DOCSLIB.ORG

Preliminary Satellite- Derived Flood Assessment

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Preliminary Satellite- Derived Flood Assessment 18 June 2021 PRELIMINARY SATELLITE- DERIVED FLOOD ASSESSMENT Along the Essequibo and Demerara rivers in Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice, Guyana Status: Inundated structures near Essequibo river and along Demerara rivers observed Further action(s): continue monitoring GUYANA AREA OF INTEREST (AOI) 18 June 2021 REGION FLOODS OVER GUYANA N 120 km Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 Region 4 Region 7 Region 5 AOI Region 10 Region 8 Legend Satellite detected water Region boundary as of 16 and17 June 2021 International boundary River Region 6 Satellite detected water as of 16 and 17 June 2021 [Joint ABI/VIIRS] Region 9 Cloud mask Area of interest Background: ESRI Basemap 3 N Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice 3 km AOI 2 AOI Torani/Bul Linden city letwood Region 10 AOI 1 Right Bank Essequibo Rockstone town AOI 3 Worldview-2 / 15 Jun 2021 Image center: AOI 1 Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, 58°32'21.815"W Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice 5°59'28.371"N Inundated structures near Essequibo river observed BEFORE AFTER Inundated structures N 60 m Worldview-2 / 16 Dec 2017 Worldview-2 / 15 Jun 2021 5 AOI 2 Image center: AOI 2-1 Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, 58°17'35.647"W Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice 6°1'32.678"N No floods observed BEFORE AFTER N 150 m Worldview-2 / 26 Aug 2020 Worldview-2 / 15 Jun 2021 6 AOI 2 Image center: AOI 2-2 Linden city, Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, 58°18'57.245"W Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice 6°0'59.099"N No floods observed BEFORE AFTER Linden city Linden city N 100 m Worldview-2 / 26 Aug 2020 Worldview-2 / 15 Jun 2021 7 AOI 2 Image center: AOI 2-3 Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, 58°17'19.747"W Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice 6°0'45.915"N Water Increase and inundated structures observed BEFORE AFTER Water increase Inundated structures N 100 m Worldview-2 / 9 Feb 2015 Worldview-2 / 15 Jun 2021 8 AOI 3 Image center: AOI 3-2 Linden town, Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, 58°18'45.685"W Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice 5°56'24.166"N Water Increase and potentially structures inundated observed BEFORE AFTER Water increase Demerara river Demerara river Potentially inundated structures N 50 m Worldview-2 / 9 Feb 2015 Worldview-2 / 15 Jun 2021 9 AOI 3 Image center: AOI 3-1 Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, 58°18'44.192"W Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice 5°54'20.881"N Water Increase and inundated structures observed BEFORE AFTER Inundated structures Demerara river Demerara river Overflow evidence N 50 m Worldview-2 / 9 Feb 2015 Worldview-2 / 15 Jun 2021 10 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS • Inundated structures near Essequibo river, AOI 1, near Rockstone town in Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice, as of 15th of June 2021; • No floods in Linden city, AOI 2-1, Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice, as of 15th of June 2021; • No floods along Mederara river near Linden city, AOI 2-2, Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice, as of 15th of June 2021; • Inundated structures due to increased water level of permanent water at AOI 2-3 near Linden city, Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice, as of 15th of June 2021; • Water increase and inundated structures along the Mederara river, AOI 3 Right Bank Essequibo Sub-Region, Region 10- Upper Demerara-Berbice, as of 15th of June 2021; 11 COPYRIGHTS AND SOURCES Data sources: (3) Ancillary data (1) Satellite