Makkah, a Unique Knowledge City: Universal Spirituality, Global Reach and Local Economy Mamdouh M

JKAU: Env. Design Sci., Vol. 9, pp: 155 - 167 (1436 A.H. /2015 A.D.)

Makkah, a Unique Knowledge City: Universal Spirituality, Global Reach and Local Economy Mamdouh M. A. Sobaihi and Khaled A. Youssef Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Design, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, P.O. Box 80210, Saudi Arabia [email protected], [email protected] Saudi Arabia

Abstract. Located in the western region of Saudi Arabia, Makkah is the centre of the Islamic Faith. The paper investigates the spiritual potential of Makkah to become a unique Knowledge City; in terms of the local economy as well as the universal spiritual reach. As such, the addition of a new layer in the development and planning of the city is to be argued. To solidify the base on which the assumption of the paper is discussed, the spirituality of the City of Makkah is highlighted. Accordingly, a new capital conception is added to the matrix of knowledge capitals in the case of Makkah; i.e. “spiritual capital”, and strategic directions needed for the transition of the city into a unique KC are discussed. By doing that, there should be a paradigm shift in the development of the city from an urban-based development to knowledge citizen-oriented development. Keywords: Makkah, Spiritual, Global, Knowledge City, Knowledge Moments.

1. Introduction Makkah is the place where Allah (God) supposedly commanded the Prophet Abraham 1.1 The City of Makkah: Historical (Ibrahim) (peace be upon him) to build ‘the Background first House of worship’, or ‘the Holy Kaaba, Located in the western region of Saudi which is the black cube in the centre of the Arabia, the Holy City of Makkah is the capital Holy Mosque of Makkah. Upon building the of The Makkah Province (See Fig. 1) being Kaaba, Ibrahim was commanded to leave his home to around 1.7 million residents. It is also wife Haajar and his young son Ismael in the a destination for about 3 million visitors every area (Makkah) to establish and teach God’s year during the Hajj (pilgrimage) period doctrine. (3.161 million pilgrims in 2012), and a further In the pre-Islamic era, the Kaaba was 6 million visitors during Umrah seasons (year dedicated to Hubal, a Nabatean deity, containing round), for a grand total of more than 9 million about 360 idols. Once a year, tribes from all visitors annually[1]. around the Arabian Peninsula, whether Despite being the focal point for all Christian or pagan, would converge on Muslims worldwide, the spiritual significance Makkah to perform the Hajj, marking the of Makkah is alleged to have been established widespread conviction that Allah was the same long before Islam. According to Islamic belief, deity worshiped by monotheists[2].

155 156 Mamdouh M. A. Sobaihi and Khaled A. Youssef

Makkah

Fig. 1. Location of the City of Makkah, KSA.

