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AN INTRODUCTION to West Greenlandic

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AN INTRODUCTION to West Greenlandic AN INTRODUCTION TO West Greenlandic STIAN LYBECH Second edition An Introduction to West Greenlandic Stian Lybech September 19, 2021 v. 2.2 © 2019 – 2021 Stian Lybech All rights reserved Typesetting:Ǝ X TEX engine Font: 11pt Libertine, Charis SIL Illustrations: TikZ First edition (v.1.0) August 19, 2019 Second edition (v.2.0) August 21, 2021 Second edition (v.2.1) September 12, 2021 Second edition (v.2.2) September 19, 2021 Comments, suggestions and error corrections are welcome! Correspondence about this work should be addressed to the author at stianlybech a-jusaq gmail naggat com This means 'at' in Greenlandic And this means 'dot' Contents Preface vii About the book (and the author) . vii How (not) to learn Greenlandic ............................ ix Structure of the book ................................. xi I Words 1 1 The units of meaning 3 1.1 Problems posed by polysynthesis ....................... 3 1.2 Morphemes and phonemes ........................... 6 1.3 Levels in the language .............................. 9 1.4 Types of morphemes and the structure of a word . 12 1.5 Join markers ................................... 13 1.6 A bit of automata theory ............................ 14 1.7 Classes of morphemes .............................. 15 1.8 Ordering affixes ................................. 19 2 Sandhi rules and sound laws 27 2.1 Phonemes in Greenlandic ............................ 27 2.2 The laws of sound ................................ 28 2.3 Phonotactically truncative morphemes .................... 30 2.4 Sandhi or ‘joining’ rules ............................. 30 2.5 Phonotactic epenthesis ............................. 34 3 Sound rules 39 3.1 The ð-rule .................................... 41 3.2 The t-to-s rule .................................. 42 3.3 The y-rule .................................... 43 3.4 The ə-rule .................................... 44 i Contents 3.5 The a-rule .................................... 48 3.6 The t-rule ..................................... 49 3.7 The g-rule .................................... 50 3.8 The vowel rule .................................. 51 3.9 The consonant rule ............................... 52 3.10 The fricative rule ................................. 53 3.11 A contrived example .............................. 56 4 The spoken word 63 4.1 A note on notation ............................... 63 4.2 The long and the short ofit ........................... 64 4.3 Vowel sounds, open and closed ......................... 65 4.4 Consonant sounds ................................ 66 4.5 First series: Stops ................................ 67 4.6 Second series: Nasals .............................. 70 4.7 Third series: Voiced fricatives ......................... 71 4.8 Fourth series: Unvoiced fricatives ....................... 73 4.9 Patterns in the fricative sound changes .................... 74 4.10 The weight of a syllable ............................. 75 5 The written word 81 5.1 Open vowels and assimilated uvulars ..................... 81 5.2 First series: Stops ................................ 82 5.3 Second series: Nasals .............................. 83 5.4 Third series: Voiced fricatives ......................... 83 5.5 Fourth series: Unvoiced fricatives ....................... 84 5.6 From morphemes to writing (and back again?) . 85 6 Special sound and sandhi processes 91 6.1 Specialities versus irregularities ........................ 92 6.2 Sound weakening (nasalisation) ........................ 93 6.3 Enclitics and their sandhi ............................ 95 6.4 Nominal stem-types and their sandhi ..................... 97 6.5 Sound displacement (metathesis) . 101 6.6 Sound doubling (gemination) . 105 6.7 p-declined and up-declined stems . 109 6.8 Sound replacement (replacivity) . 113 6.9 Sandhi fusion (a dead rule) . 114 6.10 ut(ə)-stems and their sandhi . 116 6.11 {aq} the friendly ghost-morpheme . 119 ii Contents II Sentences 123 7 Basic concepts 125 7.1 The basic structure of a sentence . 126 7.2 Valency and transitivity .............................128 7.3 Person and number ...............................131 7.4 The moods of verbs ...............................133 7.5 The grammatical cases .............................135 7.6 The prepositional cases .............................138 7.7 Verbalisation of the prepositional cases . 139 7.8 Possession ....................................140 8 Noun phrases 145 8.1 Possessive noun phrases ............................146 8.2 Spatial nouns ...................................148 8.3 Partitive constructions .............................150 8.4 Noun phrases with modifiers . 151 8.5 Incorporation with modification . 