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Vigilante Groups and Policing in a Democratizing Nigeria: Navigating the Context and Issues
Brazilian Journal of African Studies | Porto Alegre | v. 4, n. 8, Jul./Dec. 2019 | p. 179-199 179 VIGILANTE GROUPS AND POLICING IN A DEMOCRATIZING NIGERIA: NAVIGATING THE CONTEXT AND ISSUES Adeniyi S. Basiru1 Olusesan A. Osunkoya2 Introduction Before the advent of colonialism in Nigeria, the various indigenous communities, like elsewhere in Africa, had evolved various self-help institu- tions (vigilante groups in modern sense) for maintaining public order. But, with the emergence of the colonial state and all its coercive paraphernalia, these traditional institutions of public order management, that had for cen- turies served the people, were relegated to the background, as the modern police force, the precursor of the present day Nigerian Police, under the direction of the colonial authorities, became the primus inter pares, in the internal security architecture of the colony (Ahire, 1991, 18). With this deve- lopment, the communal/collectivist-oriented frameworks of policing that had for centuries been part of people’s social existence now constituted the informal models of policing rendering subsidiary roles. For decades, this was the arrangement for policing the vast Nigerian territory. Although, there were documented cases of police re-organizations, by the colonial authorities, in Lagos, in 1930 and 1954 (Akuul, 2011, 18), these, however, neither reversed the western-dominated order of policing nor re-organized the indigenous informal models of policing. Put differently, the indigenous police institutions, in differently parts of the country, continued to play subsidiary roles in public order management. Instructively, at inde- pendence, the colonial arrangement rather than being transformed to reflect 1 Department of Political Science, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria. -
First Triumvirate and Rise of Octavian BY: Jake, Eliza and Maheen First Triumvirate
First Triumvirate and Rise of Octavian BY: Jake, Eliza and Maheen First Triumvirate • An alliance of the three most powerful men in Rome, Marcus Licinus Crassus, Gaius Julius Caesar, and Gneaus Pompey Magnus. Rome was in chaos and the 3 seized control of the Republic. • The three would dominate Roman politics for personal gains throughout the territories of the Republic. Julius Caesar • In Rome, Julius Caesar was elected as the tribune of the Plebs, military tribune, and governor of many provinces throughout the Republic. • Believed Crassus helped Julius Caesar win the election to become the Propraetor or governor of Hispania in 63 B.C.E. • Julius returned to Rome after his term as governor. Caesar had a business or political agreement with Pompey and Crassus in 60 B.C.E. Caesar was the consul while Pompey and Crassus were in the senate. • Created the First Triumvirate • After his term, Julius was in deeply in debt politically and financially to Crassus and desperately needed to raise money. Marcus Crassus • Crassus was the richest man in all the Roman Republic. He was sharp and clever in Roman politics. He would be a senator and even become consul a few times. • He was a mentor to Julius Caesar in his early career. • Gained much fame during the Spartacus rebellion but much of it was stolen by Pompey. • He was a longtime rival to Pompey Magnus and this would be his eventually downfall. He would ally with Caesar and Pompey, but strived for military victory over Pompey. He went to Parthia where he was defeated at Carrhae. -
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome William E. Dunstan ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC. Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK ................. 17856$ $$FM 09-09-10 09:17:21 PS PAGE iii Published by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright ᭧ 2011 by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. All maps by Bill Nelson. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. The cover image shows a marble bust of the nymph Clytie; for more information, see figure 22.17 on p. 370. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dunstan, William E. Ancient Rome / William E. Dunstan. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7425-6832-7 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-7425-6833-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-7425-6834-1 (electronic) 1. Rome—Civilization. 2. Rome—History—Empire, 30 B.C.–476 A.D. 3. Rome—Politics and government—30 B.C.–476 A.D. I. Title. DG77.D86 2010 937Ј.06—dc22 2010016225 ⅜ϱ ீThe paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/ NISO Z39.48–1992. Printed in the United States of America ................ -
Multiple International Judicial Forums: a Reflection of the Growing Strength of International Law Or Its Fragmentation?
