CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE the Double Bass

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

The Double Bass and the Performance of its Solo Repertoire

A graduate project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Master of Music in Music, Performance

By Mika Shimomoto

December 2018

The graduate project of Mika Shimomoto is approved:

______Professr Elizabeth A Sellers Date

______Dr. John Roscigno Date

______Dr. Lorenz A Gamma, Chair Date

California State University, Northridge

Acknowledgements

I would first like to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Lorenz Gamma. The door to Dr.

Gamma’s office was always open whenever I had trouble or questions about my research and writing. He also consistently allowed me to come to ask him about my recital. He steered me in the right direction whenever he thought I needed it.

I would also like to thank Dr. Elizabeth Sellers and Dr. John Roscigno for being on my committee and their invaluable encouragement of my performing and academic experiences during my master studies.

My sincere thanks also goes to my mentor, Oscar Meza, who was a great support to me throughout my studies. He taught me not only performing but also how to be a strong person.

iii

Table of Contents

Signature Page ii

Acknowledgments iii

List of Figures and Charts v

Abstract vi

Introduction 1

“The Double Bass”, a Complex Musical Instrument 3

Development of the Double Bass and Changing the Roles 7

The Virtuoso and Solo Repertoire for Double Bass 12

Different Approaches for Solo Performance of the Double Bass 21

Conclusion 26

References 28

Bibliography 33

Appendix 1 35

Appendix 2 36

List of Figures

Figure 1. 11

Figure 2. 22

Figure 3. 24

Abstract

The Double Bass and the Performance of its Solo Repertoire

Mika Shimomoto

Master of Music in Music, Performance

Amongst players of the double bass there remins confusion about the proper terminology of the instrument and its evolution. This paper will examine the complications of this confusion in order to introduce the attractiveness of double bass solo performances and the way players interact with their instrument. By following the history of the double bass, I will show the complicated development that was influenced by violin and viol families, variation of terminology, and evolution of the instrument.

This paper will analyze difficulties in double bass performance, introduction of the solo performance and the current findings of thoughts of sound effect for the solo performance.

Introduction

In my experience, I have often been asked what musical instrument I play, and I always answered: “I play the double bass.” Many people were confused by the answer because this musical instrument is not what they expected, and many people do not even know what the double bass really is. Many people probably have seen the double bass or heard the name of the instrument from music education or television, but they might not have a precise notion of what the double bass is when they hear the name. I am still trying to figure out what the best explanation of the double bass is for people do not know about it, and for now, I explain the double bass as a big violin or the biggest violin in an orchestra. I am still looking for the best way to tell people about the instrument because some people confuse the double bass with the cello. This is understandable because the way of playing the two instruments is somewhat similar. and the double bass is about double the size of the cello. Moreover, if audiences compare an orchestra performance with and without the double bass, they would know better the function of the double bass and the importance of the instrument in an orchestra. Compared to other well-known musical instruments, for example the violin, which is chiefly used for melodic material, the double bass often struggles to get the audience’s attention.

For these experiences, one thought that came to mind was: “how many people know or have heard this lesser-known musical instrument’s solo repertoire? “Even people who study at universities and conservatories as music majors have asked me whether bassists even play solo repertoires. In fact, there are much fewer solo works compared to other strings. Furthermore, the number of players soloing as double bassists is quite small. There are many bassists in the world, but most of them are not active as soloists.

Additionally, the instrument if not very suitable for playing in a large hall or being accompanied by a piano or orchestra. The orchestra is a complex body of instruments music, and therefore, often distracts with busy instrumental texture from the attention that would be given to a bass soloist.

It is my intention to show in this paper that even though the double bass, especially in regard to solo works, will likely never become as popular as other instruments like the violin, the trumpet or the flute, the sound of the double bass is in fact highly attractive and variable. I will also show to my readers that bassist is able to play a much more challenging repertoire than many people might think, and that a lot of thought goes into its solo performance.

“The Double Bass”, a Complex Musical Instrument

As I mentioned in my introduction, there are several reasons why the double bass is not yes as familiar to a large audience, but the biggest reason is the complexity of the development of the history of the double bass, which when looked at from the outside seems rather confusing one. Brian J. Siemers states that “The double bass has one of the most varied and interesting histories of any modern musical instrument.”1 This aspect of historic complexity is even disputed, or at least discussed, among double bass players, and we can safely say that it might confuse many other people who are not too familiar with the instrument. There are two main aspects creating this confusion: one is that there is a general argument and disagreement about the true ancestor of the double bass, as well as influences on its development; and second, there are many different types of terminologies for the instrument.

The double bass’s ancestor is truly ambiguous. The instrument is often regarded as a “big violin” and is therefore easily assumed to be a member of the violin family.

However, some people make the argument that the double bass is a member of the viol family. Even though the violin and the viol look like they might themselves come from the same family, they have developed over time through very different paths and have eventually assumed very different roles of performance. The viol is a bow-played string instrument coming in various sizes and was mostly used during the Renaissance and

Baroque periods. Additionally, the position of great importance that the viol initially had

1. Brian J. Siemers, “The History and Development of the Double Bass” (doctor’s thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2001), 5.

3 was eventually taken over by the violin family due to the changing demands in performances. This change occurred mostly because of the mere volume of sound that the instrument of the violin family was able to produce. After the Renaissance, with its rather gentle sound ideal, and with the arrival of a new, more pompous style of timbre in the

Baroque, the viol family is not used as much, and the strong instrument of the violin family became favored.