Image (Post-event) Administrative boundaries: Guyana Lands and Surveys Commission, Worldview-2 / 15 Jun 2021 HDX Copyright: 2015, 2020, and 2021 Digital Globe Populated places: OpenStreetMap Source: USGS Waterways: OpenStreetMap Analysis: UNITAR-UNOSAT (2) Satellite Image (Pre-event) Production: UNITAR-UNOSAT WorldView-2 / 19 Apr 2021, 26 Aug 2020, and 9 Feb 2015 Copyright: 2015, 2020, and 2021 Digital Globe Source: USGS Worldview-2 / 16 Dec 2017 Copyright: 2017 Digital Globe Source: Maxar, ESRI Basemap 12 @UNOSAT @UNITAR.unosat UNOSAT, United Nations Institute for Training T +41 022 917 4720 and Research (UNITAR) E [email protected] 7 bis, Avenue de la Paix, CH-1202 Geneva 2, www.unosat.org Switzerland.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Remnants of the Early Dutch in Guyana 1616-1815 Nova Zeelandia (New Zeeland
    Remnants Of The Early Dutch in Guyana 1616-1815 By Dmitri Allicock Coat of arms -Flag of the Dutch West Indian Company- 1798 Map of Essequibo and Demerara Nova Zeelandia (New Zeeland} Guyana is the only English-speaking country in South America, but English has been the official language for less than half the time Europeans occupied the country. The Dutch language was the main medium of communication for 232 years, from the time a group of Dutchmen sailed up the Pomeroon River and settled there, to 1812 when English replaced Dutch as the language used in the Court of Policy (Parliament). To this day, hundreds of villages have retained their original Dutch names like Uitvlugt, Vergenoegen and Zeeburg. Some present-day Guyanese have names like Westmaas, Van Lange and Meertens. No Guyanese citizen or visitor can escape visible and other reminders of our Dutch predecessors. The ruins of a brick fort can still be seen on a little island where the Essequibo, Mazaruni and Cuyuni rivers meet. The original fort was a wooden structure built around 1600 by some Dutch traders who called it Kyk-over-al or "See-over-all" because it provided a commanding view of the three rivers. From 1627 the fort was controlled by the Dutch West India Company, a Holland-based organization which was vested with the power to establish colonies and which monopolized Dutch trade in the New World. The Company appointed Adrianetz Groenewegel as its first Commander to administer Kyk-over-al. The wooden fort was replaced in the 1630s by a brick structure which also served as an administrative centre.
    [Show full text]
  • Competent Persons Report for Certain Assets in Offshore Guyana
    Competent Persons Report for Certain Assets in Offshore Guyana Date of this Report: September 11, 2018 Prepared for: ECO (Atlantic) Oil and Gas Ltd Prepared By: Phone: 1-303-443-2209, Fax: 1-303-443-3156 E-mail: [email protected] Competent Persons Report for Certain Assets in Offshore Guyana Date of this Report: September 11, 2018 Prepared for: ECO (Atlantic) Oil and Gas Ltd Prepared By: Kevin S. Weller Registered Petroleum Engineer State of Colorado #34214 Phone: 1-303-443-2209, Fax: 1-303-443-3156 E-mail: [email protected] m 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The report addresses the ECO (Atlantic) Oil and Gas Ltd (“ECO Atlantic”, “ECO”, “The Company”) exploratory oil and gas assets in offshore Guyana. The assets owned by ECO Atlantic are summarized in Table 1-1. Table 1-1 Summary of Assets owned by ECO (Atlantic) Oil and Gas Ltd Working License Water Asset Operator Interest Status Expiry Date Area Depth, (%) (km2)1 meters January 70 to Orinduik Block Tullow 40.0 Exploration 1,800 2026 1,250 Based on probabilistic estimates, the Gross (100%) and Net (40%) Unrisked Prospective Resources for the Orinduik Block of Guyana in millions of barrels of oil equivalent (MMBOE6) are listed below in Table 1-2. This is based on a 6:1 gas to oil equivalency. The Gross Unrisked Prospective Resources are presented in Table 1-3 and the Net Unrisked Prospective Resources for the Orinduik Block of Guyana are listed in Table 1-4 below. Table 1-2 Gross and Net Barrels of Oil Equivalent Unrisked Prospective Resources Gross Prospective Oil Net Prospective Oil
