ي)ninthninthninthninth century), century),century), century), in Arabicinin in ArabicArabic Arabic the the theword the wordword word for for forgedi for gedigedi isgedi gadi isis is gadigadi gadi ʿ ʿʿanzanz (see(see also also IbnIbn Kuraish Kuraish 1984,19841984,, p. p. 245).245). anz ʿ(seeʿanzʿanz also(see (see Ibnalso also Kuraish Ibn Ibn Kuraish Kuraish 1984, 1984, p.1984, 245). p. p. 245). 245). Ibn Kuraish 1984, p. 156. In) ( َ َطل ّي ) Theʿanzʿanz (seeArabic (see also alsoword Ibn Ibn Kuraish forKuraish lamb 1984, 1984, (in p. Hebrew245).p. 245). : taleh) is tali .2 Ibn َ (Ibnَ Kuraish Kuraish 1984, 1984, p. p. 156. 156. In In)( ط(لِ ِ َطّي لِ) ّي ) TheThe Arabic Arabic word word for for lamb lamb (in (in Hebrew Hebrew: :taleh taleh) )is istali tali .2 .2 Ibn(Ibn Kuraish (IbnKuraish KuraishKuraish Kuraish 1984 1984, ,1984,1984, p.1984, p. 156). p.156.p. َp. 156.156. 156. In InIn In)( (ط(لIbnِ)ط َّلَِطIbnي لِ لِ) ّ(ي ّّي ))(َط)لِ ّي The The TheThe TheArabic ArabicArabic Arabic word wordword word forfor for for lamblambfor lamblamb lamb (in(in (in Hebrew(in Hebrew(in HebrewHebrew Hebrew:: talehtaleh:: َtaleh:taleh ْ))taleh isis)) tali )istaliis is َ tali( tali (tali.2 .2.2 .2 has) hashas( َ خخ( ُرَُرخ ُروفوف)) وف ) andَ andand the thethe word wordword kharuf kharufkharufحَح َمَمَحلَلم ,ل, ,َخخ ُرَُرخ ُروفوف ,,وف َ سَس, ْخَخسَلل ْةخة َل ة :contemporarycontemporarycontemporary Arabic ArabicArabic the thethe lamb lamblamb is is isalso alsoalso called: called:called has)has has َ (خ( َُرخhasََخ ُر ُُر( َوفخ) ُوفر وف)) وف) andَand theand the theword the wordword word word kharuf kharufkharuf kharufkharuf ح ََمحََحَلمandََم ل,لَ ح , َ,َم, خ َُلرخََخ ُ,رُُر َوفخ ,ُوفروف َ ,س,, َْسخَََلسوفْخ ْةْ َلخ, َلَل ةَسة ْ خ َلة :contemporarycontemporarycontemporarycontemporarycontemporary Arabic Arabic ArabicArabic Arabic the the the thelamb the lamb lamblamb lamb is is also isis alsois alsoalso alsocalled: called: called:called: called alsoalsoalso the thethe meaning meaningmeaning of ofof mature maturemature sheep. sheep.sheep. alsohasalsoalso alsothe the themeaning the meaningmeaning meaning of mature ofof of maturemature mature sheep. sheep.sheep. sheep.sheep. .(Ibn)) (Ibn(Ibn Kuraish KuraishKuraish 1984, 1984,1984, p. p.p. 330). 330).330) ِعِع( ْجِْجعلْلج)) ل ) AAA calf calfcalf (in (in(in Hebrew: Hebrew:Hebrew: egel egelegel) is)) is iscalled calledcalled ʿajel ʿʿajelajel .3 .3.3 .(Ibn)(Ibn (Ibn Kuraish KuraishKuraish Kuraish 19841984, 1984,1984, ,1984, p.p. 330). p.p. p. 330).330). 330) ِ (ع( IbnِْعجِِعIbn) ْ لجْْج)()(ل ِل)ع) ْ ج لA A calfA calfA A calfcalf (in (incalf (in(inHebrew: Hebrew: (in Hebrew:Hebrew: Hebrew: egelegel egelegel)) egelis is) ) called calledis)is is calledcalled called ʿajelajel ʿʿajel ajelʿ(ajel.3 .3.3 .3 IbnIbnIbn Ezra EzraEzra explains explainsexplains that thatthat the thethe terms termsterms gedi gedigedi and andand gedi gedigedi izim izimizim and andand alternately alternatelyalternately se’ir se’irse’ir and andand se’ir se’irse’ir izim izimizim refer referrefer to toto the thethe same samesame IbnIbnIbn Ezra Ibn EzraEzra Ezra explains explainsexplains explains that thatthat the that the theterms the termsterms terms gedi gedigedi andgedi and and gediand gedigedi izim gedi izimizim izimand andand alternately and alternately alternately alternately se’ir se’irse’ir andse’ir andand se’irand se’irse’ir izim se’ir izimizim izimrefer referrefer refer to the toto to the thesame the samesame same speciesspeciesspecies at atat different differentdifferent stages stagesstages of ofof development. development.development. Gedi GediGedi izim izimizim is is isa ayounga youngyoung goat goatgoat that thatthat needs needsneeds its itsits mother mothermother and andand is is isthus thusthus speciesspeciesspeciesspecies at different at at at different different different stages stages stages stages of development.of of of development. development. development. Gedi Gedi Gedi Gedi izim izim izim izimis a is is young isa a young ayoung young goat goat goat goatthat that that needs that needs needs needs its its mother its its mother mother mother and and and is and thus is is isthus thus thus affiliatedaffiliatedaffiliated with withwith her, her,her, while whilewhile gedi gedigedi alone alonealone is is isan anan animal animalanimal that thatthat is is isolder olderolder but butbut still stillstill not notnot mature. mature.mature. affiliatedaffiliatedaffiliatedaffiliatedaffiliated with withwith with her, her,her, whilewhileher, whilewhile while gedigedi gedigedi alonealonegedi alonealone alone isis an an isis is animal ananimalan an animalanimal animal thatthat thatthat isisthat older older isis is olderolder older butbut butbut stillstill but stillstill not notstill notnot mature.mature. not mature.mature. mature. 3.5.3.5.3.5. The TheThe Concern ConcernConcern of of ofCooking CookingCooking Meat MeatMeat wi wiwiththth Milk MilkMilk Arises ArisesArises Due DueDue to toto the thethe Common CommonCommon Method MethodMethod of of ofMarketing MarketingMarketing Milk MilkMilk Produce ProduceProduce 3.5.3.5.3.5. The 3.5. TheThe Concern The ConcernConcern Concern of Cooking ofof of CookingCooking Cooking Meat MeatMeat Meat wi with th wiwi wiMilk ththth MilkMilk MilkArises ArisesArises Arises Due DueDue toDue the toto to thethe Common the CommonCommon Common Method MethodMethod Method of Marketing ofof of MarketingMarketing Marketing Milk MilkMilk Milk Produce ProduceProduce Produce BasedBasedBased on onon the thethe manner mannermanner in inin which whichwhich goats goatsgoats were werewere milked milkedmilked and andand the thethe produce produceproduce marketed marketedmarketed in inin medieval medievalmedieval times, times,times, BasedBasedBasedBased on onthe on on the themanner the manner manner manner in which inin in whichwhich which goats goatsgoats goats were werewere were milked milkedmilked milked and andand theand the theproduce the produceproduce produce marketed marketedmarketed marketed in in medieval inmedievalin in medievalmedieval medieval times, times, times,times, times, IbnIbnIbn Ezra EzraEzra explains explainsexplains that thatthat the thethe concern concernconcern that thatthat a aakid’s kid’skid’s meat meatmeat might mightmight be bebe cooked cookedcooked in inin its itsits mother’s mother’smother’s milk milkmilk exists existsexists not notnot IbnIbnIbn EzraIbn EzraEzra Ezra explains explainsexplains explains that thatthat that the the the concernthe concernconcern concern that thatthat athat kid’s aa kid’sakid’s kid’s meat meatmeat meat might mightmight might be be cookedcookedbe be cookedcooked cooked in its itsinin in its mother’smother’sits its mother’smother’s mother’s milk milkmilk milk exists existsexists exists not notnot not onlyonlyonly when whenwhen these thesethese are areare in inin the thethe possession possessionpossession of ofof the thethe kid’s kid’skid’s ow owowner.ner.ner. He HeHe says sayssays that thatthat livestock livestocklivestock owners ownersowners milk milkmilk all allall the thethe onlyonlyonly onlywhen whenwhen when these thesethese these are are are inare theinin in the the possessionthe possessionpossession possession of theofof of the the kid’sthe kid’skid’s kid’s owner.ow owner.ow owner.ner. Hener. He He says He sayssays