ISSN 1941- 4943 Volume 6 - No.3 Fall 2013 fungimag.com $9.00

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11th International Fungal 8th International Congress on Biology Conference the Systematics and Ecology of 2 Editor’s Letter Karlsruhe, Germany Myxomycetes (ICSEM8) September 29 - October 3, 2013 Changchun, Jilin Province, China 3 Letters to the Editor The meeting will be combined with August 11 - 15, 2014 the biannual German Molecular For details visit www.jlau.edu.cn. 6 Filamentous Foes and Mycology meeting. For details visit Mycological Maladies, www.iab.kit.edu/conference/. Alan R. Biggs Annual Fall Foray at Mingo Maitake, Paul Stamets Wildlife Refuge 12 Lake Wappapello, Missouri The Periodic Cicada, October 3 – 6, 2013 15 Hosted by Missouri Mycological Tovi Lehmann Society (MOMS). For details visit www.MoMyco.org. 18 Aquatic Myxomycetes, Mitsunori Tamayama 28th Annual Breitenbush and Harold W. Keller Mushroom Gathering Detroit, Oregon Ascocoryne turficola October 17 - 20, 2013 26 For information, contact Teddy (Boud.) Korf Records Bazladynski at [email protected] from West Siberia, or visit www.mushroominc.org. Nina Filippova, Elena North American Mycological Bulyonkova Association (NAMA) Annual Foray Shepherd of the Ozarks, Arkansas 31 Industrial Mycology October 24 - 27, 2013 101, Britt A. Bunyard Mushroom collecting in the heart of the Ozark National Forest, Arkansas. Editor’s Picks, Hosted by the Arkansas Mycological 34 Society. For details visit Britt A. Bunyard www.namyco.org. The Woodwide Web, On The Cover: Teliospores of the 42 10th International Mycological cedar apple rust Gymnosporangium Susan Goldhor Congress (IMC10) juniperi-virginianae. This fungus is Bangkok, Thailand commonly seen around the home but 45 Foray in Thailand, August 3 - 8, 2014 most people have no idea what it is. Roy Watling For details visit Learn about its interesting life story www.imc10.kasetsart.org. in “Fungal Foes” by Alan Biggs. 47 Hebeloma, Pioneer Genus in Forensic Mycology, Danny Haelewaters 49 An Icelandic Fungal Seasoning, Lawrence Millman 50 Bookshelf Fungi 53 Unusual Sightings

FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 1 headache except that regulations, once foray entrenched, may be more difficult to Editor's Letter Letters to the Editor remove from the system than drugs. The the earth itself is fruiting and the dark longing you keep analogy of regulations to antibiotics is Rust never sleeps. (My heartfelt Errata: step historical process with respect to particularly striking because overuse apologies to Neil Young.) While a plant pathology wild mushrooms—and forest knowledge breeds resistance to regulations when locked until august fingers through you like fibrous n the article by Patrick Harvey doctoral student in the mid 1990s, I was lucky in general—in which mushroom they are truly needed. on Noah Glatfelter (FUNGI enough to travel to Mexico and even visited a coffee gathering is first forsaken (as people For many, foraging for mushrooms webbing. notice how your relationship with truth strains summer 2013, vol. 6 no. 2) an older finca. “Search all you want,” I was told and was move to the cities or mushroom habitats is about freedom. Freedom from photograph of Lepiota glatfelteri was assured that I would not find coffee rust fungus against the deeper pull of subterranean logic. see how I are destroyed), then forgotten (as their oppression, from surveillance, from the included with the updated caption. The there. It took all of about five minutes to spot what children grow up with little or no omnipresence of civilization, from the photograph published in the article appeared to be the infamous fungus (though my opportunity to gather mushrooms), 21st century, from stress, from relentless should have been credited to Darvin host was adamant that it must be something else). even your posture changes; the sky becomes superfluous. and finally forbidden (as preservationist demands, from a lack of enchantment, DeShazer. The photograph shown That the fungus is now widespread in the Americas models of forest management severely and in some cases from personal here is the one that should have gone was inevitable. What that means for the future of in the periphery, evidence of the usual chronology: restrict or prohibit people from loss and misfortune. To paraphrase a with the caption (and was taken at the THE most essential part of my diet, I cannot foresee. maintaining or rediscovering foraging different Benjamin [Franklin], “Those NEMF foray in Stroudsburg, PA in The current status of coffee rust in the Americas is filling the car with gas, making toast, making love with traditions). The third step in particular who would sacrifice freedom for the 2012, by Jim Barg). security of their favorite matsutake patch discussed in the “Editor’s Picks” for this issue. passion or with none. this penumbra fades into stands need not be inevitable... ” No doubt our nontraditional cover gave you I also want to make it clear that his deserve neither.” pause at first glance. (A beautiful shot of rust article in no way represents my views. Denis Benjamin urges mushroom teliospores, by the way, courtesy of Alan Biggs.) Our of spruce and aspen, the liminal space between greens In fact, I found his piece surprisingly hunters to accept more regulations economically-important plants may succumb to rust histrionic. He speaks of a “sea-change” or face extinction. I am not sure what of the fungal sort (see Alan’s article in this edition is almost holy. you could crouch here forever, digging in the mushroom foraging scene as extinction he is talking about, certainly of “Fungal Foes”), but rest assured, we will never let exemplified by an incident involving the not the mushrooms’. But I have FUNGI grow rusty or stale. It’s why we decided to tenderly at the crown of a head. russet, damp with birth, temporary demise of a matsutake patch. another suggestion that doesn’t require break with tradition of having a mushroom on our But the PNW matsutake harvest has government intervention: find another cover. Indeed, this issue has many nontraditional the surface world’s time slowing to the speed been in decline for nearly two decades matsutake patch! mycological articles featuring rusts, aquatic because Japanese demand for it has David Arora mushrooms (you gotta see this!), and slime molds. of a heartbeat. softened. Furthermore, I just returned Denis Benjamin responds: We’re also beginning a brief series of papers on the from his neck of the woods (near Cle was expecting more vitriol from less familiar aspects of industrial mycology. Not Ellum, Washington), having spent an the pot-hunting community to my to worry—inside you’ll find there’s plenty of what immensely pleasurable week there Jennifer Hancock, MFA, PhD concerns about the burgeoning you’ve come to expect in every issue of FUNGI, too! Assistant Professor of English gathering morels and spring kings. No dramatic “sea-change” was evident to me foragingI fad, but was pleased that Colorado Mesa University Also in the article on Noah Glatfelter, compared to 10 or 20 years ago; there David Arora, a great writer who thinks the Acknowledgements should have were plenty of wild mushrooms to be carefully about these issues was willing included a note recognizing that some had for anyone willing to look. to take it on. It is a debate worth having. of the materials made available for Easterners may not realize it but He is quite correct in suggesting that I the report were courtesy of the Lloyd there are already numerous mushroom don’t have the right prescription, nor Library and Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio. Contributing EditorS Harold Keller regulations and permit policies on the did I claim to and explicitly stated so. The Botanical Research Institute of Texas Perhaps we live in different worlds. It is Fungi Denis Benjamin e received a great deal of letters books for western public lands, some of Michael Beug estimated that local clubs in our region Lawrence M. Leonard, M.D. in response to “Mainstream them quite obnoxious such as requiring P.O. Box 8, 1925 Hwy. 175 Alan R. Biggs Maine Medical Center, have added up to 5,000 -10,000 new Foraging: The Coming Wars” that you slice your morels and other Richfield, Wisconsin 53076-0008 USA Albert J. Casciero Portland, Maine foragers in the past decade. This does and “Paranoid Lunatics with Guns” in mushrooms in half lengthwise the E-mail: [email protected] Art Goodtimes W not include the many thousands of new Nicholas Money instant you pick them. Benjamin says we Machel Spence the spring issue of FUNGI. I hope we can immigrants, and all the local families Web site: www.fungimag.com Miami University, Oxford, Ohio need new regulations but fails to show Edward Matisoff keep this discussion going. –Ed. who have foraged for generations. (262) 227-1243 Michael Nicholson how any of the regulations he proposes Rebecca Miller Perhaps Arora has not seen thirty to Lawrence Millman Oxnard College, California A Sea-change? would solve or prevent the incidents he describes. fifty individuals line up and vacuum Tobiah Moshier David Pilz I am writing in response to Denis an entire hillside. This is not the bucolic Publisher & Editor-in-chief Robert Dale Rogers PilzWald-Forestry Applications of Mycology, I find it useful to think of legislation Benjamin’s article “Mainstream Foraging: communing with nature that Arora Britt A. Bunyard David Rose Susanville, California as a form of medical treatment where The Coming Wars” (FUNGI vol. 6 no. Mark Spear we prescribe regulations instead of romanticizes. It is resource extraction. It Scott Redhead 1, spring 2013). Since I was prominently Production Editor Steve Trudell medications. We should insist that is not the freedom to enjoy, but freedom Agriculture Canada, Ottawa quoted, I wish to provide context for Jan Hammond James Tunney the prescription effectively treat the to destroy. More Benjamin histrionics. Paul Stamets, Fungi Perfecti the quote which he used, as it originally Else Vellinga affliction, and we should remember the We have repeatedly proven that we are appeared in “Mushrooms and Economic MARKETING ASSOCIATE Michael Wood Andrus Voitk doctor’s prime directive not to cause the not very good at managing our resources. Foray Newfoundland & Labrador Botany” [Economic Botany 62(3): 207- Virginia Till patient harm or cause new problems. Avarice and insatiability seem to be in Editorial Review Corner Brook, Newfoundland 212, 2008]: But Benjamin proposes sweeping our genes. Many claim that mushrooms “… [the articles in this volume] suggest CONTRIBUTING ILLUSTRATOR Cathy Cripps Else Vellinga “solutions” willy-nilly, akin to prescribing are different. But are they really? As the University of California, Berkeley that we may be in the midst of a three- Aaron “Inkling” Cruz Garcia Montana State University antibiotics, steroids and laxatives for a number of trees shrinks and the forest 2 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 3 contracts, there must come a time when great uncle, Max Beerbohm, for his story because Amanitas do not grow in Maitake: not ready for prime time? response is 30-35%.) No statistics are be bad for those who walk around with the resource is no longer sustainable. “Faust”, (FUNGI vol. 6, no. 1; spring 2013) habitats like that and I had never seen he term medicinal herb provided as (probably) the sample size low blood sugar or brittle diabetes. Foraging works for small clans, but large without acknowledging the source. While anything like it. We walked out of the or mushroom implies that is so small. However, it sounds good Rather than improving that weak and urban populations?? I am well aware that plots do not fall science building and these beautiful it is useful for the human and I am looking forward to a follow- tired feeling-they may well feel worse. Historical records suggest significant under copyright (indeed, if they were to white Amanita mushrooms were Tcondition—to prevent, alleviate or up study with a much larger number of Maitake has also been reported to reductions in the harvest of certain do so, entire genres of literature would growing in fairy rings next to the parking cure an illness. I think of medicinal patients. The risks are seldom, if ever, interact with warfarin so if you are edible wild mushrooms. Many factors cease publication), and can be borrowed lot. We drove around Warrensburg and herbs or mushrooms as something discussed or mentioned. Preuss et al. on warfarin, and possibly other blood account for this: habitat destruction and (dare I say stolen?) with impunity, the it was in many yards around town. It was good for you, to prevent, alleviate or (2007) reference is in rats and Hong et thinners, you better keep a really loss, pollution, climatic changes and concept of an unsuccessful writer making an impressive mushroom: with its mealy, cure disease etc. But I found little in al. (2007) is in mice. The huZ (2006) close watch on your INR (clotting others. Truffles epitomize this change. a pact with the devil to return in the friable, covering that clinged to your Rogers’ maitake article (FUNGI vol. 5, reference is again about reduction of parameter) so you don’t hemorrhage. Japan lost much of its matsutake and the future in order to view his posthumous fingers and hands, beautiful annulus no. 5; Fall 2012) pertinent to human blood sugar in diabetics. Deng et al. Natural Standard also notes maitake Ophicordyceps sinensis harvest in the success, only to find his existence imputed and small bulbous base not rooted in health. The references cited generally (2009) conducted a Phase I/II study is “possibly unsafe... when used in Tibetan highlands is shrinking. only to the imagination of his author the grass. It also had a strong chlorine were not appropriate to support the on 34 post breast cancer treatment patients with immune disorders or As a self-confessed libertarian I am friend, is very much the creation of my odor or smell that to me was nauseating. idea that mushrooms are “medicinal” patients. Such a study is to determine those using immunomodulating agents just as opposed to mindless/useless/ beloved great-uncle and may be enjoyed I could not believe it and I had not seen for people. Viz.: the Namba et al. safety of the drug/agent. They note … ” CAM-Cancer (Concerted Action thoughtless regulations and government in the volume of his satires entitled, it before anywhere around campus. I (2002) article reports 19 HIV patients in the “Background” of their study for Complementary and Alternative interference as Arora. I hope that this “Seven Men and Two Others.” Indeed, I would have noticed in prior years but treated with β-glucan from maitake “Whether oral administration in human Medicine Assessment in the Cancer debate spurs some creative ideas and might point out to readers of FUNGI that there, all of sudden, it was everywhere. I with “viral load increased in 9 patients produces measurable immunologic Field, www.cam-cancer.org) also notes novel solutions. The issue should not be the last volume of poems by the pathetic believe Chris got pictures but I do not and decreased in 10 patients. However effects is unknown.” Their conclusions: Deng’s warning (2009) that “cancer ignored. The easiest default is not to care. Soames is entitled “Fungoids.” know if he still has them. In any event 85% of respondents reported an “… [There are] both immunologically patients should be made aware of the PS. I would be happy to hunt for While I do not begrudge Mr. Millman it is one of those mysterious finds that increase in sense of well being….” Is stimulatory and inhibitory measurable fact that botanical agents produce another matsutake patch with David. his borrowing (for is not imitation the justifies an article like yours. this significant? Does it imply healthy effects in peripheral blood.Cancer more complex effects than assumed, sincerest form of flattery?), I do wish to Harold Keller humans should eat maitake? Is there patients should be made aware of the and may depress as well as enhance [Coda: A wonderful colleague of ours amend his inexplicable omission of the Arlington, Texas fact that botanical agents produce immune function.” If you are taking disappeared while mushroom hunting a possible downside? The Natural source of his inspiration; Standard Research Collaboration, more complex effects than assumed, maitake or other fungal products or this spring. A thorough search failed to an omission which is all and may depress as well as enhance herbs you should talk to your doctor find any trace and it remains a mystery. (www.naturalstandard.com) rates the sadder because so few maitake scientific evidence to fight immune function.” (My emphasis about them; unfortunately many Nearby was a rapidly abandoned in the current generation here.) Kodama et al. (2002) reported doctors are not up to date on this camp and thirty large baskets of morels cancer as “unclear” and “with no know and appreciate reliable human studies to show it on mice and 36 human cancer patients subject but both Natural Standard and stashed in the woods. Our fear is that the incomparable wit in a multicenter non-randomized trial Natural Medicines (Natural Medicines she ran into an illegal commercial may alter the immune system.” The and style of that great Talpur et al. (2007) study was in and with no control patients. They were database, www.Naturaldatabase. mushroom picking operation. Other Edwardian satirist Max given both the MD-fraction and maitake therapeuticresearch.com) databases are mushroom hunters in the area have had rats. Basic science like this is good Beerbohm. and necessary but we are not rats tablets after chemotherapy. They noted available in many large hospital libraries. ugly confrontations with pickers. It is I am Sir, your most “immune-potential effects of maitake in Rogers concludes “More clinical trials this possible conflict that prompted my (most of us anyway) so does this amicable correspondent, support the idea of “medicinal” for cancer patients in this study.” Kodama et may be expected over the next decade. original concerns. That is why I titled it (Miss) Marietta al. (2003) “Serum soluble interleukin-2 Already, this medicinal mushroom is The Coming Foraging Wars.] humans? Although mice and rats are Beerbohm Tree excellent experimental models (for receptor levels in three patients and an indispensable part of our fungal rats and mice) they do not always the expression of tumor markers pharmacy.” I’m sure he is right that J’accuse! On the mysterious react the way humans do. The next in four patients were determined ... more clinical trials may be expected slight changes observed. Thus maitake and hopefully some will show some real ue, I can only suppose, to my Amanita thiersii study, at the Ayurvedic Medicine well known dual interests in Center was “uncontrolled and non- D-fraction appears (my emphasis) to value. However, there is no evidence want to make a fungi and Edwardian literature, randomized” with 11 volunteers. I did repress cancer progression… ” Again, now from clinical trials that maitake comment about the Dand my affiliation with Balliol College, not obtain the study because clearly this is an interesting preliminary extracts have direct anticancer or other article on Amanita Oxford, the attached letter was mailed it cannot be considered anything but study but there are no controls and efficacious medicinal effects. There is thiersii in the summer to me from England, in the hope that I somewhat interesting because of the the numbers are so small (low) that no significant scientific evidence that issue of FUNGI (vol. 6, I would send it on to you. I have now study size, bias, and uncontrolled, statistical significance is doubtful. maitake is useful for humans to ward no.2). Apart from an fulfilled the writer’s wish and I believe non-randomized, trials with only 11 There are many problems in Rogers’ off cancer. I do not believe that Roger’s excellent narrative and you owe it to your readers to publish it. participants who were volunteers. selective references. We have to be very article showed, nor (does) the literature interesting story about the migration of A postcard from New Mexico Sincerely yours, Volunteers as study subjects are aware of the placebo effect (response) show “that this medicinal mushroom this species, I can relate to much of what Mycological Society members in Susan Goldhor suspects for conscious or unconscious and various types of bias. We must be is an indispensable part of our fungal you said about its habit. I remember Southeast Asia bias. It is a shame that the study aware that many, if not most, biomedical pharmacy.” The above references show Chris Crabtree came in my faculty i Britt, Mopsy and I came size was not larger, well controlled, studies reported are poor to misleading. that it is being investigated, and is To the Editor of Fungi office and laboratory in, I think, June of across this lovely stinkhorn on randomized and double-blinded. There are risks. Natural Standard (an used experimentally in cancer patients about 2007 and told me about a white Magazine: Langkawi Island in Malaysia Konno et al. (2002) reports a human international research collaboration in conjunction with standard cancer Amanita growing in grassy areas around was shocked – shocked to have Hand thought of you—please don’t take prostate cell (in vitro) experiment reviewing scientific evidence on therapies. In my fungal pharmacy I have the University of Central Missouri brought to my attention that, in this the wrong way! Phallus indusiatus and 5 diabetic patients who seemed complementary and alternative cephalexin but not maitake. campus (actually in a grassy area next to the last issue of your estimable apparently is used in Chinese cooking. to do better with maitake extract medicine) notes that maitake animal Lawrence Leonard, M.D. the parking lot of the science building) magazine,I Mr. Lawrence Millman had Sounds delicious! (one free of diabetic medication and studies reported lowered blood sugars Falmouth, Maine and in the lawns around Warrensburg, borrowed the plot of “Enoch Soames” Bruce and Mopsy Trigg others with a 30% decline in blood and is “possibly unsafe”; if maitake For more on maitake mushrooms and Missouri. I told him he must be mistaken from the writings of my dear departed New Mexico sugars. Note that the usual placebo functions the same for humans it might health, see elsewhere in this issue. –Ed. 4 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 5 but produce gelatinous, orange spore horns during spring rains. The fungus overwinters on galls on the cedar tree. Wetting of galls in the spring initiates expansion of the spore horns, which bear the teliospores in situ; the latter which then produce basidiospores that Filamentous and are forcibly discharged and carried by wind and rain to the apple tree where they can infect leaves and fruit during extended wetting periods. Basidiospores may be produced within four hours at 52 to 77° F, and an additional four to six hours of wetting often leads to severe Mycological infection in areas where eastern red cedar is abundant. Basidiospores do Figure 7. Quince rust infection of apple not form at temperatures below 46° F Figure 4. Cedar apple rust gall on cedar showing aecial tubes with lacerated and the length of wetting required for Gymnosporangium Rusts time the connection between the two with telial horns extruded following a margins. infection is extended considerably at was not known and each was described wetting event. as a separate species). Thaxter, in 1889, temperatures below 50° F. Lesions begin Alan R. Biggs to appear on leaves 10 to 14 days after West Virginia University was the first to prove that the fungus on cedar was the same fungus on apple. infection. The lesions contain spore- “Authors, like coins, grow dear as The fungus causing quince rust, G. bearing structures termed pycnia that they grow old: It is the rust we value, clavipes Cooke & Peck, is perhaps the produce pycniospores, which function not the gold.” -Alexander Pope most injurious from the pathological as spermatia. Following the mating point of view. It was first described in of compatible spermatia the fungus here are over 40 species of 1832, again by Schweinitz, who named then prepares to form its next spore Gymnosporangium rusts in it Caeoma germinale. Our third fungus, stage, the aeciospores. In late summer, Figure 1. Cedar apple rust lesion on North America, with at least first described by Farlow in 1880, is the aeciospores produced on the lower apple leaf showing glistening pycnia T10 of them attacking pome fruits in cause of American hawthorn rust, G. surface of infected apple leaves re-infect that form pycniospores, which function the U.S. In this article we’re going to globosum Farl. The fungus rarely infects foliage of nearby cedar trees (Fig. 5). as spermatia. talk about the three most common fruits and is a minor disease compared These infections develop into galls that Figure 8. Shoot and thorn of Crataegus and easily seen Gymnosporangium to the other two (although certain apple produce teliospores and basidiospores infected with the quince rust fungus rusts that occur east of the Rocky cultivars, McIntosh and Cortland, for in the spring following the next full (photo courtesy of