Temples Et Monastères De Mongolie-Intérieure

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Temples Et Monastères De Mongolie-Intérieure Temples et monastères de Mongolie-Intérieure Isabelle Charleux VERSION AUTEUR Ouvrage publié par le Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques & Institut National d’Histoire de l’Art, 2006, Paris, et accompagné d’un CD rom. Résumé : Au début du XXe siècle, plus de mille monastères bouddhiques de rite tibétain s’élevaient en Mongolie méridionale – actuelle Mongolie-Intérieure, l’une des cinq « régions autonomes » de Chine. Un siècle plus tard on en compte moins de deux cents. Si l’on ne peut que déplorer les destructions massives, les monastères épargnés constituent une partie appréciable d’un vaste ensemble architectural élaboré depuis la fin du XVIe siècle. Ce patrimoine architectural, d’une immense richesse, mérite d’être étudié aussi bien en tant qu’héritage culturel d’un peuple de pasteurs nomades qu’en raison de son poids dans l’histoire de l’architecture bouddhique d’Extrême-Orient. Placée entre deux puissants voisins, le Tibet et la Chine, la Mongolie est riche d’une histoire forgée sur le mythe d’ancêtres prestigieux, nourrie par une pratique sensible des religions et du bouddhisme en particulier, une histoire qui s’appuie sur des structures sociales écartelées entre nomadisme et sédentarisation. Ce passé se lit à travers les vestiges des monastères, dont l’éclectisme témoigne du brassage des influences et de la subtile adaptation de modèles pan-asiatiques aux besoins de communautés locales. Temples et monastères de Mongolie-Intérieure étudie, dans le cadre historique complexe de la Mongolie méridionale, les caractéristiques principales du patrimoine bouddhique mongol, tant du point de vue de ses enjeux spirituels, économiques ou stratégiques, que de celui des conceptions architecturales et des techniques de construction elles-mêmes. Il dresse une typologie de référence et présente les principaux monastères de Mongolie-Intérieure dans un CD-rom illustré : les156 monastères sont localisés sur une carte et accompagnés d’une notice décrivant leur histoire, leur plan au sol, l’architecture de leur temple principal, les sources épigraphiques éventuelles ainsi que les références bibliographiques utiles. 1 Table des matières Remerciements 7 Légende des plans 10 Introduction 12 Géographie et population 13 La naissance d’un patrimoine 15 Lamaïsme, religion des lamas, religion de bouddha 16 Le patrimoine bâti : construction et destruction 18 La découverte de l’art mongol 19 Les sources 22 Les études modernes 24 Inventaire et définition d’un corpus 26 État de conservation des monastères 27 Présentation de l’ouvrage 29 Chapitre I : La renaissance du bouddhisme en Mongolie 31 Le bouddhisme en Mongolie du XIIIe au XVe siècle 31 Le contexte politique et social de la renaissance mongole du XVIe siècle 36 Le quartier général d’Altan qan 40 L’immigration chinoise en Mongolie 42 Baising : maisons des immigrés chinois et premières villes 43 Yeke Baising : le palais de 1565-1567 45 La paix sino-mongole et la fondation de Kökeqota 47 Renaissance du bouddhisme en Mongolie et fondation des premiers monastères 49 La conversion d’Altan qan 49 Premières fondations de monastères en 1572-1576 52 La rencontre entre Altan qan et le Dalaï lama 57 La fondation du Yeke juu. Kökeqota au XVIe siècle 60 La postérité d’Altan qan 65 La vie religieuse à Kökeqota à l’époque de la Troisième dame 67 Le Maidari-yin juu et Olan süme 71 Ermites dans les monts QaraJuna 77 Kökeqota à la fin des Ming 78 Les Ordos 80 Les Qaracin et les Tümed orientaux 84 Les Qalqa de Mongolie septentrionale 86 2 Les écoles non réformées chez les Caqar 87 Les ordres « rouges » en Mongolie 90 L’activité missionnaire en Mongolie-Intérieure orientale 92 Chapitre II : Politique mandchoue et bouddhisme mongol 95 La diffusion du bouddhisme tibétain en terre mandchoue 96 L’empereur mandchou Grand qan en 1636 100 La politique des Qing en Mongolie méridionale 102 Le bouddhisme, un enjeu politique international 105 Les relations personnelles entre les empereurs et les grands lamas 109 Fondations de monastères impériaux sous la dynastie Qing 115 Le développement autonome de l’Église mongole en Mongolie-Intérieure 121 Les bannières Tümed de Kökeqota 121 Les fondations monastiques dans l’ouest de la Mongolie méridionale 123 Les fondations monastiques dans l’est de la Mongolie méridionale 125 Chapitre III : Fonder un monastere 129 Terminologie 129 Les fondateurs et leurs motivations 132 Les monastères impériaux 134 Les monastères fondés par ou pour de grands lamas 136 Les monastères locaux 136 Filiales et monastères dépendants 139 L’organisation des monastères 141 Le cursus monastique 141 L’organigramme des monastères 142 Les lamas réincarnés 144 Le statut des moines 147 La fonction des monastères 148 Les monastères académiques 148 Les monastères « ritualistes » 150 Les rituels et l’activité religieuse 151 Les communautés érémitiques 157 La fonction funéraire 158 L’économie des monastères 159 Nombre et importance des monastères 162 Les grandes phases de