says that thatthat livestockthat livestocklivestock livestock owners ownersowners owners milk milkmilk milk all all theall all the the the femalesfemalesfemales they theythey own ownown and andand mix mixmix the thethe milk milkmilk together togethertogether to toto sell sellsell in inin the thethe market. market.market. Thus, Thus,Thus, it it itis is ispossible possiblepossible that thatthat a aaperson personperson femalesfemalesfemalesfemales they theythey theyown ownown ownand andand mixand mixmix themix the the milkthe milkmilk milk together togethertogether together to selltoto to sellsell insell thetheinin in the the market.market. the market.market. market. Thus, Thus,Thus, Thus, it is itit possibleit isis is possiblepossible possible that thatthat that a person aa personaperson person whowhowho purchased purchasedpurchased a aakid kidkid for forfor its itsits meat meatmeat might mightmight also alsoalso purchase purchasepurchase its itsits mother’s mother’smother’s milk. milk.milk. This ThisThis is is isindeed indeedindeed an anan unlikely unlikelyunlikely whowhowho who purchased purchasedpurchased purchased a kid aa kidakid forkid for for its for its meatmeatits its meatmeat meat mightmight mightmight might alsoalso alsoalso purchasealsopurchase purchasepurchase purchase itsits itsmother’smother’sits its mother’smother’s mother’s milk. milk.milk. milk. This ThisThis Thisis indeed isis is indeedindeed indeed an an unlikelyan an unlikelyunlikely unlikely concernconcernconcern but butbut when whenwhen dealing dealingdealing with withwith a aaprohibition prohibitionprohibition from fromfrom the thethe Torah TorahTorah one oneone must mustmust take taketake all allall precautions: precautions:precautions: “And “And“And concernconcernconcernconcern butbut butbut when whenbut whenwhen when dealing dealing dealingdealing dealing with with withwith awith prohibitiona prohibition aa aprohibitionprohibition prohibition from from from thefrom from the Torah the the Torahthe Torah oneTorah Torah one must oneone mustone take mustmust must take all taketake precautions: takeall allprecautions:all all precautions:precautions: precautions: “And “And most “And“And “And mostmostmost people peoplepeople who whowho have havehave no nono sheep sheepsheep and andand goats goatsgoats are areare accu accuaccustomedstomedstomed to toto buying buyingbuying their theirtheir milk milkmilk in inin the thethe market, market,market, and andand peoplemostmostmostmost people who peoplepeople people havewho whowho nowhohave sheephavehave have no no andsheepno no sheepsheep goatssheep and andand are goatsand accustomedgoatsgoats goats are are areaccu are accuaccu stomedaccu tostomed buyingstomedstomed to buyingtotheirto to buyingbuying buying milk their intheirtheir their themilk milkmilk market, milk in theinin in the the andmarket, the market,market, themarket, milkand andand and thethethe milk milkmilk is is iscollected collectedcollected from fromfrom many manymany sheep. sheep.sheep. The TheThe kid’s kid’skid’s bu bubuyeryeryer may maymay not notnot know knowknow the thethe location locationlocation of ofof its itsits mother, mother,mother, and andand theis collectedthe themilkthe milkmilk milk is collected is fromis is collectedcollected collected many from from from sheep. from many many many many Thesheep. sheep. sheep. kid’ssheep. The The buyerThe kid’sThe kid’skid’s kid’s maybu yer bubu bu notyer yermayyer know maymay maynot notnot know thenot know know locationknow the the thelocation the location oflocation location its of mother, its ofof of itsmother,its its mother, andmother, mother, ifand he and and and ifif ifhe hehe bought boughtbought milk milkmilk maybe maybemaybe the thethe milk milkmilk includes includesincludes that thatthat of ofof the thethe kid’s kid’skid’s mother mothermother and andand he hehe will willwill commit commitcommit a aa ifbought heifif if hehe boughthe milk boughtbought bought maybe milk milkmilk milk maybe the maybemaybe milkmaybe theincludes the themilkthe milkmilk milk includes that includesincludes includes of the that kid’s thatthat thatof motherofof theof the thekid’sthe andkid’skid’s kid’s mother he mothermother willmother commitand andand andhe hehe awillhe transgression. willwill willcommit commitcommit commit a aa a transgression.transgression.transgression. And AndAnd where wherewhere there therethere is is isany anyany doubt doubtdoubt conc concconcerningerningerning prohibitions prohibitionsprohibitions from fromfrom the thethe Torah TorahTorah a aastringent stringentstringent transgression.transgression.transgression.transgression. And AndAnd Andwhere wherewhere where there therethere there is anyisis is anyany anydoubt doubtdoubt doubt conc concconc concerningerningerningerning prohibitions prohibitionsprohibitions prohibitions from fromfrom from the the the Torahthe TorahTorah Torah a stringent aa astringentstringent stringent approachapproachapproach is is istaken” taken”taken” (The (The(The Long LongLong Commentary CommentaryCommentary to toto Exodus ExodusExodus 23: 23:23: 19). 19).19). approachapproachapproachapproach is taken” isis is taken”taken” taken” (The (The(The (The Long LongLong Long Commentary CommentaryCommentary Commentary to Exodus toto to ExodusExodus Exodus 23: 23: 23:19). 23: 19).19). 19). JeffreyJeffreyJeffrey Tigay TigayTigay claimed claimedclaimed that thatthat on onon principle principleprinciple such suchsuch a acoa coconcernncernncern might mightmight arise arisearise in inin small smallsmall villages villagesvillages where wherewhere there therethere 1 TheJeffrey MishnaJeffreyJeffreyJeffrey Tigay (‘repeated TigayTigay Tigay claimed claimedclaimed study’) claimed that was thatthat onthat redacted onprincipleon on principleprinciple byprinciple R.Judah such suchsuch thesuch a co Prince aa ncern coaco concernncern atncern themight end mightmight might ofarise the arisearise secondarise in small inin in century smallsmall small villages villagesCE.villages villages The where Mishna wherewhere where there is thetherethere there isis isno nono separation separationseparation between betweenbetween the thethe meat meatmeat and andand milk milkmilk industries. industries.industries. A AA farmer farmerfarmer who whowho runs runsruns an anan animal animalanimal farm farmfarm sells sellssells the thethe is noisfirstis is noseparationno majorno separationseparation separation written between redaction betweenbetween between ofthethe the themeat the Jewish meatmeat meat and oral andand milkand traditions milkmilk milk industries. industries. andindustries. industries. laws. TheA farmer A TalmudA A farmerfarmer farmer (alsowho whowho Gemara, whoruns runsruns runs an means ananimalan an animalanimal ‘study’ animal farm or farmfarm‘learning’) farm sells sellssells sellstheis the the the meatmeatmeata of collection ofof the thethe farm farmfarm of commentaries animals animalsanimals and onandand andalso alsoalso elaborations their theirtheir milk milkmilk of theprod prodprod Mishnahuceuceuce in and inin the the certainthe local locallocal auxiliary market marketmarket materials. and andand therefore therefore Thetherefore term ‘Talmud’there therethere was refers waswas a toaa meatmeatmeatmeat of theofof of the thefarm the farmfarm farm