Artl@s Bulletin

Volume 10 Issue 1 Images in Circulation Article 2

Sub signo Capricorni. The Image of Capricorn in Glyptics: Literary Sources, Gemstones, Impressions, Drawings

Alessandra Magni independent scholar, [email protected]

Umberto Verdura Ecole Normal Supérieure, [email protected]

Gabriella Tassinari independent scholar, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Magni, Alessandra; Umberto Verdura; and Gabriella Tassinari. "Sub signo Capricorni. The Image of Capricorn in Glyptics: Literary Sources, Gemstones, Impressions, Drawings." Artl@s Bulletin 10, no. 1 (2021): Article 2.

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Sub signo Capricorni. The Image of Capricorn in Glyptics: Literary Sources, Gemstones, Impressions, Drawings

independent scholar Alessandra Magni École normale supérieure Umberto Verdura independent scholar Gabriella Tassinari Abstract

The relationship between glyptics and the circulation of images can be analysed from differ- ent perspectives, as seen in the case study of the image of Capricorn. The goat-fish­ monster entered the European collective imagination during Antiquity, when its image was spread on gems and coins. The popularity of this theme in the Augustan Age is unquestionable but, over time, the political meanings associated with Capricornth seemed to have faded, while others appeared. These meanings were fully recovered by 17 century scholars through the analysis of famous cameos and lesser-known­ gems. However, the protective and magical value of gems with Capricorn has always been and still remains remarkable. Further insights and comparisons are provided by some unpublished Capricorn intaglios and glass gems Résuméhoused in the collections of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano (MATR) in Verona.

La relation entre la circulation des images et la glyptique peut être analysée selon différentes perspectives, dont l’exemple, dans le cadre de ce travail, sera fourni par l’étude de l’image du Capricorne. Ce monstre mi-chèvre­ mi-poisson­ est entré dans l’imaginaire européen dans l’Antiquité, en partie grâce à sa diffusion sur les gemmes, utilisées par un public intéressé par l’astrologie : les gemmes tantôt résument tantôt anticipent les images présentes sur les mon- naies. Le succès de ce thème à l’époque augustéenne ne fait guère de doute, mais plus tard les significations politiques de ce signe semblent disparaître,ème tandis que d’autres fleurissent. Ces sens furent redécouverts par les antiquaires du XVII siècle grâce à l’étude de camées célèbres et de gemmes moins connues. Toutefois, en association avec les gemmes, la valeur apotropaïque du Capricorne resta invariée. Quelques intailles et pâtes de verre inédites re- présentant ce sujet, qui se trouvent à présent au Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano de Vérone, offriront d’autres idées pour la rechercheArtl@s et la comparaison. Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021) Magni, Verdura, Tassinari –­ Sub signo Capricorni Circulation of Images and Glyptics: An Introduction (A.M., U.V., G.T.)1 from dated findings are few. Only in rare cases we can follow gems from workshop to owners, and imagine the successions of owners from the first to The relationship between the circulation of images the last ones. Indeed, in ancient times gems were and glyptics can be analysed from different per- often used for several generations. Finally, we can spectives. A preferred line of research focuses on follow the reproduction of an image from a model the different meanings that images on gems may (a coin, for example) onto gems and recognize se- have acquired through space and time: iconogra- ries, workshops, and artists. We can also follow the phies change or are modified in the same way as circulation of images from the engraved stones on their meanings. While the analysis of archaeologi- to other materials. cal contexts and literary sources can help us rec- ognize clear or hidden significances, it does not We will try to illustrate these lines of investiga- completely explain why a man or a woman chose a tion by referring to an iconography that is still well specific gem for sealing and for wearing in a piece recognizable nowadays: the Capricorn figure. The of jewellery. We mainly look at engraved gems as goat-­fish hybrid entered the European collective little masterpieces, or as mysterious shrines of an- imagination in the Classical Age and the gems bear-

cient myths – the same approach that Humanists2 ing this picture have contributed widely to spread and collectors and scholars of the Modern Age had. its iconography and the various5 meanings linked There is in fact a specific and fascinating feature in to it through the centuries. Most of the gems we gems: the engravings create, by impression, other will present come from the collections of the Museo images, which have been and are still one of the Archeologico al Teatro Romano (MATR) in Verona,

most successful ways to learn about and study the Italy, which houses a relevant group of intaglios6

spreadnd3 of classical art, both in ancient and modernrd with Capricorn: 40 exemplars, mostly unpublished. times. Nevertheless, for a few centuries, between Two Myths, Two Iconographies the 2 century B.C.E. and the middle of the 3 cen- (A.M., U.V.) tury C.E., gems were mostly a commodity, needed for a urban – and globalized – life, worn by men and women, expressing, if possible, the feelings, mem- Following the representation of Capricorn on gems, ories, ambitions of their owners. An undoubtable bullae we start analysing literary sources: the glyptic im- proof of the practice of sealing is given by thou- ages reflect indeed the different myths about the or- sands of clay with gem impressions, which igin of the monster. The first myth revolves around have been found in the ruins of public and private the figure of Zeus and his childhood and is related archives of the Hellenistic and Roman Ages in the 4 to the Naiad Amaltheia. According to Ovid, Rhea Mediterranean and Eastern areas. These impres- decided to give the new-born­ Jupiter to a nymph, sions also offer a faithful picture of which images the Naiad called Amaltheia, who nourished him really circulated in glyptics during antiquity. On the Cornucopia with the milk of her goat. The goat’s broken horn other hand, the gems in the historical collections became a symbol of abundance, the : are mostly removed from their context, and groups when Zeus won over Chronos, he put his nurse and 1 We wish to thank Margherita Bolla, Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano of Verona,Année 5 Philologiquewho made gems and their images available for this article; Cristina D’Adda, Biblioteca Altough references to Capricorn on gems are common in studiesRACF on Augustan art Archeologica e Numismatica di Milano, for her assistance. Abbreviationsth follow and glyptics, only few papers are devoted to it; among them, Gaston Cœuret, Hélène ; URL cited were requested on November 15 , 2020. Unless otherwise Guiraud, “Une intaille «au capricorne»,JDAI à Pouillé (Loir-et-­ ­Cher),” 19 (1980), indicated,2 the translations are ours. Antike Gem- 29-34­ (list of gems); Carina Weiß, “Virgo Folia Capricorn in memoriam und Taurus. Ruth Zur Lindner Deutung collecta Au- men3 In this und essay, ihr Nachleben the term “modern” refers to the Modern Age (1500-1800).­ gusteischer Symbolgemmen,” 109 (1994), 353-369;­ Carina Weiß, “Capricorn About collections in antiquity and in Modern Age: Erika Zwierlein-­Diehl, RAL Engravedund Tisch Gemsauf Augusteischen and Propaganda Gemmen,” in the Roman in Republic and under Augustus , (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2007), 108-109;­ 264-304;­ Maria Elisa Mi- ed. Carina Weiß and Erikaad indicem Simon (Dettelbach: Röll, 2010), 164-­177; Paweł Gołyźniak, cheli,Archives “Dactyliothecae et sceaux du romanae: monde hellénistiquetra publica magnificentia e privata luxuria,” Ser.BCH 9, Gemme dei Civici Musei d’Arte di Verona (Oxford: Suppl.426 (2016), 73-113.­ Clay Seal Impressions of Zeugma -­ Kil Mühür Baskilari 6Archaeopress, 2020), , provides a list of gems with Capricorn. . Actes du colloque de Turin 1993, About the collection: , a cura di Gemma Sena 29 (1996); Mehmet Önal, Chiesa, testi di Gemma Sena Chiesa, Alessandra Magni, Gabriella Tassinari (Roma: (Ankara: Gaziantep Müzesi, 2007). Giorgio Bretschneider Editore, 2009). 13 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

