Edited by The North American Arctic addresses the emergence of a new security relationship within the Dwayne Ryan Menezes North American North. It focuses on current and emerging security issues that confront the North American Arctic and that shape relationships between and with neighbouring states (Alaska in Heather N. Nicol the US; Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada; Greenland and Russia). Identifying the degree to which ‘domain awareness’ has redefined the traditional military focus, while a new human rights discourse undercuts traditional ways of managing sovereignty and territory, the volume’s contributors question normative security arrangements. Although security itself is not an obsolete concept, our understanding of what constitutes real human-centred security has become outdated. The contributors argue that there are new regionally specific threats originating from a wide range of events and possibilities, and very different subjectivities that can be brought to understand the shape of Arctic security and security relationships in the twenty-first century. The North American Arctic provides a framework or lens through which many new developments are assessed in order to understand their impact on a changing circumpolar region at different scales – from the level of community to the broader national and regional scale. Dwayne Ryan Menezes is Founder and Managing Director of Polar Research and Policy Initiative (PRPI) and Honorary Fellow at the UCL Institute of Risk and Disaster Reduction. Heather N.Heather Nicol Menezes Dwayne Ryan by Edited Heather N. Nicol is Professor in the School of the Environment and Acting Director of the School for the Study of Canada at Trent University (Canada). m Themes in Regional Security Cover image: © arctic-tern / iStock Cover design: www.ironicitalics.com The North American Arctic The North American Arctic Themes in Regional Security Edited by Dwayne Ryan Menezes and Heather N. Nicol First published in 2019 by UCL Press University College London Gower Street London WC1E 6BT Available to download free: www.uclpress.co.uk Text © Contributors, 2019 Images © Contributors and copyright holders named in captions, 2019 The authors have asserted their rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as the authors of this work. A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from The British Library. This book is published under a Creative Commons CC BY-NC license (CC BY-NC 4.0). This license allows you to share, copy, redistribute and adapt the work for non- commercial use, provided the original author and source are credited, and any changes made are indicated. Attribution should include the following information: Menezes, D.R, and Nicol, H.N. (eds.). 2019. The North American Arctic: Themes in Regional Security. London: UCL Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14324/111.9781787356610 Further details about Creative Commons licenses are available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ Any third-party material in this book is published under the book’s Creative Commons license unless indicated otherwise in the credit line to the material. If you would like to re-use any third-party material not covered by the book’s Creative Commons license, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. ISBN: 978-1-78735-663-4 (Hbk.) ISBN: 978-1-78735-662-7 (Pbk.) ISBN: 978-1-78735-661-0 (PDF) ISBN: 978-1-78735-664-1 (epub) ISBN: 978-1-78735-665-8 (mobi) DOI: https://doi.org/10.14324/111.9781787356610 Contents List of Figures and Tables xi List of Contributors xiii List of Abbreviations xxv Editorial Preface xxix Part 1: Introduction: Security Paradigms for the North American Arctic 1 Introduction 3 Dwayne Ryan Menezes and Heather N. Nicol 2 North by Far Northwest: Indigenising Regional Policy Innovation in Border Management 23 Christian Leuprecht and Todd Hataley 2.1. Introduction 23 2.2. Canada’s Cold War Border 26 2.3. Post-Cold War Border 29 2.4. The New Cold War Border 29 2.5. The Bordering Process in the Arctic 31 2.6. Conclusion 32 3 The History of the Jay Treaty, and its Significance to