S. M. Douglas, The Mountains. These rust fungi are example, that are resistant to the cedar Figure 5. Cedar apple rust lesion on growing season (about 18 months later). Connecticut Agricultural Experiment heteroecious (requiring two different apple rust fungus can sustain damaging the underside of an apple leaf showing A cedar apple rust gall produces spores Station). host plants to complete their life cycle) levels of leaf infection by G. globosum). aecia with revolute peridia (courtesy of only for one season, whereas the galls and demicyclic (missing one of the five Signs and symptoms of rust N. Gregory, University of Delaware). of the other two rusts may continue to spore stages that are characteristic of infections on apple vary depending produce spores for quite a few years. rusts in this family; see side bar). The on the plant organ infected. For G. All of the lesions seen on the apple tree Gymnosporangium species discussed juniperi-virginianae on leaves, the most result from basidiospores produced here alternate between members of the conspicuous symptoms on apple are on the cedar; there is no secondary plant family Cupressaceae (primarily bright orange, glistening lesions on the Figure 2. Cedar apple rust lesion on infection within or among the apple Juniperus virginiana, but see Table 1) leaves (Fig. 1). Cedar apple rust appears young apple fruit showing yellow trees because there is no uredinia and wild and cultivated members in the on fruit first as bright orange, slightly coloration and embedded pycnia. spore stage in the life cycle of the plant family Rosaceae (Malus domestica raised lesions (Fig. 2), but may take on a Gymnosporangium rusts. [cultivated apple], M. sylvestris [crab more brownish and cracked appearance For G. clavipes, typically, an infection apple] and other Malus species; as as the fruit enlarges (Fig 3). Usually some on apple fruit shows up first as a slightly - Virginia Biological Farming well as hawthorn, quince, serviceberry, raised purplish area on the calyx end Annual Conference of the orange color remains at harvest as - Georgia Organics mountain ash, cotoneaster, and of the fruit (Fig. 6). On mature fruit, - South Carolina Organic evidence of the early season infection. Growers Conference chokeberry). They are considered to be the lesion is sunken and dark green or - Telluride Mushroom Sporulation of fruit lesions is less Festival, etc... New World organisms, native to North common than on leaf lesions. Pedicel purple. Usually, the entire calyx end America and not found elsewhere. infection causes a slight swelling of the of the fruit is involved and the flesh is The most economically important of fruit stem and may result in abscission deformed to the core. The fungus may the three fungi is G. juniperi-virginianae Come see our of the young fruit. On the cedar tree, produce powdery, fluorescent orange Mushroom Trail Interested in growing for the Schwein., the cause of cedar apple rust. spores in tube-like structures (aecia) on local market or starting a the cedar apple rust fungus produces Figure 6. Quince rust lesion on the commercial enterprise? The fungus was first described from Supplement your income, or brown, globular galls ranging in size the calyx end of apple fruit (Fig. 7) or, start a new business by growing calyx end of an apple fruit. Note the on a small or large scale. cedar by Schweinitz in 1822 who named on Crataegus (hawthorn), other plant Many strains native to the from 1/4 inch to nearly two inches in Figure 3. Cedar apple rust lesion on puckering and discoloration – often Contact us to start growing. it Caeoma pyratum, and on wild crab organs (Fig. 8). Similar structures are South East US diameter (Fig. 4). These are dimpled Gala apple near harvest showing the this is the only manifestation of the apples a few years later (although at that produced on hawthorn leaves, thorns, like a golf ball in the dormant season, cracking often seen with older lesions. infection. 6 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 7 The rust fungi usually require two hosts to complete their lifecycle, but not always. They are always obligate parasites. Types of Hosts: primary host – the host on which basidia and basidiospores are produced; alternate host – the other host in the life cycle on which pycnia (spermagonia) and aecia are produced; and alternative host – the host that a pathogen Figure 11. Perennial quince rust cankers can infect in place of the primary or Figure 10. Small telial horns protruding on cedar branches. alternate hosts. from a small hawthorn rust gall on a Figure 9. Aecia protruding from the infection occurs only during extended Types of Rusts: Heteroecious – cedar stem (photo courtesy of S. M. organisms with a primary and lower leaf surface of a hawthorn Douglas, The Connecticut Agricultural wetting periods when the blossom is rust lesion (photo courtesy of S. M. Experiment Station). most susceptible, primarily from the alternate host; Autoecious – Douglas, The Connecticut Agricultural pink to the petal fall stage. Within a organisms that have only a single Experiment Station). five years old (Fig. 11). Basidiospores few weeks after infection, fruit lesions (primary) host. produced on these cankers serve as become apparent. In late summer, aecia and fruit (Figs. 9 – 10). These spores inoculum for apple and hawthorn. may form on infected apple fruit. These Types of Life Cycles: Macrocyclic infect young stems of the red cedar, Conditions for their release are similar produce spores which re-infect young rust – long cycle rust that produces resulting in cankers on branches two to to those for cedar apple rust. Fruit Continued on page 10. all 5 spore types; Demicyclic rust – medium cycle rust that omits the uredia spore stage; Microcyclic rust FUNGI (ISSN 1941-4943) is published five times – short cycle rusts that produces per year (four seasonal issues plus a special issue) Figure 12. Japanese apple rust on the underside of an apple leaf showing aecia basidiospores, teliospores and by FUNGI, P.O. Box 8, 1925 Hwy. 175, Richfield, with non-revolute peridia (courtesy of N. Gregory, University of Deleware). Wisconsin 53076-0008, USA. Subscriptions are Contrast this with the revolute peridia of cedar apple rust shown in Fig. 5. spermatia (pycniospores). $40 per year for USA residents; $42 for residents of Canada and Mexico; $60 for all others. Checks should Table 1. Differential characters of the Gymnosporangium rusts on apple. be made out to FUNGI. For credit card orders please see our Web site: www.fungimag.com Rust Fungi And Telial Host - Aecial Host - On Cedar On Apple Leaves On Apple Fruit Microscopic Disease Name Cupressaceae Rosaecae PUBLISHER’S NOTES: Although many wild mushrooms are quite palatable, some are deadly Gymnosporangium Most commonly Most commonly Forms large round Colorful yellow Orange-colored, Peridial cells long, poisonous. It is advisable to avoid eating any wild juniperi-virginianae affected: affected: to kidney-shaped to reddish lesions usually raised; no narrow, strongly Eastern Red Cedar Apple & Crabapple on upper surface, necrosis; aecia often curved, separate in “I don’t want to miss a single issue!” organisms, including fungi, unless absolutely certain Cedar Apple Rust regular galls; pea (Juniperus virginiana) (Malus) to golf ball size; depending on present; pycnia water of identification. And although some mushroom Rocky Mountain pits visible where cultivar; aecia abundant, open, black FUNGI. species are edible for many people, those same Juniper (J. scopulorum) Rare: telial horns will numerous, scattered; Send me a full, one-year subscription to species may cause allergic reactions or illness in Hawthorn (Crataegus) form; telial horns aecia revolute, regular; others. When in doubt, throw it out. FUNGI wants to Occasionally: cylindric; sporulates premature defoliation I want to receive5 big, colorful issues! ensure that all readers are long-term subscribers. It is Chinese Juniper (J. once usually the may occur a good idea to have any wild mushroom checked by chinensis) year following gall (4 seasonal issues + annual special issue) Creeping Juniper (J. development; twig an expert before eating them. It should be understood horizontalis) dieback commonly o $40 USA o $42 Canada or Mexico o $60 for all other Intl. addresses that the Publisher and all Editors are not responsible Low Juniper (J. occurs Name______for any consequences of ingesting wild mushrooms. communis var. Furthermore, the Publisher and all Editors are not depressa) engaged, herein, in the rendering of any medical Address______Gymnosporangium Most commonly Most commonly Galls usually small Colorful yellow Rare on apple fruit Peridial cells advice or services. All readers should verify all globosum affected: affected: 1/8 to 9/16 inch to reddish lesions (very common on irregularly lanceolate, information and data before administering any drug, Hawthorn Rust Eastern Red Cedar (J. Hawthorn (Crataegus) diam.; can appear on upper surface, haws) adhere in plates in City______State ______Zip ______therapy, or treatment discussed herein. Neither the virginiana) Apple & Crabapple flattened where depending on cultivar; water, only slightly Rocky Mountain (Malus) lesions may be small curved Editors nor the Publisher accepts any responsibility attached to twig; juniper (J. scopulorum) spore horns clavate; on apple (large on Country______Email ______for the accuracy of the information or consequences Occasionally: perennial (3 to 5 hawthorn); aecia few, FUNGI from the use or misuse of the information contained Occasionally: Serviceberry years); twig dieback closely aggregate Place CREDIT CARD orders at the website, herein. Unauthorized reproduction of published Chinese Juniper (J. (Amelanchier) seldom observed in center of lesion; content of FUNGI is strictly forbidden, and chinensis) Quince (Cydonia) aecial tubes long; www.fungimag.com permission for reproduction must be obtained by Creeping Juniper (J. Pear (Pyrus) irregular dehiscence; or drop your check in the mail today! Make check out to “FUNGI” and send it to: horizontalis) leaf petioles may be application in writing to the Publisher. swollen; premature FUNGI P.O. Box 8 1925 Hwy. 175 Richfield, Wisconsin 53076-0008 USA FUNGI Low Juniper (J. COPYRIGHT ©2013 by . communis var. defoliation may occur If you give us your email address, we’ll send you subscription reminders, announcements, All rights reserved. depressa) and notices of information placed on the website. Your email address will NOT be traded or sold, Savin Juniper (J. and will not be shared with anyone not directly affiliated with FUNGI. Printed in the USA. sabina)

8 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 9 Continued from page 8. Rust Fungi And Telial Host - Aecial Host - On Cedar On Apple Leaves On Apple Fruit Microscopic Wars” where several apple-growing Juniper (J. squamata), although the Prevention: avoid planting susceptible Disease Name Cupressaceae Rosaecae states enacted legislation allowing complete host range in North America apple cultivars in areas with eastern red Gymnosporangium Eastern Red Cedar (J. Infects over 480 Galls spindle-shaped Not known on apple Dark green, sunken, Peridial cells in plates, state officials to destroy cedar trees on is still under investigation. IF YOU cedar; rusts are particularly difficult to clavipes virginiana) species of Rosaceae enlargements of foliage or crater-like; necrotic verrucose on outer private property. The impact of these OBSERVE THIS FUNGUS, please report control in the organic milieu, therefore Quince Rust Common Juniper (J. family including: twigs; some cracking areas deep in flesh of walls; aeciospores communis) Serviceberry and roughness of apple; aecia present larger than others legal battles is still used as precedent in it to the plant disease diagnostic clinic in rust-prone areas removal of alternate Creeping Juniper (J. (Amelanchier) bark; perennial (up by rarely; pycnia few modern jurisprudence (Fischel, 2007). at your state land grant university. Rusts hosts and cultivar selection are especially horizontalis) Chokeberry (Aronia) to 20 years); twig and underdeveloped Rocky Mountain Hawthorn (Crataegus) dieback can occur or absent The rust fungi are a fairly large group are so fascinating that it’s quite likely important; the timely application of Juniper (J. scopulorum) Apple & Crabapple within the Basidiomycota. Modern we’ll get to read about some of the others fungicides based on weather forecasts, Savin Juniper (J. (Malus) taxonomy (Hibbett, 2007) includes the in future articles. plant development, and pathogen sabina) Cotoneaster Pear (Pyrus) subphylum Pucciniomycotina, class Spores: Teliospores and aeciospores presence are the basis for commercial Mountain Ash (Sorbus) Pucciniomycetes, order Pucciniales are described in Table 2. apple production. For review, see (equivalent to the former Uredinales). Diagnostic macroscopic feature: The Aldwinckle, 1990. The rusts in the order Pucciniales are galls on cedar are distinctive among the characterized by their production of as species; G. juniperi-virginianae aecial tubes References Cited Gymnosporangium Chinese Juniper (J. Apple & Crabapple yamadae chinensis) (Malus) many as five spore stages – teliospores, (peridia) are revolute; G. clavipes fruit Aldwinckle, H.S. 1990. Compendium of Japanese Apple Rust Flaky Juniper (J. basidiospores, pycniospores (spermatia), infections cause flesh necrosis whereas G. Apple and Pear Diseases. Jones, A. L. squamata) uredospores, and aeciospores. juniperi-virginianae fruit infections are and H.S. Aldwinckle, eds. APS Press, Adapted from H. W. Anderson (1956). Diseases of Fruit Crops. McGraw-Hill. New York. 501 p. BONUS RUST: In 2009, a non- relatively superficial (Table 2). St. Paul pp. 10-14. native Gymnosporangium rust, Diagnostic microscopic feature: Anderson, H.W. 1956. Diseases of Fruit Table 2. Microscopic characters differentiating the Gymnosporangium rusts on apple (pycniospores and basidiospores are not Gymnosporangium yamadae, the cause Teliospore morphology is the historical Crops. McGraw-Hill. New York. 501 pp. variable among the species, so are not listed here). of Japanese apple rust, was detected on basis for morphological determination of Fischel, W.A. 2007. The law and apple and crab apple in Connecticut, species (Table 2). economics of cedar–Apple Rust: Host Name Aecia Aeciospores Aecial cells Telial horns Teliospores Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Nutritional mode: all are obligate state action and just compensation in G. juniperi-virginianae Cylindrical at first, 16 to 24 x 21 to 31 90 x 20 µm, gray, Emerge from small 15 to 21 x 42 to 65 Pennsylvania (Fig. 12). It’s likely that the parasite. Miller v. Schoene. Review of Law and then fimbriate and µm, light chestnut become curved when pits on the spherical µm, cinnamon brown finally revolute brown with finely wet galls, golden brown and rhombic-oval, fungus has been in North America for Substrate: Cupressaceae and Rosaceae. Economics 3: 133-195. verrucose markings and cylindrical- with two pores per many years and hasn’t been detected Habitat: North America in locations Hibbett, D.S., et al. 2007. A higher level and 8 to 10 pores acuminate and are 5 cell located near the because of the similarity of symptoms east of the Rocky Mountains (although phylogenetic classification of the Fungi. to 30 mm long septum, pedicel is caused by the hawthorn rust fungus. may occur in British Columbia, Canada), Mycological Research 111(5): 509-47. uniform in width Alternate hosts for G. yamadae are as far south as Mexico. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004. G. clavipes 2 x 0.4 to 0.5 mm, 28 to 36 µm diam., 65 x 30 µm, Orange-brown, short 18 to 26 x 35 to 51 Chinese Juniper (J. chinensis) and Flaky Fruiting season: spring, summer, fall PMID 17572334. white and tubular, globose to broadly rhomboid, with (1 to 3 mm) and µm, yellowish and contents orange at ellipsoidal large, coarse, or knobby ellipsoidal, pedicel is first then fading to labyrinthiform warts carrot-shaped, one white, become torn and 6 to 10 indistinct pore per cell that is at the apex and then pores, remaining apical in the upper lacerated on the sides straight when wet cell and basal in the lower cell (near the pedicel) G. globosum 1 to 4 x 0.2 to 0.5 mm, 15 to 23 µm diam., 63 x 20 µm, Emerge from elevated 16 to 21 x 37 to 48 cylindrical-fusoid globose to broadly rhomboid, finely wedge-shaped areas, µm, cinnamon brown with pointed apices ellipsoidal, often striate-rugose, brown and tongue- and ellipsoidal, two and lacerated sides, angular with 7 to 9 remaining straight shaped and 3 to 12 pores per cell near white or brown and pores when wet mm high the septum; pedicel is As I journey’d to-day in a light wagon ten or twelve miles through the country, nothing containing rusty- uniform in width brown contents; not pleas’d me more, in their homely beauty and novelty (I had either never seen the little revolute things to such advantage, or had never noticed them before) than that peculiar fruit, stems on the cedar tree and initiate cedar apple rust, which is influenced by European settlers. There are few reports cankers which eventually produce the infection conditions during the season of the disease prior to 1880, but during with its profuse clear-yellow dangles of inch-long silk or yarn, in boundless profusion spores that infect apple and hawthorn. two years earlier. Some apple cultivars the period 1887 – 1900 there were Although infected apple fruit may that are resistant to cedar apple rust are many experimental reports published spotting the dark-green cedar bushes – contrasting well with their bronze tufts – the or may not produce aecia, they are susceptible to quince rust (e.g., McIntosh in the literature as large acreages of commonly produced on leaves and fruit and Delicious), and some cultivars that commercial orchards were established flossy shreds covering the knobs all over, like a shock of wild hair on elfin pates. On of infected hawthorn. Thus, quince rust are susceptible to cedar apple rust are and the potential for losses was realized. cankers tend to be more prevalent and resistant to quince rust (e.g., Jonathan). In 1893, Jones in Vermont was the first my ramble afterward down by the creek I pluck’d one from its bush, and shall keep it. disease potential greater, in areas where The written history of the rust diseases to report that removing cedars in the hawthorns are growing in proximity to seems to parallel that of the apple proximity of apple trees could result in These cedar-apples last only a little while however, and soon crumble and fade. cedars, such as in pastures adjacent to orchard industry as it was established effective control. From 1900 through orchards. Because quince rust cankers east of the Rocky Mountains. Whereas 1920, a series of destructive outbreaks Walt Whitman, “Cedar-Apples” from Specimen Days (1882) continue to sporulate for several years, crab apple and many other Rosaceous occurred, particularly in Virginia, in Complete Poetry and Collected Prose; Library of America, 1982; page 786. inoculum pressure tends to be more hosts are native to North America, the West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. Thus constant from year to year than for cultivated apple was introduced here by began the period known as the “Cedar 10 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 11 12 I FUNGI Volume 6:3 massive maitakes, photos courtesy of E. Shavit andN. Siegel. ofE. courtesy photos maitakes, massive ofthe author. friend andgood a couple herewith seen inthe Sheis Northeast, collector maitake alegendary Shavit is Elinoar into Maitake orare the the below sent adrift wind. dust ground white spores protrusions, leaf-like underside oftheir flaring From undertheatof inches soil tree. thatfew base the that mounds a form mushrooms emerge dark grey from maitake trees, ofaging roots the dead Feeding upon maples. andrarely elms, fond ofoaks, andare particularly forests ofthein the year, fall are to indigenous temperate hardwood mushrooms Maitake fruit with. of that cook youcan group itoneofthe making few conks), mushrooms are hard woody recent findings. research foretelling andperhaps deserving especially seem the planet, of sides longagoonthe opposite bestowed common names, as to celebrate. danced they InItaly, known is this species mushroom, ofthis delicious at their discovery Rejoicing the mushroomsof maitake from emerging forest floor. afruiting discovered onamountain trail,wheremet they nuns ofBuddhist andwoodcutters agroup a Japanese legend, inJapan “the mushroom.”are as known dancing According to Paul Stamets Japanese who pioneered its cultivation. Maitake mushrooms Maitake cultivation. its Japanese whopioneered chicken. “Maitake” is the nameIprefer, to the inabow , or “the unmarried woman.”, or“the signorina unmarried Today two these Maitake is a soft polypore mushroom (many other polypore mushroom (many other polypore polypore asoft is Maitake its frond-like growths resemble the feathers resemble ofafluffed frond-like growths its “henofthe woods,” commonly) is called frondosa since n Europe this mushroom (Grifola andthe United States, Fall 2013 correct nutrient value. correct totheirhowever, get whendry weighed mushrooms should be concentrations grains, underestimated.Like be can ofnutrients are80to about 90percentthey watertheir whenfresh, net nutritionally poor. as mushrooms were maligned Since past, Moreover, around. Inthe foods oneofthe is maitake healthiest flavor rich onyour tongue. thatnodes excites receptor-specific enhancer that umami provides Maitake contains L-glutamate, anaturalflavors. flavor- andnuanced awakendeep rich, buds inanticipation ofits atlong. homeallyear grown be and that can they ones— ofwild fronds the within uplifting embedded becomes that are cleaner—free ofthe they forest that debris typically Twoof pounds. however, maitake, ofcultivated advantages are rarelymaitake to grow clusters more weighing than acouple ofthemajority inthe maitake woods. cars fill whileleaving the to their the brim, they than not, More maitake. ofgiant often evidence ofphotographic yield ifnotfor their annual unbelievable that wouldseem bonanzas York inNew family Italian-American ofmaitake whoboast generation to another, ofone Iknow reason! andfor good one from down passed secrets robust patches family are often of these Thelocations decades. even for many years, roots tree annually dying form from can maitake Massive specimen! per upto 50pounds sometimes humongous sizes, achieve can My family is delighted every time I cook maitake. Our taste taste Our maitake. timeIcook My delighted every is family acultivator,As since cultivated Iamnaturally envious, —the “fifth taste”—the savory savory “fifthtaste”—the —the and exopolysaccharides (heteromanans, heterofucans, and heterofucans, and exopolysaccharides (heteromanans, weight sugars agreater arrayproduces oflowermolecular industry, Wu et al.(2006) found that the mycelium ofmaitake supplement In aninteresting for development the dietary andcomplex the heavy 1,3;1,4;and1,6β-D-glucans. particular in are incomplex rich polysaccharides, mushroom fruitbodies maythat be maitake Onereason cells tumors. that feed blood the proliferationcan restrict of Thatthey means properties. of cancercells andcontainssuicide”) in anti-angiogenesis vitro (“programmed corroborate apoptosis that causes maitake researchers Several cancers. the immune andvarious system 2012). al., et Silva al.,2008; De al.,2007; Lo et al., 2001; Preuss et ofTypedevelopment al.,1994; Konno et (Kubo et 2diabetes for limitingthe important especially be which can levels, glucose studiesshow itmodulates Foremost, several Medicinal Properties composition: ifyouareinatemperate zone. in the fall summer toearly mayfruit more mushrooms months, afew After the mycelium-block indirt. can bury you is harvested, for the timeand first areavailable online.Once fruits the kit kits maitake at homeandready-to-fruit grown be can Organic mushrooms maitake government grants or private sources. orprivate government grants have will patented, to come funding be from cannot mushrooms for Since ofthese this purpose the use humans. control for diabetes to in prove effectiveness are needed studies robust clinical enticing, looks evidence preliminary ofdeath inthe cause U.S. leading seventh Although this this trend accelerating. It is have the is diabetes—and and retinadegeneration. Nearly8percent ofAmericans Maitake has also been widely researched for its effects on effects for its researched widely been also has Maitake notable attributes. several has maitake food, amedicinal As (or 2.3% of mass!) dry • • • • • • • • show maitake the following studiesoforganically-grown Our High concentration 2,300mg/100g High ofpotassium: (4.4 mg) acid and pantheonic (2.6mg); (64.8);riboflavin (mg/100 g):niacin B vitamins 0% cholesterol ≈28% fiber (41%are≈60% carbohydrates complex carbohydrates) 0.3%saturated fat) fat; 2%totalunsaturated fat; (1%polyunsaturated 3-4% fats 25% protein weight dry 100grams per 377 calories Diabetes causes neuropathy, causes Diabetes disease renal (kidney) components are likely to be discovered in maitake besides components besides areinmaitake likely discovered to be other immune activating samples, non-fractionated with documented been also cells ofthese has Since activity cells. bystimulating proliferationdefense response immune ofsome ofahost showsactivation ofβglucan) “D fraction” (atype 2011). 2009; Lin, al. cancercellsto andconsume (Deng et kill lungandbreast the ability ofimmune cells and natural (neutrophils cells) killer enhancing immune to significant activate responses, known are molecules heteroxylans) These than the mushrooms. QuarterPageFungiMag 11/3/108:54AMPage3 One portion of these complex sugars, known as maitake’s as known complex ofthese sugars, One portion T SAM RISTICH SAM UHOMGURU MUSHROOM TEACHER o E C O L O G I S T · E N T O M O L O G I S T · or 18” der posters: der Proceeds benefit Sam Ristich Archive Fund Archive Ristich Sam benefit Proceeds X 24” · $25 · 24” · MENTOR UNFRAMED www FUNGI Volume 6:3 .samristich.com · · · NATURALIST MOTIVATOR $ 115 FRAMED