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her horn among the stars. 8 In another version of the myth, related by Hyginus, Amaltheia is the daugh- ter of the King of Crete. Again, she received and fed the little Jupiter with the help of her goat, and then she and her goat were put among the stars. The Library connection between the goat and the Cornucopia is highlighted also in Apollodorus’ , where we can find mention of Cornucopia’s extraordinary 9 Catasterismi powers. This association is also illustrated by Er-

atosthenes in his 10 where Amaltheia is the mother of Capricorn. The myth of Capricorn omen is related to the positive image of the Cornucopia, Figure 1. whose power could be understood as a good Capricorn-Cornucopia.­ Intaglio, carnelian. Verona, Museo Ar- for the owner of the image. cheologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26926. Ph. Giorgio Fogliata. Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. Capricorn-­Amaltheia is well portrayed in a group of gems, in which the lower part of the body of the animal becomes a horn of plenty. These intaglios appear as an evolution of an image of Cornuco-

pia, common in Ptolemaic11 coinage and glyptics, ending in a head of goat. At the same time, their

images recall the double-­body animals 12and figures common in Italic “a globolo” scarabs. A couple of intaglios in Verona MATR collection presents this iconography: the blob style of the carnelian

MATR inv. 26925nd is well diffused, for example, on gems from late Celtic contexts in northern Italy and Figure 2. Gaul (fromst the 2 century13 B.C.E. until the middle Capricorn with Cornucopia. Intaglio, burnt carnelian. Verona, of the 1 century B.C.E.). On the other hand, the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26928. Ph. Giorgio carnelian MATR inv. 26926 reflects the calligraphic Fogliata. Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. 15 style of workshops engravingst with wheel14 drills, in the last decades of the 1 century B.C.E. (Fig. 1) the Augustan era: in carnelians MATR inv. 26927-­ Nevertheless this image seems to disappear after 26928, (Fig. 2) Capricorn and Cornucopia are pre-

fast. sented as separate, under the influence of Augustan 7 Ov. 5, 115-128­ ; particularly 121-124:­ “She suckled the god. But she broke a horn coinage, that oriented the taste of the craftsman on a tree,astr. and was shorn of half her charm. The nymph picked it up, wrapped it in fresh and of the owners, as we will explain later. herbs,8 and carried it, full of fruit, to the lips of Jove.” (James G. Frazer - ­G. P. Goold).

9 Hyg. 2, 13. Apollod. 2, 7, 5: “Now Amalthea was a daughter of Haemonius, and she had a bull’s In these last gems, Capricorn appears as a sea-­ horn, which, accordingPseudo- to Pherecydes,­Eratosthenis had catasterismi, the power Mythographiof supplying Graecimeat or drink in abundance,10 whatever one might wish.” (James G. Frazer). monster half-­goat and half-­fish. This iconography, catast. 27 Alexander Olivieri, 3 (Leipzig: created in the Near East during the Bronze Age to Teubner, 1897), 33-34.­ Eratosth. : “Having gained the power, Zeus put him 16 among the stars with his mother, the goat. For having foundHellenistic the shell Engraved in the sea,Gems he has depict the monster Suhurmāšu, constitutes the a11 fish-­tail as mark of distinction.” Cornucopia on hellenistic gems:Museo Dimitris Archeologico Plantzos, Nazionale di Napoli. La collezione (Ox- glitticaford:12 Clarendon II Press, 1999), 98, tav. 79, nos. 637-638.­ 15 Kaiser Augustus und die verlorene Republik For instance Ulrico Pannuti, I We mention a couple of rings with glass gems from the fortress of Haltern am See 13Leponti tra (Roma: mito eIPZS, realtà. 1994), Saggi 58, in no. occasione 38; 70-71,­ della nos. mostra 49-50.­ in North Rhine-­Westphalia (before 9 C.E.): , Elisabetta Gagetti, “Gli oggetti d’ornamento come indizio di acculturazione,” in Ausstellungkatalog16Iraq (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 1988),The 599-East600,­ Face kat. of Helicon: 442-443.­ West Asi- , ed. RaffaeleIntailles C.et decamées Marinis, de atic Anthony Elements Green, in Greek “A Note Poetry on andthe AssyrianMyth “Goat-­Fish”, “Fish-Man”­ and “Fish-­Woman,” l’époque14S. Biaggio romaine Simona (Locarno: en Gaule (territoireGruppo Archeologico français), GalliaTicinese, 2000), 325-345:­ 332-333.­ 48 (1986), 25-30:­ 25, and also Martin L. West, On these different engraving styles see Hélène Guiraud, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997) especially 29, 48ème Suppl. (1988, 2008), where the author underlines the correspondence among Greek and Mesopotamian I, 38-­44, II, 61-­65. myths and astronomy. 14 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

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greatest part of the gems with Capricorn. Two al-

mostth contemporary intaglios of the end of the 7 century B.C.E., a late Babylonian seal, depicting 17 ketos the goat-­fish, and an “island gem” portraying18 a goat with a long tail of a sea-­snake (a ), il-

lustrate the far origin of the two 19iconographic ver- sions. According to a Greek myth, Aegipan (son of Pan or of Zeus himself) helped Zeus by returning him his sinews, which had been stolen by Typhon. The myth is also reported by Hyginus, in two differ- ent ways. Firstly, quoting the Eratosthenes’ version we have already discussed, Aegipan was put by Ju- Figure 3. piter among the stars20 because he had helped him Capricorn as sea-­snake. Intaglio, grey jasper. Verona, Museo fighting the Titans. The other version he proposes Archeologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26950. Ph. Giorgio Fogliata. highlights a connection between the Capricorn Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. and Pan. In fact, to avoid the Titans, Pan suggested the Gods to transform themselves into beasts and turned himself into a goat. Here, the great differ-

ence with the first myth is that Capricorn 21 is Pan himself, later put among the stars by Jupiter.

We can find Capricorn on roman gems too, as shown by some intaglios and glass gems now in MATR col- lection, whose main comparisons are related to Rome, Aquileia and other areas of early romanisa-

tion. Capricorn appears as a sea-snake­22 in the glass intaglios MATR inv. 26951-26953­ and in the grey Figure 4. jasper MATR inv. 26950, (Fig. 3) close to the prod- Capricorn as goat-­fish. Intaglio, banded onyx. Verona, Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26929. Ph. Giorgio Fogliata. ucts of the “Officina del Pegaso” of ­Aquileia (in this Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano.

gem, only the subtle lines used to draw horns permit23 to better define the monster as a Capricorn). The forcing the craftsman to eliminate the damaged part image of the goat-fish­ is even more diffused: in glass in order to save his precious work. (MATR inv. 26946, 26955); in the fine, pellet style of the carnelian MATR inv. 26931; or in the onyx MATR Coins and Gems with Capricorn in the inv. 26929 (Fig. 4). The monster, curiously, has no Late Republican Age: An Increasing head because the stone broke during the engraving, Popularity (A.M., U.V.)

17 The Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, Morgan Seal 803 (https://isaw.nyu.edu st /exhibitions/time-18 ­cosmos/objects/late-­babylonian-­seal). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 42.11.12 (https://www.metmuseum Why, during the 1 century B.C.E., do we find a re- .org/art/collection/search/25445519 astr ). 20 Apollod. 1, 6, 3. markable number of images of Capricorn carved on Hyg. fab . 2, 28. “[Eratosthenes says] that the reason his [Capricorn] lower part is intaglios, which, we argue, were produced by Italian fish-21 shaped­ is that he had hit his enemies with murices instead of rocks.” Hyg. . 196. “By the gods’ will, Pan was included in the number of the stars, since workshops, or impressed on glass gems? Should we his warning allowed the godsScalae to flee Anulariae Typhoon’s attack, also because he then turned into22 a goat, which is why he is called Aegocerus and, by us, Capricorn.” suppose a continuous tradition of gems production, ComparisonsLacus from Iuturnae Rome, Lacus Iuturnae: LiisaII. Saggi Harri, degli “Gemme anni 1982- in pasta­1985 vitrea e pietra dura. Altri materiali in pasta vitrea. Ipotesi di una bottega tardorepubblicana by schools or workshops? Did other artefacts or nell’area del ,” in Gemme del Museo Nazionale di ,Aquileia ed. Eva trends increase the diffusion of these iconographic M.23 Steinby (Roma: Quasar, 2012), 2, 253-297:­ 285, tav. LV, nos. 107-108.­ “Officina del Pegaso”: Gemma Sena Chiesa, schemes? These gems confirm a phenomenon not (Padova: Associazione Nazionale per Aquileia, 1966), 29, pl. LXXXIII, no. 1230. foreign to ancient and modern authors: the diffusion 15 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