animals animalsanimals animals and andand alsoand alsoalso alsotheir theirtheir their milk milkmilk milk prod prodprod produceuceuce inuce theinin in the thelocal the locallocal local market marketmarket market and andand thereforeand thereforetherefore therefore there therethere there was waswas wasa aa a reasonablereasonablereasonablethe Jerusalem chance chancechance Talmud that thatthat (Talmud a aabuyer buyerbuyer Yerushalmi) would wouldwould purchase which purchasepurchase was compiled meat meatmeat and inandand the milk milk Landmilk from offromfrom Israel the thethe (c. same 400 samesame CE), mother mother andmother the (Tigay collection (Tigay(Tigay 1996, known1996,1996, reasonablereasonableasreasonablereasonable the Babylonian chance chancechance chance Talmud that thatthat thata (Talmud buyer aa abuyerbuyer buyer Bavli),would wouldwould would compiled purchase purchasepurchase purchase by the meat scholars meatmeat meat and andofand andmilk Babylonia milkmilk milk from fromfrom (c. from the 500 the the CE). samethe samesame same mother mothermother mother (Tigay (Tigay(Tigay (Tigay 1996, 1996,1996, 1996, pp.pp.pp. 140–41). 140–41).140–41). pp.pp.pp. 140–41).pp. 140–41).140–41). 140–41). 4.4. 4.Discussion DiscussionDiscussion and andand Conclusions ConclusionsConclusions 4. Discussion4.4. 4. DiscussionDiscussion Discussion and andand Conclusionsand ConclusionsConclusions Conclusions TheTheThe paper paperpaper discusses discussesdiscusses the thethe impact impactimpact of ofof medieval medievalmedieval Muslim MuslimMuslim culinary culinaryculinary practices practicespractices on onon Ibn IbnIbn Ezra’s Ezra’sEzra’s TheTheThe Thepaper paper paperpaper discusses discusses discussesdiscusses the the thetheimpact impact impactimpact of of ofmedievalof medieval medievalmedieval Muslim Muslim MuslimMuslim culinary culinary culinaryculinary practices practices practicespractices on on onIbnon Ibn Ibn IbnEzra’s Ezra’s Ezra’sEzra’s interpretationsinterpretationsinterpretations of ofof the thethe biblical biblicalbiblical prohibition prohibitionprohibition against againstagainst cooking cookingcooking a akida kidkid in inin its itsits mother’s mother’smother’s milk. milk.milk. Ibn IbnIbn Ezra’s Ezra’sEzra’s basic basicbasic interpretationsinterpretationsinterpretationsinterpretations of the ofof of the thebiblical the biblicalbiblical biblical prohibition prohibitionprohibition prohibition against againstagainst against cooking cookingcooking cooking a kid aa kidakid in kid its inin in itsmother’sits its mother’smother’s mother’s milk. milk.milk. milk. Ibn IbnIbn Ezra’sIbn Ezra’sEzra’s Ezra’s basic basicbasic basic conceptionconceptionconception is is isthat thatthat the thethe common commoncommon reality realityreality in inin the thethe Muslim MuslimMuslim region, region,region, which whichwhich includes includesincludes the thethe countries countriescountries of ofof the thethe Bible, Bible,Bible, conceptionconceptionconceptionconception is that is is isthat that thethat the thecommon the common common common reality reality reality reality in thein in in the theMuslim the Muslim Muslim Muslim region, region, region, region, which which which which includes includes includes includes the the thecountries the countries countries countries of theof of of the theBible, the Bible, Bible, Bible, usuallyusuallyusually preserves preservespreserves ancient ancientancient ways waysways of ofof life, life,life, and andand thus thusthus we wewe ca cacan nnutilize utilizeutilize it ititto toto understand understandunderstand the thethe restriction restrictionrestriction of ofof eating eatingeating usuallyusuallyusuallyusually preserves preserves preserves preserves ancient ancient ancient ancient ways ways ways ways of life,of of of life, life, andlife, and and thusand thus thus thuswe we weca wen ca ca utilize cann utilizen utilize utilize it to it it understanditto to to understand understand understand the the therestriction the restriction restriction restriction of eatingof of of eating eating eating meatmeatmeat and andand milk milkmilk that thatthat have havehave been beenbeen cooked cookedcooked together. together.together. Ibn IbnIbn Ezra’s Ezra’sEzra’s point pointpoint of ofof departure departuredeparture is is isthat thatthat the thethe combination combinationcombination meatmeatmeatmeat and andand milkand milkmilk milk that thatthat havethat havehave have been beenbeen been cooked cookedcooked cooked together. together.together. together. Ibn IbnIbn Ezra’s Ibn Ezra’sEzra’s Ezra’s point pointpoint point of departure ofof of departuredeparture departure is that isis is thatthat thethat the thecombination the combinationcombination combination

Religions 2018, 9, 174 9 of 12

And where there is any doubt concerning prohibitions from the Torah a stringent approach is taken” (The Long Commentary to Exodus 23: 19). Jeffrey Tigay claimed that on principle such a concern might arise in small villages where there is no separation between the meat and milk industries. A farmer who runs an animal farm sells the meat of the farm animals and also their milk produce in the local market and therefore there was a reasonable chance that a buyer would purchase meat and milk from the same mother (Tigay 1996, pp. 140–41).

4. Discussion and Conclusions The paper discusses the impact of medieval Muslim culinary practices on Ibn Ezra’s interpretations of the biblical prohibition against cooking a kid in its mother’s milk. Ibn Ezra’s basic conception is that the common reality in the Muslim region, which includes the countries of the Bible, usually preserves ancient ways of life, and thus we can utilize it to understand the restriction of eating meat and milk that have been cooked together. Ibn Ezra’s point of departure is that the combination of these two products in a culinary setting is not a random occurrence, but rather a common practice. The combined use of these products follows a lengthy tradition within regional cuisine that was preserved in the Islamic region, which includes a migrant/economic element of raising animals and utilizing their produce (meat and milk products). Ibn Ezra’s contentions are supported by contemporary cookbooks, for example recipes taken from the castle kitchens of Muslim caliphs. Meat and milk were mixed in preparing choice and elegant dishes as well as in festive meals and banquets. Throughout history, several explanations and justiﬁcations were offered for the prohibition of cooking meat with milk. Ibn Ezra explains the basis for the Torah’s speciﬁc prohibition of cooking a kid goat in its mother’s milk rather than meat in milk in general, as was later accepted in practice in Jewish law, using several culinary and medical views popular among the Muslims:

1. It is not customary to eat raw meat, therefore the Torah speaks specifically of cooking. 2. Cooking kid’s meat, rather than any other type of meat, in milk is rooted in the nutritional/medical compatibility of the two products. 3. The Torah mentions kid’s meat specifically due to its preference over lamb and medieval practice proves that it was a more popular food. 4. The reference to cooking in the mother’s milk rather than in milk in general is also justified, as explained by the Muslim understanding.

