VV king king HeritageHeritagemagazine

3/2005

Högskolan på Gotland University Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 Editorial IN THIS ISSUE Choosing Heaven The Religion of the 3–8 THE CHANGE OF RELIGION in the – illustrated on the front page – is the subject of the two opening articles in this autumn issue. When the The Cross and the Sword – Viking Age began around 750 AD, most of Europe had already been Strategies of conversion converted to Christianity. In this process of transformation went in medieval Europe 9–13 on for several hundred years and the first churches were not built until The tidy metalworkers around 1100. of Fröjel 14–17 In the article Choosing heaven Gun Westholm tells about the Viking-age Norse Aesir cult – that, in turn, replaced an older fertility religion – and The Worlds of the Vikings about its origin and myths that might very well be depicted on Gotlandic – an exhibition at picture stones. Gotlands Fornsal, 18–21 But how was the change from the old pagan faith into Christianity brought about? You will find some answers in the article The cross and the NEW BOOKS 21, 30–31, 35 sword where Alexandra Sanmark discusses the strategies of conversion in DESTINATION VIKING different places in medieval Europe. From Orkney we have received an interesting contribution to the debate The Fearless Vikings… 22–24 about whether the Vikings integrated with the indigenous Pictish people on Genocide in Orkney? the island or slaughtered them, when they took over the islands. Perhaps The fate of recent excavations can lead to new approaches to this debate. the Orcadian Picts 25–27 But who actually were the Vikings? To find the answer to this question Theatre and re-enactments you must read the article, The Worlds of the Vikings, by Malin Lindquist! at Gene Iron-age farm in And as usual, you will find plenty of good reading for the dark autumn northern 28–30 nights in this issue, so curl up and enjoy it!

Marita E Ekman Editor Heritage News

Email: [email protected] HERITAGE NEWS 32–34

The ignorant booby had best be silent when he moves among other men, No one will know what a nit-wit he is until he begins to talk; No one knows less what a nit-wit he is, than the man who talks too much.

From Hávámal (Words from “The High One”) Drawing by Lou Harrison, [email protected]

About the front page The religion of the Vikings. Human sacrifices and weapon offerings from Lillmyr in parish and Möllegårds in Hörsne parish, Gotland, Sweden. In front: The Madonna from Viklau church (copy) is dated to the end of the 12th century. These objects are exhibited in the County Museum of Gotland, Sweden. Photo Raymond Hejdström. GODRINGS TRYCKERI,Visby GODRINGS TRYCKERI,Visby 2005 www.hgo.se/viking 2 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05

By Gun Westholm

When the Viking Age began in Choosing about 750 AD, Scandinavia was among the last of the heathen outposts in Europe along with Heaven the Baltic, Russian and Slavic areas east of the Elbe. The Religion of the Vikings

Fig 1. The spread of Christianity and Islam at the beginning of the Viking Age, around 750 AD. White: Pagan region Grey: Christian region Black: Islamic region Map by Maria Westholm.

Christianity had slowly spread from the during 11th century. Many believe that change seems to have begun. The fertile Middle East, Egypt, the the religion of the Vikings arose as a areas of the plains people were taken over and the Byzantium area (4th century), to unique phenomenon in . by warlike nomads and cattle herders the realm of the and, during the But the Aesir cult was a warrior from the mountain regions. These tribes 6th century, further to England and religion that had several equivalents in had male chief gods who honoured Ireland. Parts of the Germanic area were both Europe and Asia, religions that had warring activities and warriors who had Christianised during 7th century, and in replaced other much earlier, peaceful fallen in battle. Later on some of the war the middle of 8th century the large beliefs with clear ties to agriculture and gods came to be called Zeus, Jahve and Carolingian kingdom was created forming fertility. In these very old forms of . a cohesive Christian area from Italy in the religion, the chief was often of the Outside Scandinavia, Odin was called South to the Slavonian region in North female sex – Mother Earth – and a good Wodan/Wotan among the Germanic (fig. 1). yearly crop and high yields from the tribes, Godan among the Langobardi and livestock were the main purpose for Woden in England. Both Woden and Before the Aesir Gods worship. Donar – – are mentioned as early as In Scandinavia belief in the Aesir gods Female dominated Europe’s the 6th century on the continent. Odin was the prevailing religion before the and Asia’s religious beliefs until and Zeus have many common qualities, as Christian message slowly won territory approximately 5000 BC, then a slow do their respective wives and Hera.