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of the science of astrology and the practice of horo- propaganda gems in MATR collections: inv. 27990, paeninsula scopes in Rome and in the prosperous cities of the the adoption ring of Caesar for Octavian, with 28 a

, in part due to the presence of 24 a multi-­ Capricorn at the centre, dated around 44 B.C.E.; ethnic crowd from Greece and the Orient. Capri- inv. 26024, a maiden (Virgo Astraea) seated on a

corn, Jupiter’s helper, ascended to the sky, could be bull-­goat (a29 double monster related to Caesar and

felt as a positive and apotropaic creature, from25 which Octavian); inv. 26109, a young Octavian-­Neptunus help could be obtained for every-day­ life. In Rome with a Capricorn near it, maybe related to the battle lived a critical mass of people virtually interested in of Naulochus (36 B.C.E.); inv. 26947: a sculpture of

such iconography, who encountered a new genera- a Capricorn on a base,30 as a tribute for the victory tion of glyptic craftsmen and artists, mostly arrived of Actium (31 B.C.E.). All these gems are made of in Rome and Italy, with their knowledge and sketch- glass, the cheapest material for the replication of

books, during the Age of the Roman conquests, from26 masterpieces created by artists also working for Seleucian areas, Pontus, and even Alexandria. Roman mints. These glass intaglios, created with Therefore it was easy for the customers to find their Octavian’s supporters in mind, are said to have first princeps favourite gems under the sign of Capricorn. been diffused among31 the comrades and clients of denarius the future . We argue that they were the We can note the same phenomenon in coinage. A a denarius serratus field where the political value of the image of Cap- little Capricorn is depicted on a of C. Vibius ricorn was tested, before its extended use after 27 Pansa (90 B.C.E.), on of L. Papius B.C.E. And it is interesting that, even if Capricorn (79 B.C.E.), and on a bronze coin of Q. Oppius (we 27 does not seem to be very attractive to modern en- accept it was minted around 80 B.C.E.). The role of gravers, a few post-classical,­ fine pieces revived these Capricorns is debated: they could be symbols 32 some of these iconographies. related to the minters, inspired by the rulers, or legenda simply countermarks. In Rome, messages on coins Augustus and Capricorn: The Choice (images and ) should be read, above all, as a of a Symbol (U.V.) proposal of the magistrate or emperor, with limited attention paid to users’ comprehension. However, a recurrent symbol could create a sort of familiarity The relationship between Augustus and Capricorn with its image, whatever its origins. So, after a few has been deeply investigated by scholars for centu-

decades, during the Civil Wars, the young Octavian ries, but it is not easy to find a unique explanation.rd could easily impose the image of Capricorn on gems According to Roman Emperors’ biographer, Sue-

for his political propaganda. Here is a short list of tonius, Augustus was born on September 23 , 6333

24 L’Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine. I. Mélanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon B.C.E., hence he was born under the sign of Libra. Marcel Le Glay, “Magie et sorcellerie à Rome au dernier siècle de la République,” “ in Pallas Augustus: 28 Paideia (École Française de Rome, 1976), 525-550:­ 529-532;­ Wolfgang Hübner, “L’Astrologie Gemma Sena Chiesa, Il potere delle immagini: gemme politiche e cammei di presti- ” REA Gemme Verona, dans l’Antiquité,” 30 (1983),Augustus 1- ­24; Béatrice Bakhouche, “ les astres et 29gio,” LXVII (2012) , 255-278:­ 263-264.­ la25 mutation de l’autorité à Rome, 114, 1 (2012), 47-72:­ 48-52.­ 30 Alessandra Magni in La78- Rivista79,­ no. di302. Engramma Even RELthough Bakhouche, “ ,” 54, says that the Capricorn could have some Alessandra Magni, “Per una storia della glittica “di propaganda”: alcune riflessioni. negative interpretations. BakhoucheAnthologiae quotes J-H.­ Abry “Auguste: la balance et le capri- I. L’antico. Gemme inedite a Verona,” 170 (dicembre 2019) corne,” , 66 (1988), where the author highlights Capricorn’s bad influence accor- (http://www.engramma.it/eOS/index.php?id_articolo=3719): 17, 19, 27, where inv. ding, for example, to Vettius Valensarat gelidum1, 2 who ualido describes de pectore the Capricorn frigus anhe as- 26947,31 26109 are preliminarly discussed. lansκακῶν corporeαἴτιον, ἀσελγές, semifero λατρευτικόν,magno Capricornus αἰνιγματῶδες, in orbe διφυές, « source of evil, servile, Nevertheless, a part of these glass gems, evidently unfinished, didn’t circulate in riddling and doublebullae » ; cfr. also Cic. . 58-59­ antiquity:32 Magni, “Propaganda,” 17. 26 // nd . A neoclassical Poniatowski gem, with a portrait, a little Capricorn and the signa- A group of clay withSeleucia the goat- al Tigri.­fish, Le from impronte the archives di sigillo of dagli Seleucia Archivi on Tigris ture of Dioskourides (Christie’s, London: 1839-1529;­ http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk (Iraq), dated by the end of the 2 century BC, is worthy of further study: Ariela Bol- /record/510E10F0-PropagandaC324-­ 4C81-­ 8B43-­ FF212C5B91A4­ ); a cameo in St. Petersburg with lati, “Animali Fantastici,” in , a cura a portait of Octavian, a Capricorn and various symbols (Hermitage Museum, ГР-12650:­ di Antonio Invernizzi (Alessandria: Centro Scavi Torino Missione in Iraq II, 2004), II, Gołyźniak, , 415, 93.P, fig. 813; https://www.hermitagemuseum.org 172-27 173,­ tav. 94, AF 101-104.­ /wps/portal/hermitage/digital-caes. collection/18.%20carved%20stones/1002501/­ ), Pansa: RRC, 342/5b: (British Museum, inv. 1949,0403.50; https://www.british that33 deserves further studies. museum.org/collection/object/C_1949-0403-­ ANSMN50­ ); Papius: RRC, 384/1 (British Mu- Suet. 2, 5 : “Augustus was born just before sunrise on the ninth day before the seum inv.Augustus R-­8474; https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/C_R-­8474). Kalends of October in the consulship of Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Antonius, at About Oppius: E. Badian, “Q.OPPIVS.PR.”, 29 (1984), 99-102;­ disagrees Bak- the Ox-­Heads in the Palatine quarter, where he now has a shrine, built shortly after houche, “ ”, 53, notes 32-34.­ his death.” (J. C. Rolfe).