    [Show full text]
  • The Orchidaceae of Primitiae Florae Essequeboensis (1818)
    LANKESTERIANA 18(3): 239–242. 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.15517/lank.v18i3.35625 THE ORCHIDACEAE OF PRIMITIAE FLORAE ESSEQUEBOENSIS (1818) CARLOS OSSENBACH Orquideario 25 de Mayo, San José, Costa Rica and Lankester Botanical Garden, University of Costa Rica [email protected] ABSTRACT. The German botanist and Professor at the University of Göttingen, Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Meyer (1782–1856), studied the plants collected in the Dutch colony of Essequibo by Ernst Carl Rodschied and those kept in the herbarium of Professor Franz Karl Mertens, which he had received from a Dutch colonist during the early 1800s. On that basis, he published in 1818 his work Primitiae Florae Essequeboensis, describing 344 species of plants. Among them there are five species of orchids, two of which were new to science. KEY WORDS: Essequibo, Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Meyer, Guiana, Orchidaceae Essequibo (or Essequebo in Dutch) was a Dutch on the east, on the eastern border of the Spanish colony on the northern coast of South America from General Captaincy of Venezuela in the Guiana region. 1616 to 1814 (Fig. 1). It was founded between the It formed a part of the settlements that are known under Essequibo River on the west and the Demerara River the collective name of Dutch Guiana. Essequibo’s FIGURE 1. Carte generale et particuliere de la colonie d’Essequebe & Demerarie située dans la Guiane en Amérique. Brave & Wouter (1798). Received 3 July 2018; accepted for publication 11 December 2018. First published online: 17 December 2018. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Costa Rica License 240 LANKESTERIANA FIGURE 3.
    [Show full text]
  • Caribbean Sub-Region 35 177K 141K 25K
    Caribbean Sub-Region Situation Report - March 2019 Caribbean Sub-Regional Refugee & Migrants Response Plan - Summary Figures Dominican Republic Trinidad and Guyana Aruba Curaçao Tobago 35 177K 141K 25K 35M Appealing Refugees & Refugees & Target Host Financial Partners Migrants in Need Migrants Targeted Community Requirements In recent years, five countries in the sub-region have been hosting growing numbers of refugees and migrants from Venezuela: Aruba, Curaçao, the Dominican Republic, Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago. It is estimated that around 146,9001 have arrived by air, land, and sea to date, including some returnees in Guyana. Through the 2019 Regional Refugee and Migrants Response Plan (RRMRP), partners have identified the priority needs for both refugees/migrants, and host communities. These are: protection, shelter, access to food, adequate nutrition and health care, including psychosocial support, as well as the provision of livelihoods, and self-reliance opportunities. The RRMRP outlines the intended interventions to address these priority needs and their related financial requirements for the sub-region, in support to the response of national governments. Through the inter-agency coordination platforms (Refugee and Migrants Working Groups) that are being established at the sub-regional and national level, United Nations (UN) agencies, Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and civil society aim to meet the emergency assistance, protection, and integration needs of refugees and migrants from Venezuela, in complementarity and support to existing government’s responses. KEY FIGURES (as of March 2019) Over 146,900 Venezuelans arrived in 11,855 Registered Venezuelan asylum seekers the Caribbean sub-region since 2015.1 in the Caribbean sub-region since 2015.2 No.