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13 syndrome: a possible monotherapy and a combination therapy after failure with first-line clomiphene citrate. hile maitake’s use as an Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine adjunctive treatment for 16(12): 1-5. Deng G., H. Lim, A. Seidman, M. Fornier, G. D’Andrea, K. cancer remains a topic of Wesa, S. Yeung, S. Cunningham-Rundles, A.J. Vickers, and W B. Cassileth. 2009. A phase I/II trial of a polysaccharide medical debate, both the maitake extract from Grifola frondosa (Maitake mushroom) in t the midst of the excitement two, or three years, but for the periodic periodic cicadas but can only reach a mushroom and its mycelium contain breast cancer patients: immunological effects. Journal of and almost at the end of the cicadas, time stands still. Waiting to see small fraction of them, a phenomenon a constellation of active constituents Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology 135: 1215-1221. countdown, we heard that they the light and weighing the prospects of called “predator satiation.” These De Silva, D., S. Rapior, K. Hyde, and A. Bahkali, A. 2012. Awill not sing in our town. “Just wait a beak-to-beak meeting with a hungry unbelievable numbers increase the that bolster human health via many Medicinal mushrooms in prevention and control of seven years,” a neighbor said. We missed bird, what is their meaning of life (and chances of survival and reproduction diabetes mellitus. Fungal Diversity 56: 1-29. complex pathways. them by a month when we moved to is it worth it)? I cannot address this of the average cicada, despite the lack Kodama, N., S. Mizuno, A. Asakawa, A. Inui, and H. Nanba. Maryland in 2004, finding only dead question today, but recently we paid a of typical defense mechanisms, such as 2010. Effect of a hot water-soluble extraction from Grifola bodies and hearing the stories. Amazing visit to these stoic, albeit noisy, creatures chemical toxins, deterrents, camouflage, frondosa on the viability of a human monocyte cell line is an understatement in describing in Fairfax County, Virginia, only 20 miles or a fast-escape response. exposed to mitomycin C. Mycoscience 51: 134-138. the periodic cicadas, the longest-lived away, where a good gathering had already Most biologists believe that no Konno, S., D. G. Tortorelis, S. A. Fullerton, A. A. Samadi, J. insects. Mama cicada lays 20 eggs in started. Did they skip our neighborhood predator is so patient as to wait 17 Hettiarachchi and H. Tazaki. 2001. A possible each nest she scratches on tree branches, for vanity alone? What would be better or even 13 years for the next cicada hypoglycaemic effect of maitake mushroom on Type 2 maybe 500 eggs in total. After a few than taking a flight to test their new emergence and those few that are diabetic patients Diabetic Medicine 18: 1007-1010. weeks new larvae hatch, say “see you in wings? On the other hand, there are patient, forget what they are waiting this one form of beta glucan (Kodama et al., 2010; Stamets, Kubo, K., H. Aoki, and H. Nanba. 1994. Anti-diabetic activity seventeen years,” drop to the ground, and many things to do once they are released for or cannot track the years during the 2003). However, in a 2009 critical review of the cancer-fighting present in the fruit body of Grifola frondosa (maitake). dig down to find a nice root to suck on. from their underground tunnel. long interval between adult-emergence properties of maitake by Ulbricht et al., the authors found Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 17: 1106-1110. Imagine spending 99.5% of your life in Soon after their soft, new clothing events. In other words, the periodic the data intriguing but not necessarily convincing due to Lin, E.-S. 2011. Production of exopolysaccharides by a narrow dark dungeon, checking again (cuticle) hardens, the fresh adults enter cicadas rid themselves of predators ambiguities in the design, reports, and markers used in the submerged mycelial culture of Grifola frondosa TFRI1073 and again a mysterious clock only to find a frenzy of courting (male song) and by living protected underground for clinical studies to date. In other words, the jury is still out on and their antioxidant and antiproliferative activities. World out that your first play-date is sixteen mating, as choices are many. With incredibly long periods and their whether or not maitake will significantly improve a patient’s Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 27(3): 555-561. years away. Neighbors in the tunnels densities reaching nearly 1 billion/ synchronous, yet short, adult activity survival from cancer. Lo, H-C, T.-H. Hsu, and C.-Y. Chen. 2008. Submerged culture around you, members of the annual acre during the 3-4 weeks-long breeding above ground –when they are exposed to What this means for health-conscious consumers is that mycelium and broth of Grifola frondosa improve glycemic (dog-day) cicada species leave after one, season, predators gorge themselves with only opportunistic predators. Emerging while maitake’s use as an adjunctive treatment for cancer responses in diabetic rats. American Journal of Chinese remains a topic of medical debate, both the maitake mushroom Medicine 36(2): 265-285. and its mycelium contain a constellation of active constituents Matsuur, H., C. Asakawa, M. Kurimoto, and J. Mizutani. that bolster human health via many complex pathways. These 2002. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor from the seeds of metabolic pathways work synergistically to improve host balsam pear (Momordica charantia) and the fruit bodies defense. Isolating one constituent from the others denatures of Grifola frondosa. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and and lessens the broad-spectrum potency of this natural, Biochemistry 66(7): 1576-1578. functional food. Preuss, H., B. Echard, D. Bagchi, N.V. Perricone, and C. Maitake’s complex sugars, very low fat (<5 percent) and Zhuang. 2007. Enhanced insulin-hypoglycemic activity cholesterol levels, high levels of B vitamins, potassium and in rats consuming a specific glycoprotein extracted from fiber all make it a very healthy food. And for anyone at risk for maitake mushroom. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry diabetes or dealing with this disease, numerous studies show 306: 105-113. that eating maitake can reduce blood glucose levels, thanks to Stamets, P. 2003. Potentiation of cell-mediated host defense the α-glucosidase inhibitor they contain (Matsuur et al., 2002). using fruitbodies and mycelia of medicinal mushrooms. Insulin resistance is dangerous. In women, it can lead to acute International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 5: 179-192. infertility. A small but statistically-significant clinical study Ulbricht et al.: C., W. Weissner, E. Basch, N. Giese, in Japan showed that consuming maitake increases ovulation P. Hammerness, E. Rusie-Seamon, M. Varghese, and J. by helping renormalization of the insulin-glucose feedback Woods. 2009. Maitake mushroom (Grifola frondosa): pathways (Chen, 2010). The conclusion: maitake not only systematic review by the Natural Standard Research helps control diabetes and activate complex immune response Collaboration. Journal of the Society for Integrative pathways, but also helps fertility through mitigating insulin- Oncology 7(2): 66-72. stressed fertility problems. Wu, M-J., T.-L.Cheng, S.-Y. Cheng, T.-W. Lian, L. Wang, and Now we know that the Japanese woodcutters and the nuns S. Y. Chiou. 2006. Immunomodulatory properties did indeed have reasons to dance for joy when they found of Grifola frondosa in submerged culture. Journal of maitake, the “dancing signorina” mushroom! Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54(8): 2906-2914. [Paul Stamets is Founder of Fungi Perfecti. He also serves References Cited as Advisor to the Program of Integrative Medicine at the Chen, J.T., K. Tominaga, Y. Sato, H. Anzai, and R. Matsuoka. University of Arizona Medical School, Tucson, Arizona. This 2010. Maitake mushroom (Grifola frondosa) extract article is an excerpt of an article previously published in The induces ovulation in patients with polycystic ovary Huffington Post.] Figure 1. Adult Magicicada on the lookout. 14 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 15 Figure 3. Adult Magicicada in an intimate embrace in the middle of the road. contact, as spores can germinate and invade through the cuticle rather than after being ingested. With a biomass of over 200 tons/acre, periodic cicadas represent an appealing nutritional resource for predators, yet they successfully minimize predation pressure by slowing Figure 2. Chimney openings (holes) in the ground are early signs of the emergence of adult cicadas (left). The nymphs down their development at the cost of extending their molt into adults, leaving their old skin behind (right). generation time. at long intervals of a prime number of lead to new fungal infections in their to germinate (presumably the longest Against all expert years further decreases even a predator’s would-be lovers. Moreover, spores expected life cycle of any fungus); a little advice, advocating ability to guess their appearance. This filling the abdomen are shed after the too long for the average graduate student shorter generation strategy has been adopted by three last segments of the abdomen simply to complete his or her thesis. Duke and time, these 17-year cicada species and four 13-year fall apart, exposing a white-gray mass of colleagues (2002) found that the resting creatures have species, each with several “broods” that spores. Angie Macias wrote a great blog spores are not necessarily synchronous shaken virtually are confined to particular locations. on that fungus, describing its mode of with their hosts but can germinate and all predators, Unlike the annual cicadas that face transmission as “Flying Salt Shakers of infect periodic cicadas upon contact parasitoids, specialized predators such as the Cicada Death,” despite claiming that poetry is with a susceptible cicada nymph while and almost all Killer (Sphecious speciosus), among not her thing (Angie’s, not the fungus’s). in their chimney, regardless of whether pathogens by doing other wasps, and the Mississippi Kite Massospora exploits the mating system it is a 13- or 17-year cicada. In her blog, their thing – slowly. (raptor), periodic cicadas emerge before of the cicadas as genitally-mutilated male Angie Macias speculated about the Only Massospora their annual kin and are believed to and female cicadas (after the fungus evolution of this fungus, whose genus is known to have no specialized predator. However, has caused the progressive dropping Massospora has a taste for cicada flesh “anticipate” the they are attacked by a fungal pathogen of the posterior abdominal segments) across the world. So M. cicadina is the emergence of Massospora cicadina. Even during continue interacting with other cicadas only known specialized control agent of periodic cicadas, our short walk in the park of Fairfax in their large mating aggregations in the periodic cicadas. Indeed, high densities and act as a County, we found several infected treetops, and thus, spreading the fungus of periodic cicadas were correlated with specialized population control agent. That a fungus would cicadas dead and a few that moved about among many hopeful life-partners. The low rate of infection with M. cicadina. crack this hard and sophisticated defense of a group of very although parts of their abdomens were second round of infection in cicadas The ability to produce lasting, dormant guarded and prudent insects, while adapting to their incredible missing, showing instead a stub coated that acquire the fungus as adults (after spores is a talent few predators possess, life cycle and sexual habits, is a testimony to the amazing with a mat of fungal spores. What a emergence from the nymphal skin), leads yet many microorganisms do. The adaptive capacity of fungi. It may also be a testimony that there gruesome way to die. Apparently M. to the production of sexual thick-walled sheer quantity of spore production is no safe route in life, regardless of the price one pays to buy it. cicadina attacks only periodic cicadas spores that presumably stay dormant in necessary to withstand the dilution in Further Reading and “ignores” annual cicadas (which the soil for 17 years. Again the spores the ground over the years is uniquely are not susceptible). Infection occurs are spread as abdominal segments are a fungal advantage. After all, very few http://www.cicadamania.com/where.html when the nymphs crawl through their lost while the cicada moves and flies other spore-producing organisms match Macias, A. 2013. Flying salt shakers of death. http://blog. chimneys near the surface, where they around quite like a flying salt shaker (see fungi in the quantity of spores they shed. mycology.cornell.edu/2013/02/19/flying-salt-shakers-of- spend the last few weeks before reaching facing page). A single cicada produces Massospora accomplishes two “spore death/ the surface once the soil temperature one type of spore; not both. The resting amplification” cycles during the rather Duke, L., D.C. Steinkraus, J.E. English, and K.G. Smith reaches 65°F. Days after infection, the spores visible on the abdomen have short 3-4 weeks of adult cicada activity 2002. Infectivity of resting spores of Massospora cicada’s abdomen will be converted into a a darker yellow-brown color. Since and produces two different spores with cicadina (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae), an factory of asexual fungal spores (conidia) experiments in spore germination in the totally different germination programs. entomopathogenic fungus of periodic cicadas (Magicicada Figure 4. The sad end of the infected cicadas (their rendering the insect sterile. Instead of laboratory have failed, it is believed that The resting spores are ready to infect spp.) (Homoptera: Cicadidae). Journal of Invertebrate cicada offspring, mating attempts will the resting spores require 13 or 17 years periodic cicadas at their first intimate rear) showing broken abdomens that were dedicated to Pathology 80(1):1-6. production of fungal spores. 16 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 17 described by Gottsberger and Nannenga- of an aquarium. This plasmodium was Color pictures illustrate a yellow Bremekamp (1971). The plasmodium carefully removed and maintained in phaneroplasmodium changing to was observed as a greenish-yellow agar culture by feeding it oat flakes. white that eventually formed stalked phaneroplasmodium growing in a stream Microscopic observation revealed a sporangia typical of Didymium nigripes. submerged at a depth of 10-20 cm on unicellular green alga present throughout The myxomycete species observed leaves and twigs and sometimes floating the protoplasm in the fan and veins. growing thus far in submerged aquatic on the water surface. This stream was The plasmodium was maintained for environments are: Didymium aquatile, Mitsunori Tamayama in a secondary forest in the district of several months, and during this time, the D. iridis, D. nigripes, Fuligo cinerea, Morioka Chuo High School, 4-26-1 Mitake Botucatu, Sao Paulo state, Brazil. These alga thrived and became incorporated F. septica, Physarum gyrosum, and P. observations were made several times as into the normal rhythmic protoplasmic nutans. These species are all members of Morioka City, Iwate Prefecture 020-0122, Japan the phaneroplasmodium was growing on streaming. Some of the algal cells became the Physarales. and the sandy bottom and moving against the enclosed in food vacuoles but the White plasmodia of Physarum current, sometimes leaving the water to majority were scattered throughout the didermoides and Fuligo cinerea were Harold W. Keller form fruiting bodies. The advancing and protoplasm. Attempts to isolate the green grown on sterile oat agar culture free of Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 1700 University Drive, Fort Worth, Texas 76107-3400 and University of feeding edge of the phaneroplasmodium alga were successful and it was identified bacterial contaminants in association Central Missouri, Department of Biology and Earth Science, Warrensburg, Missouri 64093, U.S.A. was “deeply incised” instead of the typical as a species of Trebouxia (Keller and with three species of green alga that Correspondence to: [email protected] even margin. Braun, 1999). formed green plasmodia. Direct It was extrapolated further that The plasmodium continued to increase microscopic observation confirmed “Should future studies reveal that the in size and maintained its green color the presence of dividing green alga twigs, or woody fragments. Ground sites had a grayish peridium with calcium plasmodium characters of this species throughout this period. These cultures cells of Chlorella xanthella apparently attract most myxomycete collectors but carbonate. The sessile sporangia had are fundamentally different from those were maintained on 2% water agar and establishing an endophytic myxolichen Abstract aquatic habitats may also harbor all life deposits of calcium carbonate that Ward found in all other myxomycetes, then it the plasmodia were fed crushed and (Lazo, 1961). This suggested that Phaneroplasmodia of Diderma cycle stages, especially the microscopic (1886) described as being amorphous, might be desirable to refer Didymium sterilized old-fashioned oat flakes. The apparently the algal component replaced effusum were observed feeding on swimming swarm cells, the amoeboid granules, or crystals that clearly aquatile either to a new genus or to a plasmodium increased in size and was bacteria as a source of nutrients. In green algae and diatoms submerged myxamoebae and the microscopic or places this taxon in the Physarales and subgenus of its own.” This overemphasis sub-cultured by transferring portions on contrast, the yellow plasmodia of in water in an aquarium. This is macroscopic plasmodia and possibly Didymiaceae. This taxon was assigned of a life cycle growth form known to be agar blocks to additional agar plates until P. polycephalum, P. gyrosum and F. the first recorded description of the fruiting bodies. Water, either in the to Diderma difforme (now considered highly variable gives little credibility and 10 agar cultures were maintained. These septica appear to take the algal cells this species submerged in water temporary form of a thin film on the a synonym of Didymium difforme) justification for a new genus; even the cultures continued to grow and were also and digest them and the plasmodia and growing on agar culture. surface of water-soaked bark of living with the cautionary statement that “… status of a new species is questionable. green in color which suggested the algal do not become green. Another study Portions of the plasmodium were trees, or on decaying wood or leaves it seems very likely to belong to the In addition, the new species description cells were capable of surviving in the using white plasmodia of Fuligo cinerea also observed adhering to the skin found on ground sites, or submerged genus Diderma, having several of the is based on highly variable sporangial plasmodial protoplasm. demonstrated the exchange of 32P surface of an eel-like fish swimming vegetation under standing water, or in characters of that genus well marked” morphology such as the translucent To our knowledge, this is the first radioactive phosphorus between algal in the aquarium, suggesting that natural or artificial wetland areas, are (Ward, 1886). There are discrepancies stalk, hemispherical spore case, scanty reported record of a myxomycete forming cells of Chlorella xanthella and the accidental contact may serve as potential sites for life cycle myxomycete here, however, based on the presence capillitium, crystal aggregates irregular an algal-myxomycete association. an agent of dispersal in aquatic stages. This includes the margins of lakes of calcareous nodes that interconnect in shape, and spores varying from 6.5 Eventually, the plasmodium formed habitats. Collectors are encouraged and ponds and self-contained bodies of a network of capillitial threads more to 17 μm in diameter (Gottsberger and stalked sporangia typical of the genus to explore aquatic habitats that water in cement ponds, stock tanks, roof typical of the Physaraceae and the genus Nannenga-Bremekamp, 1971). All of Didymium, but the stalks in this case NOW in paperback! include the margins of lakes, ponds, eaves, and fish aquaria that may support Physarum. The presence of calcareous these characters are known to be highly were bright green instead of dark brown. and in Sphagnum bogs, swamps, aquatic myxomycetes. granules and crystals raises questions variable in field collections and in cultures Apparently most of the green alga cells and wetland areas. Species of the Review of Past Literature about assignment to the genus of Didymium species. Water should be were deposited in the stalk. The sporangia Physaraceae are noted and discussed Physarum, Diderma, or Didymium. considered along with premature drying were identified as Didymium iridis. Even as occurring more frequently in There are scattered reports of aquatic The presence of “calcareous nodes” as possible causes for this variability though the spores germinated, repeated aquaria and in aquatic habitats. myxomycetes, the earliest being that of in the capillitium would rule out the (Keller and Schoknecht, 1989). attempts to continue the life cycle failed Field observations are described for Ward (1886). He observed the growth genera Diderma and Didymium since Myxomycetes (13 identified species) because plasmodia never formed (Keller collections of a Trichia sp. on cattails of a myxomycete identified as Diderma both genera typically lack calcium were isolated from substrata submerged and Braun, 1999) and Badhamia lilacina on Sphagnum difforme on roots of hyacinths cultured carbonate in the capillitium that in southern Illinois swamps (Shearer More recently Lindley et al. (2007) moss. Examples of taxa found in in nutrient solutions. Apparently the follows current classification. This may and Crane, 1986). One species was isolated 14 myxomycete species from aquaria are Didymium difforme, D. plasmodia grew in size and developed be a species of Physarum – possibly new to science, Diderma diadematum. submerged vegetation of aquatic habitats iridis, and D. nigripes. Color images fruiting bodies completely submerged in Physarum cinereum. Identification to species included (ponds and lakes). These samples were document the development of the the water. Plants were grown vertically Additional species of myxomycetes the Trichiales (7), Physarales (2), taken from 5 cm above and below the plasmodia in the aquarium and on with the roots hanging down in water identified as Physarum gyrosum, P. Stemonitales (2), and Liceales (2). water level and were cultured in moist the agar surface. where tiny black spots thought to be nutans, Fuligo cinerea, and F. septica Kappel and Anken (1992) reported chamber cultures. Fruiting bodies were sporangia of a myxomycete appeared were grown submerged in water and a plasmodium growing submerged identified to species in the Physarales on the surface of the submerged roots the plasmodial stage observed by in water on the inner surface of a (7), Trichiales (3), Liceales (3), and and on the leaves exposed to dry air Parker (1946). All of these taxa are zoological aquarium that produced Stemonitales (1). It is interesting to Introduction outside. Description of sessile sporangia members of the family Physaraceae in stalked sporangia identified as note that members of the Physarales included a capillitial network with nodes Myxomycetes are typically found in the order Physarales. Didymium nigripes. predominate in these aquatic habitats. that had deposits of granules or crystals moist terrestrial habitats as plasmodia There are few reports of plasmodia or One of us (HWK) has observed a green Another example of a myxomycete of calcium carbonate. Sporangia that or fruiting bodies on decaying logs or fruiting bodies in natural aquatic habitats phaneroplasmodium growing completely that developed in an aquarium was developed at the water-air interface mycophilia.com among forest litter of decaying leaves, but noteworthy is Didymium aquatile submerged in water on the inner surface described by Müller et al. (2008).