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aurea aetas

Then why34 the Capricorn, as Suetonius himself pon- with Augustus, to the 40 central to the dered, is said to be the sign under which he was emperor’s propaganda. Moreover, the Capricorn Augustus born? A great analysis of all the hypothesis given by represents the heavens’ gate whereby the souls as- and Capricorn, scholars is to be found in Tamsyn Barton’s cend to the divine ether, underlying41 even more the in which she shows the difficulty to strong symbolic value of rebirth. come up to a definitive answer to the problem of The Augustan poets did participate to that symbolic Augustus’ horoscope. Going from the Moon’s ascen- propaganda by including in their literary works dant of the day he was born, to the one of the day Odes some references to the Capricorn. Horace in his of his conception, which probably was in December, 42 35 , for instance, which P.J. Connor understands: every hypothesis has been contemplated. Never- “So ‘the tyrant of the Western or Hesperian wave’ theless, Barton shows that both the theory of the contains reverberations that shift our thoughts Moon’s Ascendant and the theory of the sign of the from geographical astrology to politics. Within month of his conception can be reconciliated with this rollcall of the possible ascendant birth signs, other theories, and that the answer is not likely to Horace took a quick shot at the supremacy of Au- be found in astrology. Other possibilities have re- gustus, a sharply worded suggestion about the na- cently been considered by Beatrice Bakhouche, 43 ture of his dominance, or domination, in Rome.” who has related the Capricorn to the sky of Janu- th Senatus It is therefore clear that the Capricorn was at the ary 16 , 27 B.C.E. (when Octavian was declared media Sidus Iulium th heart of Augustus’ propaganda and that he has used Augustus by ) and linked it to July 20 , 44 rd it in a large variety of , gems, coinage, public B.C.E. (when appeared) as well as to monuments, literary works, to reach the widest and September 23 , 63 B.C.E., including in her analy- 36 most heterogeneous public at different levels of un- sis astrological facts. Our purpose, however, is derstanding. The symbols of that message, namely not to decide which interpretation of astronomical aurea aetas 37 peace, rebirth, and power, became part of Augustus’ phenomena is correct: we are only trying to de- program of creating a new for Rome fine the symbolic possibilities that the Capricorn and its Empire. Nonetheless, some messages were offered to Octavian’s and then to Augustus’ propa- undoubtedly reserved for a more specific audience. ganda, that very often reuses and resemanticises an Astronom- While the Emperor’s circle facilitated the edition of old, quite diffuse image. Capricorn represents the ica post 38 literary works about astrology (e.g. the union between the sea and the earth, so it is per- Aratea of Manilius 9 C.E. or the Latin translation fectly suited to embody Augustus’ will to pacificate 44 of by his nephew Germanicus, 12-­14 C.E.), the sea and the earth, after the battle of Actium. charlatans and magicians were persecuted, as Cas- The Capricorn is also related to the Egyptian myth 45 id est sius Dio remarks. Astrology – this could be the of Osiris, because he was reborn after39 Winter Sol-

stice, in the sign of Capricorn. Following this ecl Mistero e pro- interpretation, it is clear that the rebirth of Osiris 40fezia. La IV egloga di Virgilio e il rinnovamento del mondo La Rocca, “Capricorno,” 115 and also Verg. . 4 1-AAntHung­10, Nuccio d’Anna, can be linked to the rebirth of the Roman Power Augustus (Cosenza: Giordano, 2007) caes. Qua tamen post multas adhortationes vix et cunctanter edita exsilivit 41and CharlesCarm Guittard,seu “Siècle Libra d’Auguste seu me Scorpios et âge d’or”, aspicit / formidulosus, 55 (2015), pars 477- violentior487.­ / Theogenes34 adoravitque eum. Tantam mox fiduciam fati Augustus habuit, ut thema suum natalis42 Bakhouche, horae, seu“ tyrannus,” 58 / Hesperiae and La Rocca, Capricornus “Capricorno,” undae, 110. / utrumque nostrum incred- vulgaverit Suet. nummumque2, 94. argenteum nota sideris Capricorni, quo natus est, percusserit ibili Hor. modo / consentit. 2, 17 : astrum

: : “Whether Libra or the fearsome Scorpio watches me as “From that time on Augustus had such faith in his destiny, that he made his horoscope the more powerful influence at my birth, or Capricorn the Latomuslord of the western wave, public and issued a silver coin stamped with the sign of the constellation Capricornus, our43 two signs coincide in a quite miraculous fashion” (N. Rudd). under35 which he was born” (J. C. Rolfe). JRS P.J. Connor, “Tyrannus Hesperiae Capricornus undae,” La Biblioteca 44 (1985), di Classico 836-­ For further informationsAugustus and discussions, see Tamsyn Barton, “Augustus and Capri- 840:44Contemporaneo 840. corn:36 Astrological Polyvalency and Imperial Rhetoric,” 85 (1995), 33-51.­ Matteo Rossetti, “Gli ‘Aratea’ di Manilio: la catena dei segni,” 37 Bakhouche, “ .” Augusto. La costruzi- 45 10 (2019), 183-197.­ one See del also Principato Eugenio La Rocca, “Augusto, il segno zodiacale del Capricorno e la decora- DC 56, 25: “Besides these events at that time, the seers were forbidden to prophesy to zione frontonaleAugustus di un’edicola dall’area del teatro di Marcello,” in any person alone or to prophesy regarding death even if others should be present. Yet so 38 (Roma: Bardi, 2017), 107-163,­ especially 109-116.­ far was Augustus from caring about such matters in his own case that he set forth to all in

39 Bakhouche, “ ,” 63 and La Rocca, “Capricorno,” 114. an edict the aspect of the stars at the time of his own birth. Nevertheless, he forbade this La Rocca, “Capricorno,” 119. practice.” (E. Cary and H.B. Foster).

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message of the emperor’s entourage – is a serious science, but dangerous if in inexpert hands. Coins and Gems with Capricorn in the Augustan Age: The Success of the Image (A.M.)

The presence of Capricorn on coins, really discreet

until the II Triumvirate, became of great impact in46

the Augustan era, after 27 B.C.E., in oriental47 mints, and then in Rome and Western Provinces. The cir- culation of the image of Capricorn between coinage Figure 5. and glyptics is clearly illustrated by some MATR Capricorn with globe and trident. Intaglio, carnelian. Verona, Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26940. Ph. Giorgio intaglios, in which the iconography is completed Fogliata. Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. variously by globes, as on the carnelian inv. 26940 (F.ig. 5), and on the glass inv. 26944; by rudders, on the linear carnelian inv. 26937 (Fig. 6); by palm branches, on the agate inv. 26923-26924­ (Fig. 7); by the trident, on the carnelians inv. 26940 (Fig. 5), inv. 26941. These symbols of power and victory, com- mon on post-­Actiac monuments too, were admitted by gem owners in their private lives and accepted on personal seals. While the figurative scheme is similar, the styles of these gems are different: we find old-fashioned­ a-­globolo and pellet gems, and

modern calligraphic, linear gems. Some pieces48 even show a mix of these different currents. The

archaistic49 gems created by the Officina del Tirso in

Aquileia, close to the intaglio inv. 26923 (Fig. 7), Figure 6. reflect a widespread taste in the Augustan art. On Capricorn with rudder. Intaglio, carnelian. Verona, Museo Ar- the other side, the mental image of Capricorn al- cheologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv 26937. Ph. Giorgio Fogliata. lows to recognize some really sketchy work, as the Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. chalcedonies inv. 26933 or 26945. (Fig. 8)

SNG, IV Fitzwilliam Museum, 46SNGuk Maybe by inspiration of Attalic coinage: see _0406_4664 (drachm, Attalus I, mint of Alabanda: http://www.sylloge-­ nummorum-­graecorum.org). Due to pandemic situation, I’m unable to better inves- tigate this aspect of AugustanHSPh coinage, that could be inscribedcistophori into the fascination expressed by Pergamon all over the late Republican Age: Ann Kuttner, “RepublicanKaiser RomeAugustus Looks at Pergamon,” 97 (1995), 157-178.­ About with Capricorn and Cornucopia on reverse see e.g. Walter2 Trimmlich, “Münzpropaganda,” in dena- rii47 , 486, 512-513,­ kat. 337 (=RIC I , 493). 2 aurei Trimmlich,denarii “Münzpropaganda,” 486; Capricorn with globe: RIC I , 174-175­2 ( , mint ofdenarius Lugdunum, 12 B.C.E.); with cornucopia, globe and rudder: RIC I , 125-130­ ( and , mint 2of Colonia Patricia, 18-17­ B.C.E.). On the reverse of the re- markable RIC I , 124 (mint of Colonia Patricia, 18-17­ B.C.E.), the image of

48Capricorn is a part of an allegorical composition with flying Aurora. See above, note 10. A glass gem now in British Museum (inv. 1923.0401.928: Figure 7. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1923-0401-­ 928#object­ -­detail-­data) shows a head of Octavian,Aquileia carved in a classical style; below it, a Capricorn Capricorn with palm branch. Intaglio, banded agate. Verona, in49 a pellet archaic style. Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26923. Ph. Giorgio “Officina del Tirso”: Sena Chiesa, , 28-29,­ pl. LXXXII, nos. 5-­11. Fogliata. Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. 18 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