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There are also resemblances between other as symbol. She has been assumed to be worship . It has been possible to Aesir gods and the Greek gods of the model for the goddesses Frigg and locate only one of the names with any Antiquity. in the North. According to certainty – the . They lived in the The story of creation in our Nordic mythology, Freyja was the daughter of northern part of Germany, on the border mythology has many parallels in the Njord of the race, and a sister to to on a peninsula that was ancient myths of India and Iran. Frey, who owned the remarkable ship called Angeln. Two of the other names According to the , a human- Skidbladne. bear similarities to those in Schleswig – like giant is created – Ymer – from the Holstein. vapour from the huge cold abyss “Nerthus, who is the same as Mother Earth, and the heat of its opposite believes that she intervenes in people’s lives Tacitus tells about how Nerthus’ annual Muspelhem. At the same time the first cow and travels in procession among the people. journey ends: Audhumbla is created. The equivalent to Ymer in the old “Then the wagon and cloth are cleaned, and Indian Veda manuscripts is if you can be believe it, the ’ called Yama, and Yima in picture in a distant sea. The slaves the ancient Persian legends that do this are then swallowed but it is still the same story! up by that sea. From this grows a In India the cow is referred to secret dread and a pious uncertainty as the source and mother of life. about what that is, that only the to In the Indian epic Mahabharata the dead are allowed to see.” portrays two heirs – the blind Dhritarashtra and the honest This cult of the northern Vihura bearing close similarities Germanic tribes can be linked to the to Odin’s sons, the blind Höder peat corpses that have been found and the honest Balder. In the within Danish and North German Nordic story, the blind Höder is territory in silted-up lakes. persuaded to shoot an arrow of Nerthus – Njärd (the Aesir Njord) mistletoe at his brother, while the seems to be a Nordic fertility goddess Indian equivalen tells about a and the first ancestress of the Vanir. dice game that ended with catastrophic consequences. In Picture stones as sources of both cases the situation leads to knowledge the disintegration of the whole The oldest Gotlandic picture stones world order. from the period approximately After the end of the world – 400–600 AD have symbols that can Ragnarök – a new world is born. be linked to an old agricultural cult The same cyclic view of time rather than a warrior religion. exists in Iran and Greece as well These feature sun discs with as in India. One can also see swirling wheels that seem to stand linguistic resemblances between for movement, pairs of animals Greek, ancient Indian languages and the Fig 2. The partly reconstructed picture that symbolise rites unknown to us, . stone from Austers in parish, at possibly illustrated to promote a plentiful It is obvious that the Aesir cult derived the bottom a ship’s stem, a sun wheel crop or show ritual animal baiting. its main features from many religions in and on the top a man in front of the Another motif on the picture stones Southern Europe and Asia. It is uncertain gaping mouth of a beast. from this period is fine-looking boats with Photo Raymond Hejdström. where the cumulative faith originated, but high stem-or sternposts and rudders. we can be very sure that it is a religion Above the ships’ middle section there is a that immigrated to Scandinavia! superstructure with circles on it. The sun But there was a religion in Scandinavia that fills nature with new life every spring even before the Aesir cult. We know about There is a holy grove on an island in the probably became a symbol of resurrection this religion only through sacrificial finds, ocean and on this a blessed wagon, covered even for the dead people, perhaps the graves and from illustrations on the with cloth,” struggles of the animal pairs is meant to Gotlandic picture stones. Written sources be a struggle between life and death or are lacking, with one exception. The Tacitus writes and further on in the text between summer and winter and the ships Roman historian Tacitus described the he says: with their crew can depict a journey for northern Germanic tribes’ relationships the souls of the dead to the country of the and religion in his work, in 98 “that the wagon is pulled by cows. Wherever sun