construction 168 Chapitre IV : Construire un monastere 171 Commanditaires, maîtres d’œuvre et artisans 171 3 Techniques et matériaux de construction 174 Les matériaux de construction 174 Les techniques de construction et la structure architectonique 183 Règles, prescriptions et modèles 186 Les prescriptions du Vinaya 186 Les règles de construction chinoise 187 Les modèles architecturaux 189 La diffusion des formes et des techniques architecturales 193 La transmission des modèles 193 Le rôle des lamas tibétains 194 Les Mongols au Tibet et en Chine 196 Le choix du site 198 L’attrait de la montagne 200 Les sites rupestres 203 La géomancie 203 L’orientation 206 La récupération de sites anciens 207 Le déroulement et le coût de la construction 212 La collecte des fonds 212 Le coût des constructions et des réparations 212 L’appropriation du terrain 214 Les plans 214 Déroulement de la construction 215 Chapitre V : Structure et description du monastère 218 Description d’ensemble du monastère mongol 218 Le Joul coJcin 219 Les autres lieux d’études et de dévotions 222 La circumambulation 223 L’intendance et les résidences monastiques 224 La hiérarchie des édifices 225 Les différents types de plan 227 Le monastère de plan tibétain 227 Les monastères de plan chinois 230 Le plan mixte 243 Un cas particulier : le monastère fortifié 243 Les éléments du langage architectural 247 Les fondations et les sols 247 4 Les murs 247 Les ouvertures 255 Les éléments porteurs 262 La couverture 272 L’organisation et la décoration intérieures 275 Les décors muraux et la statuaire 279 Un langage décoratif original 281 Chapitre VI : Le temple et le stûpa 284 Les stûpas 285 Le plan du temple (coJcin) 290 La salle d’assemblée et le sanctuaire 292 La forme du plan au sol 300 La circumambulation extérieure 302 Circumambulation intérieure : sanctuaires de la catégorie 1 304 La disposition des piliers 305 L’élévation du temple 308 Le porche 308 Les lanterneaux et les étages 309 Les édifices à faux étages 311 Mode de couverture et volumétrie 312 Le rapport plan élévation 313 Essai de typologie des temples 316 A. Les coJcin 316 B. Les sanctuaires 321 L’évolution historique des types de temples 322 1566-1575 : les premiers sanctuaires 323 1575-1636 : le développement des temples de type I 323 XVII-XVIIIe siècles : l’influence tibétaine et le développement des temples de type II 324 Les édifices « de style chinois » : types IV et V 326 Les salles d’assemblée de plan centré (type III) 327 Les styles sino-tibétains intégrés au patrimoine mongol 330 Conclusion 334 L’architecture religieuse face à l’histoire 335 Patrimoine bouddhique et architecture moderne 337 L’avenir des monastères de Mongolie-Intérieure : entre musées et temples chinois 339 Tableau des principaux monastères de Mongolie méridionale à la fin des Qing 346 Principales dynasties et lignées de réincarnation 353 5 Glossaire 360 Personnages historiques 372 Catégories de divinités et de bouddhas 372 Divinités 374 Bibliographie 379 I. Sources antérieures à 1911 379 2. Ouvrages postérieurs à 1911 386 Table des illustrations 426 6 Remerciements Je suis reconnaissante à Gilles Béguin, alors conservateur des Arts himalayens au musée Guimet et commissaire de l’exposition « Trésors de Mongolie », d’avoir orienté mes recherches vers les monastères de Mongolie-Intérieure en 1993. Ma thèse de doctorat, intitulée Histoire et architecture des temples et monastères lamaïques de Mongolie méridionale, qui fut soutenue le 11 décembre 1998 à l’université de Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV, Histoire de l’Art & Archéologie, mention Très Honorable avec les félicitations du jury à l’unanimité), fut partiellement financée par une bourse internationale de fin de thèse de la fondation Chiang Ching-kuo et une allocation « Aires culturelles » du ministère de la Recherche. En 1999, elle fut récompensée par le prix de thèse Nicole (Société d’histoire de l’art français). Le présent ouvrage en est une version corrigée, mise à jour et simplifiée. Les matériaux sont présentés sous forme d’un catalogue illustré de monastères, dans un CD-rom joint. Depuis 1998, deux autres séjours en Mongolie et en Mongolie-Intérieure (1999 et 2002, ce dernier financé par mon laboratoire de recherche, le Groupe de Sociologie des religions et de la laïcité) m’ont permis d’actualiser la documentation, de prendre la mesure du renouveau bouddhique et d’estimer l’évolution de ces architectures. Je remercie en particulier Flora Blanchon, mon directeur de thèse, pour la confiance qu’elle m’a accordée et pour sa grande disponibilité, ainsi que les membres du jury de soutenance, Anne Chayet pour ses précieux conseils et ses critiques utiles, Gilles Béguin, Fernand Meyer et Françoise Hamon pour leurs judicieuses remarques, et enfin, Françoise Aubin, qui m’a chaleureusement accueillie et fut si prodigue en nourritures spirituelles et gastronomiques. Il m’est impossible de remercier ici toutes les personnes qui m’ont aidée en Mongolie-Intérieure et à Pékin, sans lesquelles ce travail n’aurait pu voir le jour.
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