According to this, kid’s meat is more suitable for cooking specifically in its mother’s milk because they both come from the same source and therefore their combination produces a more agreeable dish. In light of the fact that this combination was a recommended one in his time, Ibn Ezra admits that he does not understand the reason for the prohibition but he nonetheless offers an explanation: “And we have no need to seek the reason for the prohibition, as it is not known to the wise. It may be that it is a cruelty of the heart” (The Long Commentary to Exodus 23: 19). A point worthy of attention is the scientific foundations of Ibn Ezra’s nutritional-medical explanations. In his biblical commentary Ibn Ezra presents the qualities of mixed meat and milk dishes as well as other elements not discussed here. For example, his discussion of the approach whereby eating bitter herbs with the Passover offering on the night of the exodus from Egypt involved a medical need related to the humid air in Egypt (The Long Commentary to Exodus 12: 8). Ibn Ezra is not known as a physician, although some attribute to him the writing of medical works (Leibowitz 1966, p. 248). His explanations of the prohibition against cooking meat with milk are based on the principles of Greco-Roman medicine (the doctrine of the four temperaments) that formed the basis for medieval diagnosis and treatment, and the views he voices can be found among other physicians of his era, proof of his current knowledge in the nutritional/medical field. Religions 2018, 9, 174 10 of 12

In fact, the basis for Ibn Ezra’s interpretation that “the Scriptures speak of the present” appears in earlier ancient sources, but he applies it to the reality of his times. The argument that the Torah mentioned a “kid” because it is customary to eat kid’s meat speciﬁcally appears in Mekhilta deRabbi Ishmael, which is a tannaitic2 midrash halakha on the book of Exodus: “Do not cook a young goat in its mother’s milk, it says only young goat, from where do we learn about all other animals? The Scriptures speak of the present” (Horovitz and Rabin 1931, p. 21). This principle was brought in several midrashic and halakhic sources adjacent to Ibn Ezra’s time, for example in the Pesikta Zutrata composed by R. Tuvya ben Eliezer in the 11th century (Buber 1880, Exodus 23: 19) and in the 12th century by Maimonides ((Maimonides 2002), hilchot ma’achalot asurot [=laws of forbidden foods] 9: 3). Nonetheless, it appears that Ibn Ezra was among the few to explain the meaning of the principle and to lend it validity and relevance in view of contemporary practices. Ibn Ezra claimed that the preference for cooking kid’s meat in milk in his period stemmed from health reasons. However, some suggested otherwise. R. Shmuel ben Meir (Rashbam, 1080–1160) links this to economic considerations related to the ancient autarkic farm. In his commentary on Exodus 23:19 he writes: “It is the manner of the goats to give birth to two kids at a time, and people would slaughter one of them, and since most milk [comes from] goats they would cook it in the mother’s milk, and the Scriptures speak of the present” (ben Meir 1997, p. 58). Namely, a goat usually gives birth to two kids (the litter usually includes one or two kids, but the birth of twins is common in goats, see (Alon 1990, p. 238)); one is eaten and the other is used to maintain the ﬂock (for meat or breeding). He says that much of the milk was produced from goats rather than sheep, and therefore kid goats were usually cooked in goat milk. However, Rashbam, who lived in distant Europe, had no idea of the reality in Eretz Israel in his own time nor in biblical times, so it is to be assumed that his commentary is based on practices familiar to him.

Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂicts of interest.

References

Abarbanel, Isaac ben Judah. 1979. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem: Hotza’at Sefarim Bene Arbael. Alon, Azaria. 1990. XII: Plants and Animals in Human’s Farm. In Plants and Animals of the Land of Israel: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defense. al-Raz¯ ¯ı, Muh. ammad ibn Zakariyya¯ (Rhazes). 1984. Manfe’ al-Aghzie va daf-o-Mazareha (Beneﬁts of Food and its Harmfulness). Damascus: Damaski Press. Amar, Zohar, and Yael Buchman. 2004. Sori Haguf by R. Nathan Ben Yoel Falaquera. Tel Aviv: Oren Hafakotot Dfus. Arberry, Arthur J. 1939. A Baghdad Cookery Book. Islamic Culture 13: 21–47, 189–214. Ashtor, Eliyzhu. 1968. Essai sur l’alimentation des diverses classes social dans l’Orient medieval. Annales 23: 1017–53. [CrossRef] Basan, Ghillie. 2006. The Middle Eastern Kitchen: A Book of Essential Ingredients with Over 150 Authentic Recipes. New York: Hippocrene Books. Behaye, ben Asher Ibn Halawa. 1994. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem: Mishor. ben Gershon, Levi. 1547. Commentary on the Torah. Venice: Daniel Bomberg. ben Meir, Shmuel. 1997. Commentary on the Torah, Torat Haim Edition (Exodus, II). Jerusalem: Mossad ha-Rav Kook. Buber, Solomon. 1880. Pesikta Zutrata (Lekach Tov). Vilna: Reem. Cassuto, Umberto Moshe David. 1958. The Goddess Anath: Canaanite Epics of the Patriarchal Age. Jerusalem: Bialik Institute. Chavel, Haim D. 2006. The Commentaries of Hizkuni on the Tora. Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav Kook. Cooper, Alan. 2012. Once Again: Seething a Kid in Its Mother’s Milk. JSIJ 10: 109–43.