“The first House (of worship) 610 A.D. that the message of Islam was appointed for mankind was that at revealed in Makkah. However, in the year 622 Bakkah (Makkah): full of blessing and A.D. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) of guidance for all kinds of beings. In it and his followers were forced out of Makkah are Signs Manifest; the Station of and took refuge/migrated (Hijra) to Al-Madina Ibrahim (Maqam Ibrahim); whoever Al-Munwara (called Yathrib in ancient times) enters it attains security (and peace); to the north of Makkah. There Islam was Pilgrimage thereto is a duty men owe to established and in the year of 630 A.D. Allah,- those who can afford the Muslims led by Prophet Muhammad returned journey; but if any deny faith, Allah to Makkah and declared the city the holiest stands not in need of any of His place for Muslims and pivotal for the creatures”. [The Holy Quran: Surat performance of two of the five Pillars of Islam, Aal-e-Imran (Chapter 3) verses 96 and namely The Five Daily Prayers and The 97] [3]. Pilgrimage[4]. In the pre-Islamic times, the city of Most religions of the world have holy Makkah was ruled by many Yemeni tribes cities, or cities with special significance. before the Quraysh took control of it; Sometimes these cities are the home or the promoting Makkah to be a city-state with birthplace of religious leaders. In most cases, strong commercial links to the rest of Arabian these cities house important temples, Peninsula, Ethiopia, and Europe. From the cathedrals, mosques or shrines. A number of biblical times to the rise of Islam, Makkah holy cities are important to more than one remained as a vital stop and station for trade religion. Jerusalem, as an example, is and culture. It is in Makkah and into Quraish considered a holy city to Jews, Christians and that Muhammad (peace be upon him) was Muslims, since many important biblical events born in the year 570 A.D. It was in the year (both religions believe the Old Testament) Makkah, a Unique Knowledge City: Universal Spirituality, Global Reach and Local Economy 157 have taken place in it. Further, Jerusalem was to the economy of Saudi Arabia. However, the first Qiblah for Muslims, being the place with more oil discovery over the years and toward which Muslims turn in prayer, before it heavier reliance on the income offered by the was instructed to change the Qibla from petroleum industries, Makkah no longer Jerusalem to Mecca. contributes to the economy in a significant The list of holy cities include, but not way. limited to, Jerusalem and Bethlehem, In 2011, tourism in Saudi Arabia Palestine; Lhasa, Tibet; Makkah and Al- accounted for 3.2% of the total GDP. The Madina Al-Munwara, Saudi Arabia; Varanasi total value of Kingdom revenues from Hajj and Pushkar, India; Vatican City, Italy; and and Umrah services was estimated to reach Salt Lake City, Utah. But what distinguishes $15.9 billion in 2011 [8]. In 2012, economists the City of Makkah from other holy cities in have estimated the Kingdom revenues from the world is that the world's 1.6 billion Hajj and Umrah services at more than $16.5 Muslims[5], wherever they may be, should turn billion[9]. As a result hospitality investments to the Holy Mosque in Makkah to pray five are gaining more interest, promoting real times each day. Further, every individual estate development and construction to Muslim is required to perform Hajj, when become one of the most important economic physically and financially possible, at least sectors. The construction sector in Makkah once in a lifetime. In this context, the Holy accounts for about 11% of the total size of this City of Makkah represents a remote daily sector in the Kingdom. As for the contribution spiritual destination for all Muslims, as well as to the exports of the Kingdom, Makkah comes a physical spiritual destination for Hajj and second after the Eastern Region with 32.2 Umrah[4]. billion riyals; i.e. 19.6% of the total non-oil [6] It is worth mentioning that the City of exports of the Kingdom . Makkah has always enjoyed a great deal of 1.2 Knowledge Cities: Theoretical ethnic diversity. The city managed to attract Background people from different countries, and of diverse 1.2.1 Knowledge Cities: Different Perspectives cultures. As a result, a number of Hajj and Umrah performers became permanent According to Dvir (2006) [10], the term residents of the city, affecting its “Knowledge City” (KC) is still in its infancy, demographics and contributing to its multi- i.e., there is no agreed upon definition. While ethnicity. According to the General Census of some definitions are based on the urban capital Population for 2010, the total population of systems, others are more oriented to the Makkah region amounted to about 6.92 intellectual capital, information technology, million people (Saudis are about 4.12 million urban processes and/or urban history. As for people comprising for about 60%, whereas Ergazakis et al. (2004) [11], a KC is “a city that non-Saudis are about 2.8 million comprising aims at a knowledge-based development, by for about 40% of the population) [6,7]. encouraging the continuous creation, sharing, evaluation, renewal and update of knowledge”. Makkah has always survived on trade The creation of a KC is dependent on the and religious tourism. The local economy is continuous interaction between the citizens of heavily reliant, therefore, on related services the city and citizens of other cities. The culture and industries. In the past, Makkah and the of knowledge-sharing, being supported by the Pilgrimage industry contributed significantly city’s appropriate planning and design, all 158 Mamdouh M. A. Sobaihi and Khaled A. Youssef foster the transforming of a city into a KC. On a financial centre for implementing the other hand, Edvinsson[12] (1999) defines a entrepreneurial ideas. Montréal further KC as “a city that is purposefully designed to differed by investing in avant-garde sectors of encourage the nurturing of knowledge”. the economy and high-knowledge industry While some definitions of a KC are segments that are driven by innovation. In the strongly related to the generation and sharing case of Holon, development of the knowledge of knowledge, others emphasize the city was based on promoting human importance of knowledge application to knowledge moments. A “knowledge moment” promote