    [Show full text]
  • The West Indian Web Improvising Colonial Survival in Essequibo and Demerara, 1750-1800
    The West Indian Web Improvising colonial survival in Essequibo and Demerara, 1750-1800 Bram Hoonhout Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of History and Civilization of the European University Institute Florence, 22 February 2017 European University Institute Department of History and Civilization The West Indian Web Improvising colonial survival in Essequibo and Demerara, 1750-1800 Bram Hoonhout Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of History and Civilization of the European University Institute Examining Board Prof. dr. Jorge Flores (EUI) Prof. dr. Regina Grafe (EUI) Prof. dr. Cátia Antunes (Leiden University) Prof. dr. Gert Oostindie, KITLV/Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies © Bram Hoonhout, 2017 No part of this thesis may be copied, reproduced or transmitted without prior permission of the author Researcher declaration to accompany the submission of written work Department of History and Civilization - Doctoral Programme I Bram Hoonhoutcertify that I am the author of the work The West Indian web. Improvising colonial survival in Essequibo and Demerara, 1750-1800 I have presented for examination for the Ph.D. at the European University Institute. I also certify that this is solely my own original work, other than where I have clearly indicated, in this declaration and in the thesis, that it is the work of others. I warrant that I have obtained all the permissions required for using any material from other copyrighted publications. I certify that this work complies with the Code of Ethics in Academic Research issued by the European University Institute (IUE 332/2/10 (CA 297).
    [Show full text]
  • REPUBLIC of GUYANA V. REPUBLIC of SURINAME
    ARBITRATION UNDER ANNEX VII OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA REPUBLIC OF GUYANA v. REPUBLIC OF SURINAME MEMORIAL OF THE REPUBLIC OF GUYANA VOLUME I 22 FEBRUARY 2005 Memorial of Guyana MEMORIAL OF GUYANA PART I 2 Memorial of Guyana TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUME I Page CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................1 I. Reasons for the Institution of Proceedings Against Suriname..............................1 II. Guyana’s Approach to the Presentation of the Case.............................................3 III. Structure of the Memorial.....................................................................................3 CHAPTER 2 - GEOGRAPHY AND EARLY HISTORY ...................................................7 I. Geography.............................................................................................................7 II. Early History.......................................................................................................10 CHAPTER 3 - EFFORTS OF THE COLONIAL POWERS TO SETTLE THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN BRITISH GUIANA AND SURINAME: 1929 TO 1966........13 I. The Fixing of the Northern Land Boundary Terminus between British Guiana and Suriname: 1936................................................................................14 II. The First Attempt To Fix a Maritime Boundary in the Territorial Sea: 1936 ....18 III. The Draft Treaty To Settle the Entire Boundary: 1939 ......................................20 IV. Unsuccessful Post-World
    [Show full text]
  • Ask Most Casual Students of History When the Time of Colonialism Came to an End
    ABSTRACT Guiana and the Shadows of Empire: Colonial and Cultural Negotiations at the Edge of the World Joshua R. Hyles, M.A. Mentor: Keith A. Francis, Ph.D. Nowhere in the world can objective study of colonialism and its effects be more fruitful than in the Guianas, the region of three small states in northeastern South America. The purpose of this thesis is threefold. First, the history of these three Guianas, now known as Guyana, French Guiana, and Suriname, is considered briefly, emphasizing their similarities and regional homogeny when compared to other areas. Second, the study considers the administrative policies of each of the country’s colonizers, Britain, France, and the Netherlands, over the period from settlement to independence. Last, the thesis concentrates on current political and cultural situations in each country, linking these developments to the policies of imperial administrators in the previous decades. By doing so, this thesis hopes to show how an area that should have developed as a single polity could become a region of three very distinct cultures through the altering effects of colonialism. Guiana and the Shadows of Empire: Colonial and Cultural Negotiations at the Edge of the World by Joshua R. Hyles, A.S., B.A. A Thesis Approved by the Department of History ___________________________________ Jeffrey S. Hamilton, Ph.D., Chairperson Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Baylor University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Approved by the Thesis Committee ___________________________________ Keith A. Francis, Ph.D., Chairperson ___________________________________ David L. Longfellow, Ph.D. ___________________________________ Thomas A.