Some paintings dating from the end of the 15th century show that there were some viols that were very similar to the modern double bass.2 In addition, many people believe that the proper ancestor of the double bass is the viola da gamba - a low-pitched member of the viol family. The viola da gamba or violone could be regarded as the instrument most similar to the double bass.3 On the other hand, Paul Brun states that the double bass is a member of the violin family because it has the development and many techniques in common with that family of instrument. He argued that therefore the double bass was established out of a development of the cello.4 Because of this ambiguity, which must have been accompanied the instrument from its very historic beginnings, the development of the instrument and its performance practice is equally complex. This happened because the performance practice of the double bass was influenced by forms and structures from both the violin and viol family throughout its history. Because of the

2. Ibid., 13-14.

3. Raymond Elgar, Introduction to the Double Bass, First ed. (England: Sussex Published by the author, 1960), 14.

4. Paul Brun, A New History of the Double Bass (Villeneuve dAscq: Paul Brun Production, 2000), 13.

4 complex development through the instrument’s history, it is possible to argue therefore that the double bass is simply a member of both the violin and viol family. Even Brun concedes in the end, after mentioning that the double bass is a member of the violin family, by also stating that the double bass is hybrid instrument which was affected by both violin and viol families.5

The terminology of the double bass has changed through the years and has been used differently depending on the geographic context. The changes of terminology relate to the intricate influences of the violin and viol families. People have even been using different names for the instrument in different languages around the world. The confusion of terminologies occurs because people have been using different names for the instrument differing from composer to composer, between players and listeners and, again, according to geographic differences. The double bass, contrabass, string bass, bass, and upright bass, are all common terms for the double bass. The result of researching websites of 21 orchestras across the world shows that the double bass is the most often used term in English, while the word “bass” is used by many American orchestras.

Furthermore, the terminology of “contrabass” or “Kontrabass” is used in European languages. (see Appendix 1)

The origin of one of the most popular terms for the double bass is bass violin or violone because low-pitched and bow played string instruments were unified. However, many different sizes of low-pitched instruments were made during the Baroque period, so people used different names to describe the size or varying range of pitches. At the end

5. Ibid, 20.

5 of the 17th century, the improvement of the strings and the size of the double bass had been largely regulated, and the instrument was then starring to be regarded as quintessentially different from the cello. The name of the double bass describes the size difference from the cello, which means about double size compared to the cello.6 Also, unified as violone of contrabass, the violoncello became very separate from this larger instrument. 7 The word “contrabass” is used for describing the lowest-range pitched instrument, such as the contra bassoon or the contra bass clarinet.

Nowadays, we have several types and sizes of the double bass, which were influenced by its ancestry in the viol and violin families. They are mainly called the double bass or bass in countries that speak English or contrabass in Europe or Asian countries influenced by European music tradition. Differences also come up between players and listeners depending on what kind of music they play or listen, and there are many type of “bass” instruments. It is therefore this historic complexity which is the reason why many people are confused about what exactly the double bass “is”.

6. Ibid, 25.

7. Ibid, 31.

Development of the Double Bass and Changing the Roles

“Today the double bass represents the largest and lowest pitched member of the string family in the symphony orchestra as well as playing a role in chamber music and its own solo repertoire.”8 The double bass is well-known as the orchestral and jazz instrument that maintains accompaniment through mostly low sound. Compared with other string instruments, the sheet music for the double bass seems often somewhat easy, because the bassists chiefly in charge of supporting the melodies. However, playing the often long and somewhat simple notes is extremely necessary for the orchestra in terms of harmony support and keeping control of the tempo. Although it seems that the role of the double bass in an orchestra has not changed much over the centuries, there are still many major differences over the stylistic periods due to the development of the instrument. Moreover, the slight changing of the role of the instrument has led to the evolution of the shape of the instrument. Although many people tend to think of the instrument as an accompaniment instrument, it has still been given many beautiful or solid melodies in orchestra works, from Beethoven to Mahler and beyond. Additionally, we must mention that there is a great amount of solo repertoire of many sonatas and concertos for the double bass.

In the Baroque era, the role of the bass was mainly playing basso continuo, usually together with a keyboard instrument and a viol or cello. The sheet music for the bass part was often read by three players. For any orchestra or chamber music composed during that era, the double bass played the same part as the cello part. The part of the

8. Brian J. Siemers, 5.

7 double bass doubles the cello for most of the composition in Baroque and Classical period until Beethoven changed it.9 As the instrument evolved, the demands for double bass players in an orchestra became more extensive. During the Classical period, the role of the double bass had been changed by composers such as Beethoven. Symphonies composed by Beethoven have separate bass parts from the cello. After meeting the double bass virtuoso, Domenico Dragonetti, Beethoven was impressed by his techniques and the sound quality of his performance. Therefore, it is widely considered that

Beethoven was the first composer to write out separate parts for the cello and the double bass. Since then, it has become common practice to have separate parts for the two instruments in orchestra and chamber music. Moreover, composers have been seeking a new sound or color of composition, all this in turn introduce new techniques for the double bass. For instance, there are different techniques of pizzicato that can change the color of music The Hungarian composer Béla Bartók was one of the most famous composer who liked to indicate unusual pizzicato styles in his works. The slap pizzicato, which generates a strong percussive sound by the string hitting the fingerboard, is in fact commonly called “Bartok pizzicato”.10 Additionally, the double bass can be used as a percussion instrument. The double bass can produce percussive sounds by clapping of some of its parts of the body, and the sound varies depending on how you clap the individual place on the instrument and on which body part you use to clap the instrument

9. Samuel Adler, The Study of Orchestration, 3rd ed. (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2001), 86.

10. Bertram Turetzky, The Contemporary Contrabass (California: University of California Press, 1974), 2.

8 with.11 Consequently, the role of the double bass has been changing and evolving within the orchestra.