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56

we find, among them, five57 gems from Xanten, a dozen from Carnuntum and a sporadic presence in other sites. The circulation of the image in full Imperial Age is anyway confirmed by a number of

clay impressions with Capricorn found58 in several ar- chives (at Cyrene in Libya or Zeugma). The Magic Capricorn (A.M.) bullae

Among these clay , some represent Capri- Figure 8. uoces magicae corn accompanied by the Moon and inscriptions, Capricorn. Intaglio, chalcedony. Verona, Museo Archeologico al perhaps . In antiquity as in the Mo- Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26933. Ph. Giorgio Fogliata. Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. dern Age, stones were given a protective function; images, inscriptions, rituals of consecration could After the Augustan Age: increase it. But it is difficult to define the degree of Variations and Persistence (A.M.) magic of a gem or isolate a group of magical gems Homo59 Signorum in scientific terms. We can look to the continuous tradition of -­ Zodiac Man, from

After the Augustan era, the coinagerd ensures a con- antiquity to the Renaissance and beyond: here is tinuous circulation of the image of Capricorn as confirmed the link between Capricorn, Saturnus goat-­fish and, especially in the 3 century C.E., as 50 clipeus uirtutis and winter, in order to protect people from rheu- sea-­snake. The image of double Capricorns sup- matism; knees are the parts of the body reserved melothesia 60 porting the , created for gems such to Capricorn. This protective function, linked to

as the 51sumptuous cameos housed in New York and , can lead to the choice of a gem more than

Berlin and spread on glassrd intaglios as MATR inv. a simple Zodiac sign. Often gems show Capricorn in

27988, circulated on coins from the Julio-52­Claudian association with other Zodiac signs: with Cancer, 61 genitalia, 62 era until the middle of the 3 century C.E. in MATR inv. 26938 (Fig. 9) or with Scorpio. In nd this last case, the protection of ensured However, beside replicas of Augustan types in the by the image of Scorpio according to the Zodiac Flavian Age up to Hadrian’s rule, in the 2 century Man, increases the power of the stone. In the quite C.E., Capricorn is once again a simple element in Felicitas ancient carnelian MATR inv. 26936 (Fig. 10), the complex iconographies: as attribute of heroes and53 Tranquillitas figures of Capricorn63 and Scorpio are combined in a personifications, like with Antoninus54 Pius curious monster. Sometimes these combinations or with Philip the Arab; in top of stan- Xantener Berichte 56 dards, or under temples for Legions55 (for instance in limes Gertrud Platz-­Horster,Die antike “Neue Gemmen Gemmen und aus Kameen Xanten,” aus Carnuntum 30 (2017), Zeugma in Commagene, Turkey). Gems with Capri- 5745-90:­ 64-65,­ no. 27 and the list provided. Günther Dembski,Propaganda (Wien: Phoibos, corn from settlements are less numerous than 2005),58 150-151,­ taf. 100-101,­ nos. 988-998.­ ASA To Gołyźniak, , 394, nos. 967-970,­ we add at least Gianfranco Mad- one would expect from a symbol related to legions: doli, “Le cretule del Nomophylakion di Cirene”, (1963-1964),­ 39-145:­ Guide 119, to nos. the Gallienus (joint reign) 59Study796-800.­ of Ancient Magic 50 About the question seeSylloge Véronique Gemmarum Dasen, ÁrpádGnosticarum M. Nagy,BNum “Gems,” in RIC V Propaganda , 361-362­ (http://numismatics.org/ocre/id/ric.5.gall (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 406-­445; Maria Grazia Lancellotti, “Le (1).36151 ). gemme e l’astrologia,”Sylloge in , Monografia 8.2.I-II­ Gołyźniak, , 415, 90P-91P­ RIC (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collectionPescennius Niger (2003, 2007), I, 115-124.­ A magical Capricorn in MATR VeronaJournal is of edited Cuneiform by Attilio Stud- /search/25304252 ). 60iesMastrocinque: , II, 196, Vr 30. The last issueAntoninus was under Pius Pescennius: IV , 44 ( http://numismatics John Z. Wee, “DiscoveryRepresentations of the Zodiac of Man Animals in Cuneiform,” on Greek and Roman Engraved Gems .org/ocre/id/ric.4.pn.4453 ). 61 67 (2015), 217-233.­ RIC IIIPhilip , , 131 c-­d (http://numismatics.org/ocre/id/ric.3.ant.131c; Compare Idit Sagiv, Sylloge http://numismatics.org/ocre/id/ric.3.ant.131d54 Coinage in Roman Syria. Northern). Syria, 64 BC–AD 253 62(Oxford: Archaeopress, 2018), 138, fig. 58. 55 RIC IV I 9 (http://numismatics.org/ocre/id/ric.4.ph_i.9). Compare Maddoli, “Cirene,” 119, no. 797; , II, 160, Ts 22 (yellow jasper). For

Kevin Butcher, (London: 63the meaning of these gems see Lancellotti, “Astrologia,” 122-123.­ Royal Numismatic Society, 2004), 464-465,­ 29 (Elagabalus), 31a (Philip I), 31b (Ota- Close to a sard in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. cilia Severa), 31c (Philip II). 81.6.161 (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/245032). 19 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

Images in Circulation Magni, Verdura, Tassinari –­ Sub signo Capricorni Gems with Capricorn in the Middle Ages: Readings, Re-­appropriations, Imitations (A.M.)

rd The image of Capricorn disappears from coinage at the end of the 3 century C.E. At the same time, we note a change in production, diffusion, and use of the engraved gems. Among the new Christian gems, there are no images of Capricorn. Condemnation of in65- astrology by Augustine or later by Isidorus of Sevilla terpretatio Christiana can partially explain this absence. In fact, even the of the Zodiac, implemented for example by Zeno, Bishop of Verona (+ 371 C.E.), ends up condemning Capricorn. For Zeno it was a compan- ion of the devil, symbolizing the sins, washed away Figure 9. by the Aquarius,66 while Christus was related to Aries, Capricorn and Cancer. Intaglio, black jasper. Verona, Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26938. Ph. Giorgio Fogliata. the young goat. Nevertheless, while any political Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. meaning slowly disappeared, along with coinage, the astronomical, astrological, and magic value of Capri- corn continued, more or less openly, throughout the spolia Middle Ages. In these centuries, ancient gems were collected as , reused on holy crosses, altars, or reliquaries, where the view of the carved image was difficult and apparently the gems lose the fac- ulty to generate impressions and to circulate. Little evidence ensures that the original meanings of the

gems were correctly understood by scholars,67 but new interpretations were given to them. Collected free, unset stones were used to generate impressions