high value-added economies. is a “spontaneous or planned human According to the Australian firm SGS (2002) experience in which knowledge is discovered, [13], as an example; a KC is synonymous with created, nourished, exchanged, and “a regional economy driven by high value- transformed into a new form”. These added exports created through research, knowledge moments take place at the technology and brainpower”. Similarly, intersection of people, places, processes and Carrillo (2004) [14] defines a KC as “a purposes; demonstrating diverse human experiences in different places by different permanent settlement of relatively higher rank [17] in which the citizenship undertakes a people involved in different processes . Such deliberate, systematic attempt to identify and a perspective on knowledge cities, opens the develop its capital system in a balanced, door for many cities to investigate their sustainable manner”. For Michaud (2003) [15], history, mix of people and socioeconomic enabling the economic opportunities offered challenges in order to define their own set of by a KC essentially “revolves around its potential knowledge moments. learning institutions, research centres, Local and regional experiences include, businesses and creators”. These definitions but are not limited to, Madinah Knowledge seem compatible with the proposal of Berg et Economic City in Saudi Arabia and Dubai al. (2005) [16] who identified seven foundations Knowledge Village in the United Arab for successful knowledge based development Emirates, integrate real estate elements in their and economy, including: (1) knowledge base, core development principles (e.g. residential, (2) economic base, (3) quality of life, (4) commercial, hospitality, educational and accessibility, (5) urban diversity, (6) urban healthcare). The Madinah Knowledge scale, and (7) social equity. Economic City has a major objective of creating more jobs to serve Saudi Arabia’s Successful knowledge cities include, but not limited to, Barcelona, Stockholm, Munich, economic diversification in the fields of Montreal, Dublin, Delft and Melbourne; all pilgrimage hospitality and business diversity have various perspectives on the best practices in general. On the other hand, Dubai and principles of knowledge-based economy. Knowledge Village is targeting the development of the human resources in terms While Barcelona aims at creating a knowledge society though culture as the ‘motor of the of improving management and learning skills. knowledge city’, Stockholm developed a 1.2.2 Knowledge Cycle: The Merits of knowledge city model focusing on world-class Knowledge Transfer sciences, research innovation, attracting In developing and managing knowledge international scientists and businessmen. between different knowledge agents (the term Munich had yet another approach in that the ‘knowledge agent’ refers to any entity; i.e. city developed its vision in terms of becoming Makkah, a Unique Knowledge City: Universal Spirituality, Global Reach and Local Economy 159 human, organization, company, university, 1.4 Methodology technology-park, … etc., that can manage [18] To investigate the opportunities present knowledge , many specialists adopt the for the City of Makkah to become a concept of a knowledge cycle; whereby the knowledge city utilizing its global context in flow of knowledge follows a cyclonic path in terms of its importance to the Islamic World, setting out strategies, models, frameworks and [19] and its unique identity on a local context. modules. According to Silver et al. (2000) , Further, emphasis on the ‘knowledge “the process of transforming data and moments’ approach in making Makkah a information into knowledge and then back into knowledge city is to be justified. Thereafter, value-added information is a cycle”. As a the capabilities of the city to offer “knowledge result, Silver et al. proposed a knowledge moments” for both its residents and visitors management cycle that consists of four steps, (Hajj and Umrah pilgrims) are to be including: (1) observation and analysis, (2) investigated. Finally, the initiative of the City theory generation, (3) testing & application, of Makkah as a unique knowledge city is to be and (4) knowledge consolidation. Whereby, outlined, identifying the issues and/or the last step would then provide new modifications needed for to its four basic information to be used in the first step in a components (i.e. people, places, processes and forthcoming cycle. purposes) to support its transformation. In another instance, Ganesh (2000) [20] 2. Makkah: A Unique Knowledge City proposed a four-phase knowledge cycle to develop the organizational knowledge, 2.1 Identity Capital and Spiritual Potentials including: (1) knowledge creation, (2) In its basic abstraction, the Holy City of adoption, (3) distribution, and (4) knowledge Makkah serves as a tourist destination for review and revision. Furthermore, OldenkampI Muslims to perform Hajj and Umrah. This [21] (2002) designed a three-phase cycle, requires the Muslim individual’s physical starting with knowledge development to be presence in the city at least once in a lifetime if followed by knowledge sharing and possible (see section 1.1). Furthermore, knowledge application. Muslims are also required to face towards the The cyclonic model that organizes the city while performing their prayers (a flow of knowledge allows all knowledge minimum of five times a day). Hence, spiritual agents to transfer new information to others, and physical connections between all Muslims, evaluate, review, revise and consolidate the wherever they are, and the city are deeply generated information, and consequently learn rooted from a very early age (i.e. from nearly from one another. the age of ten when performance of prayers is a requirement). Based on that, one can argue 1.3 Aim and Objectives that the city should be the spring of spirituality The aim of the paper is to investigate the and a prime source of spiritual knowledge for identity capital and the spiritual potentials of all Muslims; whether they are within the city, the City of Makkah to become a knowledge in the Holy Sites surrounding it or in the city, in terms of nurturing and supporting furthest reaches of the planet or beyond for all “knowledge moments” during the Hajj and the estimated 1.6 billion Muslims in the Umrah periods. world[5].