2 Tannaim, i.e., “repeaters” or “teachers” are the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 10–220 CE. Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12 Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEWReligions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12 10 of 12 milk, and the Scriptures speak of the present” (ben Meir 1997, p. 58). Namely, a goat usually gives milk, and the Scriptures speakmilk, of theand present” the Scriptures (ben Meir speak 1997, of the p. 58).present” birthNamely, to(ben two a Meir goat kids 1997,usually (the p.litter 58).gives usua Namely, lly includes a goat usuallyone or twogives kids, but the birth of twins is common in birth to two kids (the litter usuabirthlly to includestwo kids one (the or litter two usua kids,lly but includes the birth one of or twins two iskids, common but the in birth of twins is common in Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW goats, see (Alon 1990, p. 238)); one is eaten and6 th of e12 other is used to maintain the flock (for meat or goats, see (Alon 1990, p. 238));goats, one seeis eaten (Alon and 1990, th ep. other 238)); is one used is toeaten maintainbreeding). and th thee Heother flock says is (for usedthat meat much to maintainor of the milkthe flock was prod(for meatuced fromor goats rather than sheep, and therefore breeding). He says thatrecommended muchbreeding). of the milk that He was it says be prod avoided thatuced much or from thatof the goats the milk phlegm rather kidwas goats thanprodbe modified ucedweresheep, fromusually and by skewergoats therefore cooked rather roasting, in thangoat oven milk.sheep, baking, However, and therefore or Rashbam, who lived in distant Europe, had no kid goats were usually cookingcookedkid in in goats goat vinegar milk.were or usuallyHowever, spices (Ibncooked Rashbam, Zuhr, in goat 1992, who milk. p. lived idea21; However, Ibn ofin distanttheKhal reality ṣRashbam,ū nEurope, 1996, in Eretz p. whohad 84). Israel nolived in in hisdistant own Europe, time nor had in biblicalno times, so it is to be assumed that his idea of the reality in Eretz IsraelI ideahave inof found histhe own reality no timeexplicit in norEretz recommendationsin Israel biblical in times,his own commentaryso by time it Muslimis tonor be in assumedisphysicians biblical based on times,that practicesto hiscombine so it isfamiliar to kid’s be assumed meatto him. with that his commentary is based on practicescommentary familiar is to based him. on practices familiar to him. milk, and there is even an impression that kid’sConflicts meat is ofconsidered Interest: The fine author enough declares without no conflicts needing of tointerest. Conflicts of Interest: Thebalance authorConflicts declares it by cooking. ofno Interest: conflicts In The contrast,of interest. author medieval declares no culinary conflicts literatureof interest. includes recipes that combine lamb and milk products. For example, an anonymousReferences Andalusian recipe book from the 13th century References publishedReferences by Candida Martinelli includes several recipes of lamb with milk products, such as a dish (Abarbanel 1979) Abarbanel, Isaac ben Judah. 1979. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem: Hotza’at Sefarim Bene Arbael. that contains lamb, spinach, moist cheese, and butter. In another recipe the (ثاريدا) called Tharida (Abarbanel 1979) Abarbanel, Isaac ben(Abarbanel Judah. 1979. 1979) Commentary Abarbanel, on Isaac the Torahben Judah.. Jerusalem: 1979. CommentaryHotza’at(Alon 1990) Sefarim on Alon, the Bene Torah Azaria. Arbael.. Jerusalem: 1990. Hotza’at XII: Plan Sefarimts and Bene Animals Arbael. in Human’s Farm. In Plants and Animals of the Land of author suggests stuffing lamb with cheese and black pepper, cinnamon, onions, and eggs (Martinelli 2012, (Alon 1990) Alon, Azaria. 1990.(Alon XII: Plan 1990)ts andAlon, Animals Azaria. in 1990. Human’s XII: Plan Farm.ts and In PlantsAnimalsIsrael: and inAn Animals Human’s Illustrated of the Farm. Encyclopedia Land In of Plants . Tel and Aviv: Animals Ministry of the of Land Defense. of pp. 43, 86), and some even recommended adding milk products to mutton in certain circumstances. Israel: An Illustrated EncyclopediaIsrael:. Tel Aviv: An Illustrated Ministry Encyclopediaof Defense. . Tel Aviv:(al-R Ministryāzī 1984) of Defense.al-Rāzī, Mu ammad ibn Zakariyyā (Rhazes). 1984. Manfe’ al-Aghzie va daf-o-Mazareha (Benefits of For example, the Persian physician Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī’s (Rhazes, (865–925) (al-Rāzī 1984) al-Rāzī, Mu ammad(al-R ibnāzī Zakariyy1984) al-Rā ā(Rhazes).zī, Mu ammad 1984. Manfe’ ibn Zakariyy al-Aghzieā (Rhazes). Foodva daf-o-Mazareha and its1984. Harmfulness) Manfe’ (Benefits al-Aghzie. Damascus: of va daf-o-Mazareha Damaski Press. (Benefits of claimed that mutton is “hot” and thus recommended that those who need to “cool” the body cook it Food and its Harmfulness). Damascus:Food andDamaski its Harmfulness) Press. . Damascus: Damaski(Amar Press. and Buchman 2004) Amar, Zohar, and Yael Buchman. 2004. Sori Haguf by R. Nathan Ben Yoel Falaquera. م ْصل . Amar and Buchman 2004)in Amar,whey(Amar (Zomatzalhar, and and Buchman Yaelَ ), sumac Buchman. 2004) (Rhus Amar, 2004. coriaria Zo Sorihar,), Haguf and Yaelpomegranate by R. TelBuchman. Nathan Aviv: BenOren seeds2004. Yoel Hafakotot Sori(al-R Falaquera Hagufāzī Dfus.’s . by 1984, R. Nathan p. 125; Ben and Yoel see Falaquera at) Tel Aviv: Oren Hafakototlength Dfus. (Nikaein Tel Aviv: et al.Oren 2012)). Hafakotot Hence, Dfus. the nutritional/medical(Arberry 1939) Arberry, outlook Arthur expressed J. 1939. A byBaghdad Ibn Ezra Cookery was Book. not Islamic Culture 13: 21–47, 189–214. (Arberry 1939) Arberry, Arthurnecessarily J. 1939.(Arberry A Baghdad accepted 1939) Arberry,Cookery by everyone ArthurBook. Islamic J. 1939. and Culture A there Baghdad 13: were 21–47, Cookery(Ashtor other 189–214. Book.1968) opinions. Ashtor,Islamic Culture ItEliyzhu. is quite 13: 1968. 21–47, possible Es sai189–214. sur thatl’alimentation some did des not diverses classes social dans l’Orient medieval. Annales 23: 1017– (Ashtor 1968) Ashtor, Eliyzhu.strictly 1968. (AshtorEs adheresai sur 1968) l’alimentation to Ashtor, these Eliyzhu.views, des diverses 1968.i.e., Esthereclassessai sur wassocial l’alimentation adans discrepancy l’Orient53. des medieval. diverses between classes Annales theoretical social 23: 1017– dans l’Orient health medieval. directives Annales and 23: 1017– 53. actual practice.53. (Basan 2006) Basan, Ghillie. 