18 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 19 plasmodium, reinforcing the notion that for myxomycetes. This habitat may top provided with a water circulating was added for the fish that contained this was a symbiotic (mutually beneficial) fall in the category of being in the aeration and purification system. A an assortment of nutrients including association (Zabka and Lazo, 1962). right place at the right time in order fluorescent light was operational during vitamins, amino acids, wheat flour, beer One of the best examples of moist to find myxomycete fruiting bodies. the time course of these observations yeast, gluten, and minerals. These fish habitats in nature associated with If conditions are not optimal, their (Fig.1). The aquarium was put on a table moved about the aquarium but were myxomycetes, blue green algae presence will be overlooked. in the corridor of the second floor of the never observed feeding on the plasmodia. (cyanobacteria), green algae, and Wetland myxomycetes were Morioka Daisan High School, located in Nevertheless, portions of the plasmodium diatoms was documented by Smith highlighted by Ing (1994). One example Morioka City, Iwate Prefecture, Japan. were observed adhering to the heads of and Stephenson (2007). Algae and the found at Douglas Lake (by HWK) was Water volume was maintained at an the fish suggesting a physical contact leafy liverwort Nowellia curvifolia the yellow phaneroplasmodium of estimated 45 liters or about ¾ full. reminiscent of the recent description of were associated with myxomycete Badhamia lilacina that thrives in aquatic Two high school students and a lizard and a myxomycete plasmodium sporangia of Barbeyella minutissima areas of Sphagnum bogs. The distinctive Mitsunori Tamayama, their instructor, and sporangia (Townsend et al., 2005). on decaying decorticated logs of Red lilac sporangia were restricted to this recorded plasmodial observations and This is the first report of a mobile fish Spruce (Picea rubens) and Fraser Fir habitat fruiting on drier sites of the water temperatures between 16.0°C and in an aquatic habitat that could possibly (Abies fraseri) at high elevation ground moss phyllidia (personal observations). 18°C based on readings taken every 3-4 serve as means of dispersal and transfer sites in the Appalachian Mountains This species along with Symphytocarpus days over a six week period. The pH of a myxomycete plasmodium (Figs. 2 of West Virginia and Great Smoky trechispora, Amaurochaete trechispora, was tested with Whatman pH indicator and 3). Plasmodia were not observed Mountains National Park. Barbeyella Lamproderma columbinum, paper on 14 March 2009 with a value of floating in the water but adhering only to minutissima is restricted to this type of Lepidoderma tigrinum, and Diderma pH 4. The quality of the aquarium water the aquarium and fish surfaces. habitat where species of cyanobacteria simplex, have also been recorded and tap water was tested on Thursday 19 Plasmodial development was first represented by Chroococcus from bog mosses (Ing, 1994). Lister February 2009 with a PACKTEST kit of observed in the aquarium on January tenax, Aphanothece saxicola, and (1918) also records the development Kyoritsu Chemical-Check Lab., Corp. 14, 2009, and thereafter, continued daily Aphanocapsa elachista var. conferta of Lamproderma scintillans This aquarium also contained Figure 3. Close-up of fish with pieces of white plasmodia adhering to skin. until March 31, 2009. All plasmodia in and two green algae, Mesotaenium aphanoplasmodium on stones in a three fish, Oriental weather loaches the aquarium were creamy white and this This table gives the results of the chemical analysis. (mg/L = ppm) chlamydosporum and Chlorococcum shallow stream. These understudied (a freshwater eel-like fish, Misgurnus color did not change over time. These humicola dominated based on relative acid Sphagnum bogs appear to have a anguillicaudatus). Artificial food Chemical compound Tap water Aquarium water plasmodia were representative of the density. Evidence was based on phaneroplasmodial type which is the myxomycete fruiting bodies collected Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 0 10 largest and often the most colorful type in the field but unfortunately lacks seen in the field. At maturity, seen in

direct observation of the tiny plasmodia Nitrogen as a form of ammonium (NH4) 0.5 (0.64) 10 (13) Figs. 4, 5, and 6, plasmodia were visible in the field or associations with algae on to the unaided eye, extending several Nitrogen as a form of nitrous acid (NO ) <0.005 (0.017) <0.005 (0.017) agar culture. 2 centimeters. The phaneroplasmodia seen here exhibited polarity and directional Nitrogen as a form of nitric acid (NO ) 0.5 (2.2) 10 (43) Field Observations 3 movement, terminating anteriorly as an advancing, fan-shaped feeding edge, One of us (HWK) has observed and Phosphorus as a form of phosphoric acid (PO4) 0.02 (0.06) >1 (3) collected myxomycete fruiting bodies and posteriorly, as a trailing network of from aquatic habitats. One example is veins (Figs. 4, 5, and 6) (Keller and Braun, taken from a field foray in 1969 at the 1999). The entire phaneroplasmodium annual Mycological Society of America has a raised three-dimensional Foray held at the University of Michigan appearance with definite margins (Figs. Biological Station, September 9 to 4, 5, and 6). This type of plasmodium 13. Here, Travis E. Brooks and HWK grows best under drier conditions searched for myxomycetes in the shallow where free-water is absent. Members areas of the upper part of Douglas of the Physarales are the best example Lake where cattails were abundant. of this type of plasmodium. Apparently We pulled cattails (Typha latifolia) this plasmodial type is also tolerant in and split the stalks at or below water Figure 1. Aquarium where myxomycete aquatic habitats growing on submerged level and found sporangia of a Trichia and fish observations were made. substrata. It appears that the plasmodia species (BPI 835108). We could not were feeding on green algae identified as identify this species but there were no distinctive array of myxomycete species. Microthamnion sp. and diatoms (Eunotia distinctive morphological characters incisa) on the inner glass surface of the to justify description of a new species. Aquarium Myxomycete aquarium (Fig. 6). Also of note is the observation of Olive Observations There were 18 phaneroplasmodia growing on either the activated charcoal (1975) who found that one of the most Observations of a white myxomycete granules (approximately 4 X 5 X 9 mm), productive substrata for myxomycetes plasmodium were made in an aquarium on the floor of the aquarium (Fig. 4), was old cattail inflorescences. Cattails with the approximate dimensions of 40 or on the glass surface of the aquarium occur around the edges of ponds, cm X 30 cm X 25 cm. Four glass walls Figure 2. White plasmodia adhering to sides submerged under water (Figs. 5 lakes, and in drainage areas, along were supported by a plastic frame and skin of fish near head. Note the black and 6), or above the water level on the with emergent macrophytes that may bottom. The aquarium had an open charcoal blocks on bottom of aquarium Figure 4. Multiple white plasmodia on bottom of aquarium with well developed serve as potential aquatic habitats and whitish food particles. anterior advancing fans and trailing veins. Diameter of the thermometer ca.8 mm. glass surface. These plasmodia grew 20 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 21 under water for a period of 76 days after which observations stopped. The plasmodia reached a maximum size up to15 X 20 cm in length and in most cases migrated to the bottom of the aquarium where they became larger and more vigorous (Fig. 4). No fruiting bodies ever developed in the aquarium. Plasmodia were removed from the aquarium using the charcoal blocks and transferred to the surface of 2% water agar in culture dishes. Additional observations were made on the agar surface and sterile old-fashioned oat flakes were added as an additional food source (Fig. 7). Here the plasmodia actively migrated off the charcoal onto the agar surface eventually feeding on the oat flakes and Figure 9. Fruiting body on the inner side Figure 10. Pseudo-aethaliate fruiting body (note bumpy surface of individual increasing in size (Fig. 8). Portions of the Figure 5. White plasmodium on inner surface of aquarium wall showing an intricate of plastic lid. sporangia) on the surface of the agar dish plastic wall. branching network of veins. plasmodia sub-cultured to additional agar plates resulting in larger, thicker, and denser plasmodia that had yellowish Ultrastructural or creamy white colors. Rarely these Observations plasmodia fused. These plasmodia Study of green plasmodium was often moved some distance eventually a special ultrastructural project of forming fruiting bodies on the inner mine while a graduate student at the plastic surface of the culture dish lid University of Iowa (HWK 1967-1971). (Figs. 9 and 10). Phaneroplasmodia often The electron microscope facility migrate 8 to 16 cm or more to drier sites prepared the green myxomycete to form fruiting bodies when cultured plasmodium of Didymium iridis on agar. This is in contrast to species of to determine the fate of the algal Perichaena, such as Perichaena depressa cells. Direct observation of shuttle and P. quadrata, where the mature protoplasmic streaming showed plasmodium moves more slowly over green algal cells as part of the flowing the agar surface and usually fruits there protoplasm. The green plasmodium also Figure 6. Three plasmodia feeding on Figure 7. Plasmodium feeding on oat (Keller and Eliasson, 1992). had bacteria and oat granules that were film of green algae and diatoms on the flakes on agar surface Fruiting bodies were obtained 13 sources of food eventually incorporated surface of aquarium glass. times from February 28 to November 1, into the protoplasm. Preparation 2009. The white fructifications formed followed a modified protocol used on the plastic surface of the culture dish by Kazama and Aldrich (1972) for lid as effused plasmodiocarps typical of myxamoebae of Physarum flavicomum. the species Diderma effusum (Fig. 10). Staining results of acid phosphatase Figure 11. Sporangiate fruiting bodies on agar surface. This was in contrast to the formation of activity were based on lead deposition fruiting bodies on the more moist agar around the algal cells inside the vacuolar effusum can survive submerged the moist agar surface. The variability surface where atypical sporangia or short spaces, indicating that algal cells were in aquarium water, and feed on in fruiting body habit should be plasmodiocarps were present (Fig. 11). being digested by the food vacuoles unicellular green algae and diatoms. considered when preparing species This often occurs when excessive water (unpublished observations). It appears This association has been described as descriptions, keys to identification, and or a film of water is present on the agar that under certain conditions algal cells being a food source or a myxolichen describing new species. or if the fruiting bodies form submerged can survive and serve as a food source depending on the degradation or A survey of published literature as shown for Perichaena depressa (Keller for the plasmodium. This is probably coexistence of the algal component. lists the following species occurring and Eliasson, 1992; Fig. 2). The peridium an opportunistic association based on It appears that algae, under certain under aquatic conditions: Badhamia of D. effusum consisted of amorphous, the availability of the predominant food conditions, may serve as a food source lilacina, Diderma effusum (this paper), white calcareous granules (not crystals). source at any given time. as well. Didymium aquatile, D. difforme, D. The dark purplish brown capillitial Two different forms of D. effusum iridis, D. nigripes, Physarum gyrosum, P. threads lacking calcium carbonate are Conclusions and Future fructifications developed on the surface nutans, Fuligo cinerea, and F. septica, all typical of the family Didymiaceae. The of the substrata: more pseudo-aethaliate members of the Physarales. Members of spores were dark brown in mass, purplish Directions or effused plasmodiocarpous on the the Physarales have been cultured from Figure 8. The plasmodium shown here on the agar surface were larger after feeding brown by transmitted light, minutely The aquarium study is the first to plastic surface of the wall and lid of the spore to spore more frequently than warted, and 7-8 μm in diameter. show that the plasmodium of Diderma on oat flakes. culture dish, and more sporangiate on 22 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 23 any other myxomycete order (Gray and myxomycetes. In the field a collector Life cycle of a new annulate-spored Alexopoulos, 1968). This may account must be in the right place at the right species of Didymium. Mycologia 81: The Myxomycete in part for the occurrence of chiefly time following the right weather 248-265. by Professor George W. Martin physaraceous species in submerged conditions to find fruiting bodies. The Keller, H.W., and U.H. Eliasson. 1992. aquatic environments or in the presence readership of FUNGI and members Taxonomic evaluation of Perichaena I grieve to say the history with scandal will be rife of free water. Furthermore, species of of the North American Mycological depressa and Perichaena quadrata Perichaena (Trichiales) and Stemonitis Association interested in exploring (Myxomycetes) based on controlled For every myxo is compelled to lead a double life (Stemonitales) when cultured under aquatic field habitats, including cultivation, with additional At first, in piles of rotten leaves, in sodden logs or stump. laboratory conditions on water agar understudied Sphagnum bogs, lakes, observations on the genus. Pretending to be animal, it crawles and creeps and clumps, in culture dishes, require the presence or ponds, should keep myxomycete Mycological Research 96:1085-1097. Then, as it shifts to fungus form, it seeks the outer air, of free water in the early stages of plasmodia and fruiting bodies in mind. Lazo, W.R. 1961. Growth of green algae And if your eyes are keen enough you’re sure to find it there plasmodial formation or sclerotization with myxomycete plasmodia. As animal, the shape it takes we call plasmodium, occurs (Keller and Eliasson, 1992, and Acknowledgments American Midland Naturalist 65(2): Bacteria and yeasts and spores serve as its pabulum; unpublished observations). The co-author (MT) wishes to thank 381-383. The accidental adherence of Mr. Yasuo Ito, his former high school Lindley, L.A., S.L. Stephenson and It eats them all, and goes its wan, and waxes fat and strong, plasmodial fragments to the skin biology colleague who first noticed F.W. Spiegel 2007. Protostelids and Nor ever wonders whether such behavior may be wrong. of the fish present in the aquarium the aquarium myxomycete. MT also myxomycetes isolated from aquatic Its lack of moral scruple is without a doubt complete; suggests another way myxomycetes is grateful to his former high school habitats. Mycologia 99: 504–509. No conscience has been noted in the Myxomycete may be transported to other locations. Lister, G. 1918. The Mycetozoa: a short students, Mr. Masato Saito (now at the Anon its fruiting stage begins. Before our startled eyes Plasmodia appear to have a fixed University of Tokyo) and Mr. Takeru history of their study in Britain; an It hastens to transform itself into a fungus guise. dorsal-ventral connection to hard Hanada (now at Iwate University) who account of their habitats generally; surfaces or more examples of floating helped record aquarium observations and a list of species recorded from With curious excitement all its veins become suffused, plasmodia would occur submerged and data. Our thanks to Mr. Yukinori Essex. Essex Field Club Special Its nuclei meiotically divide and are reduced. in water – either in aquaria or agar Yamamoto for his identification of Memoirs 6: London. Into aethalium, sporange or curved plasmodiocarp culture. However, the conditions of an Diderma effusum and Dr. Akihiro Müller, H.T, T. Hoppe, and T. Ferchen. The change is sudden, quick, abrupt, distinct, decisive, sharp. artificial man-made environment such 2008: Notizen über einen aquatischen Tsuji, National Museum of Nature It gleams as iridescent orbs or waves as feathered plumes , as an aquarium may not be duplicated and Science, Tokyo (TNS) for his Schleimpilz. DATZ 61 (6): 80-81. Or livens up a bit of bark with particolored blooms; in natural habitats. Thus, evidence identification of the green alga and English translation: Notes on an acquired from aquaria should not be diatom. Relf Price read multiple aquatic slime mold. Or turns a dingy fallen leaf into a beauty spot; – taken out of context and applied to drafts of the manuscript and three Olive, L.S. 1975. The Mycetozoans. New But some of them, I must confess, are not so very hot. broad generalizations. anonymous reviewers improved the York: Academic Press. The firm peridium dries and splits and through each tiny tear More potential aquatic habitats content of the narrative. Parker, H. 1946. Studies on the nutrition Each passing breeze releases spores by clouds into the air, must be explored to determine if of some aquatic myxomycetes. Until some capitillial tufts, an empty stalk or two, myxomycetes do indeed complete Literature Cited Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Are all that’s left to mark the place whereon the slime mold grew. their life cycle under these conditions. Gottsberger, G., and N.E. Nannenga- Scientific Society 62: 231–247. But now the spores have dropped by scores in humid cul-de-sacs; To date, moist chamber cultures of Bremekamp. 1971. A new species of Shearer, C.A, and J.L. Crane.1986. submerged aquatic macrophytes have Didymium from Brazil. Proceedings of Illinois fungi XII. Fungi and There each small cell begins to swell and soon the spore wall cracks; produced the fruiting body stage of the Koninklijke Nederlandse myxomycetes from wood and leaves Out slips a protoplasmic globe which squirms a bit and then Akademie van Wetenschappen submerged in southern Illinois Develops a flagellum and thus swims beyond our ken. swamps. Mycotaxon 25: 527–538. Ser. C 74: 264–268. It eats, divides and eats again, but soon there comes a time Smith, T., and S.L. Stephenson. 2007. Gray, W.D., and C.J. Alexopoulos. 1968. When food tastes flat, and life like that seems scarcely Biology of the Myxomycetes. New Algae associated with myxomycetes Worth a dime. York: The Ronald Press Company. and leaf liverworts on decaying Professor George Willard Martin, Ph.D. Ing, B. 1994. Tansley Review No. 62. spruce logs. Castanea 72(1): 50-57. Each lovely little swarm cell seeks to find a fitting mate, The phytosociology of myxomycetes. Townsend, J.H., H.C. Aldrich, D.W. Born 1886 – Died 1971 And round and round they dance in pairs, not ever hesitate. New Phytologist 126: 175-201. Wilson, and J.R. McCranie. 2005. First They closer press, the clasp grows tight, and soon the two are one. report of sporangia of a myxomycete his poem, The Myxomycete, was found among a stack of papers on a desk Kappel, T., and R.H. Anken. 1992. An The nuclei fuse, flagella are retracted, and it’s done. (Physarum pusillum) on the body of a in Dr. Martin’s office. It was one of the mimeographed handouts for the aquarium myxomycete: Didymium classes he taught but was never published. I was privileged to be his last This is the new plasmodium. The cycle now repeats; nigripes. Mycologist 6: 106-107. living animal, the lizard Corytophanes cristatus. Mycologia: 97: 346–348. Tstudent from 1967 to 1971 at the University of Iowa and enjoyed reading this poem. It joins with others, crawls around, and eats and grows and eats, Kazama, F.Y., and H.C. Aldrich. 1972. Ward, M.H. 1886. The morphology and It was published by Keller and Braun in 1999 (see page xvi) and has been used And in its time it fruits again, and so the tale is told Digestion and the distribution of acid as a handout in many myxomycete workshops. The chain rhyming scheme, and phosphatase in the myxamoebae of physiology of an aquatic myxomycete. Of this, as every living thing, forever new, though old. Quarterly Journal of Microscopical beautiful, sometimes humorous prose, highlight the plasmodial and fruiting body Physarum flavicomum. Mycologia 64: stage of the myxomycete. ______529-538. Science 24: 64–86. The morals of my tale are neither many nor profound, Keller, H.W., and K.L. Braun. 1999. Zabka, G.G., and W.R. Lazo. 1962. Reference Reciprocal transfer of materials And since they are the common sort they everywhere abound, Myxomycetes of Ohio: Their Keller, H.W., and K.L. Braun. 1999. Myxomycetes of Ohio: Their systematic, biology, between algal cells and myxomycete Systematics, Biology, and Use in and use in teaching. Columbus, Ohio. Ohio Biological Survey 13. 182 p. I will not waste your time and mine by trying to expound; – plasmodia in intimate association. Teaching. Columbus: Ohio. Ohio Harold W. Keller Just help yourself to what you want and pass the rest around. fungifestival.com Biological Survey 13. 182 p. American Journal of Botany 49: Keller, H.W., and J.D. Schoknecht. 1989. 146-148. 24 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 25 ASCOCORYNE TURFICOLA Ascocoryne turficola is described as a species with rare findings in surveys along with the ongoing reduction of peatlands in Patterned flat-palsa is a peatland type common in the North. Europe, the Far East and North America (Newfoundland). Its habitat developed countries (Watling et al., 2001). Geographical It is a complex landscape which includes higher palsas with (Boud.) Korf RECORDS is connected with peatland ecosystems, where it occupies a poorly distribution and publications about collections thus far are frozen peat and wet areas of hollows and pools between them. understood ecological niche. The West Siberian plain is a region described in Bunyard et al. (2008). They are concentrated in Low areas differ in the degree of wetness (hollows, pools, or bog FROM WEST SIBERIA where these ecosystems in their pristine state cover much of the Northern, Middle and Western Europe (Stasińska and Sotek, streams) and may be ombrotrophic or transitional (for more area, particularly in the middle and north taiga zone. Information 2004); recent findings from North America (Newfoundland) information see Masing et al., 2009; Peregon et al., 2009; Wieder Nina Filippova1, Elena Zvyagina2, Tatiana Bulyonkova3 about several findings of Ascocoryne turficola from this area which considerably enlarge the species’ distribution overseas. Because et al., 2006). The species was found in a wet ombrotrophic hollow 1Russia, Khanty-Mansiysk, Yugra State University, supplement species range, ecology and morphology follows. of the connection of the species with peatland ecosystems, it is among Sphagnum jensenii and Warnstorfia fluitans with Carex Chehova street, 16, 628012. KEY WORDS: Helotiales, Coryne, Ascocoryne, West Siberia, fungi, probably appropriate to consider its range within the accepted limosa and Eriophorum russeolum. Stems of apothecia were 2 Russia, Surgutskiy rayon, Ugut village, fungal conservation. zonal scheme of these communities. Known locations roughly embedded in a layer of decayed moss and leaves. The group Natural Reserve Yuganskiy, 628458. fall into the distribution range of the boreal peatlands, which consisted of about 10 closely growing typical fruitbodies (see 3Russia, Novosibirsk, A.P. Ershov Institute of Informatics occupy about 24% of boreal forest region. However, known sites morphological description below): turbinate to cupulate, from на одном болотном массиве (27.09.2008, #Kh-4146; 31.08.2008, Systems Russian Academy of Sciences, Acad. are located only in the western part of the Eurasian outline, 0.5 cm to 2.5 cm high, disc olive to yellowish gray, stem always #Kh-4148; 30.08.2009, #Kh-4147; 08.09.2012, #Kh-4066), Lavrentyev pr., 6, 630090. and in the easternmost corner (Newfoundland) of the North pinkish, solitary or in clusters. омбротрофные злаково-сфагновые топи в грядово-топяном American part of the zone. Our records add several sites in the Second location: ombrotrophic bog complex landform, near Contact: [email protected], комплексе. central part of the Eurasian semicircle. the town of Kogalym (N62.537330° E74.932539°, 21.08.2008, [email protected], [email protected]. В границах Юганского заповедника (18.08.2008, The history of taxon description is reported by Bunyard #Kh-4144). This point falls within the borders of one of the most #Zvyagina-08.08.20-24), микропонижение (мочажина) в НАХОДКИ ASCOCORYNE TURFICOLA et al. (2008). Boudier (1905) first described the species as highly bogged areas in West Siberia. Areas between narrow кустарничково-сфагновом омбротрофном сообществе. Coryne turficola Boud. Groves and Wilson (1967) proposed bayous are covered by elements of ombrotrophic landscape: (Boud.) Korf В ЗАПАДНОЙ СИБИРИ Макро-морфологические признаки наших находок 1 2 a new genus, Ascocoryne J.W. Groves & D.E. Wilson, for the ridges, hollows and multiple lakes. Specimens were collected in Нина Филиппова , Елена Звягина , совпадают с ранними описаниями в литературе. Плодовые 3 sexual state (since Coryne was typified by the asexual form). a hollow. Neither the exact location of the find nor the related Татьяна Бульонкова тела 1.5–6 см высотой, состоят из диска с острым краем и 1 It was transferred by Dennis (1968) to the genus Sarcoleotia, substrate was fully described. The collection notes describe Россия, ХМАО, Ханты-Мансийск, Югорский сужающейся книзу ножки, диск 0.5–2 см в диаметре, форма but mistakenly. Korf (1971) placed C. turficola in the genus the substrate as “decaying litter,” probably formed by some of государственный университет, Чехова, 16, 628012 от трапециевидной с толстой ножкой до гвоздевидной 2 Ascocoryne where it is now. the dominant local vegetation species: Scheuchzeria palustris, Россия, ХМАО, Сургутский район, поселок Угут, с тонкой ножкой и резко расширяющимся диском (в Molecular analysis provided by Bunyard and colleagues (2008) Carex limosa, Eriophorum russeolum, Sphagnum jensenii, or Государственный природный заповедник «Юганский», молодости цилиндрические с усеченной верхней частью), shows that A. turficola is related to the Ascocoryne clade (and not Warnstorfia fluitans. Eight typical fruitbodies grew in one spot 628458. поверхность диска гладкая, коричневато-оливковая, 3 to Sarcoleotia). (some in clusters): 1–2.5 cm high, with olive hymenium, and Россия, Новосибирск, Институт систем информатики им. оливковая, у перезрелых образцов с пурпурным оттенком, pinkish stem. А.