Michigan Journal of International Law Volume 25 Issue 4 2004 Multiple International Judicial Forums: A Reflection of the Growing Strength of International Law or its Fragmentation? Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao International Law Commission Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.law.umich.edu/mjil Part of the International Law Commons, and the Rule of Law Commons Recommended Citation Pemmaraju S. Rao, Multiple International Judicial Forums: A Reflection of the Growing Strength of International Law or its Fragmentation?, 25 MICH. J. INT'L L. 929 (2004). Available at: https://repository.law.umich.edu/mjil/vol25/iss4/9 This Symposium is brought to you for free and open access by the Michigan Journal of International Law at University of Michigan Law School Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Michigan Journal of International Law by an authorized editor of University of Michigan Law School Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. MULTIPLE INTERNATIONAL JUDICIAL FORUMS: A REFLECTION OF THE GROWING STRENGTH OF INTERNATIONAL LAW OR ITS FRAGMENTATION? Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao* I. THE PROBLEM OF FRAGMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW .............................................................. 929 II. THE EXPANDING CHARACTER OF INTERNATIONAL LAW: EMERGENCE OF AN INTERNATIONAL LEGAL COMMUNITY ...... 939 III. FUNCTIONAL NEED FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS FOR A NEW AGE ......................... 944 IV. THE INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE LAW OF THE SEA... 946 V. THE DISPUTE SETTLEMENT UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION ........................................ 950 VI. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNALS ................................... 955 VII. MULTIPLICITY OF INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS: A SIGN OF MATURITY OF THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM .......... 958 VIII. DIVERSITY OF INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS: A REFLECTION OF THE GROWING STRENGTH OF THE UNITY AND INTEGRITY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW ...................................... -
The Roman Army in the Third Century Ad Lukas De Blois My Issue In
INTEGRATION OR DISINTEGRATION? THE ROMAN ARMY IN THE THIRD CENTURY A.D. Lukas de Blois My issue in this paper is: what was the main trend within the Roman military forces in the third century ad? Integration, or disintegration into regional entities? This paper is not about cultural integration of ethnic groups in multicultural parts of the Roman Empire, such as the city of Rome, thriving commercial centres, and border regions to which the armies had brought people from various parts of the Empire, and where multicultural military personnel lived together with indigenous groups, craftsmen from different origins, and immigrants from commercially active regions, either in canabae adjacent to castra stativa, or in garrison towns, as in the Eastern parts of the Empire. In variatio upon an issue raised by Frederick Naerebout in another paper published in this volume, I might ask myself in what sense an army, which in the third century ad was progressively composed of ethnically and culturally different units, kept functioning as an integrated entity, or in actual practice disintegrated into rivalling, particularistic regional forces whose actual or potential competition for money and supplies con- stantly threatened peace and stability in the Empire, particularly in times of dangerous external wars, when the need for supplies increased. The discussion should start with Septimius Severus. After his victories over Pescennius Niger, some tribes in northern Mesopotamia, and Albinus in Gaul, Severus had to replenish the ranks of his armies, for example at the Danube frontiers, which had yielded many men to Severus’ field armies and his new praetorian guard. -
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Roman Military Chart 5-1 Roman Army under Augustus Explanation At the time of Augustus Caesar, the Roman military was comprised of regular soldiers of Roman or Italian origin organized into legions and stationed through the provinces of the empire as single legions or combined with other legions into an army (exercitus). Other troops were raised in the provinces and organized utilizing a different structure. They were called “auxiliaries” and served largely to keep order in the provinces by filling police functions or manning guard posts. The legionary units conducted required military operations, although on occasion they were assisted by auxiliary troops, particularly by cavalry units that performed reconnaissance and guarded the flanks of the battle line. Chart - shows the organization of both classes of troops, their provenance, function, and command structure around the time when Jesus was born. Reference G. Webster, The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Century A.D. (London: Block, 1979). Charting the New Testament, © 2002 Welch, Hall, FARMS Roman Army under Augustus REGULAR ROMAN UNITS Unit Number of Troops Commander Unit Type Origin of Troops Exercitus Two or more Legatus Augusti Italy and varied (army) legions with auxilia (Legate of Augustus) provinces 6000 divided Legatus Legionis Legion infantry Italy into 10 cohorts (Legionary Legate) 600 divided Tribunus Militaris Cohort infantry Italy into 6 centuries (Military Tribune) Century up to 100 Centurion infantry Italy PROVINCIAL AUXILIARIES Auxiliary Praefectus Militaris light infantry provinces 480 Cohort (Military Prefect) or archers Alae 480 Praefectus Militaris cavalry provinces Vexillatio 240 Senior Decurion cavalry provinces Turma 120 Decurion cavalry provinces Charting the New Testament, © 2002 Welch, Hall, FARMS Chart -. -