that then68 inspired artists who illuminated books, for Figure 10. example. A tradition of astrology and astronomy Capricorn-­Scorpio. Intaglio, carnelian. Verona, Museo Arche- ologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26936. Ph. Giorgio Fogliata. Cour- facit gestantem Carte Romanze tesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. (Matteo Milani, “Trattato delle vertudiose pietre,” 3/2 (2015),De 109- Genesi149:­ ad 120- litt.121).­ TheIdeoque description fatendum recalls est, quandothe cited ab gem istis MATR vera dicuntur, inv. 26024, in- stinctubut65 any quodampolitical occultissimomeaning is lost. dici, quem nescientes humanae mentes patiuntur. Quod were also explained using the powerful system of cum Aug. ad decipiendos homines 2,17: fit, spirituum seductorum operatio est images created by the Augustan circle (the Scorpio : “It must be admit- ted that when they predict the truth, their predictions are caused Etym by a whollyAstrologia myste- as the sign of Tiberius, the crab as Augustan coin- verorious partim inspiration, naturalis, that partimhuman superstitiosa minds undergo est. .without . . Superstitiosa their knowledge. vero est illa But quam when ma it- age symbol . . .). Even if we cannot exclude it, we thematicihappens to sequuntur, deceive souls, qui in it stellisis the workauguriantur, of spirits quique of deceit”. etiam Isid. duodecim. 3 caeli 27: signa per singula animae vel corporis membra disponunt, siderumque cursu nativitates hominum have to remark that this hidden political meaning et mores praedicare conantur Lapidaria got lost over the centuries and it does not seem : “Astrology, however, is partly natural, and partly super- stitious . . . Superstitious astrology, however, is the one that the Mathematicians [as- to be mentioned, for example, in books trologers] follow: they vaticinate from the stars, relate each part of the soul or of the that, from the Hellenistic Age to the Middle Ages, body to the twelve signs and attempt to predict births and behaviour by the courses of66 the stars.” Angelicum Francesca Tasca Dirani, “Il Sermone dello Zodiaco di Zeno di Verona (I, 38). “Astrolo- describe the properties64 and powers of the stones Zur Bedeutung der Gemmen in Mitte- gia67laltlicher Praedicabilis” Schreine ed inculturazione”,Die Gemmen und Kameen des, 83, Dreikönigschreine 3 (2006), 533-556.­ 1.1. and their engravings. Erika Zwierlein-­Diehl, Interpretatio Christiana. De lapidibus pretiosis et eorum virtutibus , in Il medioevo fantastico (Köln: Verlag taurum64 insculptum aut verginem vel capricornium tutum 68Kölner Dom, 1998), 61-104.­ Thomas Cantimpratensis ( 1.1) cited a Jurgis Baltrušaitis, , transl. Fulvio Zuliani, F. Bovoli (Milano: , that, amongs its vertues, Adelphi, 1983), 51-62,­ 85-94.­ The practise of copy gems on manuscripts is diffused in 20 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

Images in Circulation Magni, Verdura, Tassinari –­ Sub signo Capricorni

manuscripts assured the continuity of the image of

the Capricorn in books, until69 modern times, and also from books to other media.

Examples of the reuse of gems with Capricorn in

the Middle Ages70 seem however rare and, appar-

ently, rather late. We know, for instance,th of an an-

cient gem with Capricorn71 as a part of a 13 century seal, housed in Wien. More frequently, the gems with Capricorn could inspire, directly or indirectly, sculptures depicting Zodiac, seasons, monthly jobs. Here are a couple of examples of Italian Roman- Figure 11. esque art: the first specimen is a marble relief from Winged Capricorn. Intaglio, carnelian. Verona, Museo Arche- ologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26948. Ph. Giorgio Fogliata. Cour- the prothyrus of Modena Cathedral, said to be the tesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano. work of Master Wiligelmus (1130). A section of it

replicates the theme of Capricorn72 represented as a 75 man, riding the goat-­fish. The figure is inscribed rare; but a tradition of winged monsters of ori- in a limited space, which is unusual for this type of ental origin, depicted on medieval 76cameos inspired representation, but typical of gems. A gem was used by drapery, is known and studied. So, during the as a model, with the intermediation of impressions, lower Middle Ages, the image of Capricorn as goat-­

or drawings inspired by impressions (because of fish or sea-snake­ circulated and is recognizable in

the opposite orientation); an intaglio, nowst in a pri- association with the Zodiac and Months, due to the vate collection, which dates from the 1 century replicas on public monuments: an image and a link

B.C.E., 73provides a good example of this rare iconog- with astrology that is still valid today. raphy. A second specimen, on the Portale dello Ancient Gems with Capricorn in Zodiaco in the Sacra di San Michele in74 Piedmont, Modern Age: Reproductions and masterpiece of Nicolaus (1128-­1130), represents Interpretations (A.M.) the Zodiac sign of Capricorn as a winged sea-­snake, inserted in shoots of acanthus. Winged Capricorns, as the carnelian MATR inv. 26948 (Fig. 11) are As the discovery of the archaeological past offers dactyliothecae Studies in the History to Humanists new subjects and objects of study, of Art th the 15 century: Toby Yuen, “Glyptic Sources of Renaissance Art,” the collections of gems, so called , al- 69 , 54 (1997), 136–157: 138-142.­ Images of Capricorn on manuscripts, collected by The Saxl Project, are available here: ready diffused in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, be- https://www.thesaxlproject.com/assets/Uploads/00-Capricorn-­ masterfile-­ 15b­ come indispensable both for the comprehension of -70­Jan-­2017.pdf. Dreikönigschreine The two gemsth with Capricorn in the Shrine of the Three Mages of Cologne were mythology, history, and art, and for the status they set in the 20 Beitraege century: zur Erika Siegelkunde Zwierlein- des­Diehl, Mittelalters , 103, 262-263,­ 71nos. 141-142.­ conferred to their owners. The story of the Cameo Eduard Melly, (Wien:A Companion Volke, 1846), to Seals253, pl. in 3,the no. Middle 11. About Ages the question: Caroline Simonet, “The (Re-­)Use of Ancient Gems and Grimani, a masterpiece of Late Republican Age, de- Coins: the Presence of Antiquity in Medieval Sigillography,” in Il duomo picting the young Octavian (perhaps as Aegipan) 72di Modena. Atlante, ed. fotografico Laura Whatley * (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 355–396. 77 Antonio Milone, “Relief with lions, fantastical beasts and a human figure”, in (Modena: Franco Cosimo Panini, 1999), 85, fig. 75-­76, riding Capricorn, is emblematic of the ­progressive nos. 75-76­ (76). The figure is interpretated as a man dominating a monster, without any Carnuntum reference to Capricorn.Bertolami An image Fine of Arts, the E- relief­live Auction is provided here: http://www.medioevo 75 73.org/artemedievale/Images/EmiliaRomagna/Modena/Modena130.jpg. 76 Another example: Dembski, , 151, pl. 131, no. 997. For the cited gem: 62, London 2018, lotto Die 2 ( https://antiken Elisabetta Gagetti, “StoffeArti minori di pregio e arti di maggiori. tradizione Relazioni orientale e comeinterazioni modelli tra perTarda la Gemmenauctions.bertolamifinearts.com/it/auc/62/e- der Sammlung Heinrich Dressel in der Antikensammlunglive-­ ­auction-62-­ Berlini-­ glittica-­ londra­ Antichitàproduzione e Alto suntuaria Medioevo carolingia. Il caso dei cammei vitrei monocromi della “Croce di -­16-settembre-­ 2018/1/­ ). About Aigokeros/Capricornus: Carina Weiß, Desiderio” a Brescia,” in I cantieri degli scultori La sacra di San Michele. Storia arte (Würzburg: restauri , ed. F. Bisconti, M. Braconi, M. Sgarlata (Todi:Propaganda Tau Editrice, Ergon,74 2007), 136-137,­ no. 51. La porta dello Zodiaco e l’atelier di 2019),77 85-118.­ ­Nicolò Enrica Pagella, , in , Now in the Beverley Collection, Alnwick Castle: seeAquileia Gołyźniak, e la glittica di età elleni, 222,- (Torino: STET, 1990), 77-101,­ especially 77-88­ ( stica417, e no. romana 10.131 (bibliography and discussion). On the iconography: Gertrud Platz-­ ). Images of the Portale here: https://www.arengario.net/momenti/momenti37 Horster, “Nuove gemme di Xanten e di Augsburg,” in .html. (Trieste: Editreg, 2009), 129-140:­ 136-137.­ 21 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

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82 awareness acquired by collectors and scholars. (Fig. 1) discussed above. Martin Henig has recon-