153 8.6 Impersonal incorporation ............................158 8.7 The verbal possessive ..............................159 8.8 Participles ....................................161 8.9 Subordinate clauses with modifiers . 166 8.10 Nominal object clauses .............................168 8.11 Incorporation of participles . 169 9 Focus 173 9.1 The passive construction ............................173 9.2 The antipassive construction . 177 9.3 Agent- and patient-preserving stems . 180 9.4 Agentive affixes and double-transitive sentences . 184 9.5 Patientive affixes .................................187 9.6 Switching focus .................................188 9.7 Indefiniteness ..................................190 10 Coreference 193 10.1 Coreference and possession . 193 10.2 Coreference and verbal moods . 195 10.3 Participial mood and object clauses . 196 10.4 Participial mood and cleft sentences . 198 10.5 Contemporative mood and object clauses . 201 iii Contents 10.6 Object clauses of object clauses . 202 10.7 Conjunctions and lists of clauses . 204 10.8 Concurrent actions ...............................205 10.9 Lexicalised contemporative constructions . 205 11 Time 213 11.1 Time and aspect .................................214 11.2 Nominal time specifications . 218 11.3 Verbal time specifications ............................220 11.4 Recurrent time and habitual actions . 223 11.5 Recurrent time or cause .............................223 12 Stems of state 225 12.1 Relative equality .................................225 12.2 Relative difference ................................227 12.3 Partitive comparatives .............................229 12.4 Adverbials ....................................232 III Systems 239 13 The system of nominal endings 241 13.1 The unmarked cases ...............................242 13.2 The possessive absolutive endings . 246 13.3 The possessive ergative endings . 250 13.4 The system of personal markers . 252 13.5 Possession in the prepositional cases . 252 13.6 Verbalisation of the prepositional cases . 255 14 The system of verbal endings 259 14.1 The mood markers ................................259 14.2 Intransitive personal markers . 260 14.3 Intransitive endings ...............................261 14.4 Transitive personal markers . 268 14.5 Regular changes in combinations of markers . 269 14.6 Transitive endings ................................271 14.7 Schwa-stems and their endings . 287 14.8 Special endings for the negation affix . 291 14.9 Special endings for the future affix . 294 15 The system of demonstratives 297 iv Contents 15.1 The set of demonstrative roots . 298 15.2 Referring back (anaphora) . 300 15.3 Demonstrative adverbs .............................302 15.4 Demonstrative pronouns ............................305 15.5 Demonstrative exclamations . 309 16 Pronouns 313 16.1 Personal pronouns ................................313 16.2 The ‘single-handed’ pronoun nammineq . 315 16.3 The reflexive and reciprocal pronoun . 316 16.4 Interrogative pronouns .............................317 16.5 ‘Quantitative’ pronouns .............................319 IV Appendices 323 A The Old Orthography 325 A.1 Special symbols and consonant clusters . 326 A.2 The diacritics and vowels ............................331 B Graphemistic endings 335 B.1 Possessive endings ................................336 B.2 Intransitive endings ...............................337 B.3 Transitive endings in the superordinate moods . 338 B.4 Transitive endings in the subordinate moods . 339 B.5 Transitive endings in the dependent moods . 339 B.6 Special endings for the schwa-stems . 341 B.7 Special endings for V{ŋŋit}V . 343 B.8 Special endings for V{ssa}V and V{qəna}V . 345 B.9 Special endings for V{gi}V . 346 B.10 Other affixes with special endings . 347 Annotated bibliography 349 v Preface Dear reader! If you want to learn Greenlandic – Kalaallisut – then this book is for you. Even if you already know the language, you might still find something of interest in it, if you have ever wondered why the words look and behave the way they do: Why do you say sulisarpoq but sinittarpoq, and why is the language called kalaallisut, when a single Greenlander is a kalaaleq with just a single ‘l’? If man is angut, and you express I am an … by adding -uvunga to a noun, how come then I am a man is angutaavunga? If you have ever taken a course in Greenlandic, you’ll know what I mean. There is a pattern here, but most traditional Greenlandic course-books (and language courses!) will not tell you what this pattern is; the worst of them will tell you nothing atall, except that this is how it is, so you are left with no other option than to try to memorise these sound changes on a word-by-word, case-by-case basis. They will teach you some useful phrases, like happy birthday and thanks for the coffee, that you can repeat, parrot- like, on suitable
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