2006. The Middle Eastern Kitchen: A Book of Essential Ingredients with Over 150 Authentic Recipes. New (Basan 2006) Basan, Ghillie. 2006. The(Basan Middle 2006) Eastern Basan, Kitchen: Ghillie. A Book 2006. of TheEssential Middle Ingredients Eastern Kitchen: with York:Over A Book 150 Hippocrene Authenticof Essential Books.Recipes Ingredients . New with Over 150 Authentic Recipes. New York: Hippocrene Books.3.3. Kid’s MeatYork: is Hippocrene Preferable Books. to Lamb as It Is Healthier(Behaye 1994) Behaye, ben Asher Ibn Halawa. 1994. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem: Mishor. (Behaye 1994) Behaye, ben Asher IbnIbn(Behaye Halawa. Ezra 1994) 1994.further Behaye, Commentary contends ben Asher on the thatIbn Torah Halawa. combining. Jerusalem: 1994. CommentaryMishor.(ben milk Gershon and on kid’s1547) the Torah ben meat, .Gershon, Jerusalem: rather Levi. Mishor. than 1547. theCommentary meat of on otherthe Torah . Venice: Daniel Bomberg. (ben Gershon 1547) ben Gershon,farm Levi. animals,(ben 1547. Gershon Commentary is associated1547) ben on Gershon,the withTorah. Levi.theVenice: positive 1547. Daniel Commentary Bomberg.qualities(ben onMeir theof 1997) Torahthis .ben meat:Venice: Meir, Daniel Shmuel. Bomberg. 1997. Commentary on the Torah, Torat Haim Edition (Exodus, II). Jerusalem: Mossad ha-Rav (ben Meir 1997) ben Meir, Shmuel. (ben1997. Meir Commentary 1997) ben on Meir, the Torah, Shmuel. Torat 1997. Haim Commentary Edition (Exodus, on theKook II) Torah,. Jerusalem:. Torat Haim Mossad Edition ha-Rav (Exodus, II). Jerusalem: Mossad ha-Rav Kook. And doKook not. be surprised that people in these(Buber places 1880) Buber,are not Solomon. accustomed 1880. Pesikta[should Zutrata be: are (Lekach Tov). Vilna: Reem. (Buber 1880) Buber, Solomon. 1880.accustomed](Buber Pesikta 1880) Zutrata Buber,to eating (Lekach Solomon. the Tov) meat 1880.. Vilna: of Pesikta youngReem. Zutrata (Cassutogoats. (Lekach Because1958) Tov) Cassuto,. allVilna: theUmberto Reem. physicians Moshe David. admit 1958. that The no Goddess Anath: Canaanite Epics of the Patriarchal Age. Jerusalem: Bialik (Cassuto 1958) Cassuto, Umberto Moshemeat(Cassuto David.equals 1958) 1958. it,Cassuto, and The Goddess they Umberto even Anath: Moshe permit Canaanite David. it Epics for1958. ofthe Thethe sick. PatriarchalInstitute.Goddess It Anath:is Agealso. CanaaniteJerusalem: eaten inEpics Bialik Spain of the andPatriarchal Africa Age and. Jerusalem: Bialik Institute. Eretz Institute.Israel, and Persia, and Babylon. This (Chavelwas also 2006) the Chavel, custom Haim of D.the 2006. ancients, The Commentaries “two choice of Hizkuni on the Tora. Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav Kook. (Chavel 2006) Chavel, Haim D. 2006.young(Chavel The Commentaries goats” 2006) Chavel, (Genesis of Hizkuni Haim 27:D.on 2006.the 9), Tora “weThe. Jerusalem: Commentaries prepare Mosad(Cooper a of young Hizkuni ha-Rav 2012) ongoat Kook.Cooper, the Torafor .Alan. you”Jerusalem: 2012. (Judges OnceMosad Agai13: ha-Rav n:15), Seething Kook.and thea Kid in Its Mother’s Milk. JSIJ 10: 109–43. (Cooper 2012) Cooper, Alan. 2012. Oncepriest(Cooper Agai would 2012)n: Seething Cooper, eat one a KidAlan. male in 2012.Its Mother’sgoat Once for Agai Milk. a sinn: JSIJSeething offering 10:(Day 109–43. a 1999) Kid (Leviticus in Day, Its Mother’s Peggy 6: 19;L. Milk. 1999. 23: JSIJ 19–20).Anat. 10: 109–43.In Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (DDD), 2nd ed. Edited by Karel van der Religions 2018, 9, 174 11 of 12 (Day 1999) Day, Peggy L. 1999. Anat.(Day In 1999)Dictionary Day, of Peggy Deities L. and 1999. Demons Anat. in In the Dictionary Bible (DDD) of Deities, 2ndToorn, anded. BobDemonsEdited Becking by in Karelthe and Bible vanPieter (DDD) der W. , van2nd der ed. Horst. Edited Leiden: by Karel Brill. van pp. der 36–43. Ibn Ezra projects from the reality of his time to biblical times. He says that in extensive parts of the Toorn, Bob Becking and Pieter W. vanToorn, der Horst. Bob Becking Leiden: and Brill. Pieter pp. 36–43. W. van der Horst.(Donnelly Leiden: andBrill. Diehl pp. 36–43. 1999) Diehl, Daniel, and Mark P. Donnelly. 1999. Medieval Furniture: Plans and Instructions for Historical Muslim world kid’s meat is preferred over other types of meat because it is healthy and choice. Ibn (Donnelly and Diehl 1999) Diehl, Daniel,(Donnelly and andMark DiehlDictionary P. Donnelly. 1999) ofDiehl, Deities 1999. Daniel, Medieval and Demons and Furniture: Mark inthe P. BibleDonnelly.PlansReproductions (DDD)and Instructions1999.. Mechanicsburg:Medieval for HistoricalFurniture: Stackpole Plans and Books. Instructions for Historical Day, PeggyEzra L. does 1999. not Anat. state In the nature and qualities of goat milk as perceived, 2nd ed. Edited by contemporary by Karel van der physicians Toorn, as Reproductions. Mechanicsburg:Bob Becking Stackpole andReproductions PieterBooks. W.. Mechanicsburg: van der Horst. Stackpole Leiden: Books. Brill,(Frazer pp. 36–43. 1919) Frazer, James George. 1919. Folk-Lore in the Old Testament: Studies in Comparative Religion Legend & Law. London : he does with regard to the value of kid’s meat. In any case, from biblical times goat’s milk was (Frazer 1919) Frazer, Diehl,James George. Daniel, (Frazer1919. and Folk-Lore Mark 1919) P.Frazer, in Donnelly. the OldJames Testament: George. 1999. Medieval Studies1919. Folk-Lore in Furniture: Comparative in the PlansOld ReligionMacmillan Testament: and Legend Instructions and Studies & Co. Law in. LondonforComparative Historical : Religion Reproductions Legend &. Law. London : considered a food with positive qualities (Book of Proverbs 27: 27). This milk was also preferred in Macmillan and Co. Mechanicsburg:Macmillan Stackpole and Books.Co. (Goldsstein 1996) Goldsstein, Bernard R. 1996. Astronomy and Astrology in the Works of Abraham ibn Ezra. the classical era because it was considered easier to digest (Plinius 1938, Book XXVIII, chap. 33; (Goldsstein 1996) Goldsstein,Frazer, James Bernard(Goldsstein George. R.1919. 1996. 1996)Folk-Lore Astron Goldsstein,omy in the and OldBernard Astrology Testament: R. 1996. in Studies the Astron WorksArabic inomy Comparative ofSciences andAbraham Astrology and Religion philosophyibn Ezra.in Legend the 6: Works &9–21. Law .of London: Abraham ibn Ezra. Preuss 1994, p. 561) and medieval physicians as well indicated its medical benefits (Amar and Arabic Sciences and Macmillanphilosophy 6: and 9–21.Arabic Co. Sciences and philosophy 6: 9–21. (Hara 1978) Haran, Menahem. 