The first modern owners of the cameo understood78 structed the journey of this gem: in 1612, it arrived ­neither the subject nor its political meaning. Never­ in the collection of the Prince of Wales, Henry Fred- theless in a few years the cameo became famous, eric Stuart. After many vicissitudes, Elias Ashmole

as it was reproduced in the plates dedicated to the took a wax impression of it in 1660, for the Inven83- Grimani collection by the engravers Enea Vico and tory of Royal Coins and Gems he was preparing. Battista Franco, and produced, from these ones, a We can value the distance between the wax im-

cascade of copies and79 variations on different media pression and the printed image, that classicizes the (stuccos, pottery. . .). Eventually in the catalogues intaglio, corrects some particulars, and offers an in-

that scholarsth and collectors produced starting in terpretation of them. But we can also note the evo- the 17 century, the illustrations of which were lution (or revolution) from the drawings of Cameo continuously replicated and published, Capricorn Grimani edited by Vico and Franco. They depicted is clearly interpreted in its historical meaning. A only the figures and not the entire cameo; instead, Dissertatio turning point for the understanding of the symbolic the Gorlaeus’ plates, even less artistic, show the de Gemma Augustea and historical value of Capricorn was the gem as set in its ring, with its negative engraving by Albert Rubens (1643), son and impression. of the well-known­ painter and gem collector Pieter 80 We can also follow the path of another Flemish Paul Rubens. This great onyx cameo, depicting Au- gem, depicting a Capricorn surmounting a war gustus enthroned, accompanied by historical and Gemmae se- Sidus Iulium ship, now in the Royal Dutch collection, included allegorical figures, and surmounted by a Capricorn lectae by Jacob De Wilde in 1703 in his book inscribed in an eight-ray­ star (the ) has 84 . The drawing of the gem offers a correct in- been known since the Middle Ages; the scene was terpretation. However, of greater significance is the probably intended as the Elevation of the Cross. project where the image of the gem is included: a Around the year 1600, it had been purchased by the Astronomica plate dedicated to Jupiter and a selection of quotes Emperor Rudolph II, without the iconography being Tristia 81 from the of Manilius (1 4 23) and the fully recognized. Eventually Albert Rubens, sup- of Ovidius (1 9) that could clarify it. Gems ported by historical and antiquarian sources, came Gemma Augustea depicting ships were thought to bring good luck in to a complete understanding of the iconography of Lapidarium the Middle Ages, as Jean de Mandeville, late author the , and so of the Capricorn. 85 of a , remembered. When we read a This new, scientific interest in glyptic subjects, al- glass intaglio such as MATR inv. 26861, which is ready well-­spread in Europe, turned to more com- closely related to the gem in the Royal Dutch collec- Dactyliotheca mon, less precious gems as well. We will remain in tion, we interpretate it, as Jacob De Wilde did. Yet, Flanders for some examples. In the we should remember that only the creators of the that Abraham Gorlaeus (1549-1608)­ dedicated to prototype­ in the Augustan Age were aware of these his collection, we can find a couple of images de- symbolic meanings; the craftsman and the owner of picting an intaglio close to the carnelian inv. 26926 the gem, probably, would have agreed on the auspi-

78 cious value attributed to it by Jean de Mandeville. In a letter from Venice, dated 10.13.1498, the agent of Isabella d’Este Tolomeo Spa- gnolo describes the figure as a “mostro marino che era mezo beccho e mezo pesce, cum uno nudo in su la schi(e)na”; on Enea Vico’s engravings, the young is called “Pale- Dactyliotheca seu annulorum sigillarium. . . promptuarium mon”:79 see Yuen, “Sources,”ASNP 154, note 33. 82 Yuen, “Sources,” 143-144;­ Denise La Monica, “Battista Franco, Enea Vico Engrammae le stampe Abraham Gorlaeus, Modern Gems and (Delft,Jewels dei Cammei Grimani,” , Serie 5, 6, no. 2 (2014), 781-903:­ 810, 899; Marcella de in1601), the Collectionno. 85; Martin of Her Henig, Majesty “Gems the from Queen the Collection of Henry, Prince of Wales, and Paoli,Alberti “Ancora Rubeni sulla Dissertatio fortuna delle de gemmeGemma Grimani.Augustea Un paradigma efficace,” , Charles I,” in Kirsten Aschengreen Piacenti, John Boardman, 15080 (ottobre 2017) (http://www.engramma.it/eOS/index.php?id_articolo=3253). (Royal Collection Trust, 2007), 269-281:­ Antike Gemmen , ed. Heinz Kahler (Berlin: Mann, 273,83 Gemmae 277, no. selectae 40. antiquae e Museo Jacobi de Wilde . . . 811968), 11-12.­ 84 Henig, “Gems,” 269-­281. Zwierlein-­Diehl, , 244: in the Inventory of the Imperialinterpretatio Treasure Chri- La Rivista di Engramma (Amstelaedami, 1703), pl. 4, stiana(1619) the Gemma Augustea is described as “kunstreiche Tafel von weißen Relief no. 13; Gabriella Tassinari, “Per una storia della glittica “di propaganda”: alcune rifles- auf schwarzem OnyxgrundConcilium mit Planeten medii aevi und Nymphen”. About the sioni. II. Il post-Medioevo­antico,” , 170 (dicembre 2019), 33-65:­ 50-52­ of the cameo in Middle Ages, see Markus Lörz, “Die mittelaltlicher Geschichte 85(http://www.engramma.it/eOS/index.php?id_articolo=3720). der Gemma Augustea,” 9 (2006), 159-173.­ Baltrušaitis, , 92, note 57. 22 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

Images in Circulation Magni, Verdura, Tassinari –­ Sub signo Capricorni The Image of Capricorn on the Impressions of the Gems: 88 by the German Christian Dehn (1696-1770)­ and A Survey (G.T.) continued by his daughter Faustina and her hus- band Francesco Maria Dolce, and by their sons. One

th of them, Federico Dolce wrote a text (1790;1792) In the first half of the 18 century the crisis of the accompanying two hundred impressions, where graphic representations of the gems in the plates the cast of the Capricorn intaglio does not appear. of the glyptic publications, unfaithful and not re- Dehn formed a “museum” of more than 5000 in- sponding to the scientific needs of the study of the taglios, cameos, and glass replicas, ancient and gems, revealed the best way to study the originals: th th modern. Thus, in the indispensable catalogue with the casts. Thus, in the 18 and 19 centuries a phe- commentaries (often erudite and long-­winded) of nomenon with multiple aspects emerged: the col- more than 2000 casts published by Francesco Maria lections of impressions, in different materials – the Dolce (1772), this intaglio, which is in the section of most common, wax, sulphur and plaster – obtained the celestial signs and constellations, is defined as from intaglios and cameos. Alongside the collec- an ancient original in the Dehn museum; it has been tions of private casts, the series of casts arranged in observed that it has the tail composed of the horn cases, accompanied by explanations, proliferated; a of Amaltheia to indicate89 the fertilityth that this sign flourishing commercial activity especially in Rome, brings to the earth. In the large 19 century series the glyptic and Grand Tour capital, to satisfy the amateurs of scagliola casts,90 made in Rome by Tommaso Cades numerous requests of scholars, collectors, travel- (1772-1840),­ of ancient and modern intaglios and lers, specialists, , places of education and cameos, in book-shaped­ boxes with a correspond- academies. The competition between the mould ing catalogue, there are five casts, placed either be- manufacturing factories was strong; and private dac- tween the Zodiac signs or among the weapons, with individuals also manufactured them. Encyclopae- tyliothecae Capricorns alone, accompanied91 by cornucopia and dias of ancient and modern iconographies, the globe, and above the galley. To these, one can add were instruments of documentation, clipeus uirtutis the cast of a New York cameo with a double92 Capri- knowledge, and analysis of gems; they constituted corn with head within . an essential and irreplaceable vehicle for spread- ing them in a wide, easy, and economical way. The A glass intaglio with the head of Augustus with the Capricorn and the dolphin under it, now at the Na- link between Capricorn and Augustus is found both Le gemme tional Archeological Museum of Florence, was pub- in milestone 86texts in the glyptic field and in more antiche figurate modest ones. lished in the text of Leonardo Agostini (1657). The fame and influence of However, the role played by the major collections of this text, translated, reprinted, and enriched, ex- casts to document and circulate the image of Capri- dactyliotheca plains the presence of the glass intaglio among the corn was limited. Eloquent example: there is no gem casts of the conspicuous of the Ger- with Capricorn (and more generally no propaganda man Philipp Daniel Lippert (1702-1785),­ sold in gem) in the conspicuous collection of the famous commented series, from 1755 to 1776, with great Roman manufacture Paoletti (Bartolomeo (1757-­ 88 Winckelmann, l’antichità classica 1834) and his son Pietro (1785-1844/5)),­ who held e laOn Lombardia Dehn and the activity of the Dehn-Dolce­ manufacture, see lastly Gabriella Tas- sinari, “Winckelmann e la glittica del suo tempo”, in a “monopoly” of the vitreous matrices, taken from Descrizione Istorica, ed. Elena del Agazzi, Museo Fabrizio di Cristiano Slavazzi Denh(Roma: . . . Artemide, 2019), 245-248,­ where89 previous bibliography. ancient and modern intaglios and cameos, indis- 87 Daktyliotheken. Götter & Caesaren (Roma: Generoso aus der Schublade. Salomoni, pensable to make the casts. There is only one cast 1772)90Antike tome Gemmen II, O, in39, Abdrucksammlungen no. 86. des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts On Cades collection, see ad indicem of an onyx intaglio, which represents Capricorn, Daktyliotheken. Konzepte einer historischen Publikationsform, ed. Valentin ­Kockel, Daniel Graepler (München: Biering & Brinkmann, 2006), ; Helge C. from the well-­known manufacture founded in Rome adKnüppel, indicem , Stendalen Winckelmann-Descrizione di­Forschungen, una Collezione 8, hrsg. di N. Max 8131 Kunste Impronte (Mainz: in smalto Franz Philipppossedute Rutzen, in Roma 2009), da 86 91 (essential bibliography). La collezione Paoletti. Stampi in vetro per impronte di Tommaso Cades . . . intagli87 Tassinari, e cammei “Propaganda,” 35-39.­ Descrizione Cades Lucia Pirzio Biroli Stefanelli, 92 ,18, II H, nos. 73-­75; 47, IV M, nos. 8-­9. , I-II­ (Roma: Gangemi, 2007, 2012). , 37, IV C, no. 301. 23 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