П. Ершова СО РАН, проспект Лаврентьева, 6, 630090. поверхность ножки слизистая, цвет от желтовато-розоватой Materials and methods Third location: ombrotrophic bog massif, near the town of до ярко розовой. All our specimens were collected during forays not organized Распространение Ascocoryne turficola (Helotiales) Khanty-Mansyisk. This bog is visited several times over the Микро-морфологические признаки в целом не выходят за specifically to study the species. For this reason the collected известно по редким находкам в северной, средней и course of three years and yielded four collections, three of рамки описания вида, несколько особенностей в строении data is insufficient to adequately report the quantitative восточной Европе, и единичным находкам в Северной тканей и спор в нашем описании сообщаются впервые. Ткани distribution of A. turficola in the area. Америке (Bunyard et al., 2008). 4 точки из Западной Сибири, апотеция состоят из эксципула и медуллы. Самый внешний Five of the records have not been preserved as herbarium описанные в нашей публикации, расширяют представление слой эксципула образован тонкими переплетенными specimens: however, they were photographed, which об ареале вида. Все опубликованные места встреч желатинозными гифами с концевыми клетками allowed reliable identification. Two collections (Kh-4066, приблизительно совпадают с границей распространения веретеновидной и разветвленной формы (признак не был Zvyagina-08.08.20-24) were prepared according to standard бореальных болот (торфяников), долготное распределение описан ранее). Следующий слой образован параллельными protocol for a larger fungal collection (Lodge et al., 2004). точек предполагает циркумбореальный тип ареала. гифами из призматических клеток, ширина которых Specimens were examined microscopically under a Zeiss Экология вида считается недостаточно изученной. увеличивается внутрь ткани. Внутренний цилиндр образован Axiostar microscope and stereo-lens with a mounted AxioCam Плодовые тела образуются на различных растительных желатинозными переплетенными гифами медуллы. На срезе ERc5s digital camera. Sections were mounted in clear water, остатках в заболоченных экосистемах (торфяниках) и через апотеций различается еще один слой под субгимением. and dyed with water-based colorants (Congo red, fuchsine). вблизи сфагновых мхов. Высказывалось предположение о Он состоит из переплетенных гиф, подобно медулле, но For all microstructures except the spores, 10 measurements погребенной древесине в качестве субстрата. Однако наши не желатинозных. Аски цилиндрические, с пряжкой в for each parameter were made and mean values calculated. наблюдения исключают возможность последнего, и скорее основании, раствор люголя окрашивает отчетливое кольцо и For measurements of spores, bits of hymenophore from three всего мицелий вида находится в смешанных сфагново- слабо - утолщенную часть апикального аппарата. Парафизы mature fruitbodies in each collection were taken and 15 mature растительных полуразложившихся субстратах. Плодовые цилиндрические, редко ветвящиеся, с несколькими (larger) spores were measured. Average dimensions of spores тела часто прикреплены основанием к листьям осок (в септами. Споры одноклеточные, веретеновидные с тупыми (mean length and width with a 95% margin) were calculated нескольких случаях Carex limosa), веточкам эрикоидных концами, верхний из которых более вытянут, и нижний from 45 spores. All images are available online at http://www. кустарничков (Chamaedaphne). притупленный, со слабым желатинозным чехлом (гетеро- flickr.com/photos/bog-fun/collections/72157631527627571/. Все наши находки сделаны в омбротрофных типах полярность спор и желатинозный чехол не были описаны Description of gross morphology was completed from all торфяников, обводненных мочажинах (3 точки) и ранее), старые споры образуют эллипсоидные конидии на records with description of micro morphology completed from кустарничково-сфагновых растительных сообществах (1 длинных отростках, размеры спор сильно варьируют между two collections. точка). Точки удалены друг от друга с радиусом около 150 образцами, что вероятнее всего связано со стадией зрелости км. Краткое описание мест находок: плодового тела. Habitat, ecology, and general habit of collections Северная точка расположена в окр. г. Ноябрьск All collections were made in the middle and northern taiga (15.08.2008, #Kh-4145), обводненная топь в плоскобугристом Introduction boreal belts of West Siberia within the radius of approximately комплексном омбротрофном массиве. Our current knowledge of the geographic range of Ascocoryne 150 km. Below is a detailed description of the four locations: Окр. г. Когалым (21.08.2008, #Kh-4144), злаково-сфагновая turficola is formed from occasional sightings: it is a rare species, First location: patterned flat-palsa bog, near the town of топь в озерково-грядово-топяном комплексе. and its communities (peatlands) are overlooked by mycological Noyabrsk (N63.111975° E74.479597°, 15.08.2008, #Kh-4145). В районе г. Ханты-Мансийск сделано несколько находок 26 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 27 The gross morphology of our collections doesn’t differ from earlier descriptions. Some elements of micromorphology have not been described before. Spore shape in our records (subfusoid) differs from earlier records (fusoid). There were fusoid spores observed inside asci, but released large spores were supposed to have pointed-obtuse ends. There is a gelatinous sheath around spores, which has not been registered before. Spore sizes fall within the range of sizes described earlier by different authors, but the dimensions of two of our collections did not coincide. Bunyard et al. (2008) mentions the variability of spore sizes between different collections of the species, and our data serves as additional evidence of that observation. Ascocoryne turficola was recommended Figure 1. Habitat. Southern ombrotrophic bog near Khanty-Mansiysk (left) and northern flat palsa bog near Noyabrsk (right). Figure 2. Gross morphology of to be included in the next edition of basal end more obtuse and upper end apothecia. #Kh-4066 – collection the Red List of fungi of the Khanty- more attenuated). Each spore contains which were collected in adjacent hollows #Zvyagina-08.08.20-24). This is a purple, and several mature fruitbodies near Khanty-Mansiysk pictured in Mansiyskiy region (due in 2013) (Red 1–3 big, round guttules and several and one at some distance (N60.888786° community of dwarf shrubs and were collected with yellowish gray discs. studio and in situ. #4145 – collection book of KHMAO, 2003). E68.686395°, 27.09.2008, #Kh-4146; sphagnum, with micro complexity Stem is bright pinkish to reddish brown from flat palsa bog near Noyabrsk. smaller ones (as seen in the dead state N60.892512° E68.680987°, 31.08.2008, of hummocks and hollows. The when young (cylindrical state), then #Zvyagina-08.08.20-24 – specimen from rehydrated specimen). Some Aknowledgements #Kh-4148; N60.885361° E68.652620°, dwarf shrub layer is dominated by yellowish or pinkish. from Natural Reserve Yuganskiy. #4147 spores embedded in loose inconsistent We would like to thank Hans-Otto 30.08.2009, #Kh-4147; N60.889245° Chamaedaphne calculate, and Betula A radial section through the receptacle – example of overmature coloration gelatinous sheath. Old discharged spores Baral for his first discussion on the E68.681374°, 08.09.2012, #Kh-4066). The nana. The sphagnum layer is formed by reveals several layers: excipulum, of hymenial surface (collection near collected from the stem surface become subject and then final review of the bog is a complex of two communities: Sphagnum fuscum, S. papillosum, and S. medulla made up of two layers, and Khanty-Mansiysk, late autumn). Bar segmented and produce ellipsoid conidia paper. raised ridges and hummocks formed jensenii. Collection was done in hollows hymenium. A transverse section through equals 1 cm. (4.5 x 2.5 μm). by Sphagnum fuscum, a well developed among Sphagnum jensenii, where 10 the stem opens into an outer gelatinous Spore dimensions for third collection References Cited tree layer (Pinus sylvestris, P. sibirica), fruitbodies grew in two clusters. Stems layer, excipulum and medulla. about 4.6 x 40 μm. (#Kh-4066): 16.3 (14.8–17.7) x 5.1 Bunyard, B.A., Z. Wang, D. Malloch, and dwarf shrubs layered with some were buried in leaf-sphagnum litter and The outer layer in stem is thin, Plectal layers in the receptacle have (4.7–5.8), Q=3.21 (45 spores from 3 S. Clayden, and A. Voitk. 2008. herbs, and lower wet areas between attached to branches of dwarf shrubs. gelatinous, poorly staining in Congo a similar pattern except medullary ascoma). Spore dimensions for the New North American records for ridges occupied by hollows. The ridges Red, and can be seen as a pale outline excipulum, which is divided into two fourth collection (Zvyagina-08.08.20-24): Ascocoryne turficola (Ascomycota: are formed by hydrophilic sphagnum Morphological description in cross-section of the stem mounted layers. The lower gelatinous layer is 12.6 (11–14) x 4.3 (4–5) Q=2.98 (55 Helotiales). Fungi 1: 23–31. (S. jensenii, S. majus, S. papillosum Fruitbodies 1.5–6 cm high, disc in this dye. The hyphae are straight similar in structure to the stem. Between spores from 3 ascoma). Boudier, J.L.E. 1905. Bullelltin de Societe 0.5–2 cm wide in maturity, emerging it and the subhymenium lies a layer of Mycologie de France 21: 71. dominate), and sparse graminoids and and flexuous, intertwined and loosely Conclusions herbs: Carex limosa, Scheuchzeria as a cylinder with tapering base and embedded in a gelatinous matrix, cells intertwined but not gelatinous hyphae. Dennis, R.W.G. 1968. British palustris, Eriophorum vaginatum, truncated top, the upper part later about 1.6 x 40 μm. These layers are well differentiated in All specimens were collected in Ascomycetes. Lehre: Cramer. 455 pp. Oxycoccus palustris, and Drosera spp. expanding into a disc. Depending on Hyphae have enlarged fusoid end cells. cross-sections of dry specimens, where ombrotrophic peatland ecosystems, Lodge, D., and J. Ammirati. 2004. All findings there were in principally growth conditions, the overall shape may This layer reaches receptacle in some the gelatinous layer appears compact and meaning that the species is well- Terrestrial and lignicolous macrofungi. similar sedge-sphagnum hollows. On be turbinate to stipitate-turbinate when specimens, but is best presented in the firm and the upper layer is quite friable. adapted to conditions of poor mineral pp. 127-173. In: Mueller, G.M. et al., one occasion 20 fruitbodies, some stem is thick and short, but occasionally stem. In the interior lies a congophilous The upper surface of the disc is lined nutrition, wetness, acidity, and presence Ed., Biodiversity of Fungi. Elsevier clustered, were found. It was often with a long thin stem and cupulate disc. layer of excipulum made of parallel with the hymenial layer with a thin of Sphagnum species. Ascocoryne Academic Press. possible to trace the rooting bases of Hymenium, even when young, displayed hyphae (textura prismatica). The hyphae subhymenial layer underneath. turficola specimens were recorded from Masing, V., M. Botch, and A. Läänelaid. stems to litter of Carex limosa buried the irregular convexity and knobs, but in gradually become broader towards the Asci cylindrical, 129 (118–137) x 9 (8– principally similar sedge–sphagnum 2009. Mires of the former Soviet in Sphagnum. However, since litter of the overmature state the edge inflexed center (3.7–13 μm), and are clearly 10) μm (in dead state), sessile or with a hollow communities that are common in Union. Wetlands Ecology and sedge and sphagnum are intermixed to the stem. The edge between the septate with cylindrical to ellipsoid cells short stalk, sit on short flat ascogeneous the area. Ascocoryne turficola is usually Management 18: 397–433. here, and always wet and partially hymenial part and outside was sharp about 40 μm long. cell with a clamp. Tests with lugol found close to leaves of sedge (Carex Peregon, A., S. Maksyutov, and decayed, the hyphae probably spread in and clear. The stem ranged from thick Medullary excipulum is made solution shows amyloid ring and weak limosa in two cases where the exact Y. Yamagata. 2009. An image-based the Sphagnum, as well as, sedge litter. turbinated (often distorted) to thin up of gelatinous material. It stains reaction in apical thickening. Paraphyses locations were recorded) buried in dead inventory of the spatial structure of The last finding from the site (2012) has cylindrical, gradually tapering to an end pale in Congo Red and is hence well cylindrical, the same length as asci, 1.2 sphagnum litter, but doesn’t grow exactly West Siberian wetlands. Environmental been herbarized and morphologically point, with the outside being smooth distinguishable in a section mounted μm broad, unbranched or branched at on sedge stems. In one case, stems were Research Letters 4: 045014. described (see description below). and slimy.Fruitbodies usually have in this dye (hyphae stained well by base into 2 or 3 parts, segmented with attached to buried branches of dwarf Red book of Khanty-Mansiyskiy Fourth location: ombrotrophic bog olive discs and pinkish stems, but the fuchsine). The hyphae are intertwined 4–6 evident septa, the upper segment shrubs. The mycelium probably spreads autonomous okrug. 2003. massif, Natural Reserve Yuganskiy appearance varies depending on age and and embedded in a gelatinous matrix, slightly enlarged up to 1.6 μm. Spores widely in the dead sphagnum-litter layer, http://animals.ecougra.ru/ (N60.021295° E74.462242°, 18.08.2008, conditions. Overmature disc becomes septate at different distances, with cells uniseriate, unicellular, and fusoid (with but undecayed remains of sedge or other Stasińska, M. and Z. Sotek. 2004. plants initiates fructification. 28 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 29 Short Season Mother and daughter in the Lizard Head Wilderness, on their knees picking chanterelles. It will be late before they return. What is more priceless than a heavy basket of mushrooms. I keep out of sight because I would be frightening. Tokays and Peter Waldor -from his book The Wilderness Poetry of Wu Xin (Pinyon Publ., Montrose, 2013) and used here with permission of the author. Sauternes Britt A. Bunyard

veryone knows that fungi are involved in wine Image is courtesy of G. Sayers. production. Wine yeast ferments grape (or other fruit) sugar into alcohol. But for a few very special wines, ESaccharomyces spp. are not the only mycological workhorses involved. Ordinarily, table wines are fermented until they are “dry,” that is, allowed to sit for enough time for the yeast to convert all the sugars present in the grape juice into alcohol. Sweet or dessert wines, however, may contain 10-20% residual sugar. These wines are made by several different processes. Of course Figure 4. The structures of hymenium. 1. Asci. unfermented grape juice can simply be added back to a dry 2. Paraphyses. 3. Ascus ring stained in lugol 4. wine and immediately treated to kill, remove, or inhibit any Croziers at the base of asci. 5. Overmature spores further fermentation of added sugars, resulting in a sweet wine. with conidia 6. Normal spores with and without Other, more elegant wines rely on fungi to alter the grapes gel sheaths. Bar equals 10 μm. prior to fermentation, with the resulting wine being quite special. Ascocoryne turficola (Fungi, Ascomycetes), German eiswein (or icewine) has been produced for a a species new to Poland. Acta Societatis couple centuries. Grapes are picked very late in the season. Botanicorum Poloniae 73: 61–64. So late, in fact, that they are allowed to freeze on the vines. Watling, R., R. King, and N. Riddiford. 2001. New (These grapes must be picked by hand—often at night—and and interesting records of fungi from Shetland. kept frozen throughout the pressing stage, making prices of Botanical Journal of Scotland 53: 57–64. eisweins very steep.) Pressing frozen grapes squeezes out only Wieder, R.K., D.H. Vitt, and B.W. Benscoter. 2006. the very concentrated juice, leaving behind frozen water as Peatlands and the Boreal forest. In: Wieder, R.K., ice crystals. This very concentrated juice is so high in sugar Vitt, D.H., Ed., Boreal Peatland Ecosystems, pp. that it will ferment with difficulty or barely at all, resulting in (typically) very low alcohol, syrupy-velvety sweet wines. 1-8. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. causes “noble rot.” And the resulting wines, rather than being Recently, Canada has become the world’s largest producer of spoiled, will be fit for nobility. How does the fungus do its icewines, with the main region being the Niagra Peninsula—a magic? The fungus pierces the grape skins during infection. chunk of land situated between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. This allows moisture to escape and the infected grapes shrivel Besides the hardships of having to work in freezing conditions into raisins. The water loss concentrates sugars and flavors; the The risen and with juice that does not want to ferment, commercial flavors are further transformed by the noble rot fungus. The icewine-making is a financially risky undertaking. Some years famous Sauternes wines of France’s Bordeaux region have been To speak it is to become it. Raze and raise the fruiting body. the weather may not cooperate and the grapes left on the vines so late in the year may simply rot and be ruined. Divining the dimensions Divining the dimensions Another legendary style of sweet wine production requires of a space it has taken of the space it is taking; that the grapes are left to rot on the vines. Well, not literally. But they must first be infected with a fruit-rotting fungus. Beneath me To eat it is to become it. Botrytis cinerea is a ubiquitous food spoilage mold (image shown is of Botrytis conidiophore, courtesy of American The way it summons by coloring Phytopathological Society). Given enough time, this fungus can, and will, spoil any piece of fresh fruit in your home. You go The air: its edict. And I, away for the weekend and come home to find the strawberries servant, humbly Haz M. Said you’d left in the fridge are now wearing fur coats. They didn’t Durango, CO don them to stave off the cold—that’s Botrytis rotting them. With knife and pan and butter, [email protected] With grapes left on the vine late in the season, Botrytis cinerea

FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 31 be a risky undertaking as well. Botrytis If you’re a fan, or even casual drinker is destructive to all sorts of fruits and of Tokays, you’ve no doubt noticed the can damage grapes, too. For infection curious terminology used on the label. to start, the conditions must be humid This denotes the grade of wine you’re enough to favor the fungus, but then about to quaff. The quality or grade conditions must become, and remain, of Tokay wine is described in terms dry for the rest of the season to limit the of puttonyos. The label on each bottle fungal growth, lest it overgrow and ruin of Tokay will give a puttonyos rating. the grapes. As with icewines, production Tokay ranges in quality, depending on of Sauternes and Tokays is a labor of the number of raisin-filled casks (called love that results in small volumes of puttonyos) added to each 136 liter (36 product—and commands very high gallon) barrel of young dry wine. The prices. base wine (again, made from non- King Louis XIV once hailed Tokay “king of wines and wine of kings.” The finest Tokays are made in a process that dates back nine centuries and remains largely unchanged since 1650. These amazing wines famously hail from Hungary and in easternmost made this way for a couple of centuries. Slovakia (which was once part of The oldest “botryticized” wines, the Tokaj region of Hungary). And however, are the Hungarian Tokays in case you’re the kind of person which have been made for centuries. who enjoys lists, Tokay wine is Creating wines that rely on noble rot can 65-75% Furmint grapes, 15-25% Hárslevelû (called Lipovina in Slovakia), and no more than 10% Yellow Muscat. Furmint has a thin skin which makes it susceptible to molds and contributes the greatest proportion of the wine’s character; Furmint grapes are a bright golden yellow, feature a fruity fragrance comparable to peach skins (or even the smell of hay), and an aftertaste of peach, apricot, and walnut. Here’s where it gets interesting. Two molds are key to making the most famous styles of Tokay wine, including Tokay Aszú. The first mold, botryticized grapes) has an alcoholic the aforementioned Botrytis cinerea, strength of 13-15%. Quality Tokay infects the grapes in the field, enters wines use three to six casks (puttonyos) the grapes and turns them into raisins. of raisins per barrel of base wine; each The fungus affects the grapes in the fall cask contains 22-25 kg of raisins. Tokay of the year, before harvest, and seals in is fermented and aged in oak barrels, and concentrates grape juices (but does and typical aging goes for at least one not leave a moldy film on the outside of year for every cask of raisins added (but the fruit). The botryticized grapes are can be much longer for especially fine In autumn, colors abound. harvested and added to young dry wine Tokays). While aging, the surface of the Be on the lookout for the many (often this is made from juice of grapes wine blooms with the Cladosporium grown in the same vineyard that never cellare resident in the cellars (it’s likely colorful species of Hygrocybe. became infected), and the mixture left to other molds, yeasts, and bacteria also Maybe none is more stunning ferment in barrels stored in underground colonize the barrels), and attack and cellars. The second fungus involved, feed on the oxygen and sugars of the that the “parrot mushroom,” Cladosporium cellare, carpets the wine wine. This is similar to “flor” growing Hygrocybe (Gliophorus) cellar walls with a soft black lining that on aging finosherry, and with similar psittacina. moderates humidity in the subterranean results: the fungi metabolize a complex “labs” where mycology and botany web of aromas and flavors, unique to the Courtesy of R. Czech, collide with chemistry to create magic. style of wine. Aachen, Germany. 32 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 Piracy in the high trees arbuscular mycorrhizal canopy roots. vol. 4, no. 2 for a review.) DNA markers for DNA stretches within the Editor's Picks In this system, both host and epiphytes barcoding is routinely used in analysis ribosomal RNA region, the “ITS,” of orest canopies in tropical regions would seem to be in competition for the of plant, animal, and bacterial groups the fungal genome) for adoption as the contain a significant proportion same pool of nutrients in canopy soil. for anything from taxonomic work primary fungal barcode marker to the of the biomass of the forest and species discovery to clinical and Consortium for the Barcode of Life. A universal DNA diagnostic investigation. For a number (Before you ask, yes, there apparently Fecosystems. With the abundant rainfall and sunlight, there is a tremendous of reasons, researchers are much is such a world consortium!) The number of plant species that live on the barcode marker for further along in developing this handy group’s findings were published in a host trees of the jungle, or epiphytes Fungi tool for other kingdoms of life, than for recent issue of the Proceedings of the (literally “on plants”). As these mini fungi. A multinational, National Academy of Science (109[16]: multi-laboratory 6241–6246). What does this mean for forests living in the forest canopy die, he absence of a consortium now the future of fungal research? Although the dead plant matter builds up in universally accepted believes it has the genome diversity of fungal species every nook and crotch of the host tree’s DNA barcode for developed a is studied with increasing intensity, branches. Oh, and there are plenty fungi, one of the largest T similar technique the vast majority of fungal species of fungi—decomposers, sure, you’d kingdoms of life, poses for fungal remains unknown. Some examples expect those. But wait … there’s more. a serious limitation for analysis and of huge discoveries recently (based The mantle of dead organic material ecological and biodiversity will formally propose on molecular methods rather than (“canopy soil”) associated with the mats studies. (If you’re saying their system (based on more traditional ones) include the of vascular and nonvascular epiphytes “uh, remind me discovery of a ubiquitous class of fungi found on the branches of trees in again just what from soil (Archaeorhizomycetes) and the temperate rainforests along the barcoding is…” a diverse phylum of primitive fungi, southwestern coast of the South Island see FUNGI of New Zealand were examined a team the Cryptomycota. These are entire of researchers from New Zealand. This groups of fungi that were pretty much Trogia venenata courtesy Taylor F. Lockwood. team was led by Steve Stephenson unknown until recently. (And there from the University of Arkansas and is still next to nothing known about Beug said so… as the smoking gun. David Orlovich. The group expected them!) Truly more than 90% of fungi McMaster University biologist to find plenty of fungi but were more may be awaiting discovery, posing Chinese Mushroom Jianping Xu has found that the suspect interested in finding evidence of tremendous pressure to increase the mushroom likely wasn’t the cause of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Huh?… way up pace of fungal species discovery. Into vindicated death after all and recently published there? Yep. Turns out some species of the foreseeable future, DNA sequence those findings in the journal Applied rainforest trees send adventitious roots data from type specimens will be ver the past 35 years, some and Environmental Biology. Xu has into the canopy soil that forms on their increasingly essential to the stability 400 people in southwestern spent the last four summers climbing branches. It has been postulated that of fungal nomenclature. Continuing China have died mysterious, mountains and slogging through forests such trees derive a nutritive benefit discovery of novel biodiversity, Osudden deaths. For the past two years, in search of T. venenata, a mushroom from canopy soils, but are mycorrhizal while classifying knowledge already researchers attributed those deaths once suspected of causing fatal heart fungi involved? Yes they are! A diverse available will demand well-coordinated to eating a little wild mushroom, attacks with its high concentration of assemblage of ectomycorrhizal fungi was initiatives, and DNA barcoding has a Trogia venenata. A 2010 article in the the metal barium. But after trekking found to infect an extensive network of crucial role to play. journal Science said the mushrooms up to 30 kilometers per day collecting adventitious canopy roots of Nothofagus were at fault, and that’s been the samples for analysis, Xu has found that menziesii (southern or silver beech) common hypothesis since. Furthermore, the mushroom may have been a minor in the rainforest. Seven of the genera two 2012 papers in the journals factor in the deaths, but not the primary identified previously were known to Mushroaming in Angewante Chemie International Edition cause. Xu found that the barium form ectomycorrhizas with terrestrial and Chemical and Engineering News concentration in the mushrooms is so roots of Nothofagus: Cortinarius, Tibet Beyond presented further “evidence for toxins low that it mirrors the level in common Russula, Cenococcum, Thelephora/ Details at: www.MushRoaming.com from the mushroom Trogia venenata as foods such as fresh poultry. In fact, a Tomentella, Lactarius and Laccaria; the cause” of the southwestern Chinese 150-pound person would have to eat as well as two, Clavulina and Leotia, ur “mushroaming” trips to Tibet are a once in a lifetime fungal, botanical and deaths. (The Chemical and Engineering at least 35 kg of the dried mushroom cultural experience in some of the most stunning landscapes on the planet. Tibet not previously reported forming is not only endowed with an incomparably rich, ancient spiritual culture but also News paper was featured in our Editor’s O for it to be lethal. So, what did cause ectomycorrhizas with Nothofagus. a long tradition in collecting, eating and trading mushrooms. Today, with unprecedented Picks.) In the following FUNGI issue, the mysterious deaths in China? We Canopy ectomycorrhizas provide an demand for caterpillar fungus (Cordyceps& sinensis), matsutake and morels, Tibet has retired mycologist Michael Beug, an still don’t know. Barium can’t be ruled unexpected means for increased host the highest fungal income per capita in the world. Of great importance are also boletes, expert in mushroom chemistry, wrote out as a cause of death given that high nutrition that may have functional Caesar’s, chanterelles, ganoderma, gypsies, wood ears and many other exotic species. a Letter to the Editor stating that, after levels were found in some of the victims. significance in some forest ecosystems. We explore Tibetan forests, meadows, mountains and monasteries. reviewing the manuscript submitted But the mushrooms were likely not the Presumably, canopy ectomycorrhizas Guided by Daniel Winkler and Tibetan local guides. for publication, he told the editors primary cause. Xu plans to continue on host adventitious roots circumvent Inquiries: [email protected] of the journal that it was impossible analyzing other mushrooms in the the tree-ground-soil nutrient cycle by Amazing Amazon - Bolivia - Tentatively February 1-14, 2014 for the mushroom to have caused the region to determine if any of them accessing a wider range of nutrients Cordyceps & Morel Expedition East Tibet: poisonings. Now he gets to say “Told you could have contributed to the deaths. directly in the canopy than would TBA - Late May/Early June, 2014 so!” New research has vindicated Trogia be possible for non-mycorrhizal or 34 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 35 Ancient fungi found are masters at breaking down tough bedbugs carried the biopesticide that sex emerged once in an ancestral American Type Culture Collection. there profitably, and so the British organic molecules, so they could be back to their hiding places (termed eukaryote and has been preserved and Problematic taxa are recommended decided tea was a suitable replacement. in Davey Jones’ locker providing sources of food for microbes “autodessemination”) infecting those conserved throughout the eukaryotic for DNA sequencing to help clarify The New World had never seen coffee far below the sea floor. The team says that did not go out in search of blood. tree of life. Thus, one can think of the phylogenetic relationships. plants (the center of origin of coffee, t’s hard to imagine finding that it is not clear whether the fungi in The implications of the research are that ability to undergo sexual reproduction Coffea arabica and C. canephora [family multicellular organisms thriving in the deepest sediments are more than an effective anti-bedbug coating could as a synapomorphy for the eukaryotes. Rust Never Sleeps Rubiaceae] is northern Africa), nor such a deprived environment as the 100 million years old; they might have very well be more than just a dream. The authors focus on the evolution of any of their pests, and so it became the Ibottom of the sea, but that is just where colonized those layers by moving in the mating-type locus and transitions op quiz: name three things center of coffee cultivation until today. a team of molecular geomicrobiologists from younger deposits. But if the fungi Evolution of fungal in modes of sexual reproduction using associated with the British. Surely, But it couldn’t last. Despite best efforts, started their search. And there’s much have been isolated for a long time, they examples from throughout the kingdom. tea drinking would make your coffee rust (called “Roya”) was bound more to the story: the fungi were may have evolved unusual chemistries sexual reproduction Their examples illustrate general Plist. But they didn’t always drink tea, to make its way to the Americas. Drink found thriving far below the floor of and biological defenses against bacteria, principles of the origins of mating-type they used to quaff java across the pond. up!… while you still can. the Pacific Ocean, in nutrient-starved and could provide a source of useful reviewed loci / sex chromosomes and the balance Why the switch? Well, all well-informed Most of the world’s coffee “beans” sediments more than 100 million years antibiotics and other novel chemicals. between inbreeding and outcrossing mycophiles should know ‘twas a fungus come from South and Central America; nother tour de force, and old. The discovery has the potential to afforded by different modes of sexual that did it. See, Britain, indeed most of Brazil is by far the world’s largest absolutely required reading for turn the brown muck of the sea floor Fungi to help you reproduction involving tetrapolar, the world, once got its coffee from huge producer (see table). Coffee rust has all mycology students, is a huge into pure gold for biologists looking for bipolar and unipolar sexual cycles. plantations in India and vicinity (British been cutting into those yields annually sleep tight, without review paper on “Evolution of fungal alternative forms of life—and possibly A India) and Sri Lanka (Ceylon). That was and set to hit hard in the near future. sexual reproduction” in Mycologia for pharmaceutical companies seeking Myxomycete history until the coffee rust fungus made its way According to many sources including the bedbug’s bite (102[1]: 1-27) by Joseph Heitman, Sheng antibiotics to combat the growing there (coffee rust was first diagnosed in a recent issue of the British journal Sun, and Timothy James. Everything is problem of drug-resistant bacteria. and taxonomy Ceylon). It didn’t take long before coffee Nature (493: 587), Central America edbugs cause irritation and covered from recent advances in our Indeed some of the species isolated plants could no longer be cultivated could lose 25% of production next transmit disease across many understanding of the genetic, molecular belong to the fungal genus Penicillium, reviewed parts of North America and and genomic basis of sex determination the source of penicillin. To follow up BEurope. And their infestation is rapidly and sexual reproduction in fungi. ne of the world’s authorities on on earlier reports of deep-sea fungi, on the rise. But if a team of researchers Furthermore, the fungal kingdom is slime molds (Myxomycetes), researchers studied sediments pulled at Penn State University has anything to examined as a window on the evolution Harold Keller, presented up from as deep as 127 meters below say about it, fungal “biopesticides” might of sex in eukaryotes more generally. a major review of their history the sea floor during a 2010 expedition O provide an answer to the widespread We do not know precisely what (“Myxomycete history and taxonomy: of the Integrated Ocean Drilling problem of bedbug outbreaks. And, no, the last common eukaryotic ancestor highlights from the past, present, and Program in the South Pacific. They bedbugs (Cimex lectularius) are not looked like, of course, but a reasonable future”) in a recent issue of Mycotaxon searched the samples for fungal genetic merely the stuff of children’s nursery hypothesis is that it was a unicellular, (122: 369–387). Much of this paper material and found sequences from at rhymes…they’re quite real. And quite a aquatic, motile organism with one (or drew on Keller’s keynote address at least eight different taxonomic groups. real problem for many cities. Bedbugs perhaps two) posterior flagella. There the Seventh International Congress Astonishingly, the team succeeded in are insects that infest bedding. The are extant opisthokonts (the Eukaryote on the Systematics and Ecology of growing cultures of four of the fungal insects need blood meals for growth and lineage containing both the fungal—our Myxomycetes held at Recife, Brazil. The isolates. A mere decade ago, the only development throughout their life cycle. closest evolutionary relatives—and past myxomycete legacy covers fruiting organisms known to live in deep layers The Penn State researchers undertook animal kingdoms) that maintain some bodies preserved in fossil amber of sediment were single-celled—bacteria a series of experiments using Beauveria resemblance to last common ancestor more than 35 million years ago. Early and archaea. Hints of fungi in sediments bassiana, a common fungus parasite of of fungi and animals. To be sure, this contributions to the field by Linnaeus, started emerging in 2005, but just a insects. The researchers took the fungus organism no longer exists but we do de Bary, and the Listers at the British Figure 1. handful of researchers are studying and created a type of chemical pesticide know a bit about what it would have Museum of Natural History (BM), are those sediment dwellers and the other using an airbrush sprayer to apply fungal looked like. Picture a single-celled covered, as are more contemporary fungi living in ocean water. Now for the spore formulations to paper and to a critter, motile by way of a flagellum and leaders in slime mold research including big question: what are these organisms cotton jersey (similar to a common you would have something in between a Macbride and Martin (University doing down there? The sediments bed sheet material). At the same time pre-metazoan choanoflagellate and the of Iowa) who published landmark in this latest study (Nature 492: 163) surfaces of the same materials were basal fungal Chytridiomycota (the most illustrated myxomycete monographs. underlie the South Pacific Gyre, which sprayed with oil only. The surfaces were primitive true fungi, and they are still Keller outlines the transfer of the is one of the “deadest” places on the allowed to dry at room temperature around, by the way). Key features that ~9500 specimen Iowa myxomycete planet—it’s very far from land, so few overnight. Three groups of ten bedbugs distinguish eukaryotic from prokaryotic collection to the United States National nutrients find their way there. Marine were then exposed to one of the two (bacterial) organisms are the presence Fungus Collections (BPI). Also covered life is scarce and microbes in the surface surfaces for one hour. Afterwards the of the nucleus and other intracellular is Lado’s recent Nomenmyx and the sediments devour the scant organic bedbugs were placed on clean filter organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts, online resource nomen.eumycetozoa. matter that sinks to the bottom. Some paper in a petri dish and examined. Golgi, endoplasmic reticulum), the com, which offers ~900 names for think the fungi down there might have The research findings (Journal of emergence of multicellularity and accepted myxomycete species. The a key role in the nutrient-starved deep Invertebrate Pathology 111[1]: 82-86) the ability to undergo true sexual current status of the BM and BPI ecosystem. Researchers have previously showed that all of the bedbugs exposed reproduction. Given that sexual myxomycete collections is noted presumed that the organic matter left to the biopesticide, picked up the reproduction is pervasive and extant by Keller, and Didymium saturnus in sediments after millions of years fungal spores, became infected, and in all of the major super groups of the provides an example of data associated is too difficult for most single-celled died within five days. But wait, there’s eukaryotic tree of life, it is hypothesized with myxomycete specimens in the organisms to consume. But fungi more! Before they croaked, the infected Figure 2. 36 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 Can researchers thwart to management practices and brought the coffee rust? disease mostly under control. But they may have gotten complacent. The latest outbreak Coffee rust is caused by the rust fungus Hemileia may have taken hold because of patchy use and vastatrix. The teliospores of this rust are rarely effectiveness of fungicides. Colombia could be produced and are apparently nonfunctional; the the closest to a solution to the current pandemic. spermogonial and aecial stages have never been The Columbian government has supported identified (a situation not uncommon in tropical research into developing resistant strains of rusts). The pathogen was kept out of South coffee through crossbreeding. The introduction of American coffee-producing areas for 100 years by resistant strains, together with improved weather quarantine. Figure 1 shows symptoms of coffee monitoring to help predict rust outbreaks, has rust on the upper surface of a Coffea arabica leaf meant that fewer than 10% of plants now need (by J.W. McCain, courtesy of APS). Figure 2 shows to be treated with fungicide, down from 60% four orange sporulating uredinial sori on the underside years ago. The government has also supported of a coffee leaf (by J.W. McCain, courtesy of APS). work on the genetics of both the fungus and the plant. Research programs have started in other First found in Latin America in the 1970s, the countries, too. Researchers in Brazil are working disease, also known as “Roya,” generally doesn’t to isolate resistance genes in coffee and to find kill host plants. The fungus attacks plants’ foliage, molecular markers that distinguish between interferes with their ability to photosynthesize, have been switching over, causing the different strains of the pathogen. Such strains Arabica beans Robusta beans causes leaf drop (complete defoliation in extreme price of coffee overall to drop.) could be used to develop tailored strategies for cases), and prevents fruits (“beans”) from reaching And here’s the Catch-22: lower its control. And in the United Kingdom, Harry 1 Brazil 41,800 1 Vietnam 18,150 prices mean less revenue to spend on full maturity. An aging tree population, with plants Evans (see his review on diseases of cacao in controlling the disease and replacing over 25 years old, has made plantations more FUNGI vol. 5, no. 4) is working on the genome Columbia 9,500 Brazil 12,700 2 2 infected trees, because most of the susceptible. Furthermore, due to demand from of H. vastatrix at CABI in Egham. Coffee rust fungus region’s farmers harvest 5 hectares (12.4 companies such as Starbucks, growers planted 3 Ethiopia 4,400 3 Indonesia 7,950 is so widespread around the globe that there is acres) or less, and lack financing. So, it’s more specialty beans and those varieties are more no way to ever eradicate it. But through research 4 Honduras 4,400 4 India 3,600 tough for these small farmers to weather susceptible to the fungus. Robusta coffee (see using modern techniques—plus good old- storms like the current coffee rust crisis. main article) is much less sensitive to coffee rust fashioned smart cultivation practices—it is hoped 5 Peru 4,000 5 Cote d’Ivoire 2,100 Costa Rica has declared a national than is Arabica; Robusta is much less economically emergency and is set to tackle the spread that the economically important pest can be important, however. brought under control. Millions of coffee addicts 6 Guatemala 3,900 6 Uganda 1,900 of a coffee fungus that has already devastated Central American producers Following severe outbreaks in the 70s and 80s, around the world (I’m definitely one!) are keeping 7 Mexico 3,500 7 Malaysia 1,000 and looks set to destroy about 12 percent coffee growers became proactive, making changes their fingers crossed. of Costa Rica’s planted coffee in the 8 Nicaragua 2,000 8 Thailand 900 upcoming 2013/14 harvest. A two-year emergency bill, signed jointly by Costa 9 El Salvador 1,700 9 Cameroon 525 Rica’s Vice President Luis Liberman and the national coffee institute ICAFE, fungus, while in neighboring Guatemala, 10 Costa Rica 1,575 10 Togo 525 provisions about $4 million to pay for 40 percent of roughly 274,000 hectares fungicides to tackle the rust outbreak. (677,000 acres) have been hit by roya and Top ten exportation countries for each variety of coffee. Data is measured The Nicaraguan government reportedly output is projected to drop by 14 percent as 1,000s of 60 kg bags (132 lbs). Data from USDA and US National Coffee declared that it would include coffee this season. In Honduras, the region’s Association. rust on a list of special research projects top coffee producer, officials say they designed to safeguard the country’s already expect to produce 306,000 fewer year. The strange thing is that coffee of coffee, but combined they make up 60-kg bags in the current season due to prices on the world exchange have less than 5% of the world’s commercial agriculture. Roya kills coffee leaves by sapping them of nutrients and lowering roya, or 5 percent of projected exports, been going down recently. What’s with production). Because of the recent and at least a tenth of the planted crop that? Most cultivated coffee is of the expansion in Robusta production, there’s bean yields. The current roya pandemic has already has been blighted. No one can say if the “Arabica” variety (C. arabica). Asian currently a glut of beans on the market. blight can ever be thwarted (see inset countries, especially Vietnam, have been But that won’t last. (To most, Robusta affected other countries in Central America and Mexico, home to more box). All that is known is that tens of dramatically ramping up production of beans produce an inferior brew; it’s thousands of jobs and entire economies another species of coffee, C. canephora, more bitter—even acrid—and higher in than a fifth of the world’s Arabica coffee production. of Central and South American also known as the “Robusta” variety of caffeine, but they are currently cheaper nations are reliant upon the continued coffee (there are many other species and so some of the large coffee houses In El Salvador, as much as half of the country’s coffee is infected by the cultivation of coffee.