or the realm of death. The circles AC. He mentions two goddesses among she goes there are festivities and no more perhaps indicate a tribute to the dead – the Germans: Isis and Nerthus. Isis seems wars, and weapons are set aside… peace and wreaths of honour. to be strongly influenced by her Egyptian quiet then prevail.” It is not surprising that the inhabitants namesake – a maritime goddess, with of Gotland, located in the middle of the temples in the mouths of rivers and a ship Tacitus counts seven different tribes who sea, long cherished an ancient agriculture http://viking.hgo.se 4 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 and fertility religion that also included ships. Even on picture stones dated to as early as 400–500 AD, there are pictures that lead thoughts towards the mythology of the Vikings. The stone from Austers in Hangvar has a sun wheel and probably the stem of a ship, fig. 2. Above the sun drawing there is a man facing the open mouth of a great beast that closely resembles a centipede. Several have wanted to interpret the picture as an early depiction of facing the dragon Fafne. Another interpretation is Thor Fig 3. Picture stone struggling with the snake from Midgård. with snake motif from An almost identical stone was found church. while restoring Martebo church in 1971. Photo Raymond On the Martebo stone the whole ship is Hejdström. preserved while the dragon’s/snake’s upper body has been chopped away, but otherwise it is the same motif. The about Sigurd Fafnesbane is recorded on Iceland and was spread widely in Scandinavia and Germany during the Viking era and later. Snake cult? holds a snake in each hand under a so- Is the Auster stone’s motif a sign of the On several of the old type of stones three called triskele with three snakes. onset of the Aesir cult’s war and warrior filled circles occur: Martebo church, Bro On the stone from Sandegårda in worship? There are other examples on church and on the big Sanda stone. That Sanda a snake-like character with two stones from same era that show armed all three circles should be symbols for the distinct snakes on either side can be seen, men: on a stone from Vallstenarum in sun and resurrection seems unlikely. fig. 5. Snakes are clearly important in the Vallstena they carry spears and shields, On the stone from Martebo a snake prehistoric religious world on Gotland. and on a picture stone with early winds around the left lower circle, fig. 3, Besides Midgårdsormen (the Midgård from Martebo church there are riders with and on the Sanda stone snakes entwine snake), Eddan also mentions the snakes spears and shields next to the sun wheel. themselves around the both lower circles Goin, Moin, Gråbak and Grafvöllund, that lack rays. Is it earth that is meant except Nidhögg, down in Nifelheim under under the sun wheel – one to two worlds : – Midgård – entwined by the “More snakes lie under the ash tree called Midgård snake, one of Loke’s Yggdrasil than what each silly monkey evil sons? believes”, according to Eddan. Moreover, later the Sanda Both the snake-stones above are dated stone has been “scribbled to the period 500–700 AD and we are on”; a tree with clear roots now approaching the beginning of the stands on a line with a dragon – Viking era. On at least two of the Viking- possibly the world tree Yggdrasil age stones both the woman with snakes and with a dragon-like character and the cluster of snakes exist: that can possibly be interpreted as On the Hunninge stone from a the snake Nidhögg, gnawing on the snake woman stands watching a battle tree’s roots. scene. In the next picture a man lies During the 6th–8th c. the circles among a number of snakes in a hole or on disappear from the picture stones a yard. A woman stands at the entrance to and are replaced by illustrations of the yard, fig. 6. sailing ships, birds and snakes. Pure On the stone from Smiss in “snake stones” now appear. The a woman with a snake in her hand is most well known is the stone from walking in front of a row of soldiers. In Smiss in När, fig. 4, where a sitting the badly damaged frieze above this a woman with an artistic hairstyle snake pit with a man in it can be discerned, fig. 7. Snakes have been found in the Gotlandic mythology for many hundred Fig 4. Picture stone with years! Snake pits occur in the Icelandic snake motif from Smiss in - and Gunnar När parish. Photo Raymond Hejdström. Gjukeson both met their destiny in a snake pit in the saga of Ragnar Lodbrok –