160 Mamdouh M. A. Sobaihi and Khaled A. Youssef

In addition, if one takes into 2.2 Makkah: Opportunities for a City of consideration the fact that Muslims consider Knowledge Moments Islam as a way of life rather than just a religion As stated earlier in the paper (section or doctrine, the spiritual connection into 1.2.1), there have been many definitions, everyday life will have more of a bearing on perspectives and models of what is a KC, what the importance of Makkah; having far reaching should it do and/or how it can be designated. contact upon activities one may be involved Perhaps the proposition of Dvir (2006) [10], in; from work to recreation, the regulation of best describes the type of knowledge city that the relationships between people as well as Makkah can very readily and easily become. between people and other creatures in the Dvir (2006) describes the KC in terms of universe. enabling an intensive, rich, diverse, and The city is thus, the destination of complex flow of “knowledge moments”, either tourists (more than nine million annually and spontaneously or according to a designed plan. increasing) not seeking the holiday snapshot In his proposal, Dvir (2006) (see Fig. 2) nor the spa treatment but rather spiritual [1] identifies four components to the framework cleansing and proximity to God . These of the knowledge moments. We can simplify tourists come from different parts of the world them as the four “P’s”: with different, ethnic and cultural backgrounds, tongues, traditions, expertise and 1- People: All the inhabitants of the city socio-economic levels. They share one trait, in from all age groups and all segments of society that they are Muslims. The complex and varied whether visiting or resident. nature of the visitors and their traits has been 2- Places: All areas where knowledge treated as a source of difficulty and with a moments could occur. In most instances they negative predicament for a very long time. If are physical spaces; however there are however, one was to look at the situation with experiments with virtual space. a new light, the vision of opportunity and possibility one comes to quickly realize the 3- Processes: Whether planned or potential of Makkah’s uniqueness as a human spontaneous knowledge processes. The more settlement and environment on the global structured and complex the process the more scale. people and knowledge moments can be involved.