The Military Reforms of Gaius Marius in Their Social, Economic, and Political Context by Michael C. Gambino August, 2015 Directo
The Military Reforms of Gaius Marius in their Social, Economic, and Political Context By Michael C. Gambino August, 2015 Director of Thesis: Dr. Frank Romer Major Department: History Abstract The goal of this thesis is, as the title affirms, to understand the military reforms of Gaius Marius in their broader societal context. In this thesis, after a brief introduction (Chap. I), Chap. II analyzes the Roman manipular army, its formation, policies, and armament. Chapter III examines Roman society, politics, and economics during the second century B.C.E., with emphasis on the concentration of power and wealth, the legislative programs of Ti. And C. Gracchus, and the Italian allies’ growing demand for citizenship. Chap. IV discusses Roman military expansion from the Second Punic War down to 100 B.C.E., focusing on Roman military and foreign policy blunders, missteps, and mistakes in Celtiberian Spain, along with Rome’s servile wars and the problem of the Cimbri and Teutones. Chap. V then contextualizes the life of Gaius Marius and his sense of military strategy, while Chap VI assesses Marius’s military reforms in his lifetime and their immediate aftermath in the time of Sulla. There are four appendices on the ancient literary sources (App. I), Marian consequences in the Late Republic (App. II), the significance of the legionary eagle standard as shown during the early principate (App. III), and a listing of the consular Caecilii Metelli in the second and early first centuries B.C.E. (App. IV). The Marian military reforms changed the army from a semi-professional citizen militia into a more professionalized army made up of extensively trained recruits who served for longer consecutive terms and were personally bound to their commanders. -
The Late Republic – Crises and Civil Wars a Society Falls Apart in Italy
The Late Republic – Crises and Civil Wars A Society Falls Apart In Italy, much had changed after Rome rose to a world power. In the long wars, many peasants and their sons had died. Others had not been able to properly cultivate their farms for years. More and more small farmers left the countryside. In their place, many large farms arose, because large landowners had bought up the land of indebted peasants, forcibly driven some farmers out, and laid claim to large portions of state-owned land for themselves. Their standard of living rose, because they specialized themselves in certain products. They grew wine-grapes and olives on a grand scale, or reorganized themselves toward livestock. Around the cities, there were large landowners who obtained high profits by raising poultry and fish. Such large landowners usually owned several farms, which were managed by administrators, while they themselves pursued political business in Rome. On their estates, slaves worked, who were obtained either as prisoners of war or on the slave markets. According to careful analysis, in the time between 200 B.C. and 150 B.C., approximately 250,000 prisoners of war were brought to Italy as slaves. In the following 100 years, more than 500,000 slaves – mainly from Asia Minor – came to Rome. Especially the small farmers suffered in this situation. Earlier, they had gotten for themselves additional income as daily workers on the estates, but now they were needed there, at most, only for harvest. So many had to give up their farms, and moved with their families to Rome. -
Representations of Veterans in the Imperial Cult in Gallia Narbonensis, 46 BC-79 AD
Representations of veterans in the imperial cult in Gallia Narbonensis, 46 BC-79 AD Dennis Hermans s4165527 15-08-2017 Master thesis Eternal Rome Index Introduction p. 2 Chapter 1 – Creating a corpus regarding veterans and the imperial cult p. 10 1.1 Baeterrae p. 15 1.2 Narbo Martius p. 19 1.3 Arausio p. 22 1.4 Forum Iulii p. 24 1.5 Arelate p. 26 1.6 Cularo p. 29 1.7 Geneva p. 30 1.8 Alba Helviorum p. 33 1.9 Allebaece Reiorum Apollinarum p. 34 1.10 Vienna p. 36 1.11 Nemausus p. 38 1.12 Massilia p. 43 Chapter 2 – Inscriptions and the career path for equites and nobiles p. 45 Conclusion p. 54 Bibliography p. 57 Appendix p. 63 1 Introduction1 ‘I settled colonies of soldiers in Africa, Sicily, Macedonia, both Spains, Achaea, Asia, Syria, Gallia Narbonensis, Pisidia. Moreover, Italy has twenty-eight colonies founded under my auspices which have grown to be famous and populous during my lifetime.’2 The quote above comes from the Res Gestae divi Augusti, the works or deeds of the deified Augustus, published after his death in 14 AD. Much like the rest of the Res Gestae, the quote above contains a boasting and propaganda element: Augustus has settled soldiers in colonies all over the world and they have all become great and grew very large. This gives an insight into the image that Augustus wanted to portray about his deeds and himself. Although Augustus has settled veterans in many colonies, he was definitely not the first to do so, as the process of establishing veteran colonies already started around 100 BC. -
The Roman Army's Emergence from Its Italian Origins
CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Carolina Digital Repository THE ROMAN ARMY’S EMERGENCE FROM ITS ITALIAN ORIGINS Patrick Alan Kent A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2012 Approved by: Richard Talbert Nathan Rosenstein Daniel Gargola Fred Naiden Wayne Lee ABSTRACT PATRICK ALAN KENT: The Roman Army’s Emergence from its Italian Origins (Under the direction of Prof. Richard Talbert) Roman armies in the 4 th century and earlier resembled other Italian armies of the day. By using what limited sources are available concerning early Italian warfare, it is possible to reinterpret the history of the Republic through the changing relationship of the Romans and their Italian allies. An important aspect of early Italian warfare was military cooperation, facilitated by overlapping bonds of formal and informal relationships between communities and individuals. However, there was little in the way of organized allied contingents. Over the 3 rd century and culminating in the Second Punic War, the Romans organized their Italian allies into large conglomerate units that were placed under Roman officers. At the same time, the Romans generally took more direct control of the military resources of their allies as idea of military obligation developed. The integration and subordination of the Italians under increasing Roman domination fundamentally altered their relationships. In the 2 nd century the result was a growing feeling of discontent among the Italians with their position. -
Synodality” – Results and Challenges of the Theological Dialogue Between the Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church
“SYNODALITY” – RESULTS AND CHALLENGES OF THE THEOLOGICAL DIALOGUE BETWEEN THE ORTHODOX CHURCH AND THE CATHOLIC CHURCH Archbishop Job of Telmessos I. The results of the Joint International Commission for the Theological Dialogue between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church The Joint International Commission for the Theological Dialogue between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church has been focusing on the topic of “Primacy and Synodality” over the last twelve years. This is not surprising, since the issue of the exercise of papal primacy has been an object of disagreement between Orthodox and Catholics over a millennium. The Orthodox contribution has been to point out that primacy and synodality are both inseparable: there cannot be a gathering (synodos) without a president (protos), and no one cannot be first (protos) if there is no gathering (synodos). As the Metropolitan of Pergamon, John Zizioulas, pointed out: “The logic of synodality leads to primacy”, since “synods without primates never existed in the Orthodox Church, and this indicates clearly that if synodality is an ecclesiological, that is, dogmatical, necessity so must primacy [be]”1. The Ravenna Document (2007) The document of the Joint International Commission for the Theological Dialogue between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, referred as the “Ravenna Document” (2007), speaks of synodality and conciliarity as synonyms, “as signifying that each member of the Body of Christ, by virtue of baptism, has his or her place and proper responsibility in eucharistic koinonia (communio in Latin)”. It then affirms that “conciliarity reflects the Trinitarian mystery and finds therein its ultimate foundation”2 and from there, considers that “the Eucharist manifests the Trinitarian koinônia actualized in the faithful as an organic unity of several members each of whom has a charism, a service or a proper ministry, necessary in their variety and diversity for the edification of all in the one ecclesial Body of Christ”3. -
Representation and Governance.Pdf
Summary What is it that makes the U.S. Congress unique and distinctive among the world's legislatures? What, in other words, has prevented our national legislature from being dominated or swallowed up by the executive as so often has happened elsewhere? The answer I provide gives prominence to the division- and specialization-of-labor of the congressional committee system. Strong committees with proprietary rights to policy jurisdictions; a membership which can pursue political careers inside the legislature relatively independent of the whims or wishes of others (for example, Speakers or Presidents); and a committee system that embodies the functional differentiation of legislative activity (authorization, appropriation, revenue-raising, budgeting, and procedural matters) all serve to insulate the legislature from political predators in general, and the executive branch in particular. A stunning by-product of these arrangements is that the legislature is able to attract and retain competent, ambitious politicians to pursue political careers there. The second part of this paper examines the spate of reforms in the House of the 1970s — what I term a "representational revolt." I am specifically interested in the degree to which these reforms have altered the operation of the committee system and the political incentives which that system provides. I suggest that reforms which seek to enhance the legislature's representative character (as I believe is true of many recent reforms) risk attenuating the division-of-labor that has served the legislature so well during this century. In short, in thinking about reform I suggest there is a "great legislative tradeoff" — between representativeness and the maintainence of an independent capacity to contribute to governing.