1978. Kid in its Mother’s Milk. Eretz Israel 14: 12–18. Buchman 2004, p. 126). (Hara 1978) Haran,Goldsstein, Menahem. Bernard1978.(Hara Kid 1978) R. in 1996. itsHaran, Mother’s Astronomy Menahem. Milk. and Eretz 1978. Astrology Israel Kid in14: its in 12–18. (Hara theMother’s Works 1979) Milk. Haran, of Abraham Eretz Menahem. Israel ibn 14: 1979. Ezra. 12–18. SeethingArabic Sciencesa Kid in its and Mother’s Milk. JJS 30: 23–35. (Hara 1979) Haran, Menahem.philosophy 1979.The(Hara Seething6: basis 9–21.1979) a Kid ofHaran, [CrossRef the in its Menahem.outlook Mother’s] presentedMilk.1979. JJSSeething 30: 23–35. by a KidIbn in (HaraEzra its Mother’s 1983) on the Haran, Milk. quality Menahem.JJS 30: of23–35. kid’s 1983. Ameat Kid inis its not Mo ather’s norm Milk that and a kid sucks its Mother’s Milk. Tarbitz 52: 371–92. (Hara 1983) Haran, Menahem.Haran,developed Menahem. 1983.(Hara A Kid 1983)1978. amongin its Haran,Mo Kid ther’sthe in Menahem. its Milkmasses, Mother’s and 1983. a butkid Milk. A sucksrather KidEretz inits its Mother’sthe IsraelMo ther’ssweep(Horovitz14: Milk. Milk 12–18.ing Tarbitz and and support Rabin a 52: kid 371–92. sucks1931) it Horovitz, itsreceived Mother’s Haim amongMilk. Saul, Tarbitz andcontemporary 52: Israel 371–92. Abraham Rabin. 1931. Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael. Frankfurt am Main: (Horovitz and Rabin Haran,1931) Horovitz,physicians Menahem.(Horovitz Haim 1979. whoSaul, and and Seethingrecommended Rabin Israel 1931) Abraham a Kid Horovitz, in itsitRabin. asMother’s Haim a 1931. routine Saul, Mekhilta Milk. and food Israel JJSde Rabbi30: J. Abrahamand Kauffmann. 23–35. Ishmael even Rabin.. [ CrossRefFrankfurt for 1931.the ]am sick.Mekhilta Main: This de Rabbi nutritional/medical Ishmael. Frankfurt am Main: J. Kauffmann. Haran,view Menahem. is embeddedJ. 1983. Kauffmann. A Kidin the in itscompositions Mother’s Milk of and other a kid medi(Ibn sucks Ezraeval its 1976) physicians Mother’s Ibn Ezra, Milk. of Abraham.SpanTarbitzish52: descent. 1976. 371–92. Ibn MaimonidesEzra: Commentary on the Torah. Edited by Asher Veizer. Jerusalem: (Ibn Ezra 1976) IbnHorovitz, Ezra, (SpainAbraham. Haim(Ibn and Saul, 1976.Ezra Egypt and 1976)Ibn Israel Ezra: 1138–1204)Ibn Abraham CommentaryEzra, Abraham. Rabin.recommended on the 1931. 1976. TorahMekhilta Ibn. Edited Ezra:kid’s de Commentary Mosad Rabbibyme Asherat Ishmael ha-Ravin Veizer.several on. Frankfurt theKook. Jerusalem:Torah of .his am Edited Main:medical by J. Asher Kauffmann. works. Veizer. In Jerusalem:his -Damascus: Maʻhad al .(كتاب األغذية) ammad from ha-Rav fouribn Kook. Y ūleggedsuf. 1996. Kitāb al-Aġdiya̲ originatingūn, MosadMu Mosad ha-RavIbn Kook. Ezra,composition Abraham.Mosad 1976. “AphorismsIbn ha-Rav Ezra: Kook. Commentary of Moses” on thehe Torah writes:. Edited(Ibn “The Khal by Asherchoicestṣūn 1996) Veizer. meatIbn Jerusalem: Khal -ı).writes lil-Dir Damascus: as¯similarlyat¯ Maʻhad al¯ كتاب yah.̄ Heاألغذيةsuf.).) .1996. Damascus: Damascus: ̄ lil-Dira Kitābsā 1961,al-A t̄Ma Ma al-ġʻʻhadd Arabihadiya̲p. 230).al-( al-FaransكتابY ū Faransi(Maimonides األغذيةammadab¯ā bis al-A kid’sgġ´diya̲ meat” (ibn 1996.1996. ūto Kitn, itMu ammad ish Khal ammadporkṣū nand ibn1996)ibn the YYusuf. ¯Ibnū suf.closest Khal animalssun,¯ūn,(Ibn Mu Mu Ibn Khalṣūn 1996)Ibn Ibn KhalKhal) . . ¯ Faransi ̄ lil-Dirasā t̄ al-furtherʻArabiArab¯ıyah.yah.̄ on:Faransi “Among ̄ lil-Dira the sāmeatt̄ al- ʻofArabi all fouryah.̄ legged (Ibnanimals Kuraish kid’s 1984) meat Ibn Kuraish, is unique Judah. as 1984. it is The the Risalah choicest” of Judah (see ibn Kuraish . Edited by Dan Beker. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University. (Ibn Kuraish 1984) IbnIbn Kuraish, Kuraish,Maimonides Judah. Judah.(Ibn 1984. Kuraish 1984.The 1961, Risalah 1984)The p. Ibn Risalahof239; Judah Kuraish, and ibn of Judah Kuraishcompare Judah. ibn. 1984.Edited Kuraish to The Maimonidesby Risalah .Dan Edited(Ibn Beker. of Rushd Judah by Tel Dan1965, ibn 1987)Aviv: Kuraish Beker. pp. IbnTel Rushd, .Aviv 147,Edited Tel Aviv:University. 149). ʾ by Ab Danū Tel l-Wal AvivBeker. īd Mu University. Tel Aviv:ammad Tel Ibn Aviv ʾ A mad University. Ibn Rushd (Averroes), J. M. Fórneas Besteiro, and Camilo ّ :General Principles of Medicine). Madrid= الكليات في الطب) mad (Averroes, de IbnBesteiro,Morales J. M.Rushd F Córdobayandó rneasRuiz-Matas,(Averroes), Camilo Besteiro, 1198–1126) J. eds. M. Fórneas1987. and Kitab Camilo claims Besteiro, al-Kulliyat thatand fiCamilo al-Tibb mad (Averroes), Ibnammad RushdIbn Rushd IbnJ. (Averroes),M.Alvarez ʾ Fórneas A mad ʾ Ibn Ab ū IbnIbn l-WalA h Rushd.ʾmadAīdḥ Mu ¯ıd1987)ammadīd Mu Mu Ibnh. ammadIbn ḥRushd,ammad ʾ A Ibn Rushd 1987) Ibn IbnRushd, Rushd, ʾ Abū ʾl-WalAb(Ibnu¯ū Rushdīd l-Wall-Wal Mu) ّ digestive =Generalyah̄ bi-Gharna Principles juices Principlest̄ ̣ah, (Ibn of Medicine)Madri of Rushdd,̄ .al-Majlis Madrid: al-Aʻlá lil-Buḥuth̄ al-ʻIlmiyah,̄ Consejo Superior de الكلMadrid:Arabiياتi.e.,. ʻ في-sā t̄ ,alالطب ) better Kitab =General al-Kulliyat al-Kulliyat producerMadrasat Principles ﬁ fi al-Tibb al-Tibb al-Dira of Medicine) kimos الكلaّ يات is1987.Kitab في eds. it الطب).Alvarez de Morales yAlvarez Ruiz-Matas,kid’s meat de eds. Morales Alvarezis preferable1987. deKitab y Ruiz-Matas,Morales al-Kulliyat to lamb y Ruiz-Matas, fi al-Tibb eds.because 1987 ̄ ̄ ʻ ̄ ̄ ̄ ʻ ̄ ʻ ̄ Madrasat al-Dirasā t̄ al-Medicine)1987,ʻArabi p.yah̄ . 227). Madrid: bi-GharnaMadrasat In addition, Madrasatt̄ ̣ah,al-Dira Madrisa Rabbit al-Dird,̄ al- al-MajlisArabi Nathanas¯ at¯yah al-al-A bi-GharnaArab benʻlá lil-Buh Yoel¯ıyahṭah,̣u bi-GharnFalaquerath̄ Madri al-InvestigacionesʻIlmid,a ¯yah,̄ al-Majlist.ah, noted Consejo Madr al-ACientíficas.his¯ıd, Superiorpreferencelá al-Majlis lil-Buh dẹuth al-A foral- Ilmi kid’slá lil-Buyah, meat: Consejoh. uth¯ “Kid’s Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.al-meatIlm ¯ıyah, is moist ConsejoInvestigaciones and Superioraverage Científicas. de in Investigacionestemperament Cientas it íhasﬁcas. neither the dryness of the [=mature] goat nor the

Ibn Zuhr,considerable Abu Marwan phlegm Abd al-Malik.of the lamb 1992. […]Kitab The al-Agdiya meat of. the Madrid: young Consejo goat, which Superior is dethe Investigaciones kid, is average [=in