5 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 3/05 a Nordic sequel to the saga of Sigurd Fafnesbane. If dragon- and the snake-stones are early signs of Aesir religion, this means that the transition from the old fertility – and agricultural cult to the Aesir cult was a process that took several hundred years! When the Aesir religion is described in Eddan at the beginning of the 13th c, the author – Snorre Sturlasson had access to stories that depicted the final phase of Aesir religion before it was officially crowded out by Christianity. Then it had probably undergone a long, slow transition.

The Nordic Aesir gods The Viking-age gods stemmed from two races – Aesir and Vanir. The word Aesir comes from an old word for “god”. Fig 6. Picture stone with snake motif from Hunninge in Klinte parish. According to Eddan the Aesir include Photo Raymond Hejdström. most of the gods: Odin, Thor, Tyr and others, twelve gods in total. They are mostly war gods to be appeased by Sacrificial finds weapon sacrifices were also found – some weapon sacrifices among other things. The Gotlandic Viking-age picture stones ten bent-up swords lay in a heap and According to Snorre’s Edda, fourteen of are difficult to interpret but probably give beside them were ten-odd shield bosses the goddesses are called Asynjor, (Aesir us pictures of sacrifices, gods and stacked on top of each other, see photo on goddesses) for instance Frigg and Freyja. goddesses, and . Among the front page. In another marsh land, at The names of the Vanir are considered the sacrificial scenes the Hammar stone Möllegårds in Hörsne, there were thirty- to be related to the Roman goddess of from Lärbro is the one most often love Venus (the Greeks’ Afrodite) and the portrayed – with a human sacrifice on an ancient Indian word vanah = desire and altar-like arrangement with man carrying they constitute their own race of gods. a spear in front of Odin, fig. 8. They were the gods of reproduction and In Gutasagan is written: they ruled over weather, fishing, shipping, “They sacrificed their sons seeding and harvest. They seem to be the and daughters and livestock as remains of an ancient agricultural mother- well as food and drink. They earth cult. This also includes Njord (see did this because of their false above) Frigg, Frey and Freyja. Among the belief. The whole country (Gotland) Vanir are also those versed in magic, who had the greatest human sacrifice. can grant success in battle and who devote Normally each of the three regions held themselves to love magic. their own sacrifice.” The Aesir and Vanir fought against Archaeological finds also imply each other but gradually tired of battle, that people were sacrificed during held a peace meeting and sealed the peace the Viking Age on Gotland. In by both sides going up to a vat and Lillmyr in Barlingbo, just next to the spitting in it, according to Eddan. The Gotlandic Allting’s meeting place in Aesir god Odin married the Vanir goddess Roma, parts of humans have been Frigg and they had two sons, Balder and found, along with remains of horses Höder, amongst other children. and lambs. In the same marsh, Odin is the highest and eldest of the Aesir. He rules over everything and the other gods may be powerful, but they all obey him as children obey their father… Odin is Fig 5. Picture stone with snake called universal father because he is father to motif from Sandegårda in Sanda all the gods, according to the Edda. parish. Photo Raymond Hejdström. http://viking.hgo.se 6 Viking Heritage Magazine 3/03 odd spearheads and at Gane in Bäl, a Vendel-age and ten Viking-age spears were found. These weapon sacrifices are connected with the Odin cult (see front page). But the largest site of Viking-age weapon-finds on Gotland is Gudingsåkrarna, northwest from Vallstena church. Since the 19th c. over 500 weapons have been dug up from the drained marshland here – mostly spearheads, but even swords and forging equipment such as raw iron and forging tongs. On other occasions silver has been found here along with spearheads and scythes. At an excavation during the 1930s, 8 spearheads appeared stuck into a circle approximately 1,5-meter radius and with a horsehead-shaped stone in the middle. While it can be suspected that the Fig 7. Picture stone with snake motif from Smiss in Stenkyrka parish. weapon sacrifices were offered to Odin Photo Raymond