4- Purposes: Knowledge moments carry purpose intrinsically, whether this purpose is driven by personal or communal motives. If we consider the components Dvir (2006) outlines and examine, the city of Makkah in this context we will come to the following conclusions. People: Perhaps the component that Makkah is truly unique in is that of people. As Fig. 2. Dvir’s Framework of the Human Knowledge outlined earlier, the diversity and variety in Moments Scheme. people whether in culture, knowledge levels and background are definitely very unique to Makkah, a Unique Knowledge City: Universal Spirituality, Global Reach and Local Economy 161 the world. Another unique fact concerning the “P’s” in Makkah are not primed towards people of Makkah is that the visitors to the city capitalizing on its uniqueness and the fact that annually are more than five folds the resident nine million people with different expertise in population (the city population is 1.7 million all fields and with a wealth of experience and as of 2009) [7]. However, the impact that backgrounds are visiting the city annually. Makkah has on people is not limited to those 3. Makkah: A Unique Knowledge City Initiative present in the city at any one time. Since it is in the heart of Islamic nation and all Muslims The City of Makkah is and will always be are bound to the city remotely (see section based on spirituality. That is the intrinsic quality 1.1), the impact on all Muslims is substantial of the city and the reason it is unique. The more regardless of space and time. related the “knowledge moments” are to that fact the more likely the success of the moment and Places: At present the majority of places the initiative to make the city a KC. that people congregate in and offer the possibility of knowledge moments to occur are Creating a KC on the basis of “knowledge religious sites. These sites in reality do not moments” in Makkah will require the treatment offer space for random or even structured and the promotion of the four components moments to occur due to their nature which identified and discussed earlier (see section 2.2). require people to be concerned with the rituals As outlined, the first component; People, is of worship rather than exchange of perhaps the foundation on which Makkah as a information and/or thought. knowledge city would be built upon. The unique nature of the congregation of so many people to Processes: Again there are no processes a certain area for a certain time is truly wondrous put in place to capitalize on the potentials and will provide a wealth of possibility. offered by the huge influx of visitors to the Diversity of peoples, age groups, socio- city on a yearly basis. The only knowledge economic, professional affiliation, and cultural moments that may occur do so in a backgrounds while they exist in visitors to the spontaneous and random manner and involve a city of Makkah, assurances to their continuity few individuals and/or groups. through policy improvements must be Purposes: Out of all the “P’s” this is the guaranteed. Furthermore, the capitalization and most challenging to identify and examine. If development of the industries related to Hajj and Makkah is going to be a “Unique Knowledge Umrah in the city will ultimately lead to the City” what purpose shall it serve? Meaning, in attraction of varied and diverse investments what direction and what should the populace accompanied by a dynamic work force which of the city target and cater for in knowledge will add to the cosmopolitan nature of the city. moments? These questions force themselves Perhaps the most important component upon the argument and require a moment to that requires special attention, if Makkah is to reflect and answer. be a KC based on knowledge moments, is the Thus, after the short examination of the component of Places. While the city as status of Makkah in terms of the components previously mentioned has vast areas where of knowledge moments as identified by Dvir people perform their spiritual rituals (see Fig. (2006) [10], or the four “P’s”, a clearer picture 3), there is a lack of places where knowledge appears in line with the original assumption moments whether structured or spontaneous outlined earlier; of not utilizing the full may occur. If we aim to create a knowledge potential the city offers. Three of the four city in Makkah based on human interactions 162 Mamdouh M. A. Sobaihi and Khaled A. Youssef and knowledge moments then the planning of places for knowledge moments to take place in the city must take into consideration a new all of their manifestations. layer and objective; that of creating spaces and

Fig. 3. Procedure and Places of Hajj (Pilgrimage).