Along with these changes, the double bass has gained a new role of producing more melodic passages and even entire solos within orchestral and chamber music works.

There are several famous passages written for the double bass as a solo or section instrument. Increasingly, composers since Beethoven have put a soli for the double bass in 19th century and early 20th century orchestral repertoires.12 These solo passages are often required of candidates to play for an orchestral audition. Perhaps most famous, the solo passage in the third movement of Gustav Mahler’s Symphony No. 1 is a standard orchestral except. Mahler’s minor version of the otherwise major-key children’s song

“Frère Jacques” gives this famous folk song an eerie, melancholy quality which the bass brings out best with its somber tone. Another highly characteristic, and even humorous double bass solo in the orchestral literature is found in Camille Saint-Saëns’s “Le carnaval des animaux” – the Carnival of the Animals. The fifth movement is entitled

“The Elephant”, characterizing the instrument probably for all eternity.

The solo repertoire of the double bass has also evolved. Today, performing a large solo recital is required for all double bassists studying professionally, and the biggest reason to learn this solo repertoire is to be ready for an audition to get a position in an orchestra. Since most professional orchestras require for their auditions that the candidate plays at least one movement of a major double bass concerto, there is a need for

11. Ibid, 29-43.

12. Ibid, 87.

9 instruction of double bass students at the institutions of studies in this repertoire. Another practical reason to play this solo repertoire is that it is essential to learn more about playing melodies, even though, they are often played by other instruments and accompanied by the double bass.

The shape of the double bass, at the beginning of its history, fully resembled the violin in structure and function. Like every other instrument, it was later improved by requests of double bass performers who assumed ever changing roles in their orchestras.

The tuning system is different when compared with other members of the violin family; the double bass is tuned in fourths rather than in fifths. However, it is interesting to note that the double bass was also tuned in fifths until the 19th century, due to the development of orchestral music which required bassists to play in higher tessituras.13

One can only imagine how much double bass players must have struggled to play every note even moderately accurately with their instruments tuned in fifths.

These days, there are several types of double bass shapes, mainly the so-called

‘gamba’, ‘violin’ and ‘busetto’ shapes. The gamba shape, especially at the shoulders of the instrument, is certainly preferable to the violin shaped double bass instruments, especially when it comes to reaching around the instrument in order to get to higher positions (see Fig. 1).1415 A choice between them is usually made simply according to the

13. Brun, 16-17.

14. Ibid, 17.

15. Jonas Lohse, “About the Double Bass,” Double Bass Guide (blog), accessed November 30, 2018, http://doublebassguide.com/?page_id=3, figure 1.

10 performer’s physical preference. Additionally, there are many sizes of the double bass, and some players go yet one step further by using different kinds of basses depending on the orchestral or solo repertoire they are currently performing.

Fig. 1. Different shapes of the double bass.

The Virtuoso and Solo Repertoire for Double Bass

Double bass virtuosos are indispensable in the development of solo and orchestral music for the double bass. With the exception of Serge Koussevitzsky, very few bassists appear in music history books and are unfortunately quite unknown to many. If the virtuosos of the double bass had not existed, the double bass of the modern-day orchestra might still only be played as a basso continuo instrument. Moreover, it seems impossible or at the very least unsuitable to play any kind of solo repertoire on the double bass, but virtuosos made this possible and even highly attractive. Another reason why virtuoso works exist today is that a great amount of the double bass solo repertoire was written by these performing virtuosos themselves. Among the virtuoso performer/composers,

Giovanni Bottesini, Domenico Dragonetti, and Serge Koussevitzky are the most famous double bass players who have also composed solo repertoire for the instrument.

Domenico Dragonetti (1763 –1846):

Dragonetti is probably the most remarkable of all the double bass virtuosos and was important in the development of the instrument. He was an Italian bassist and also a composer and guitarist. He had a close relationship to composers such as Beethoven, and he even influenced the instrumental skills of the double bass as used in an orchestral setting. Furthermore, he innovated the shape of bow, now called the ‘Dragonetti bow’. It is possible that the difficulty of some orchestral bass passages, such as in Beethoven’s

Symphony no. 9, may have been “caused” by Dragonetti, and we can say that many bass players have struggled with them for decades and centuries due to the tremendous technique of Dragonetti. When he was twelve-year-old, Dragonetti started taking lessons

12 with Berini, who was the greatest double bass player in Venice at that time. It took only eleven lessons before Berini felt he could teach nothing more to him.16 Dragonetti went on to serve as principal bassist at the Opera Buffa in Venice at the age of thirteen and at the Grand Opera Seria at the San Benedetto Theatre at age fourteen. We learn from this biographical data how great Dragonetti’s talent was for playing the double bass expertly early in his life. Once he had established himself as a well-known double bass virtuoso, he was invited to perform works of the solo repertoire in public. At a musical gathering in

Venice he was unexpectedly convinced by his colleagues to play a difficult bassoon concerto. He was called called upon for this concerto performance despite not having had access to the music beforehand.17 This made him realize that there was a lack of solo repertoire for the double bass and for his own performance opportunities. After the experience with the bassoon concerto, he started writing solo works for the double bass, such as sonatas and concertos, in order to showcase his technical abilities.18 Around this time, and due to Dragonetti’s compositions and performances, there became an awareness of the solo repertoire of the double bass. He composed 18 works for solo double bass: six concertos, 12 waltzes for solo double bass and 10 works with the accompaniment of a keyboard instrument.19 After composing these works he continued

16. Brun, 241.

17. Ibid, 242-243.

18. Ibid, 243.

19. Bertil Van Boer, Historical Dictionary of Music of the Classical Period (Lanham: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2012), 151.