Images in Circulation Magni, Verdura, Tassinari –­ Sub signo Capricorni

93 success and diffusion, particularly in Germany. The intaglio is also documented among the thou- sands of casts made by James Tassie (1735-1799)­

and his nephew William (1777-1860),­ popular94 in the English market and with a vast trade. The Tassie collection, whose catalogue was compiled by the writer and antiquarian Rudolf Erich Raspe, contains the largest number of casts with Capri- corn, alone, double or with other elements such

as cornucopia, rudder, trident, dolphin, bird;95 but

some originals are probably not ancient. Partic- Figure 12.

ularly interesting is a sulphur Stosch in the Tassie Capricorn, cornucopia, crow and dolphin (or shell). Intaglio, collection, described as a Capricorn ending in fish, yellow jasper. Verona, Museo Archeologico al Teatro Romano (MATR), inv. 26939. Ph. Giorgio Fogliata. Courtesy of the Museo Archeologico al Teatro with the trident and the signature ΦAPNAKHC. As Romano. Raspe points out, it is a beautiful gem that looks like a copy from a Capricorn by the same master, but Gemmae Antiquae Caelatae take as an example 99 a sardonyx now in the British smaller and without a trident, published by Philipp96 Museum collections. Its oldest image is an impres- von Stosch in his . In 100 sion created in the workshop of James Tassie. By fact in his revolutionary book (1724), the great Tassie’s impression, and not by directly observing scholar and collector Stosch published, among the the original gem, a drawing made at the end of the seventy signed gems, a carnelian intaglio with a th 18 century and101 now in the British Museum as well, sea horse, signed ΦAPNAKHC EΠ, that was in the97 was generated. The artist enlarged some particu- Farnese collection in Parma and is now missing. lars of the intaglio, but he did not improve the image Extremely significant: a famous intaglio is copied, or offer any interpretation of the gem, only a de- modified, interpreted, and circulated widely, as tes- scription. A sketchy gem (MATR inv. 26939; Fig. 12) tifies its presence, for example, in the98 collection of shows a similar iconography, collecting symbols of casts of the King of the Netherlands. prosperity and wealth, generically related to Augus- Conclusions (A.M., U.V., G.T.) tan themes (the Apollo’s crow, the Capricorn) and a

less clear figure (a dolphin or a sea-shell,­ according102 to the myth of Capricorn-­Aegipan we have seen). Sometimes our background as scholars, built on The stone – a yellow, magical jasper – is typical of centuries of antiquarian research, leads us to see Imperial glyptics since the Flavian dynasty and tes- in the figures of gems what we wish to see. We can tifies the long duration of these subjects. But what is the monster engraved on these two gems? A Capri- 93 Cf. Tassinari, “Propaganda,” 35-37,­ where examination of the intaglio, of the publica- corn, as described in Tassie’s catalogue? Or a Hippo- tions,94 and also bibliographySiti produttivi on Lippert. e indicatori di produzione del vetro in Italia dall’anti- campus? While the London gem shows a head with chità Alessandra all’età contemporanea Magni, Gabriella Tassinari, “Gemme vitree e paste vitree: la questione delle officine,” in horse’s mane, the Verona gem is not that accurate. A Descriptive, ed. Marina Catalogue Uboldi, of Silvia a General Ciappi, Collection Francesca of Rebajoli Ancient (Cre and- mona:95Modern AIHV Engraved – Comitato Gems, NazionaleCameos as Italiano, well as Intaglios, 2019), 76, taken where . . .by previous James Tassie,bibliography. Modeller . . . Rudolf Eric Raspe, 99 Descriptive Catalogue British Museum, Department of Antiquities, inv. 1814,0704.1470 (https://www 96 (London: C. Buckton,Gemmae1791), 225,antiquae nos. 3208-caelatae3222.­ .britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1814-100 0704-­ 1470­ ). 97 Raspe, , 225, no. 3208. Glaspasten im Martin-­von-­Wagner-­ Beazley Archive, 1149 (http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/record/0A6FE4E8-­0541-4B81­ Museum Philipp der von Universität Stosch, Würzburg . . . (Amstelaedami: Bernard Picart, -101­A572-2F6CC1BE42F7­ ). 1724), 70-72,­ pl. L. See Erika Zwierlein-­Diehl,Collezione Paoletti British Museum, Department of Antiquities, inv. 2010,5006.811 (https://www Catalogue, I (München: d’empreintes Prestel du Cabinet Verlag, des 1986), Pierres 108- gravées­109, no. de .britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_2010-102 The Legionary Fortress Baths5006-­ at811­ Caerleon.). 2. The Finds Sa98151. Majesté Cf. furthermore Le Roy des Pirzio Pays Bas,Biroli Grand- Stefanelli,Duc­ de Luxembourg , I, 244, no. 526. To this group of gems, never properly studied, belongs an intaglio from Caerleon:terminus Johannis Cornelis De Jonge, J. David Zienkiewicz, (­Cardiff: (La Haye: De l’imprimerie The National Museum of Wales - Cadw, 1986), 129-130,­ pl. 5, no. 7 ( : d’Etat, 1837), 20, no. 420 (defined amethyst intaglio). 75–85­ C.E,).

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Therefore, we can see the monster we want to see: a Capricorn, created by our Augustan-­formed mind. The Authors

Alessandra Magni

is a teacher and independent researcher. Since 1992 she has been working on the classification, inventory, and edition of the gem collection of the MATR in Verona, under the direc- tion of Gemma Sena Chiesa, Università degli Studi di Milano and Margherita Bolla, curator of the Mu- seum, Comune di Verona. Her publications pertain to different aspects of ancient glyptic art. Umberto Verdura

is Agrégé of Classics and élève fonctionnaire-stagiaire­ (civil servant student) at the École normale supérieure. His research focuses de bibliothecis on the work of Varro (fragments of literary theory, ). His interest in Antiquity is varied and covers various subjects, ranging from literature to philosophy and religion. Gabriella Tassinari

– Archeologist and indepen- dent scholar. Her interest and studies range from material culture of Northern Italy in Latenian and

Roman Age (necropolis, pottery, gems) to theth histh- tory of gem collections and engravers of 17 -­19 centuries. She has been working since 2001 on the study and edition of the gem collection of the MATR in Verona.

25 Artl@s Bulletin, Vol. 10, Issue 1 (Spring 2021)

Images in Circulation