The process of creating the knowledge issue and/or topic. The effort to organize these moments is one that requires significant moments is a daunting task and will require address. The spontaneous knowledge moments the input from many agencies and individuals. that may occur provided the spaces and places For example, information specific to visitors are available will take place throughout the (pilgrims) would be gathered at visa issuing city in a very random and non-structured posts and information concerning the different manner. However, the more structured possible knowledge moments available for the processes and planned moments (which will visitors (pilgrims) to engage in during their benefit a greater number of people) are the trip to Makkah according to their specific processes that require special attention. These profiles will be forwarded to them. The processes will reach out to organize utilization of technology and creative methods knowledge moments and events according to of information processing, storage and an agreed purpose, specialization, interest, manipulation will most defiantly be required if Makkah, a Unique Knowledge City: Universal Spirituality, Global Reach and Local Economy 163 the processes are to deliver fruitful knowledge “moments” to all the Muslim community in moments. the varied fields, professions, issues and topics The final component, that of Purpose as of concern. In doing so, the city will be a hive stated earlier may prove the most difficult to of activities relating to the creation and address. If the city aims to cater for knowledge dissemination of knowledge. By so doing, moments that will benefit the knowledge based Makkah will reclaim its the central place in the economy of not only the city but all process of Islamic Knowledge Cycles; where concerned; with the moments and thus to their knowledge is created, theories generated, respective local economies, the purpose surely knowledge adopted and through the pilgrims will have to address issues of knowledge based from all corners of the world – distributed. developments and economies in the varied Only for the visitors and pilgrims to bring back areas and topics of economies; whether on a the knowledge application results in future micro or macro scale. However, one must not years for the cycle to be completed. forget that the city is a spiritual place, and the All These activities will most certainly people that travel to Makkah seek spiritual provide the city and its inhabitants with a renewal and solace. Hence, the question arises, wealth of economic growth and development how can a spiritual city function as a place for opportunities. Therefore, while the moments moments concerning economies, money and and activities will have a global scale in terms development; all seemingly material things? of reach and scope, the local city and city Perhaps the answer lies within the nature region will benefit in terms of economy: an of Islam and its greater conceptual constructs. economy based on knowledge moments and As outlined earlier, Islam to Muslims is a way knowledge based development in a spiritual of life. Occupying significance to the Muslim context and guidance. in all aspects of life meaning, Islamic views on As shown in Fig. 4, the proposed all matters must be known and adhered to by initiative of transforming the City of Makkah believers. Thus, spirituality (Islam) does not into a unique knowledge city is to structure the exist in a separate realm from all matters of relationship of the four components: people life and livelihood. (residents and visitors of various fields, “There is no sin on you if you seek the specialization and/or interest), places (places Bounty of your Lord (during Hajj by of Hajj and Umrah where gathering trading). Then when you leave “Arafat” opportunities are offered), processors (Holy Site around Makkah), remember (spontaneous or planned) and purposes Allah (by glorifying His Praises) at the (benefits for all and endless knowledge Mash’ar-il-Haram (forbidden Holy cycles). This structuring and facilitation will Sites), and remember Him (by invoking assist in gaining maximum return from the Allah for all good), as He has guided targeted “knowledge moments”. you, and verily, you were, before, of 3. Discussions and Conclusion those who were astray”. [The Holy By realizing the historical, religious, Quran: Surat Al-Baqara (Chapter 2) [22] economic and spiritual context of the Holy verse 198] . City of Makkah, and understanding the theory It is this fact that will provide Makkah and applications of the concept of knowledge with its uniqueness. It will be the spiritual city cities, the paper assumed that Makkah can be that will provide guidance through its considered a unique knowledge city based on 164 Mamdouh M. A. Sobaihi and Khaled A. Youssef its identity capital and spiritual potentials. creation and transfer. Makkah as a knowledge Knowledge moments are argued to be the city would ultimately be and/or act not only as main force in the knowledge management of the place of knowledge sharing among the cyclonic model of knowledge transfer for pilgrims and spiritual knowledge, but also the the City of Makkah. With the human capital knowledge transfer in scientific, being, the main component in knowledge specializations and interest sense.

Fig. 4. Makkah as a Unique Knowledge City.