13 playing the double bass as a soloist and in orchestral and chamber music settings, where his remarkable influence on the history of the orchestral the double bass continued.

Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889):

Bottesini was an Italian double bass virtuoso who contributed significantly to the instrument’s repertoire. Since his early childhood, he was surrounded by music, and he played several instruments such as the violin and also the timpani. From the age of thirteen, he studied the double bass under Luigi Rossi at the conservatory of Milan. When he applied for the conservatoire, he needed to choose between the bassoon or the double bass because the word circulated that there were scholarships for bassoonists and double bassists. Since his family was not wealthy, he needed to get one of these scholarships.

The reason he decided to focus on studying the double bass is that he already had some knowledge about bowed string instruments from his uncle, Carlo Cogliati, who was the leading violinist and director at the Crema cathedral orchestra. After leaving the conservatory, Bottesini continued studying bass performance and enjoyed great success from his solo performances at the Teatro in 1840.20 He is mostly famous for his solo performances, but he also played orchestral music at several theatres such as the famed

La Scala. It was a lifelong ambition of Bottesini to convince the public that the double bass deserved a place among the other solo instruments. That he had achieved his goal can be seen in the praise, though offered to him as a somewhat left-handed compliment, he received in a newspaper article: “Herr Bottesini, double bassist from Milan, played

20. Brun, 227.

14 remarkably, insofar as one would call the double bass a solo instrument.”21 Bottesini’s solo works for the double bass are often acclaimed as being especially songlike and melodic, which might be due to his having learned to play the violin in his early life, and also the simple fact that he was Italian. Therefore, his solo repertoire is very attractive to many people, and many double bassists admire his works and enjoy playing them.

However, playing his music on the double bass is not easy. Brun states that the concerto by Bottesini is a standard work, that it is one of the most difficult works in the repertoire, and that it requires a highly developed technique of any performing bassist.22 Moreover,

Bottesini is called the Paganini of the double bass because his solo pieces require a similarly highly developed technique.23 Bottesini received the highest admiration for his performances and compositions from his contemporaries and thus, as a star of the instrument, helped to enhance the performance practice, skill and virtuosic range of the solo repertoire.

Serge Koussevitzky (1874 –1951):

Koussevitzky is very well-known as a Russian composer and conductor. He was a well-known bassist with a considerable career and composed a famous concerto as well as some other shorter works for the double bass. At the start of his career as a performer, he worked at the Imperial Bolshoi Theatre after having graduated from the Moscow

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid, 95.

23. Rodney Slatford, “Bottesini,” The Musical Times, vol. 127, no. 1722 (September 1986): 501.

Philharmonic School. He also performed as a soloist throughout Russia and Europe.24 He became a principal double bassist of the orchestra when he was just eighteen years old, but ultimately he was more interested in the double bass as a solo instrument. According to Brun, Koussevitzky wanted for himself the title of ‘soloist’ in the orchestra, which is a terminology that did not exist at the time and only came about later in German orchestras, where the section leaders are called “Solo-Cellist”, “Solo-Bassist” etc. However, he was able to become a proper orchestral soloist after having won the St. Petersburg competition. At that occasion, he was asked to become a professor of the double bass at the Philharmonic Conservatory.25 Although he followed this invitation of becoming a professor, he still pursued the goal of perfecting his own performance skills on the double bass as a soloist and wanted the double bass to be known as an instrument that could serve that goal. Brun states that “he persevered in his resolution to put the double bass in the front rank of solo concert instruments. Amazingly, he accomplished his purpose.”26

In the end, Koussevitzky’s greatest fame came for him through his work as a conductor, composer, and entrepreneur. His career as a conductor started with a small theatrical group in Vishny-Volochok, where he had been born in 1888. His formal debut as a conductor was in 1908, when he conducted the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra with great success.27 He moved to Boston in 1924, where he served as conductor for the

24. Musicians and Composers of the 20th Century, ed. Alfred W. Cramer (Pasadena: Salem Press, 2009), 796.

25. Brun, 264.

26. Ibid.

27. Musicians and Composers of the 20th Century, 796.

Boston Symphony Orchestra until 1949. Moreover, he established the Koussevitzky

Music Foundation in honor of his second wife, Nataliya Konstantinova Ushkove who was the daughter of a wealthy merchant. He also established the Tanglewood Music

Center, and his charitable works have provided many opportunities for young musicians and contemporary composers. Lastly, as one of the most influential bass virtuosos he became a major influence on 20th century music.

Much of the solo repertoire for double bass has been written by double bassists, but non-bassists have also contributed to the double bass repertoire. The most noteworthy piece in the repertoire for solo double bass by a composer who did not play the instrument is probably the sonata by Paul Hindemith, written in 1949. He is known for having composed solo works for every orchestral instrument. His work for the double bass significantly influenced the continued composing of solo works for the double bass, with countless examples of more recent works, such as the concerto by the American composer Gunther Schuller.28 However, even though the solo repertoire for the double bass has increased exponentially in the last 150 years, modern day performers still often play transcribed solo works written for other instruments, such as the cello. It is always challenging for players to choose pieces that can be played on the double bass.

Additionally, bassists are sometimes requested – or at schools even required – to play solo works for other instruments, such as the cello suites by Johann Sebastian Bach.

