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Managing Urban Watershed Pathogen Contamination

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Managing Urban Watershed Pathogen Contamination EPA/600/R-03/111 September 2003 Managing Urban Watershed Pathogen Contamination by Joyce M. Perdek, Russell D. Arnone, and Mary K. Stinson Water Supply and Water Resources Division Urban Watershed Management Branch Edison, New Jersey 08837 and Mary Ellen Tuccillo Oak Ridge Institute of Science and Education Water Supply and Water Resources Division Urban Watershed Management Branch Edison, New Jersey 08837 National Risk Management Research Laboratory Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Notice The information in this report has been subjected to Agency peer and administrative review and has been approved for publication as an EPA document. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. ii Abstract This document is written as a resource for state and local watershed managers who have the responsibility of managing pathogen contamination in urban watersheds. In addition it can be an information source for members of the public interested in watershed mitigation efforts aimed at reducing microbial contamination. It is written to support specific steps of the total maximum daily load (TMDL) process for meeting water quality standards in urban watersheds. The information provided can also support watershed evaluations conducted when disease outbreaks occur in the absence of standards violations. The document discusses the regulation of waterborne pathogens (Chapter 1), detection methods (Chapter 2), and combined sewer overflow control technologies and stormwater best management practices (Chapter 3). The table below identifies the steps of the TMDL process supported by each of the chapters. The intent is to supplement the information included in the EPA document Protocol for Developing Pathogen TMDLs, Office of Water, January 2001, EPA 841-R-00-002 guidance. This document was developed using information collected through extensive literature reviews by researchers in the Urban Watershed Management Branch (UWMB) of EPA’s National Risk Management Research Laboratory. The final document will be an official EPA report available through the UWMB Internet site http://www.epa.gov/ednnrmrl/. Steps of TMDL Process Supported by the Document Chapters Steps of TMDL Process TMDL Step 1: TMDL Step 2: TMDL Step 3: TMDL Step 4: TMDL Step 5: TMDL Step 6: TMDL Step Problem Identification Source Linkage Allocations Follow-up 7: Identification of Water Assessment Between Monitoring Assembling Quality Water Quality and the TMDL Indicators and Targets Evaluation Target Values and Pollutant Sources Document Chapters Chapter 1. Pathogens of Chapter 3. Concern Management and Control of Chapter 2. Detection Methods and Pathogens Alternate Indicator Organisms iii Foreword The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is charged by Congress with protecting the Nation’s land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and implement actions leading to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural systems to support and nurture life. To meet this mandate, EPA’s research program is providing data and technical support for solving environmental problems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage our ecological resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our health, and prevent or reduce environmental risks in the future. The National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL) is the Agency’s center for investigation of technological and management approaches for preventing and reducing risks from pollution that threaten human health and the environment. The focus of the Laboratory’s research program is on methods and their cost-effectiveness for prevention and control of pollution to air, land, water, and subsurface resources; protection of water quality in public water systems; remediation of contaminated sites, sediments and ground water; prevention and control of indoor air pollution; and restoration of ecosystems. NRMRL collaborates with both public and private sector partners to foster technologies that reduce the cost of compliance and to anticipate emerging problems. NRMRL’s research provides solutions to environmental problems by: developing and promoting technologies that protect and improve the environment; advancing scientific and engineering information to support regulatory and policy decisions; and providing the technical support and information transfer to ensure implementation of environmental regulations and strategies at the national, state, and community levels. This publication has been produced as part of the Laboratory’s strategic long-term research plan. It is published and made available by EPA’s Office of Research and Development to assist the user community and to link researchers with their clients. Hugh W. McKinnon, Director National Risk Management Research Laboratory iv Contents Notice ...................................................................... ii Abstract .................................................................... iii Foreword ....................................................................v List of Tables ............................................................... ix List of Figures ................................................................x Acknowledgments ........................................................... xi Chapter One Regulating Waterborne Pathogens .................................. 1-1 1.1 Introduction .................................................... 1-1 1.2 Health Effects .................................................. 1-4 1.2.1 Waterborne Disease Outbreaks ............................... 1-4 1.2.2 Pathogenic Bacteria of Concern .............................. 1-9 1.2.2.1 Campylobacter ..................................... 1-9 1.2.2.2 E. Coli O157:H7 ................................... 1-10 1.2.2.3 Legionella pneumophilia ............................ 1-11 1.2.2.4 Leptospira ........................................ 1-11 1.2.2.5 Salmonella ....................................... 1-11 1.2.2.6 Shigella .......................................... 1-12 1.2.2.7 Vibrio cholerae .................................... 1-12 1.2.2.8 Yersinia entercolitica ............................... 1-12 1.2.3 Pathogenic Protozoa of Concern .............................. 1-13 1.2.3.1 Cryptosporidium ................................... 1-13 1.2.3.2 Cyclospora ....................................... 1-15 1.2.3.3 Giardia lamblia .................................... 1-15 1.2.3.4 Entamoeba histolytica .............................. 1-16 1.2.3.5 Naegleria fowleri .................................. 1-16 1.2.4 Pathogenic Viruses of Concern ............................... 1-16 1.2.4.1 Adenoviruses ..................................... 1-18 1.2.4.2 Astroviruses ...................................... 1-18 1.2.4.3 Caliciviruses ...................................... 1-18 1.2.4.4 Enteroviruses ..................................... 1-18 1.2.4.5 Hepatitis A and Hepatitis E .......................... 1-19 1.2.4.6 Reoviruses ........................................ 1-19 1.2.4.7 Rotaviruses ....................................... 1-19 1.2.5 Pathogenic Helminth Worms ................................ 1-20 1.2.5.1 Nematodes ........................................ 1-20 1.2.5.2 Cestodes ........................................ 1-21 v Contents (cont.) 1.2.5.3 Trematodes ....................................... 1-21 1.2.6 Pathogenic Fungi .......................................... 1-22 1.3 Microbial Water Quality Standards ................................. 1-24 1.3.1 Clean Water Act ..................................... 1-24 1.3.1.1 TMDL Description and Definition ..................... 1-25 1.3.1.2 Stormwater, Combined Sewer Overflow and Sanitary Sewer Overflow Regulations ............................... 1-26 1.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act .................................... 1-28 1.3.3 State Standards ............................................ 1-29 1.3.4 Other Applicable Standards ................................. 1-29 1.3.4.1 Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments .......... 1-29 1.3.4.2 Beaches Environmental Assessment, Closure, and Health (BEACH) Program.................................. 1-31 1.4 Evaluation of Pathogen Indicators ................................. 1-31 1.4.1 Use of Indicators ......................................... 1-32 1.4.2 Relationships between Indicators and Illness ................... 1-34 1.5 Conclusions ................................................... 1-37 References .......................................................... 1-39 Chapter Two Detection Methods and Alternate Indicator Organisms ................... 2-1 2.1 Introduction ................................................... 2-1 2.2 Detection Methods ............................................... 2-2 2.2.1 Bacteria .................................................. 2-2 2.2.1.1 Cultural and Enzyme-Based Methods ................... 2-2 2.2.1.2 Immunological Methods .............................. 2-4 2.2.1.3 Genetic Methods (Gene Probes and PCR) ................ 2-5 2.2.2 Viruses ................................................... 2-6 2.2.2.1 Sample Concentration ................................ 2-6 2.2.2.2 Cultural Assay ...................................... 2-8 2.2.2.3 Immunological Techniques ............................ 2-9 2.2.2.4 Gene Probes ....................................... 2-9 2.2.2.5
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