A paradigm shift in developing and administrative structure, better hospitality planning the city; from a conventional physical services; active involvement of citizens in the based planning and development approach to a city development and the city’s identity and more balanced developmental initiative unique character. focusing on incorporating knowledge-based While the concept of making Makkah a development is necessary for success. Knowledge City based on the full utilization The expected benefits of transforming and improvement of pilgrimage and visitor the City of Makkah into a knowledge city experiences and industries sounds simple; it of include, but should not be limited to, course, is not. There are many challenges that promoting a strong dynamic of innovation will need to be addressed prior to across all sectors of economic and social implementation and/or advancement of such activity, attraction of foreign investment, an initiative. There are many infrastructural, continuous improvement of policies and spatial, social, doctrinal and physical planning issues that must be addressed and improved Makkah, a Unique Knowledge City: Universal Spirituality, Global Reach and Local Economy 165 for such an initiative to have a fair chance of hajj1433 success. The city and must have a more [2] Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Hajj, comprehensive planning strategy focusing on “History of the Holy City of Makkah” (2011). the initiative to assist in the development of [3] The Holy Quran: Surat Aal-e-Imran (Chapter 3) the economy of the city in a manner that verses 96 and 97, King Fahd Complex for Printing the Holy Quran. Cited in: greater return for the nation as a whole may be http://www.qurancomplex.org/default.asp?l=eng achieved. Furthermore, the outlook and/or [4] Al-Khattab, Nassiruddin (2002) “History of attitudes towards pilgrims and visitors to the Makkah”. Riyadh: Dar-us-salam. city must be improved greatly. The pilgrims [5] Pew Research Center (2011) “The Future of the and visitors must be viewed as potential rather Global Muslim Population: Projections for 2010- than problem. Further, the making of Makkah 2030”. Cited in:

a knowledge city should imply, not only the http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Relig knowledge sharing among pilgrimages, but ious_Affiliation/Muslim/FutureGlobalMuslimPopulati also the knowledge transfer among on-WebPDF-Feb10.pdf pilgrimages in its scientific sense. The more [6] Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority (2010) “Economic Report 2010: Makkah Region”. the city is hospitable, welcoming both Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: (SAGIA) Riyadh. Cited in: physically and socially, and able to http://jeg.org.sa/data/modules/contents/uploads/infopd accommodate scientific events the more f/1550.pdf success the initiative and knowledge moments [7] Alkhaldy, Ibrahim (2009) “A Critical Spatial will have. Analysis of Residential Planning in Makkah, Saudi Arabia”. Marshall University: Graduate College of Perhaps the greatest challenge to the Marshall University, M.Sc. Thesis. initiative and making the city of Makkah a [8] Saudi Gazette (2012) “Tourism sector accounts for unique KC is the political sensitivities and 3.2% of total Saudi gross domestic product”. Thursday, 02 August 2012 - 15 Ramadan 1433 H. doctrine differences that may exist between Cited in:

visitors (pilgrims) and local thoughts and http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=h authorities. These issues will remain the major ome.regcon&contentid=20120802131840 hindrance towards the advancement of the city [9] Arab News (2013) “Revenue from pilgrims makes 3% and the city region towards gaining their of Saudi GDP”. 18 April 2013 | Jamadil Akhir 7, unique place in the world in general and in the 1434. Cited in: http://www.arabnews.com/revenue- pilgrims-makes-3-saudi-gdp Islamic world in particular. However, as is [10] Dvir, Ron (2006) “Knowledge City, Seen as a being suggested here, perhaps the dialogue Collage of Human Knowledge Moments”, in: Carrillo should begin in Makkah concerning this issue Francisco (2006) “Knowledge Cities: Approaches, or topic as a knowledge moment itself. Experiences and Perspectives”. UK: Butterworth- Perhaps during the discussions and the Heinemann. moment, the greater good will over shadow the [11] Ergazakis, K., Metaxiotis, K. and Psarras, J. (2004). Towards knowledge cities: Conceptual minor differences that may exist and that analysis and success stories, Journal of Knowledge knowledge of a brighter future for the city, Management, 8(5): 5–15. region and Islamic world will guide the debate [12] Edvinsson, L. (1999) IC of nations for future wealth and form a basis from which all can begin. creation. Journal of Human Resource Costing and Accounting, Stockholm University. References [13] SGS Economic & Planning (2002). Knowledge [1] Central Department of Statistics and Information, Cities, Bulletin Urbecon, in: Carrillo Francisco (2006) “Most Important Indicators of Hajj Statistics 1433 “Knowledge Cities: Approaches, Experiences and A.H (2013). KSA. Cited in: Perspectives”. UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. http://www.cdsi.gov.sa/2010-10-02-08-30-17/260- [14] Carrillo, Francisco (2004). Capital cities: A 166 Mamdouh M. A. Sobaihi and Khaled A. Youssef