Indeed, Bach’s cello suites are on the audition list of many orchestras. Playing solo repertoire written by non-bassist composers and playing other instruments’ solo

28. Brun, 97.

17 repertoire enriches the double bassist’s experience. I believe that solo works by double bass virtuosos help improve a player’s technique and the overall quality of their performance. I chose for the concept of my recital “Solo Repertoire by Bassists”, I would like to introduce here two further, quite impressive bass-composers.

Adolf Mišek (1875 – 1955):

Mišek was a Czech double bass player. He studied the instrument under Franz

Simandl. Simandl was a bassist who played as a principal at the Vienna Court Opera

Orchestra and later at the New York Philharmonic. Additionally, Simandl was probably the most celebrated teacher of the double bass throughout its history, and his method book is perhaps the most famous in the world for players of the double bass. By studying with Simandl and by his own ability, Mišek became a well-respected bassist himself.29

He returned to Czechoslovakia in 1918, in order to join the orchestra of the National

Theater. He composed three sonatas and a few miniatures for double bass and piano. His first and second sonatas are the most popular among all his works. Although he composed three sonatas, bassists usually resort to playing the first or second sonata, possibly because the third sonata was composed and discovered much later.30 Mišek’s style, which Martin Anderson describes as “relaxed lyricism”, is attractive to many players and audiences alike. The composer was always concerned with writing music that

29. Martin Anderson, “The Complete Mišek Sonatas, Countesy of Szymon Marciniak,” Fanfare – The Magazine for Serious Record Collections; Tnafly, N. J., vol. 36, iss. 4 (March 2013): 184.

30. Ibid, 185.

18 people might enjoy.31 Stylistically, Mišek’s music draws from both Czech and Viennese traditions: Although he was born and died in what is now the Czech Republic, he spent half of his life in Vienna. In Mišek’s music we can frequently hear dance elements, and it is generally considered that he was influenced by music of his own country as much as by the Viennese style. For instance, there are the dance elements of furiant and dumka in his third sonata.32 Such nationalist traits can make music generally more enjoyable and accessible for audiences and performers, which specifically could lead to people’s increased awareness of the double bass repertoire.

Frank Proto (1941–):

Proto is a 20th-century American composer and double bassists who studied double bass with David Walter at the Manhattan School of Music. With the advancement of the double bass in a multitude of musical genres such as jazz and pop music, aside from the classical style, some works of the solo repertoire start to assume a mixture of different styles from various sorts of music in the twentieth century. Proto is a composer who likes to combine pop and jazz music and mix it into works of an essentially classical nature. For his graduation recital, he composed the Sonata 1963 for Double Bass and

Piano because he wanted to perform himself modern solo works with an American texture. The sonata is his first composition and it served the composer as self-education.33

31. Ibid, 186.

32. Ibid.

33. “Frank Proto,” Liben Music Publishers, accessed November 29, 2018, https://www.liben.com/FPBio.html.

Proto’s primary work was the one of a freelance bassist in the early 1960s, but after joining the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra as a composer and arranger for the orchestra, he continued to work more as a composer. The works he composed and arranged are not only for the double bass, but also written for other instruments, such as the violin, cello etc. Furthermore, Proto composed some double bass solo repertoire by collaborating with

Syrian-French double bass virtuoso François Rabbath. One of his works, A Carmen

Fantasy for Double Bass and Piano was composed by Proto for Rabbath in 1991. A

Carmen Fantasy is composed based on some of the main material from George Bizet’s opera Carmen, a masterpiece that justly holds the title of most often performed opera in history. Similarly, within the catalog of works by Proto, this piece is probably the most popular solo work by the composer.34 In A Carmen Fantasy, Proto infuses the French romantic style of Bizet with a more modern and at times markedly jazzy secondary style.

By combining classical and American music, a new “product” is achieved that has been very successful in recent decades in drawing people’s increased attention to enjoy classical music.

There are certainly more double bass virtuosos who were instrumental to the development of the double bass and its solo repertoire. By introducing these five virtuosos, it is my intention to describe a large part of the history and evolution of the double bass, rather than a complete one.

34. “A Carmen Fantasy for Double Bass and Orchestra (or Piano),” Liben Music Publishers, accessed November 29, 2018, https://www.liben.com/Pgmnotes.html#8502.

Different Approaches for Solo Performance of the Double Bass Repertoire

Over the last couple of centuries bassists have occupied themselves more and more with the performance of solo double bass repertoire. Players have always been trying to find innovative ways to pursue the best performance. Even though this is a logical thing, achieving a high level of performance is a matter of great importance with the double bass. Since the instrument was invented mainly for the roles of accompanying, giving the foundation for harmonies and keeping the beat, people did not expect the possibilities of performing any solo repertoire with the double bass until virtuosos started to discover and develop the skills and repertoire necessary. Performing a large amount of solo repertoire is required for performers and students to prepare them for orchestral auditions and school juries as well. Moreover, many competitions mix several instruments of one group, for example all string instruments, and it is difficult to surpass other instruments, especially in sound quality, because of the extremely low-pitched sound and technique of the double bass. Therefore, double bass players spend a large amount of effort thinking about how to produce a sound with the double bass that provides a similar listening experience to other solo instruments.

One of the biggest issues for solo performance of the double bass is the sound balance with the accompaniment. When bassists perform their solos, they are often accompanied by the piano, and the sound of this large, clear and percussive instrument can easily drown out the sound of the double bass. For that reason, the accompanist is required to play differently when accompanying bassists in comparison to other solo instruments, and the bassist himself or herself needs to also consider how to approach this balance issue with the piano. This chapter focuses on the different standing positions and

21 also the angle of the piano lid, in order to examine how to produce the best sound balance between the two instruments. Even though other instruments could have the same kind of consideration about the standing position and the question of the piano lid, there are a few approaches that are quite unique to double bass solo performance.