38 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 39 Say cheese! Part I. not merely strange to you but strange findings were published in the open have long viewed this event as the most significant of its kind to scientists. Until pretty recently, a big source journal Public Library of Science since the deaths of more than 800,000 confirmed that the bear How old is cheese- chunk of fungal species were thought One (7[11]:e49665; doi: 10.1371/journal. could not be milked.” to reproduce without sex–until people pone.0049665). In this species of high making? really started to look. It turns out, there’s industrial importance, the induction Our friends at Back to the Roots Introduce a lot more sex going on in the fungal of a sexual cycle would open the a follow up to their growkits: AquaFarm o, how old is cheese-making? world than people thought. And that possibility of generating new genotypes If a report in a recent issue of includes fungi that are used to make that would be extremely useful to A New Self-Cleaning Fish Tank the British journal Nature (493: delicious blue cheese. As you will see in diversify cheese products. that Grows Food S522-525) is correct, people were Part II, just below… So, it turns out that sex is a good thing making cheese in northern Europe for the fungi as well as for the cheese TTR is a great partner with FUNGI. And their 8,000 years ago. The introduction of Say cheese! Part II. makers. Okay… that probably came out mushroom grow kits are excellent and totally foolproof. dairying was a critical step in early wrong. What I mean is that when the And totally sustainable (the oyster mushroom kits are agriculture, with milk products being Fungus sex. mold is reproducing asexually, new forms made mostly from spent Peet’s coffee grounds that would rapidly adopted as a major component come from random mutations within B have wound up in a landfill). The Berkeley (California)-based of the diets of prehistoric farmers and lthough most eukaryotes one strain that’s simply duplicating company’s new product is called AquaFarm and utilizes the pottery-using late hunter-gatherers. reproduce sexually at some itself. But when different mold strains science of aquaponics, an ancient, sustainable method of The processing of milk, particularly moment of their life cycle, many are reproducing sexually, the result is farming that is rapidly growing in popularity. What’s unique the production of cheese, would have A(perhaps most) fungi were presumed much more genetic recombination, way about the AquaFarm is that it functions like a large-scale been a critical development because to reproduce exclusively asexually. more genetic diversity, and resulting aquaponics system, but condensed into an attractive fish tank it not only allowed the preservation of Recent studies have revealed the ability (potentially) in many more new strains of small enough to fit onto your kitchen countertop. Fish waste milk products in a non-perishable and of sexual reproduction in some of these the mold. QED more new cheeses. transportable form, but also it made supposedly asexual species (mostly using from the tank is pumped to a plant bed that can grow a variety milk a more digestible commodity for DNA sequence analysis to find mating Sure sign of the of edible herbs and vegetables including basil, lettuce and early prehistoric farmers. The finding type genes, but also via some successful wheat grass. The waste serves as organic fertilizer for the plants of abundant milk residues in pottery mating experiments; for a great review Apocalypse … and the filtered water is then circulated back to the fish. This vessels from seventh millennium sites see Kück and Pöggler, 2009, “Cryptic eliminates the need to clean the water on a regular basis, a huge from northwestern Anatolia (in modern sex in fungi” Fungal Biology Reviews mushrooms now chore that all aquarium owners will be happy to leave behind. Turkey) provided the earliest evidence 23: 86-90). For industrially relevant The 3 gallon tank is manufactured in Union City, CA, and is yet of milk processing, although the exact fungi, for which inocula are produced discussed in another cool, sustainable idea from BTTR. practice could not be explicitly defined. by clonal-subcultures for decades, the The Onion Notably, the discovery of potsherds potentiality for sex is of great interest for pierced with small holes appear at early strain improvement strategies. Jeanne rom a recent issue of The Onion Neolithic sites in temperate Europe in Ropars and colleagues in France, the (and I posted it on the FUNGI the sixth millennium BC and have been home of Roquefort cheese, looked at Facebook page) comes a blurb interpreted typologically as “cheese- the genomes of the mold species used in from their “Science & Technology” this particular cheese to see what kind F strainers.” The presence of abundant department, a story called “Deaths of milk fat in these specialized vessels, of funny business was going on in their 550,000 Confirm Which Mushrooms comparable in form to modern cheese snack of choice. They found much more are okay to Eat.” The Onion (a deliciously strainers, provides compelling evidence diversity than could be explained by sharp-witted, satirical newspaper) for the vessels having being used to asexual reproduction. And even more recently spun its warped sense of separate fat-rich milk curds from the telling, the genes used by fungi to find humor into looking at the bright side of lactose-containing whey. Organic mating partners have been kept intact mushroom poisoning deaths over the residues preserved in pottery vessels have and functional by evolution, meaning course of mankind’s history. provided direct evidence for early milk there’s probably some sex going on. Following the lethal poisoning of use in the Neolithic period in the Near The researchers screened a large more than a half million people over East and southeastern Europe, North sample of strains isolated from diverse the course of several millennia, cultures Africa, Denmark and the British Isles, substrates throughout the world. Studies across the globe finally learned how to based on carbon isotope analysis of the revealed the existence of individuals identify which mushrooms could be major fatty acids in milk. of both mating types, even in the very safely consumed. “‘Thousands upon Cheese is a pretty weird thing when same cheese. The mating type or MAT thousands of human beings sacrificed you think about it. Someone had to come genes (analogous to genders in animals), themselves to determine which varieties up with the idea of taking a bunch of involved in fungal sexual compatibility, of wild mushroom are delicious and milk, adding bacteria, letting it basically appeared to evolve under purifying which will paralyze and kill you on the go bad, and waiting to eat it until mold selection, suggesting that they are still spot,’ historian Marcus Whiting told had grown on it. And, if that grosses functional. Furthermore, DNA sequence reporters. ‘Without their painful, often you out, just wait. It turns out that the analysis of a strain of P. roqueforti led grueling, prolonged, and excruciating fungi in cheeses like blue cheese aren’t to the conclusion that it had recently deaths, we would never have discovered just sitting there, waiting for you to eat undergone DNA recombination that it’s okay to liven up a miso soup with them. They’re getting it on. And this is involving sexual reproduction. Their a handful of flavorful shiitakes.’ Scholars 40 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 41 tree to monotrope and that separating the structure and dynamics of plant they didn’t receive any C. the pine sap plants from trees stunted its communities.” So I guess I wasn’t the only Since then, further work, done growth. (Monotropes not only provided one who thought of plant communities as on ectomycorrhizal networks, has entree to the WWW but, to quote capitalist systems. suggested the existence of complex Martin Bidartondo, “To examine the This paper, like all good challenges, laid natural networks with hubs at large trees, early history of mycorrhizal research is to out for the more left-leaning mycologists linked to seedlings and smaller trees. immerse oneself in the biology of myco- what their next experiments needed to (Currently, such work can only be done by Susan Goldhor most of it goes directly to the trees’ fungal support from healthy soil and nutrient heterotrophic plants.”) do; i.e., cut off the possibility of significant on ectomycorrhizal systems because partners. These partners (and one tree supply from fungal partners? No tree is Close to a quarter of a century later, soil transfer, and show that labeled C did ectomycorrhizal fungi can be identified or a long time I thought of the can simultaneously have a very large an island. No tree lives by sunlight and David Read of Sheffield University, indeed make it into shoots and leaves. using molecular methods. AM fungi, with forest as the ultimate in capitalist number of different fungal partners) may carbon dioxide alone. Tree roots exist for along with his graduate students and Within a couple of years, Sylvain Lerat their mingled cytoplasm and their lack ecosystems, where the capital be attached to the roots so thickly as to physical support. They’re really not very other colleagues, was, to the best and colleagues (2002) from Québec had of comprehensible [to us] sexuality, can’t Fwas sunlight and the trees reaching cover them, but evidence suggests that good at accessing water and nutrients; of my knowledge, the first to show carried out a very ingenious (and, to yet be identified with such precision.) the canopy were the plutocrats. Or, as they also maintain connections to others the N-P-K that gardeners supply as uni-directional flow of C between me, very surprising) experiment, which Examples of this EM work, such as that by I privately termed them, the Donald of the same species and to other plants. It fertilizer. It’s the fungal web that can chlorophyllous arbuscular mycorrhizal showed that, not only was C transferred Teste and by Beiler (both from Simard’s Trunks. As for those below… well, every could be that this network, which some find distant patches of water; that can (AM) plants. But not until the August 7, from one plant species to another through lab) have concentrated on Douglas-fir, system has its losers, right? It’s just clever person has termed the “wood-wide leach phosphorus from minute mineral 1997 issue of Nature appeared, almost 40 an AM network (and so the findings, with all trees (although not all fungi) being the unavoidable underside of having web” keeps certain of those understory particles; that rots debris and kills insects years after Björkman’s work, did the words although suggestive, do not bear directly single species. This has conformed more winners. to get nitrogen, and then “The wood-wide web” appear in print, on the correctness of Simard’s work done to our view of the WWW allowing bigger, Maybe everyone thought shares all this with the big signalling the first paper (Simard et al., with ectomycorrhizal species), but that older trees to nurture their seedlings (and of the forest this way until trees in exchange for sugar. 1997) to show that the flow of C between the transfer was bi-directional depending provides yet one more reason why it’s researchers looking at soil Are there welfare cheats? plants in the field is bi-directional, via a upon who was photosynthesizing at bad forestry to remove the largest trees), discovered that the above- Could be... Take pine sap, mycelial, in this case ectomycorrhizal, that time, according to what is called a although it seems likely that the Web or, ground capitalism of the Indian pipe, or the other network. Although I had assumed that source-sink relationship. The partners in more likely, webs is or, are, maintaining forest could have a social monotropes. These small Suzanne Simard or one of her co-authors this case (planted in large pots in a local much of the understory vegetation– services underground, with plants have no chlorophyll, had come up with this catchy phrase, maple forest) were trout lilies and sugar genetic relationships notwithstanding. complicated fungal webs and get sugars from their it does not appear in the paper. It was maples–two very different plants, but ones Beiler’s paper (entitled, “Architecture connecting plants together fungal partners which, in Melanie Jones and Dan Durall who clued that fulfilled four requirements: they grew of the Woodwide Web”) extended by their roots, perhaps even turn, get it from trees that me into the fact that it was the brainchild locally, they were found together in nature, our understanding of the structure of taking from the Haves to give (presumably) don’t know of one of Nature’s (unsung) editors, who they were both colonized by AM fungi and natural webs by looking at two species to the Have-Nots. A fungal about these little parasites. blazoned it on that issue’s cover, signaling could share a network, and the ephemeral of Rhizopogon, each of which exhibited safety net? Fungi as Robin Or perhaps they do know, the importance of what lay within. lily put out leaves and photosynthesized slightly different web structure, with R. Hoods? The Woodwide and either don’t care or No revolutionary idea generates in early spring while the canopy was still vesiculosus linking larger numbers of Web? And this was the point can’t figure out how to cut immediate acceptance, and the role of leafless, but built up its underground trees and inhabiting a greater depth than at which I could imagine off that supply without challenger fell to Robinson and Fitter corms later in the season, when it was R. vinicolor. The ability to access deeper that Capitalism, Red in depriving themselves of the (1999), who pointed out that although shaded by the actively photosynthesizing strata could be useful when resources are Tooth and Claw, showed greater mycorrhizal benefits labeled carbon was detected in the maple canopy. scarce. The Teste paper (2009) showed the its soft underbelly and (a hypothesis originally recipient plant roots, it was not detected I’m sure you’ve guessed the result. The possible complexity of the web in nature, morphed into the safety net suggested by Bidartondo and in shoots. Therefore, it was likely in their lilies passed C to the maple seedlings finding a total of 32 EM fungal taxa on of social services delivery. Bruns in 2001). So far, no view that the C in question was being during leaf expansion of the latter, and the roots of both the adult trees and Or, partnership (which one has been able to figure hoarded in fungal structures within the maples passed C to the lilies late seedlings studied, although presence of might be a better way of out what monotropes might the roots, unavailable to the plants, yet in the season, when they were storing the same species of fungi on the different looking at the relationship contribute to their partners, separated only by membranes–shades of nutrient in their corms. This is pretty trees does not guarantee that the trees between government and its and thus, they seem to be Tantalus! Additionally, they felt that the amazing. It’s one thing to think that the are functionally linked as there could be citizens). As put by Bonfante parasites, the lilies of the design of her experiment did not allow WWW allows trees to nourish seedlings different mycelia involved. Linkage to the and Genre (2010) in their wood; they toil not, neither Simard to rule out direct transfer via soil. of the same species; seedlings that might web and C-sharing appeared to be helpful brilliant review, “As lichens do they spin. But perhaps “Carbon transfer via an AM network” they even carry their very own genes, but this to the survival and development of seeds clearly show, combining an Indian pipes, Monotropa hypopitys, courtesy S. Trudell. future research will show that declared (but note that Simard’s work was is two wildly different genera helping planted in the experimental forest plot, organism that can exploit these interesting plants are done with ectomycorrhizal plants so there each other get through hard times. And, but did not appear to assist transplanted light and atmospheric CO2 with one plants and light-deprived seedlings alive indeed bringing something to the party is a is great potential for comparing apples unlike the work on reciprocity between seedlings. (Teste et al. conclude that that can efficiently exploit the substrate on the forest floor. That tiny hemlock and they can cast off the unflattering label to oranges here), “does not allow ‘resource plant and fungus (“I’ll give you sugar if the strength of the sink outweighs the represents a fruitful adaptation to habitats tree that doesn’t even reach your knee of “parasite.” Peripheral as monotropes sharing’ among linked plants,” going on you give me phosphorus and nitrogen”), strength of the source.) And, just to at the soil-atmosphere interface.” and has a stem thinner than a pencil? It may seem to be to the big forest picture, it to say that if plants really could share C, this reciprocity occurs with big time gaps complicate the picture, the larger the What was I thinking when I pictured might be 100 years old. Could it be that was a study of pine sap that led to an early “Interactions between neighbors would between the gifts. So there’s an intriguing donor in this Douglas-fir plot, the less C the big trees as robber barons? How did its continued existence is supported by intimation of the WWW when, more than then be less of a struggle for a meager implication of trust. Incidentally, while it shared. (Back to Capitalism here–or, I think the rest of the forest survived? In the web while it waits for an ice storm or a half century ago, E. Björkman injected resource than a communal enterprise they were at it, the Québecois group as the Italians say, “If you need money, some estimates, big trees lose/donate as hurricane or logger to open up the canopy radioactive glucose and phosphorus in which everyone (at least those in the showed that it wasn’t C transfer through ask the poor.”) much as 40% or more of their sugars from and give it sun and space to grow? And into the phloem of pine and spruce trees common mycorrhizal network) got their soil, by planting ectomycorrhizal birch Edwin Hubble once said that the their roots, and, although some of that how did we think the big trees survived under which the pine sap plants grew. He share. That would change fundamentally seedlings in the same pots. Since the history of astronomy is a history of goes to feed the soil’s other inhabitants, without that underground source of found that the radioactivity passed from our view of an important influence over birches didn’t glom onto the AM network, receding horizons. Of course, that is true 42 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 43 of all scientific knowledge. But it’s striking References Cited via arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in to me that the horizon of outer space has natural stands. Oecologia 132: 181-187. receded by parsecs, while that of soil is Beiler, K.J., D.M. Durall, S.W. Simard, Read, D.J. 1984. The structure and receding–very slowly and incompletely– S.A. Maxwell, and A.M. Kretzer. function of vegetative mycelium of by inches. 2010. Architecture of the wood-wide mycorrhizal roots. p. 215-240. In: I’ve also been struck by the web: Rhizopogon spp. genets link D.H. Jennings and A.D.M. Rayner preponderance of Canadian researchers multiple Douglas-fir cohorts. New (eds.) The Ecology and Physiology of in this field. This might be just the Phytologist 185(2): 543-553. the Fungal Mycelium. Cambridge U. founder effect of a small number of labs Bidartondo, M. and T. Bruns. 2001. Press, New York. that happened to be in Canada. But I Extreme specificity in epiparasitic Robinson, D., and A. Fitter. 1999. The can’t help wondering if it has to do with Monotropoideae (Ericaceae): magnitude and control of carbon the fact that Canada has a strong social widespread phylogenetic and transfer between plants linked by safety net for its citizens, and the U.S. geographical structure. Molecular a common mycorrhizal network. doesn’t. If we were to decide that taking Ecology 10: 2285-2295. Journal of Experimental Botany care of the weak and the young was a Björkman, E. 1960. Monotropa hypopitys 50(330): 9-13. national priority, would there be more L.–an epiparasite on tree roots. Simard, S.W., D.A. Perry, M.D. Jones, U.S. research on the interconnectedness Physiologia Plantarum 13: 308-327. D.D. Myrold, D.M. Durall, and R. of ecosystems, and the benefits of Bonfante, P., and A. Genre. 2010. Molina. 1997. Net transfer of carbon resource sharing? I semi-jokingly shared Mechanisms underlying beneficial between tree species with shared this thought with an old friend, John plant–fungus interactions ectomycorrhizal fungi. Nature 388: Klironomos, a Canadian mycologist who’d in mycorrhizal symbiosis. Nature 579-582. just returned from the international Communications 1:48 doi: 10.1038/ Teste, F.P., S.W. Simard, D.M. Durall, mycorrhiza conference in India, and ncomms1046. R. Guy, M.D. Jones, and A.L. he emailed back, “you have a very keen Lerat, S., R. Gauci, J.G. Catford, H. Shoonmaker. 2009. Access to Roy Watling sense of observation. At the meetings, the Bierheilig, Y. Piche, and L. Lapointe. mycorrhizal networks and tree roots: biggest critics of resource sharing through 2002. 14C transfer between the importance for seedling survival & ext year in August the mycorrhizal networks did seem to be a spring ephemeral Erythronium resource transfer. Ecology 90: 2808- International Mycological few Americans… hmmm… ” americanum and sugar maple saplings 2822. Congress will be setting up Nits stand in Bangkok for its four-year jamboree. Don’t let the unfamiliar and high powered presentations offered put you off attending, for Thailand is a fascinating country in which to hold the Congress with a vast wealth of macrofungi – all of which will prove Taylor Lockwood of interest to field and taxonomic mycologist alike. presents another Apart from the many great temples collection of and archaeological sites—and there are often hidden gems and some by the Chinese at this same time of the beautiful mushrooms sumptuous eating hostelries—the oddballs included. The choice species, year, so the price (naturally) skyrockets! from America and market place and roadside stalls of course, include chanterelles, generally For some, selling termite mushrooms is around the world. throughout the country are good places Cantharellus minor, a white Amanita even more lucrative than selling jewelry 11” x 8.5”. to start one’s quest for fungi. The stalls (A. virginea and A. hemibapha), Russula to tourists. In the bigger centers where 11” x 17” hanging. are generally decked out with a whole singaporensis, and most of all the termite selling is conducted, buyers will weave Saddle-stitched. array of mushrooms, all good to eat. (But mushrooms (Termitomyces spp.) with in and out of the small dealers to see to the western taste, many may seem Thirteen months their long, tapered stalks. They are held what is available, buy the best examples, rather bizarre. What westerner would with great respect throughout Southeast and then set up shop somewhere else, including Jan. ‘15 contemplate a dish of small red Russulas Asia and considered to taste like chicken. maybe a little way down the street in and mini-months. or Dytiscus beetles!) There are a handful of Termitomyces an advantageous position. With the Printed in the USA. An added bonus to any mushroom species, the most widespread being T. Tertmitomyces growing partially buried, Price $14.95 haggling is the animated conversations aurantiacus, T. clypeatus, T. fuliginosus the fruiting bodies have to be cleaned in English and Thai with the local sellers, and T. robustus often displayed with but nothing is left to waste and the To order, visit: who are often the collectors. The favorite their pseudorhizae pointing down scraps are made into a slurry (soup) – www.Mushroom.pro delicacies are neatly arranged in species and forming an arc. They demand a also available for sale to customers and groups on plastic or polysterene plates, high price and in Kachanaburi (quite street sellers alike. or simply on banana leaves. Those which close to Bangkok), the locals have a Also demanding a high price is are considered edible but of inferior Termitomyces festival at the height of the a gasteromycete related to the the type or quality are heaped together in collecting season. Termite mushrooms European barometer fungus (Astraeus). mixed bags. The latter are frequently then take precedence over other The Thai equivalents are Astraeus the most interesting to the mycophile as commodities and as meat is not eaten odoratus and A. asiaticus and are sold 44 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 45 when immature, before opening to on general sale. What is left is generally Hebeloma, Pioneer Genus in The Flaw of Reiterating form the star shape. They are generally dependent on the collector and the day It’s been stated that many authors are displayed in baskets and sold by the they were out, but nonetheless usually likely reiterating the claims of previous scoopful. Or you might like to sample reveals some treasures such as Tylopilus Forensic Mycology authors, not exactly knowing who a local aphrodisiac in the form of the nigroviolaceus. I always feel somewhat Danny Haelewaters actually was the one seeing it firsthand. bright orange-yellow false truffle, squeamish when I see Tylopili on sale for This makes me think of Andre Vltchek’s Harvard University Herbaria, Farlow Herbarium Mycoamaranthus cambodgensis. food and have never dared to try them. (2013) article Harare: Is It Really the Worst Email: [email protected] The wow factor for the visitor on seeing Given the opportunity, it is worth City on Earth? which reveals similar all these fungi is very high! There is one visiting one of the fungus farms of which findings at the journalistic level. slight difficulty in that the fruiting bodies there is a large family run one called few years ago, it must have still being described and the interest in are freqently cleaned (peeled and washed) Arauyik, close to Bangkok. There, one been 2009, I was part of the Hebeloma remains, as the fungus may Surveys by The Economist and others for presentation. This presents a genuine will see the regular pleurotoids (yellow, Netherlands Forensic Institute, provide unbiased scientific evidence for relentlessly portrayed Zimbabwe’s capital problem when you are attempting an pink and grey) as well as shiitake, enoki— inA particular of the Line Department use in the court of law, and in criminal city Harare as the 4th worst city in the accurate identification. One has then to all familiar to the western palate, and Microtraces (Non Human Biological investigation and trial. world. Most of us wouldn’t even think of Traces). This experience has had great questioning this quote. But Vltchek did. resort to actually going and collecting additionally, mushrooms like Macrocybe Findings on Animal Remains with the pickers, always an enjoyable crassa and Ganoderma. The latter is impact on my evolution as a scientist. He decided to visit Harare and found Hebeloma vinosophyllum Hongo was experience in itself. extensively used in traditional medicine. Likewise, I’ve become more than that it is a great, literary city to live in, described as an agaric species without So if time is only available for the The Royal Palace grounds is host to a moderately interested in forensics – the unexpectedly falling in love with this any specific ecological requirements, period around the Congress, you can large Ganoderma project where it is study of evidence discovered at a crime so-called worst city on Earth. Facts and but, indeed, it does have a preference still do some foraying on daytrips. If you grown, dried and shredded – ready for scene and used in a court of law. Forensic data about Zimbabwe are developed for dead (mammalian) carcasses. In have, however, made the Congress part of making into an infusion, small sweets or science is a multidisciplinary field, “somewhere in the cloud” to serve Western 1968, a bunch of fruiting bodies of H. a longer stay, then you will come across cans of cordial. considering the full range of botanical, media. Afterwards it is recycled over and vinosophyllum was found in Kyoto the roadside stalls selling wild-collected And all that is before one even goes zoological, and inorganic evidence over again, never updated, often with (Sagara, 1976). Close examination of the mushrooms. Each stall is a roughly into the forest to find fungi in situ. Many (Mildenhall et al., 2006). This article colorful words thrown in to reinforce the soil showed that the remains of a dog constructed table consisting of nothing of the trails will provide a range of fungi deals with some aspects of forensic statements. “It’s those bloody journalists constituted the source of nitrogen. In more than a bamboo bench on which which will infatuate and inspire the mycology, a very specific sub-discipline of again,” I hear you, but why then do we see 1975, again, a single fruiting body of the the day’s haul is displayed and covered visitor. Numerous and different polypores. forensics, involving the genus Hebeloma suggestions in scientific papers that are same species was found near the Kyoto by a thatched or even corrugated metal A myriad of marasmioid ‘shrooms. and its possible applications. only partially or not at all true? roof. What you see is what the collectors And boletes, some no bigger than the Introduction have managed to find that day in their thumbnail, or a blueing species coloring Hebeloma (Fr.) Kumm. is a genus Hebeloma crustuliniforme courtesy M. Wood. patch. They are sold close to where they more intensely than the North American of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the were picked so they are always fresh. Boletus subvelutipes. Some giant boletes Strophariaceae (Basidiomycota: Mushrooms also may be sold at more may weigh in at more than 15 kilos, as Agaricales) consisting of, mostly, pioneer centralized places, such as major route does Phlebopus marginatus (=Boletus species – they occur as the first of junctions in the country where there may portentosus) and the Swan necked sequential successive steps – while a few be group trading. Such stalls are widely bolete (Heimioporus retisporus, formerly other species decompose animal wastes. separated and reflect fungal hotspots in Heimiella), which under the microscope Species delineation is traditionally based the countryside. The mushrooms found reveals its true identity with beautifully upon morphological characters. The on sale from Khorat and Khon Kaen sculptured spores. Pulveroboletus different species in Hebeloma, however, to Chang Mai etc. are similar in their icterinus is a feature of several areas—a are neither distinctive nor colorful range of delicacies displayed including bright citrine-yellow relative of the (Arora, 1986). David Arora, in his chanterelles, termite mushrooms, Russula American P. ravenelii. There areGomphus Mushrooms demystified (1986), refers to singaporensis and R. virescens, but there fujisenensis, far less colorful than the Hebeloma as “[…] yet another faceless are also regional differences ranging purple Pigs Ear; a caulifower fungus, and featureless collection of brownish from the cyathiform Lentinus polychrous Sparasiss latifolia, and to top that a vivid mushrooms.” Species identification, even in Chang Mai (northeast Thailand) to blue-spored agaric Heinemanomyces for specialists in the field, is difficult Phylloporus corrugatus in Lam-pla-Man splendidus. And that is just a few of what and the different species concepts and Leccinellum subglabripes in Sakerat you may encounter! The list inspiring, and infrageneric classifications are – both near Natkan Ratchisima (Central even more so for people like myself with controversial. And pretty confusing, East Thailand). Even spying a collector as many as forty young students—some too. Depending on the author, sections, in the field and stopping can strike up a mycologists in the making—showing subsections, or even stirps exist to deal as they are always willing to sell their their great enthusisam for their natural “solve” the genus (Aanen et al., 2000). wares! Some of the traders are interested mycological heritage. Attempts have been made to clarify only in a very small range of species, A good summary of the Thai funga may phylogenetic relationships within the especially chanterelles, which they buy off be found in Thai Fungal Diversity edited genus, although these approaches were the collectors, sort and clean. This leaves by E.J.B. Jones, M. Tacnichareon and K.D. restricted to specific sections (Eberhardt others such as Lactarius volemus, Russula Hyde (2004; National Center for Genetic et al., 2013) or contained many brevipes, R. compacta and members of Engineering and Biotechnology, Bangkok, unresolved or unsupported branches Russula albnonigra and R. adusta group Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand, ISBN (Aanen et al., 2000). Yet, species are and Sutorius (formerly Tylopilus) eximius 9-628676-57-1).