taxonomy of capital accounts for knowledge cities. [19] Silver, Daniel and Shakshuki, Elhadi (2000) Journal of Knowledge Management, 8(5), in: Carrillo “Knowledge Management: Integrating Perspectives”. Francisco (2006) “Knowledge Cities: Approaches, Acadia University, NS, Canada. Experiences and Perspectives”. UK: Butterworth- Heinemann. [20] Bhatt, Ganesh D. (2000),"Organizing knowledge in the knowledge development cycle", Journal of [15] Michaud, P. (2003). Montréal: Knowledge City. Knowledge Management, 4(1) : 15 – 26. Report prepared by the Montréal, Knowledge City Advisory Committee, in: Carrillo Francisco (2006) [21] OldenkampI, Johan (2002) “Knowledge Cycle “Knowledge Cities: Approaches, Experiences and Management”. International Conference on Perspectives”. UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. Knowledge Management, Graz, Austria. [16] Berg, Leo; Pol, Peter; Winden, Willem and Woets, [22] The Holy Quran: Surat Al-Baqara (Chapter 2) verse Paulus (2005) European Cities in the Knowledge 198, King Fahd Complex for Printing the Holy Quran. Economy. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Cited in: http://www.qurancomplex.org/default.asp?l=eng [17] Carrillo, Francisco (2006). Knowledge Cities: Approaches, Experiences, and Perspectives, Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier Inc., USA. [18] Ergazakis, K., Metaxiotis, K., Ergazakis, E. and Psarras, J. (2008) " Knowledge Cities: The Future of Cities in the Knowledge-based Economy", IEEE: 238-242.

Makkah, a Unique Knowledge City: Universal Spirituality, Global Reach and Local Economy 167

مكة المكرمة كمدينة معرفة متفردة: الروحانية الكونية والمدى العالمي واالقتصاد المحلي

ممد وح صبيحي و خالد يوسف

كلية تصاميم البيئة، جامعة الملك عبد العزيز، جدة – المملكة العربية السعودية

المستخلص. تعتبر مدينة مكة المكرمة – والتي تقع في المنطقة الغربية من المملكة العربية السعودية- مرك اًز للعالم اإلسالمي. وتحاول هذه الورقة البحثية التحقق من اإلمكانات الروحانية لمدينة مكة المكرمة والتي تؤهلها ألن تصبح مدينة معرفة متفردة، على أساس دعم فرص تنمية اإلقتصاد المحلي من خالل التوظيف األمثل لمداها الروحاني الذي يربطها بالعالم اإلسالمي بأسره. وبالتحقق من ذلك، تناقش الورقة البحثية إمكانية إضافة بعد جديد ألبعاد تنمية وتطوير عمران المدينة. ولتدعيم القاعدة النظرية التي ترتكز عليها مناقشة فرضية الدراسة، تبدأ الورقة البحثية بمناقشة المقومات الروحانية لمدينة مكة المكرمة، ليلي ذلك البحث في إعادة صياغة منظومة رؤوس األموال الداعمة ألطروحة مدن المعرفة، ليتم مناقشة إضافة ما تم تسميته في الورقة البحثية باسم "رأس المال الروحي"، كحالة خاصة من "رأس مال الهوية". وعقب ذلك يتم مناقشة التوجهات الفكرية اإلستراتيجية والتغيرات العمرانية الحتمية التي من شأنها دعم تحول مدينة مكة المكرمة إلى مدينة معرفة متفردة. وال يتسنى ذلك إال من خالل تغير نوعي في أسلوب تنمية المدينة من النموذج المعتمد على التطوير العمراني إلى النموذج القائم على المعرفة، ن مخالل االستفادة من زخم اللحظات المعرفية المتاحة بالمدينة.

كلمات مفتاحية: مكة المكرمة، مدن المعرفة، اللحظات المعرفية.

168 Mamdouh M. A. Sobaihi and Khaled A. Youssef