Hejdström. and possibly also to Thor, probably the sacrificed scythes are meant to appease the god Frey. Frey was the god of love who continent, they are very rare in Gotlandic places died and took their secret with gave peace, pleasure and good crops. graves. On the other hand there are four them to the grave; they were payment for Adam of Bremen writes at the end of the silver Thor’s hammers in Gotlandic silver a future bride purchase that was never 11th c.: treasures from the late Viking Age used or that the silver was intended as “If an epidemic or famine threatens, you (Alveskogs in Eke, Mickels in När, Gerete blood money to get someone out of a should make sacrifices to Thor’s statue, if a in and Kvie in Othem). difficult situation. war is imminent, to Odin, if a wedding is In the Gotlandic graves, amber amulets But the burying of silver can also be to be celebrate, to Frey.” were sometimes placed at the feet of the connected with the Aesir cult! If there was Besides Gudingsåkrarna, scythes have dead or on their breasts. In male graves, silver lying under the floors in at least been found in ways that can be they were shaped like a little axe and in every other farm on Gotland, this could interpreted as sacrifice: four scythes bound female graves they have a conical shape not have been unknown to the other together with two chisels and a cutting with a groove. Small block stools of silver inhabitants of Gotland. Every abandoned instrument have been found at Findarve and amber have also found. The axes as house would have been searched by in Rone and eight scythes, two raw irons, well as the block stool can be linked to relatives or others! three forks and a key at Bringes in Thor’s cult. Thor is portrayed sitting on Another explanation can also exist, that Norrlanda. Small miniature scythes have such a stool on a find from Lund. The has to do with the life after this. In Snorre been dug up at Stenbys in . small amber amulets have their Sturlasson’s Ynglingasaga there is a chapter One more group of finds of a sacrificial equivalents in Latvia. about the laws Odin made for the people: character must be mentioned – iron rings A few amulet rings of iron and bronze Odin made in his country the same laws that were found in stone mounds and with small miniature objects on each have that had applied among the Aesir. He bogs. The largest find comes from Dune been found on the island – from Riddare ordained that all dead men should be in Dalhem, where approximately 1400 in comes a ring with horse, spear burnt and their properties to be carried rings of different sizes lay neatly in and sword and from Sandegårda in Sanda onto the funeral pyre with them. He different layers with earth in between. We another with some rings, a block stool (?) decreed that each and everyone should cannot link the ring finds to any specific and an animal. come to Valhalla with the wealth that he god, they are assumed to be a very ancient had on the pyre; he should also enjoy that relic with roots in a Bronze-age cult. Silver Hoards which he had dug down in the ground. The god Thor with power over Burying sacrificial finds meant to appease (author’s italics). thunder is portrayed on a picture stone the gods seems, therefore, to have been a Here we get another explanation for from church and possibly even on common phenomenon on Gotland. It was the hoards – they were intended for life in a stone chest from Sanda cemetery with even more common to place silver hoards Valhalla! his weapon, the hammer Mjölner. under the floors of the buildings. Up until We can imagine that the farmer, when Fragments of a similar picture stone from the present no less than about 750 he knew the end was near, took away as Hemse seem to have same motif. On the Viking-age silver hoards have come to much of the family’s fortune that he both the later stones, the hammer is more light on Gotland! believed he would need in his next life like a club. Mjölner can also be portrayed Many explanations as to why these and placed this under the floor. Perhaps as an axe. treasures have been left buried until our this took place in ceremonies with families While miniature Thor’s hammers are a time have been searched for: they were present – the contents in the urn or the repeated find from graves on the hidden away; those who knew about the box showing of course the position which