46 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 47 University campus, upon soil in which cat When it dies, these high-quality nutrients References Cited bones were found in the top 20 cm layer become available for other organisms. Aanen, D.K., T.W. Kuyper, T. Boekhout, (Sagara, 1976). The year after, at the same The remains offer a temporary living for The Wild Epicure and R.F. Hoekstra. 2000. Phylogenetic spot, more fruiting bodies appeared. many invertebrates. The remains of an relationships in the genus Hebeloma Maybe the forest tree type was more animal undergo quick and considerable based on ITS1 and 2 sequences, with influential than the animal remains? changes. This “rotting” takes place in a special emphasis on the Hebeloma Well, no. The first collection of H. few stages – fresh stage, bloat stage, early crustuliniforme complex. Mycologia vinosophyllum was found in a stand decomposition, late decomposition, and AN ICELANDIC 92(20): 269-281. of angiosperm Castanopsis cuspidata dry stage. The bacterial decomposition Arora, D. 1986. Mushrooms Demystified: (Fagaceae); the second in an area would be blocked after a while if the A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy dominated by gymnosperm Pinus decomposition products were not FUNGAL SEASONING Fungi, 2nd edition. Ten Speed Press densiflora. removed. Here’s where the fungi become Berkeley (CA). Also in 1998 fruiting bodies of H. important in this storyline (Sagara, 1995); Lawrence Millman Bunyard, B.A. 2004. Commentary on: vinosophyllum were observed in close both the associated fungi and the plants Taphonomic mycota: fungi with association with a skull and bones, this (in the form of ectomycorrhizae) can forensic potential. Journal of Forensic time originating from a jungle crow absorb these products of decomposition. n a map of Iceland, you can As nearly as I can tell, the mold in Sciences 49(5): 1134. (Corvus macrorhynchos) in Urawa This results in the translocation of the easily locate the Westfjords— question is a Penicillium species (see black Carter, D.O., and M. Tibbett. 2003. (Saitama City, Japan) (Fukiharu et al., absorbed waste material above the they stick out from the and white image taken with a scanning Taphonomic mycota: fungi with 2000) – the first and so far only case ground – by the fruiting of the fungi as Onorthwestern part of the island like a electron microscope at right) whose forensic potential. Journal of Forensic with birds. well as in the growth of the plants. This rooster’s frazzled comb. Until the early greenish color is due to the presence of Sciences 48(1): 168-171. So far it is unclear whether or not the tripartite association is referred to as a years of the last century, the Westfjords numerous conidia. During growth, its Carter, D.O., D. Yellowlees, and M. closely related Hebeloma sarcophyllum cleaning symbiosis. were virtually cut off from the rest of protein and fat-digestion enzymes are Tibbett. 2007. Cadaver decomposition Peck, occurring in Europe, North the island. This remoteness resulted in busy altering the flavor of the sheep fat. in terrestrial ecosystems. Africa, and North America, has the Thus? foods and food preparations that were Whichever Penicillium species it is, it’s Naturwissenschaften 84: 12-14. same ecological tendencies. Also other Is there a forensic potential for unknown elsewhere in Iceland. Consider probably closer to P. roquefortii than Fukiharu, T., G. Yokoyama, and T. a former resident of the Westfjords, I’ve Hebeloma species, like the eastern North Hebeloma species? Sure. Then can we brudningur. To make this dish, you throw it is to P. camembertii, which changes Oba. 2000. Occurrence of Hebeloma had several opportunities to sample American and European H. syrjense, start using it in crime investigation? Not both fish and animal bones into a barrel the texture of its substrate, but not the vinosophyllum on the forest ground hnðmör. Halldor typically serves it over Japanese and European H. radicosum, and yet. We don’t know how trustworthy of sour whey throughout the winter. By flavor (the Penicillium species in hnðmör after decomposition of crow carcass. half-dried torsk (cod) and potatoes. The Australian H. animophilum are known the findings are as to forensic cases. the spring, the bones will have softened does the reverse). Not surprisingly, soft Mycoscience 41: 401-402. first time we had it, we fell to chatting, to grow in association with rotting / Different authors have stated that more considerably, whereupon they’re boiled cheeses like camembert and brie are Eberhardt, U., H.J. Beker, J. Vesterholt, and the hnðmör got cold and, as a result, decomposing animal remains (Carter research is needed to develop fungi and eaten. Grimace if you like, but a plate ripened by P. camembertii. K. Dukik, G. Walther, J. Vila, and quite viscous, so Halldor had to boil it and Tibbett, 2003). Hebeloma syrjense is into suitable forensic tools (Carter and of brudningur would have been much At my suggestion, my Icelandic friend S.F. Brime. 2013. European species again. During one of our meals, he told often referred to as the “corpse finder,” yet Tibbett, 2003; Bunyard, 2004). better than going hungry. Lene left out some sheep fat, and soon of Hebeloma section Theobromina. me that an “X” used to be carved on every may turn out to be synonymous with H. For example, it is important to Even though edible mushrooms, such a mold appeared on it. Might this mold Fungal Diversity 58: 103-126. block of hnðmör, although he didn’t know radicosum (Bunyard, 2004). understand that fungi do not grow as chanterelles, fruit in the Westfjords, have been the fungal component of Mildenhall, D.C., P.E.J. Wiltshire, and why. One thing he did know: the “X” was upon buried cadavers, but rather on the locals didn’t eat them until recently. But hnðmör? Probably not, because it was not an off-kilter Christian cross designed Cleaning Symbiosis subsequent release of nitrogen during V.M. Bryant. 2006. Forensic they continue to make a seasoning that growing in Eyjafjördur, not the Westfjords, palynology: why do it and how it to ward off culinary demons. If I had to The carrion-associated fungi that fruit the cadaver’s decomposition (in the features a sveppur (fungus), specifically and in the late winter, not the fall or early make a guess myself, I would say that the at later stages of the succession process microclimatic patch, which is called works. Forensic Science International a mygla (mold). This seasoning is called winter, the period when sheep are usually 163: 163-172. “X” was put there to provide aeration for after decomposition include many the cadaver decomposition island, cDI) hnðmör (“kneaded fat”). Needless to say, slaughtered in Iceland. Here I might add the fungus. ectomycorrhizal species. A number of (carter and Tibbett, 2003; Carter et Sagara, N. 1976. Presence of a buried you won’t find any mention of it in Larouse that there’s never been any mycological mammalian carcass indicated by fungal Hnðmör has a slightly cheesey flavor, but Hebeloma species and Laccaria bicolor al., 2007). How this relates to carcass Gastronomique or in the food pages of the work done on hnðmör, with the result that it’s quite mild in comparison to Stilton, have been demonstrated to produce decomposition is unclear, though. How fruiting bodies. Nature 262(5571): 816. New York Times. there’s currently no way of knowing if it Sagara, N. 1995. Association of Gorgonzola, or Roquefort cheese, each fruiting bodies in animal waste sites by much nitrogen is released? Under what Here’s how you make hnðmör: has any antibiotic or toxic properties. of which is ripened by P. roquefortii. Yet forming ectomycorrhizae; specimens form is nitrogen released (simple organic ectomycorrhizal fungi with From a recently slaughtered sheep, you Now for the culinary part of this decomposed animal wastes in forest in the absence of thyme, basil, oregano, originated in plots that allowed plant nitrogen, ammonium, nitrate)? These take the kidney fat as well as the net of fat essay. You get one of the aforementioned or other conventional seasonings, that root development while plots with approximations are needed in order to habitats: a cleaning symbiosis? around the stomach, press them firmly 7cm blocks, let it melt, and then put Canadian Journal of Botany 73(Suppl. flavor might have seemed extremely tangy blocked colonization by roots did not make accurate estimations of the post- together so that there are no empty spaces it in a pot and boil it, then you serve to a resident of the Westfjords a hundred result in fruiting bodies. (Laccaria burial interval (PBI). 1): S1423-S1433. in the mor (fat), place this pressed fat in it over salt fish or half-dried fish and Van Wielink, P. 2004. Carrion in De or so years ago. Likewise, hnðmör leaves species do not seem to be specific to As a final point of discussion, a mesh-type cloth, and then hang it in a the potatoes that always accompany a distinct feeling of heaviness in the animal remains as they originate in any experimental settings should be Kaaistoep: the natural succession of cool place, usually some sort of shed. After fish at an Icelandic meal. It’ll also be beetles and other insects in a fox and stomach. Not so long ago, this might not “disturbed” site.) taken into account – temperature, four or five days, a greenish mygla will served over fermented skata (skate) on have been such a bad thing. For in a region We know some other tripartite humidity, oxygen availability, and soil a roe deer. Entomologische Berichten appear on the fat. You allow this mygla to Thorlaksmessa, the day before Christmas 64(2): 34-50. like the Westfjords, where there was often relationships between fungi, plants characteristics – as these can influence continue growing until, as one Westfjords Eve. During fermentation, the urea not enough to eat, a sense of heaviness in and animals. The difference is that the the rate of decomposition. Also the Vltchek, A. 2013. Harare: is it really the resident told me, “other colors [i.e., other in the skate’s blood is broken down worst city on Earth? Counterpunch, the stomach might have contributed to the associated animals in this case cannot carcass species (body composition, fat molds] start growing, too.” Now you knead into ammonia compounds. To some illusion of a full meal. disperse fungal spores. Then why do ratio, muscle mass) and size will have March 15-17, 2013. Available at: http:// together the mygla and fat, then cut the Icelanders, the result tastes like stale www.counterpunch.org/2013/03/15/ Thanks to Guðridur Gyda Eyjolfsdottir, these associations exist? effects on decomposition rate as well as combination into 7cm blocks that look not urine, so they moderate this flavor with a Lene Zachariassen, Kathie Hodge, and An animal consists for the greater part carcass-associated species composition harare-is-it-really-the-worst-city-on- unlike squares of Roquefort cheese, and seasoning of hnðmör. earth/. Halldor Hestnes for their contributions to of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. and succession (van Wielink, 2004). put these blocks in your fridge or cellar. Thanks to my Reykjavik friend Halldor, this essay. 48 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 49 mobility; Fungal activities in subaerial Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and In essence, this large-format (page rock-inhabiting microbial communities; multilocus microsatellite typing (MLMT) size approximately 21 X 30 cm) slender Bookshelf Fungi The oxalate-carbonate pathway in in fungi. VI. Molecular ecology of fungi book is a somewhat expanded version of soil carbon storage: the role of fungi in the environment—Fungi in the hidden Kibby’s article of the same title published in the November 2010 issue of Field and consequences of those interactions, and oxalotrophic bacteria; Mineral environment: the gut of beetles; and A Mycology. It does not purport to be a which profoundly influence all life. tunneling by fungi; Mineral dissolution saltmarsh decomposition system and its technical monographic treatment, but Carbon and nutrient cycling, organic by ectomycorrhizal fungi; Lichen ascomycetous laccase genes. rather a useful tool for field mycologists matter decomposition, soil formation, biogeochemistry; Fungi in subterranean Like the Biogeochemistry volume, and it should work well for that purpose. and water movement are examples environments; The role of fungi in this one carries a much-too-steep price The text and keys are much the same of the processes that are studied. The carbon and nitrogen cycles in freshwater tag that will prevent it from getting as those in the Field Mycology article. biogeochemical activities of bacteria systems; and Biogeochemical roles of the widespread readership it deserves. A set of photos of six look-alike genera have received much attention from fungi in marine and estuarine habitats. Hopefully those with an interest will live has been added, with the captions giving researchers, however, all too often, Whew ... near a university library where they can the critical features that differentiate biogeochemists ignore the fungi and Typical for a multi-author volume, photocopy or scan selected chapters for them from tricholomas. The number of the crucial roles they play in these the chapters vary in terms of writing personal use. species illustrated has been increased processes. For instance, fungi are often quality and clarity of presentation. Steve Trudell considerably and photos reproduced at associated with decomposition, but Each is followed by an extensive list of larger size. less appreciated are symbiotic fungi, references. In most, the text is supported Following a general introduction to the such as those in mycorrhizas, which by tables, charts, illustrations, and genus and its essential characteristics, are associated with the vast majority photographs (all in black and white), but and a table showing the assignment of of plant species and have an enormous it is not an image-dominated work by the species to sections and subgenera, influence on plant growth and nutrient any means. And, as would be expected dichotomous keys are provided to the cycling. Similarly neglected are lichens, of a volume produced by professional nutrient dynamics in mycelial networks; subgenera and sections and then to the which play important roles as early scientists, the more mycology and basic Natural history of the fungal hypha: how species within those taxa. The key leads colonizers of bare rock surfaces, where science (chemistry, biology, etc.) you Woronin bodies support a multicellular are fairly long and, helpfully, the most they break down rock and mineral know, the more you’ll get out of it, but lifestyle; Environmental sensing and important distinguishing features are components and set the stage for one need not be a professional scientist the filamentous fungal lifestyle; and listed first and set in italics. The species development of soils. Biogeochemical to benefit. Nonetheless, this is probably Fungi in Biogeochemical Mathematical modeling of the form and accounts consist of commentary rather activities of fungi also are relevant to more than the typical mushroom hunter function of fungal mycelia. II. Functional than comprehensive feature-by-feature Cycles bioremediation of pollution, but also is likely to want to tackle and perhaps would best be used as the basis for a ecology of saprotrophic fungi—Mineral descriptions of characters. They describe Geoffrey M. Gadd (editor) to the biodeterioration of many of our discussion-based university seminar transformations and biogeochemical the key macro- and micro-features 2006, British Mycological Society building materials such as wood, stone, (although few students are likely to be cycles: a geomycological perspective; and habitat information, plus often ISBN 978-0-521-84579-3 and cement. able to afford it). Or better yet, perhaps Mycelial responses in heterogeneous provide information about the species’s hardback, (469 pages) This volume contains 18 contributions the contents could be rendered as environments: parallels with occurrence in Britain, taxonomic status, Cambridge University Press from a total of 42 authors representing a series of articles suited for a more macroorganisms; Natural abundance and possible look-alikes. At the end of http://www.cambridge.org/us/ 9 countries. The chapter titles reflect 15 13 general audience. of N and C in saprotrophic fungi: the notes, page-number references to $229.00 the diversity of topics covered— what can they tell us? III. Mutualistic recommended pictures in five sources Geomicrobiology: relative roles of The British Mycological Society (BMS) interactions in the environment— are given (Fungi of Switzerland, Vol. bacteria and fungi as geomicrobial Fungi in the Environment often sponsors a symposium on a single Mycorrhizas and the terrestrial The Genus Tricholoma 3; Mushrooms & Toadstools of Britain agents; Integrated nutrient cycles in Geoffrey M. Gadd, Sarah C. broad mycological topic in conjunction carbon cycle: roles in global carbon & Europe [Courtecuisse and Duhem], boreal forest ecosystems—the role Watkinson, Paul S. Dyer (editors) in Britain with its annual meeting. As such, these sequestration and plant community I Tricolomi [Galli], Mushrooms and of mycorrhizal fungi; Fungal roles in 2007, British Mycological Society typically represent the focus of the composition; Water relations in Geoffrey Kibby other Fungi of Great Britain & Europe transport processes in soils; Water ISBN 978-0-521-85029-2 whole meeting, unlike the practice of the lichens; Development of the arbuscular December 2012 / 44 pages, soft cover [Phillips], and Tricholoma [Fungi dynamics of mycorrhizas in arid soils; (hardback, 386 pages) Mycological Society of America where mycorrhizal symbiosis: insights from Published by the author Europaei Vol. 3, Riva]). A list of key Integrating ectomycorrhizal fungi Cambridge University Press the annual meeting usually includes a genomics. IV. Pathogenic interactions in ₤15.50 (approximately $24) plus references and short glossary follow the into quantitative frameworks of forest (http://www.cambridge.org/us/) large number of smaller sessions on a the environment—Functional genomics shipping (₤1.99 standard; ₤6.99 species accounts. carbon and nitrogen cycling; Role of $213.00 variety of topics. This and the similar of plant infection by the rice blast express), Available from NHBS Seventy-three Tricholoma species arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in carbon volume reviewed below present the Very similar to the above volume, this fungus Magnaporthe grisea; Exploring (www.nhbs.com/) are described and 45 of them are well and nutrient cycling in grassland; The results of two such BMS symposia and one deals with a somewhat broader area, the interaction between nematode- Geoffrey Kibby is a professional- illustrated (one with a reproduction of a role of wood decay fungi in the carbon are of high interest because they provide with only a bit of overlap between the trapping fungi and nematodes by using caliber amateur mycologist who edits painting) with generously sized photos and nitrogen dynamics of the forest information on aspects of mycology we two. Given the degree of similarity, my DNA microarrays; Role of α(1-3)-glucan the popular British Mycological Society that, with a few exceptions, clearly show floor; Relative roles of bacteria and fungi don’t often hear about, despite the fact general comments in the above review in Aspergillus fumigatus and other journal, Field Mycology, and is known to the macroscopic characters needed for in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon that they are of great importance to all of will also apply here. This volume also human fungal pathogens; Plagues upon many North Americans from the years identification. The photos are grouped biodegradation and bioremediation us, whether we are aware of it or not. has 18 chapters, this time divided into houses and cars: the unnatural history he spent in the Northeast studying our together following the main text. The 73 of contaminated soils; Biodegradation Biogeochemistry is the field of six topical groupings. Forty-nine authors of Meruliporia incrassata, Serpula fungi. He has authored and illustrated species include 18 not known to occur and biodeterioration of man-made science that deals with the chemical from 10 countries contributed. lacrymans, and Sphaerobolus stellatus. many previous mushroom books, in Britain, but are included in hopes that polymeric materials; Fungal dissolution interactions that take place among The section and chapter titles are: V. Environmental population genetics of including similar treatments of British they would be recognized should they and transformation of minerals: organisms and the physical components I. Imaging and modeling of fungi in fungi—Fungal species: thoughts on their agaricuses, boletes, and russulas (all still occur there. Subtracting those 18 and significance for nutrient and metal of their environment, and the causes the environment—Imaging complex recognition, maintenance, and selection; available from NHBS). the epithet, inocybeoides, which for now

50 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 51 Kibby considers a nomen confusum, 54 beginning (he died early at 49), she built known British species are left. Twenty- a competence that seemed to open many A message from four of these also occur in North doors. Later, she persevered and got the America, or at least the same names are PhD at 52 that allowed her to continue Gary Lincoff applied here pending future study. her beloved mushroom work. to all forayers: Little by little, Tricholoma is beginning That work began with the water to receive the attention it deserves and mold, Achyla, and research into the John Cage this contribution should be useful to many options it seemed to have for would say anyone with an interest in the genus. reproduction. She and Red searched Sarcosoma globosum Although the overlap with the Field the world for strong mating strains of just go out Mycology article is great, I think the this fungus. This was before Watson and what’s what. Susan Hopkins added photographs and larger format and Crick elucidated DNA and the make the book worth getting even if you field of genetics was flooded with Don’t look for New York already have the earlier version. lab assistants and funding. As their anything. Steve Trudell options for success dimmed, they found Schizophyllum more interesting. They Accept whatever cavalierly called their efforts to find you find. Several books A Woman of Science: An all the signals and sensors for mating list Sarcosoma globosum as rare. I think it may not be seen often because it fruits in Schizophyllum the “Kama Sutra You’re bound Extraordinary Journey of just after the snow has melted in cold, wet weather Project.” In fact, the genetics of fungal to be surprised before the morels start. I stumbled on it last year on Love, Discovery, and the mating has become a hot topic because and elated - April 14, 2012, a whole month before any other morel some of the mechanisms have relevance Sex Life of Mushrooms and will only be up here. I watched them (75) and photographed them Cardy Raper to humans. Some of the sensor chemicals over a 9 week-period until they shriveled up are the same as those found in humans disappointed 2013; ISBN-10: 1578264421, Week 1. to nothing. At Week 3 they froze solid under ISBN-13: 978-1578264421 (Remember the pig pheromones in if you have light snow and with more rain and warmer (softcover, 272 pp.) black truffles?) Now that the entire a shopping list temperatures they grew bigger and Hatherleigh Press genome of Schizophyllum commune has flatter by Week 4. been sequenced, even a few genes with to fill. One can easily relate to Cardy Raper’s potential for helping turn wood into memoir of her life and adventures in paper have been found. So with over 100 science. The “loves” that she delved pheromones to work with, Schizophyllum into the most were the affection for the proved very interesting indeed. mentor / professor that she married Research into Agaricus sex was (Red) and the alluring accomplishments funded by Campbell’s Soup. Since King of the academic science in her life. The Louis XVI this genus was cultivated “sex” in the title was definitely not in gardens and improved solely with Week 2. human sex—that was only faintly spontaneous mutants that increased alluded to once. No, even though she production. Unfortunately for the went through abortion, two children, research, Agaricus did not have a and infidelity, the sex in this book was sex life—it was hermaphroditic like all about mushrooms. She worked with some animals. There was no chance to Achyla, Schizophyllum and Agaricus improve it with sexual breeding. and provides a window of interpretation So, the research of Cardy Raper into their sex lives and genetics, but was mycological, interesting, and this is no lecture in mycology. This is important. The way that she forged her more about the adventures of a strong, way in a man’s world was respectable matter-of-fact woman whose fitness and inspiring. This tale is told in such a for a career in science led her into the matter-of-fact way that one is tempted to Week 1. mycological world. think she is ordinary, but there are many When she subtitles her book clues that she is an exceptional woman. Adventures of a Woman in Science, Not only did she stand up to the rigors of she implies that her experiences were a career in science, but she got her pilot’s different than those of a man. She relates license, sailed in any weather, and took a a few experiences of discrimination, like knife out on the boat while pregnant (to when she had to go in the back door cut the umbilical cord, in case her baby of the Harvard dining room because came). This book is a worthy read—if the front door was only for men, but only just to meet her. most problems of sexism she successfully Kristine Ciombor turned into mere hurdles. Working Vice President, Week 1. closely with her husband in the Wisconsin Mycological Society

52 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 FUNGI Volume 6:3 Fall 2013 53 FUFUNGINGI PresortedPresorted Standard Standard P.O.P.O. Box Box 8 8 1925 1925 Highway Highway 175 175 USUS Postage Postage Paid Paid HGIHGI Company Company Richfield,Richfield, WI WI53076-0008 53076-0008 USA USA

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