I learned for myself where to stand when I rehearsed my solo repertoire accompanied by the piano. Several considerations came to mind: for example, I needed to stand next to the pianist to see their hands in order to play together, especially for sonatas.

Sonatas are of course not true solo music with an accompaniment of the piano, but rather chamber music. A previous teacher of mine told me that I needed to stand exactly in front of the piano for playing concertos with piano, because the player need to stand in front of an orchestra when perform a concerto with an orchestra. This was a completely different feeling from playing sonatas with piano, and I needed to practice trusting the accompanist. Various double bass solo performers have different opinions about this question of position vis-à-vis the piano.

Fig. 2. Different standing positions for solo performance accompanied by the piano.

Figure 2 shows several patterns of the standing position by researching many videos found on YouTube, as well as witnessed in live performances. A and B are the

22 most common positions for solo performance. The difference between A and B is that A is demonstrating a position close to the pianist, and B is standing in front of the piano. C and D are quite rare, though certainly quite imaginative, and I could find only a few performances with these standing positions. After researching 30 performances, the position of A is the one that is most common, and the position of B came in as close second (see Appendix 2).

Even though I am classifying the standing positions into four types, there are also some players who are standing in a position somewhere between A and B, or even diagonally behind the pianist. Some of my own collaborative pianists have told me that they had a hard time to see me and that they preferred me to stand in the B position (in front of the piano), in order to improve visual communication. Interestingly, one other pianist told me that she could not see my bow if I stood in front of the piano, so she preferred me to play in the position of A. The most important thing is of course that both the bass player and the pianist are comfortable to play. Therefore, the standing position is usually decided through a discussion between the two players.

In terms of the discussion about the angle of the piano lid, there are the possibilities of using the long prop (#1), middle prop (#2), short prop (#3), or have the lid entirely closed.35 I learned from my listeners and also when I myself have been in the audience at bass recitals that the double bass is not easily audible when it is accompanied by the piano, so it is better to close the lid or use the short or middle prop. If the piano is fully open using the long prop, audiences would likely not hear Fig. 3: Showing different length of piano props. the bass sound well enough. However, the research of performances by different players and with different repertoire shows that many people still prefer to open the piano lid with the long prop. Even though many performances show that many performers open the piano lid fully, my own teachers and accompanists have almost unanimously recommended me to have the lid closed for my juries. According to a pianist who discussed the angle of the piano lid with Japanese bassist Isao Fukazawa, the bassist recommends not to open the piano lid fully for solo performances. He also mentions that

35. “Technical Tuesday – Piano Lid Props,” Forte Piano Gallery (blog), September 12, 2011, http://relativekeys.blogspot.com/2011/09/technical-tuesday-piano- lid-props.html, figure 3.

24 it needs sometimes to be opened fully in order to use the piano lid as an acoustic panel, especially in a hall with less than desirable acoustics.36

As a result, the standing positions of A and B, and opening the lid with the long prop are more commonly used by many double bass players, however it could change from hall to hall, with different collaborative pianists, according to the repertoire being performed, and lastly even according to the preference of certain kinds of audiences. By researching the standing position and the question of the piano lid, I have realized that the player has to rethink these questions for each performance. I have asked people in the audience about the balance, as well as my accompanists about their preference for my recital, and I decided to stand in the A position and have the piano lid closed.

36. Risa Yamagata, “コントラバスを活かせるように…,” Risa’s 音楽雑記, April 14, 2007. accessed November 29, 2018, https://blog.goo.ne.jp/risapiano/e/7dac79d053ac1fffb9a6643ee285f068.

Conclusion

The somewhat abstruse musical instrument “double bass” has fascinated me and many musicians and musicologists alike. It is easily found in an orchestra, yet difficult to hear; it is frequently used, for many kinds and styles of music, but many people do not even know its proper name. There are many reasons why the double bass is a largely unfamiliar musical instrument – there are many terms to describe it and its ancestry and ever changing role in musical performance over the centuries. At best, we might say that the double bass is a hybrid musical instrument.

The development of the double bass in terms of its physical shape, its functions and musical roles has been influenced by many virtuoso performers. Even though most people might have never heard their names, it is not too much to say that they helped advanced the history of orchestral music considerably. Moreover, the solo repertoire for the double bass would not exist without the achievements of these virtuosos.

Unfortunately, too many people are unaware of the solo repertoire for the double bass because it is rarely performed compared to the repertoire of other melodic instruments, such as the violin or cello. The somewhat scarce existence of repertoire and the high technical requirement to perform any of the repertoire has been leading players to be somewhat passive about solo bass performance. The development of the double bass, its performance practice and also the advancement of the repertoire into different styles such as jazz and world music has certainly enriched the world of the double bass.

Learning about the development of the double bass and using the results of the research for my graduate recital preparation was very useful, and it increased my own

26 motivation for making the double bass more and more well-known on the concert stage.

As I usually focus on only performance, the knowledge I have gained of the history of the double bass has enhanced my interpretation. I have a tremendous respect for the historic virtuosos of the instrument, and their achievements have made me want to express more deeply my own attraction to the instrument and, in turn, attract other people’s awareness of its repertoire.

References

“The Double Bass”, a Complex Musical Instrument

Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.br- so.com/orchestra/instrumentation/.