    [Show full text]
  • British Guiana – British Empire Exhibition, Wembley 1924
    British Guiana – British Empire Exhibition, Wembley 1924 BRITISH GUIANA BRITISH EMPIRE EXHIBITION WEMBLEY 1924 CONTENTS 1 British Guiana – British Empire Exhibition, Wembley 1924 INTRODUCTION GEOGRAPHY KAIETEUR FALLS POPULATION Aborigines Immigration Centres of Population FAUNA FLORA TIMBER AND FOREST INDUSTRIES SUGAR, R ICE AND AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES MINING INDUSTRIES COMMERCE AND SHIPPING Communications OPPORTUNITIES FOR CAPITAL 2 British Guiana – British Empire Exhibition, Wembley 1924 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Note: Click here to view these photos Kaieteur Falls, Potaro River A Locust Tree (Hymencea courbaril) A Road in the Interior, 150 miles Heading out Sugar Canes to Punts from Georgetown Potato River, on the way to Steam Hoist Lifting Canes at a Kaieteur Falls Sugar Factory Brink of Kaieteur Falls Loading the Cut Cane into Punts on a Sugar Estate In the Gorge below Kaieteur Falls; Ploughing a Rice Field looking down river Amatuk Rest House, Potaro River, Harvesting the Rice on the way to Kaieteur Falls Gold Digging Camp at foot of A Coconut Plantation Eagle Mountain Wismar, 65 miles up Demerara Indian Girl Spinning Cotton River Kanaka Mountains and Interior The Rupununi Cattle Trail, Bridge Savannas Over a Creek Aboriginal Indians Travelling by Steer Bred on Rupununi Savanna Corial Indian Shooting Fish Rupununi River, looking North to the Kanaka Mountains The Public Buildings, Georgetown Alluvial Gold Mining Main Street, Georgetown, and the Cattle on the Rupununi Savannas War Memorial 3 British Guiana – British Empire Exhibition,
    [Show full text]
  • Amerindians in the Eighteenth Century Plantation System of the Guianas James Andrew Whitaker Tulane University
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Trinity University Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America ISSN: 2572-3626 (online) Volume 14 | Issue 1 Article 3 4-30-2016 Amerindians in the Eighteenth Century Plantation System of the Guianas James Andrew Whitaker Tulane University Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/tipiti Part of the Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Whitaker, James Andrew (2016). "Amerindians in the Eighteenth Century Plantation System of the Guianas," Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America: Vol. 14: Iss. 1, Article 3, 30-43. Available at: http://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/tipiti/vol14/iss1/3 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ Trinity. It has been accepted for inclusion in Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America by an authorized editor of Digital Commons @ Trinity. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ARTICLE ___________________________________________________________________________ Amerindians in the Eighteenth Century Plantation System of the Guianas James Andrew Whitaker Department of Anthropology Tulane University Abstract Dutch relations with Amerindian societies in their South American colonies began in the early seventeenth century. This contact increased during the eighteenth century, when Amerindians were slaves, slavers, and plantation enforcers for the Dutch. These roles transitioned over time and unevenly extended across the Amerindian societies within the Dutch colonies. The early configuration of the Dutch colonies relied upon Amerindians for trade. With the further development of the Dutch colonies, some societies were repeatedly the targets of slaving while other societies were allied with the Dutch and acted as slavers.