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Fig 8. A sacrificial scene. Detail from the picture stone from Hammars in Lärbro parish. Photo Erik Nylén.

he had achieved during his life. Perhaps, his son, in turn, placed silver in the same urn when he approached old age. The important is that nobody could take up the silver, even if they knew that the silver lay there! Then, the dead ancestors would get into trouble and incur the terrible revenge of the dead and Aesir gods!

Aesir and Christianity “This is the first in our law, that we historical time he has been invoked in Snorre’s Edda was written down during should say no to paganism and say yes to the order to protect houses and people during Christian time and there are many Christian faith and all believe in a God thunderstorms. parallels with biblical texts in the stories. Almighty…” With the introduction of Christianity But there are also many similarities with But all expressions of the old religion even the goddesses disappeared. God was ancient Persian and ancient Indian did not disappear immediately. The faith now naturally male. Maria is admittedly mythology and we can assume that the in – and the dread of – the old Aesir gods Jesus’ mother, but no goddess! But in Aesir religion was a mixture of old beliefs lived on in folklore and customs for a everyday religion, the Blessed Mary got to with Euro-Asian origins and new long time. Thor is the Aesir, whose name bear Freyja’s role as a symbol of fertility, Christian elements. and characteristics seem to have survived see the front page. She was also Information from archaeological the longest in folk religion and well into worshipped as a kind of mother goddess sources on Gotland shows that Christian and alleviated at childbirth pains, thereby objects existed on the island as early as the also replacing Frigg. In many places she 9th century onwards. Gutasagan describes Literature and References also got to take over the power over the that Christian areas existed within Collinder, Björn (ed.) 1970. Snorres Edda. weather, crops, fishing and livestock from Gotland’s trading areas throughout the Uddevalla. the ancient gods and goddesses. whole Viking era: Holmbäck Åke/Wessén, Elias 1979. “Even though the were heathens, Gutalagen/Gutasagan. Svenska they still sailed with merchant products to Landskapslagar. Uppsala. This article was first published in Swedish all countries, Christian and heathen. Then Olson, Emil (ed.) 1919. Snorre Sturlassons by the County Museum of Gotland in their the merchants witnessed Christian customs konungasagor I. Lund. annual book, Gotländskt Arkiv 2004, this in Christian countries. Then some of them Onsell, Birgitta 1985. Gamla gudar och glömda gudinnor. year called Gotland Vikingaön (Gotland allowed themselves to be baptized and Nylén, Erik 1978. Bildstenar. Visby Viking Island). brought Christian priests to Gotland.” Näsström, Britt-Marie 2001. Nothing would indicate dramatic Fornskandinavisk religion. Lund. events in connection with the conversion Svenberg, Emanuel 1984. Adam av to Christianity. Many things imply, on the Bremen. Historien om Hamburgstiftet About the author other hand, that heathens and Christian och dess biskopar. Stockholm. Gun Westholm is the Senior Curator Thunmark-Nylén, Lena 1983. Gotland och and responsible for the exhibitions at lived peaceful side by side for a long time. the County Museum of Gotland. She During the 11th c. Christian crosses Ostbaltikum. Gutar och Vikingar. Stockholm is an archaeologist and the author of and rune texts with Christian messages Thålin-Bergman, Lena 1983. Järn och numerous articles dealing with the became more and more common. The järnsmide för hemmabruk och avsalu. Viking and Medieval history of oldest churches on Gotland are dated to Gutar och Vikingar. Stockholm Gotland. Her thesis dissertation on about 1100 AD. Gutalagen formulates the Trotzig, Gustaf 1983. Den gamla och den Viking-age Visby was published in formal Christianising of Gotland – the nya religionen. Gutar och Vikingar. 1989. law begins with: Stockholm. http://viking.hgo.se 8 9

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