Berlin Philharmonic. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.berliner- philharmoniker.de/en/orchestra/.

Boston Symphony Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.bso.org/brands/bso/about-us/musicians/bso-musicians/strings.aspx.

Budapest Festival Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.bfz.hu/en/orchestra.

Chicago Symphony Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://cso.org/about/performers/chicago-symphony-orchestra/bass/.

Cleveland Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/About/Musicians-and-Conductors/Meet-the- Musicians/.

Czech Philharmonic. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.ceskafilharmonie.cz/en/about-us/orchestra/players/.

Dresden Staatskapelle. Accessed November 4, 2018. http://www.staatskapelle- dresden.de/en/staatskapelle/orchestra-members/.

Green, Aaron. “The World’s 20 Best Symphony Orchestras.” ThoughtCo. August 9, 2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/worlds-best-orchestras-724384.

Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.gewandhausorchester.de/en/orchester/.

London Symphony Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://lso.co.uk/orchestra/players.html.

Los Angeles Philharmonic. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.laphil.com/about/la-phil/meet-the-orchestra/.

Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.mariinsky.ru/en/company/orchestra1/players.

Metropolitan Opera Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. http://www.metorchestramusicians.org/the-musicians/.

New York Philharmonic. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://nyphil.org/about- us/meet/musicians-of-the-orchestra.

NHK Symphony Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. http://www.nhkso.or.jp/en/about/orchestra_members.php.

Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, Amsterdam. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.concertgebouworkest.nl/en/musicians.

Russian National Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. http://russiannationalorchestra.org/about/musicians/.

San Francisco Symphony. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.sfsymphony.org/About-Us/Musicians-Conductors/Members-Of- Orchestra/Basses.

St. Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. http://www.philharmonia.spb.ru/en/about/orchestra/zkrasof/about/.

Teatro alla Scala Orchestra. Accessed November 4, 2018. http://www.teatroallascala.org/en/la-scala/theatre/orchestra/members.html.

Vienna Philharmonic. Accessed November 4, 2018. https://www.wienerphilharmoniker.at/orchestra/members.

Different Approaches for Solo Performance of the Double Bass Repertoire

Akademia Filmu i Telewizji. “Henry Eccless - Sonata in G minor.” Posted June 24, 2016. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S81GNMvwusw.

Ali Yazdanfar Bass. “Bottesini Concerto in F# Minor (#1) 1st Mvt - Ali Kian Yazdanfar.” Posted April 20, 2017. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7dBsbWS1VsI.

Barbé, Thierry. “Thierry Barbé plays Bottesini Cto2, 1st mvt in Galicia.” Posted November 2, 2016. Accessed November 28, 2018.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qq3ob5FejMc&index=20&list=RDnmUE- _fm0-Q.

Bozoparadzikcom. “Reinhold Glière, Intermezzo & Tarantella - Božo Paradžik & Ulrich Rademacher (live 1998).” Posted September 23, 2010. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RgMKftB_aOM.

“Schubert Arpeggione Sonata (1st mov.) Božo Paradžik & Mira Wollmann.” Posted July 22, 2013. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2FGE8h8YSw.

Bradetich, Jeff. “Elgar Cello Concerto 1st mvt. Jeff Bradetich, Double Bass, Anastasia Markina, Piano.” Posted March 20, 2015. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jd3XI6ZcMRM&list=RD7dBsbWS1VsI&ind ex=18.

Cabrera, Luis. “G.Bottesini, fantasia on "La Sonnambula." Posted January 19, 2014. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UU_HnH5gDNQ&index=27&list=RDnmUE -_fm0-Q.

C2Hamburg. “G. Bottesini: Il Carnevale di Venezia (LIVE!) - Michael Rieber, db - Götz Schumacher, pno.” Posted February 9,2016. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IS_39rBgehA.

Double Bass Player. “Ludwig Streicher in Budapest.” Posted August 12, 2016. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6C65Cie5lPs.

Foley, Xavier. “Reinhold Gliere Intermezzo and Tarantella.” Posted March 12, 2015. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3cJjVWI8R84.

Furtok, Boguslaw. “Boguslaw Furtok on Karr-Koussevitzky Bass - Elegia in D.” Posted December 10, 2016. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vy8MDh1gAhQ.

“Boguslaw Furtok plays Ernest Bloch's Prayer.” Posted October 25, 2011. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqNtSCHOPB0&list=RDeBkcvFmaVpI&in dex=19.

“Furtok plays Tarantella.” Pated February 17, 2007. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eBkcvFmaVpI.

Hwk194103. “Hindemith: Sonata for d-bass and piano, 1st and 2nd movement, played by Rinat Ibragimov.” Posted May 27, 2010. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tg8Ntyi_6H8&index=11&list=RD7dBsbWS1 VsI.

“Koussevitzky: Concerto for d-bass and Orchestra. 1st mov. Rinat Ibragimov.” Posted May 27, 2010. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n2JanKszFoQ.

London Symphony Orchestra. “Giovanni Bottesini Concerto for Double Bass No 2 in B Minor,” Posted January 12, 2012. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QgZ_-f7pVk4.

“Vanhal - Double Bass Concerto in D Major.” Posted April 1, 2011. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dt-bNf6h0tI.

Mcdonald, Matthew. “Cesar Franck sonata in A major, 1st mov, double bass, Matthew McDonald, piano Yannick Rafalimanana.” Posted February 11, 2017. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0x7lwyfLWBc&index=14&list=RD7dBsbW S1VsI.