    [Show full text]
  • The Collapse of Venezuela and Its Impact on the Region Dr
    People look for food in garbage dumped outside a looted supermarket 21 April 2017 in the El Valle neighborhood of Caracas, Venezuela, after demonstrations against the government of Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro. (Photo by Ronaldo Schemidt, Agence France-Presse) The Collapse of Venezuela and Its Impact on the Region Dr. R. Evan Ellis n May 2017, as the number killed during pro- the United States and the region asked, “How much tests against the regime of Nicolás Maduro in longer could it go on?”1 In addition to the crisis Venezuela climbed toward 40, and with more within Venezuela, the collapse of its economy and the Ithan 130 injured and over 1,300 arrests, many in escalating criminal and political violence have also 22 July-August 2017 MILITARY REVIEW COLLAPSE OF VENEZUELA produced a massive outflow of refugees to neighboring corruption and mismanagement in government enter- Colombia and Brazil, to the nearby Caribbean islands prises, have progressively eliminated the capacity of the of Trinidad and Tobago, Aruba, and Curaçao, and Venezuelan economy to produce even the most basic to other locales throughout the region. In total, an goods required by the people of the country to survive. estimated 1.5 million of Venezuela’s 32 million people Additionally, declining petroleum output, high produc- have left the country since the government of Hugo tion costs, debt service obligations, an accumulation Chávez came to power in 1999.2 Venezuela’s neighbors of adverse legal judgments from past expropriations, watch the unfolding drama not
    [Show full text]
  • The Dutch Settle in Guyana
    THE DUTCH SETTLE IN GUYANA Although Columbus sighted the Guyanese coast in 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas, the Dutch were the first Europeans to settle what is now Guyana. The Netherlands had obtained independence from Spain in the late 1500s and by the early 1600s had emerged as a major commercial power, trading with the fledgling English and French colonies in the Lesser Antilles. In 1616 the Dutch established the first European settlement in the area of Guyana, a trading post twenty-five kilometers upstream from the mouth of the Essequibo River. Other settlements followed, usually a few kilometers inland on the larger rivers. The initial purpose of the Dutch settlements was trade with the indigenous people. The Dutch aim soon changed to acquisition of territory as other European powers gained colonies elsewhere in the Caribbean. Although Guyana was claimed by the Spanish, who sent periodic patrols through the region, the Dutch gained control over the region early in the seventeenth century. Dutch sovereignty was officially recognized with the signing of the Treaty of Munster in 1648. In 1621 the government of the Netherlands gave the newly formed Dutch West India Company complete control over the trading post on the Essequibo. This Dutch commercial concern administered the colony, known as Essequibo, for more than 170 years. The company established a second colony, on the Berbice River southeast of Essequibo, in 1627. Although under the general jurisdiction of this private group, the settlement, named Berbice, was governed separately. Demerara, situated between Essequibo and Berbice, was settled in 1741 and emerged in 1773 as a separate colony under direct control of the Dutch West India Company.
    [Show full text]
  • The Origin of the Curaçao Sephardim and the Bond Which Held the Diaspora Together
    The Origin of the Curaçao Sephardim and The Bond which Held the Diaspora Together Melissa Galletta Lewis Faculty Advisor: Dr. Martin Miller History November 2015 This project was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Graduate Liberal Studies Program in the Graduate School of Duke University. Copyright by Melissa Galletta Lewis 2015 ii Abstract The Origin of the Curaçao Sephardim and the Bond Which Held the Diaspora Together explores two main questions regarding the Jewish Diaspora of Curaçao, "Where did the Jews of Curaçao originate from?" and "How did this diaspora, although scattered over time and space, remain unbroken for over five centuries? I trace the diaspora's origin to the Sephardic Jews of the Iberian Peninsula and examine how they came to the New World and Curaçao. I first analyze the Sephardim in the Americas from a historical perspective, tracking the Sephardic Jewish origin from Spain and follow their exile to Portugal in the late 1400s, then to the Netherlands exploring their travels to South America, and ultimately to the island of Curaçao in the 1600s. The journey begins by studying the Spanish Inquisition and how it served as the point of transformation which led to the first significant exodus of the Sephardic Jewish population out of Spain. I analyze how Christopher Columbus' first transatlantic journey may have been responsible for the initial introduction of the Sephardim to the New World. Following the expulsion and migration of the Sephardim from Spain and Portugal to the Netherlands, I explore how the Amsterdam Jews influenced the growth of a derivative Jewish Diaspora in the New World and Curaçao, exploring the Sephardim's expansive mercantile and business networks.
    [Show full text]