Cienttemperament]íﬁcas, Instituto and de it Cooperaciis the choicestón con ofel all Mundo four-leggedÁrabe. animals” (Amar and Buchman 2004, pp. 120, 139).” Johnston,In another Ruth A. 2011.placeAll Falaquera Things Medieval: speaks An of Encyclopaediathe inferiority of the of Medievallamb, and World writes:. Santa “Lamb Barbara: […] Greenwood, is harmful for vol. 1. Keel, Othmar. 1980. Das Böcklein in der Milch Seiner Mutter und Verwandtes: Im Lichte Eines Altorientalischen Bildmotivs (OBO 33). V.IRAT III-KEE 1980.1, (Böcklein). Freiburg: Universitätsverlag; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. Kislev, Itamar. 2009. The Relationship between the Pentateuch Commentaries Composed by R. Abraham Ibn Ezra in France and the Signiﬁcance of this Relationship for the Biographical Chronology of the Commentator. Journal of Jewish Studies 60: 282–97. [CrossRef] Labuschagne, Casper Jeremiah. 1992. ‘You Shall not Boil a Kid in Its Mother’s Milk’: A New Proposal for the Origin of the Prohibition. In The Scriptures and the Scrolls: Studies in Honour of A. S. van der Woude on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday (SVT 49). Edited by Garcia Martinez, Antonius Hilhorst and Casper J. Labuschagne. Leiden: Brill, pp. 6–17. Langermann, Tzvi Y. 1993. Some Astrological Themes in the Thought of Abraham ibn Ezra. In Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra: Studies in the Writings of a Twelfth-Century Jewish Polymath. Edited by Isadore Twersky and Jay M. Harris. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 28–85. Leibowitz, Jehoshua. 1966. Eyes diseases in “Sefer ha-Nisyonot” with attributed to Abraham Ibn Ezra. ha-Refuah 70: 248–49. Levanoni, Amalia. 2005. Food and Cooking during the Mamluk Era: Social and Political Implications. Mamluk Studies Review 9: 201–22. Levine, Israel. 1970. Abraham Ibn Ezra: His Life and His Poetry. Tel Aviv: HaKibbutz HaMehuchad. Luria, Ben Zion. 1993. Do not seethe a Kid in its Mother’s Milk. Bet Mikra 38: 72–75. Maimonides, Moses. 1965. Medical Responsa by Maimonides. Edited by Süssmann Muntner. Jerusalem: Mossad ha-Rav Kook. Maimonides, Moses. 1961. Medical aphorisms of Moses Maimonides. Edited by Süssmann Muntner. Jerusalem: Mossad ha-Rav Kook. Maimonides, Moses. 1991. The Guide for the Perplexed (More Nevochim). Edited by Yosef Kaphach. Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav Kook. Maimonides, Moses. 2002. Mishneh Torah. Edited by Shabtai Frankel. Jerusalem and Benei-Brak: Hotza’at Shabse Frankel LTD. Religions 2018, 9, 174 12 of 12

Marin, Manuela. 1994. Beyond Taste: The Complements of Colour and Smell in the Medieval Arab Culinary Tradition. In Culinary Cultures of the Middle East. Edited by Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper. London: Tauris Parke, pp. 205–14. Martinelli, Candida, trans. 2012. 13th Century. Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook: Kitab al tabikh fi-l-Maghrib wa-l-Andalus fi ‘asr al-Muwahhidin, li-mu’allif majhul. The Book of Cooking in Maghreb and Andalus in the era of Almohads, by an unknown author. Available online: http://italophiles.com/andalusian_cookbook. pdf (accessed on 10 May 2018). Mayer-Chissick, Uri. 2011. Food and Balance: Nutrition from Theory to Practice, According to the Humoural System. In the Muslim-Arab Empire between the 9th and the 16th Centuries. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel. Melamed, Ezra Zion. 1978. Biblical Commentaries: Their Methods and Approaches. Jerusalem: Magnes Press and Hebrew University. Milgrom, Jacob. 1985. “You Shall Not Boil a Kid in Its Mother’s Milk”: An Archaeological Myth Destroyed. Bible Review 113: 48–55. Miller, H. Daniel. 2007. Pleasures of Consumption: The Birth of Medieval Islamic cuisine. In Food: The History of Taste. California Studies in Food & Culture. Edited by Paul H. Freedman. Berkeley: University of California Press. Nawal, Nasrallah. 2010. Annals of the Caliphs’ Kitchens: Ibn Sayyar¯ al-Warraq’s¯ Tenth-Century Baghdadi Cookbook. Leiden: Brill. Nikaein, Farzad, Arman Zargaran, and Alireza Mehdizadeh. 2012. Rhazes’ concepts and manuscripts on nutrition in treatment and health care. Ancient Science of Life 31: 160–63. [PubMed] Philo. 1984. On the Virtues. Translated by Francis Henry Colson. Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. Plinius. 1938. Naturalis Historia. Translated by Horace Rackham. London: Loeb Classical Library. Preuss, Julius. 1994. Biblical and Talmudic Medicine. Translated by Fred Rosner. Northvale: J. Aronson. Ratner Robert, Bruce Zuckerman. 1986. A Kid in Milk? New Photographs of KTU 1.23, Line 14. HUCA 57: 15–60. Rodinson, Maxime. 1949. Recherches sur documents arabes relatifs à la cuisine. Revue des Etudes Slamiques 17: 95–158. Sela, Shlomo. 1999. Astrology and Biblical Exegesis in the Thought of Abraham Ibn Ezra. Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University. Sela, Shlomo, and Gad Freudenthal. 2006. Abraham Ibn Ezra’s Scholarly Writings: A Chronological Listing. Aleph 6: 13–55. [CrossRef] Simon, Uriel. 2013. “The Ear Discerns Words”- Studies in Ibn Ezra’s Exegetical Methodology. Ramat Ban: Bar Ilan University Press. Talbot, Charles H. 1978. Medicine. In Science in the Middle Ages. Edited by David C. Lindberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 391–428. Tigay, Jeffrey H. 1996. Deuteronomy: JPS Torah Commentary. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. Veizer, Asher. 1976. Abraham Ibn Ezra: Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook. Waines, David. 1989. In a Caliph’s Kitchen: Mediaeval Arabic Cooking for the Modern Gourmet. London: Riad El-Rayyes Books Ltd. Waines, David. 1991. Matbakh. In The Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed. Edited by Clifford Edmund Bosworth, E. van Donzel, Bernard Lewis and Charles Pellat. Leiden: Brill, vol. VI, pp. 807–9. Waines, David. 1992. The Culinary Culture of al-Andalus. In The Legacy of Muslim Spain. Edited by Salma Khadra Jayyusi. Leiden: Brill, pp. 725–38. Waines, David. 2002. Food and Drink. In The Encyclopedia of the Qur’an. Edited by Jane Dammen. Leiden and Boston: Brill, vol. II, pp. 216–23. Zarfati, Gad ben Ami. 1968. Mathematical Terminology in Hebrew Medieval Scientific Literature. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew University.

© 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).