“Matthew McDonald plays Bruch Kol Nidrei on double bass.” Posted December 15, 2015. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S657JambaR4&list=RDQqNtSCHOPB0&ind ex=2.

Nbbrecords. “Alberto Bocini: Nel Cor Più non mi sento.mp4.” Posted May 2, 2010. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmUE-_fm0- Q.

Pereira, Miguel Leiria. “Reverie & Tarantella (Bottesini) | Gary Karr & Harmon Lewis.” Posted July 9, 2013. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMFPUkCcuA0.

Pierce, Lauren. “Reinhold Glière - Intermezzo and Tarantella for Double Bass and Piano.” Posted September 19, 2017. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SLsAn3wDonw.

prof.dr. Vito Liuzzi. “Sonnambula with GARY KARR.” Posted October 19, 2018. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kh4xNhuEfcc.

Scioli, Daniel. “Rinat Ibragimov: Bottesini, Fantasia Lucia di Lammermoor.” Posted August 3, 2016. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YfRsLKucZRo.

Sung, Mikyung, “A.Misek Sonata No.2 Mikyung Sung.” Posted November 6, 2016. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OtWv2UKsv3M&t=1210s.

“Frank Violin Sonata in A major (Mikyung Sung, double bass/Jaemin Shin, piano).” Posted March 13, 2018. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZjL1d83RGY.

“R.Gliere-Tarantella Double bass Mikyung Sung.” Posted September 9, 2016. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_DFlW_AnkY.

TomislavF1989. “Bozo Paradzik plays Rondeau by Alfred Desenclos (live).” Posted March 19, 2009. Accessed November 28, 2018.

Wagner, Dominik. “G Bottesini Grande Allegro Alla Mendelssohn, Dominik Wagner Double Bass.” Posted May 29, 2017. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMvgIX1uepA.

Zecharies, Diego. “Astor Piazzolla, Le Grand Tango. Diego Zecharies Double-bass, Héctor Barro Piano.” Posted January 24, 2014. Accessed November 28, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6s5NWoSBLsw.

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Appendix 1

Country Orchestra Name In English In their own language (singular)

Austria Vienna Philharmonic Contrabass Kontrabass

Czech Republic Czech Philharmonic Double Bass Kontrabas Bavarian Radio Symphony Germany Double Bass Kontrabass Orchestra Germany Berlin Philharmonic Double Bass Kontrabass

Germany Dresden Staatskapelle Double Bass Kontrabass

Germany Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra Double Bass Kontrabass

Hungary Budapest Festival Orchestra Double Bass Nagybőgő

Italy Teatro alla Scala Orchestra Double Bass Contrabbasso コントラバス Japan NHK Symphony Orchestra Contrabass (Contrabass) Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, Netherlands Double Bass Contrabas Amsterdam Russia Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra Double Bass Контраба́с (Kontrabass)

Russia Russian National Orchestra Double Bass Контраба́с (Kontrabass) St. Petersburg Philharmonic Russia Double Bass Контрабас (Kontrabass) Orchestra ́ United London Symphony Orchestra Double Bass Kingdom United States Boston Symphony Orchestra Bass

United States Cleveland Orchestra Bass

United States Chicago Symphony Orchestra Bass

United States Los Angeles Philharmonic Bass

United States New York Philharmonic Bass

United States Metropolitan Opera Orchestra Double Bass

United States San Francisco Symphony Bass

List of the terminology of the double bass is made based on the website “The World’s 20 Best Symphony Orchestras,” and some more orchestras from different countries are added by the author.

Appendix 2

Standing Piano Name of the Performer Composer Tittle of the Repertoire Position Lid Alberto Bocini Giovanni Paisiello Nel Cor Più non mi sento B Half Ali Kian Yazdanfar Giovanni Bottesini Konzert F# minor B Open Artur Łukasik Henry Eccless Sonata in G minor B Open Ernest Bloch Prayer No. 1 from Jewish life A Half Boguslaw Furtok Elegia in D major A Half Giovanni Bottesini Tarantella in A minor A Half Alfred Desenclos Arie et rondeau A Open Božo Paradžik Franz Schubert Arpeggione Sonata A Open Reinhold Glière Intermezzo & Tarantella B Open Diego Zecharies Astor Piazzolla Le Grand Tango C Open Dominik Wagner Giovanni Bottesini Grande Allegra Alla Mendelssohn A Halh Sonnambla A Half Gary Karr Giovanni Bottesini Reveria and Tarantella A Half Jeff Bradetich Edward Elgar Cello Concerto B Open Lauren Pierce Reinhold Glière Intermezzo & Tarantella B Open Nikolai Rimsky- Ludwig Streicher Flight of the Bumblebee C Open Korsakov Luis Cabrera Giovanni Bottesini La Sonnambula A Open Cesar Franck sonata in A major A Open Matthew McDonald Max Bruch Kol Nidrei A Open Michael Rieber Giovanni Bottesini Carnevale di Venezia A Open Adolf Míšek SONATA No.2 D Open Mikyung Sung César Franck Violin Sonata in A major B Open Reinhold Glière Tarantella B Half Thierry Barbé Giovanni Bottesini Concerto Cto2 C Half Giovanni Bottesini Concerto for Double bass no 2 C Open Giovanni Bottesini Fantasia Lucia di Lammermoor B Half Rinat Ibragimov Johann Vanhal Concerto in D Major C Open Paul Hindemith Sonata for d-bass and piano B Open Serge Koussevitzky Concerto for d-bass and Orchestra A Half Xavier Foley Reinhold Glière Intermezzo & Tarantella B Open The list of the double bass solo performance by searching YouTube.