Cross-Border Mobility and Security for Indigenous Peoples in the North American Northern Borderlands and Beyond 35 Greg Boos, Heather Fathali and Greg McLawsen 3.1. Introduction 35 3.2. History 36 3.3. Scope: A Determination based on Racial Considerations 37 3.4. Canada 39 3.4.1. Indigenous Groups in Canada: Indian, Inuit, Métis and métis 39 3.4.2. No Reciprocal Right to Enter Canada 40 CONTENTS v 3.5. An Exploration of the Jay Treaty in the Northern Borderlands 43 3.5.1. The Arctic 44 3.5.2. A Case Study: The Inuit 45 3.6. Cross-Border Culture and Commerce 47 3.7. Conclusion 50 4 A Land Without Borders – Inuit Cultural Integrity 67 Dalee Sambo Dorough 4.1. Introduction 68 4.2. Background 69 4.3. Major Events 70 4.3.1. Inuit and International Political Development 70 4.3.2. Developments within the United Nations 72 4.3.3. Organisation of American States 78 4.3.4. Present-Day Considerations 78 4.4. Conclusion 86 Part 2: Defining Trends in North American Arctic Security 5 Key Issues to Arctic Security 93 Randy ‘Church’ Kee, Maj Gen, USAF (Ret.) 5.1. Introduction 93 5.2. Defining the Arctic: The Big Picture 95 5.3. The History of Arctic Security Interests 100 5.4. A Physically Changing Environment of the Arctic 103 5.5. Recent Trends and Associated Impacts to Arctic Residents 105 5.6. Economic Aspects 107 5.7. Implications for Safety and Security 109 5.8. Factors to Consider for Improving the Future Security and Defence Outlook for the Arctic among Like-Minded Nations 111 5.9. Conclusion 114 6 The North American Arctic Maritime and Environmental Security Workshop 2018: Summary Workshop Report 116 Randy ‘Church’ Kee, Maj Gen, USAF (Ret.); Paula Williams and Heather N. Nicol 6.1. Introduction 116 6.2. Description of the Workshop 117 6.3. Summary of Plenary Panel Discussions 119 6.4. Analysis 124 vi THE NORTH AMERICAN ARCTIC 6.5. Recommendations 126 6.6. Conclusions 131 7 Regional Border Security Management in the Territorial North 134 Heather N. Nicol, Adam Lajeunesse, P. Whitney Lackenbauer and Karen Everett 7.1. Introduction 134 7.2. Land Borders and Borderlands 136 7.3. Air Borders 145 7.4. Maritime Boundaries 146 7.5. Terrorism and Undocumented Immigration 150 7.6. Conclusions 151 8 Bridging the Gap: Fostering Military-Civilian Collaboration to Improve Marine, Aviation and Telecommunications Infrastructure in the US Arctic 155 Mead Treadwell and Taylor Drew Holshouser 8.1. Absence of US Arctic Infrastructure Creates a Power Imbalance in the Arctic, and a Change in Approach is Needed 155 8.2. Historically, US Arctic Military and Civil Development have helped each other, but Revenue Considerations often came later 157 8.3. Developing Revenue to pay for Arctic Infrastructure helps expand both Civil and Military Infrastructure 160 8.3.1. Shipping 161 8.3.2. Aviation 163 8.3.3. Telecommunications 164 8.4. Conclusion 165 Part 3: Security: Policy, Cooperation and Institutional Challenges 9 Canada’s Northern Borders in the Context of National Border Regimes 171 Karen Everett 9.1. Introduction 171 9.2. Methods and Methodology 172 9.2.1. The Canadian Government Documents 172 9.2.2. The Copenhagen School and the Five Security Sectors 175 9.3. Analysis 176 9.4. Maritime Border Management 180 CONTENTS vii 9.5. Developing Security Policy for the North 183 9.6. Conclusion 184 10 An Evaluation of the Security Relationship between Canada and Greenland 188 Andrew Chater 10.1. Introduction 188 10.2. Hans Island 190 10.3. The Continental Shelf 192 10.4. Oil and Gas in Greenland 194 10.5. Borders 196 10.6. Conclusion 197 11 Arctic Security for a Big Small Country 200 Tony Penikett 11.1. Introduction 200 11.2. Old Crow 200 11.3. Difficult Choices 201 11.4. Different Perspectives on Security 202 11.5. Securing the Arctic Community 207 11.6. Conclusion: A Security Framework 210 Part 4: Emerging Trends 12 Minimising Vulnerability in Canada’s Arctic Borderlands through Cross-scale Linkages: The Beaufort Sea Partnership 215 Justin Barnes 12.1. Introduction 215 12.2. Defining Vulnerability 216 12.3. Climate Change Vulnerabilities in the Canadian North 217 12.4. Vulnerability, Interdependence, and Multi-Level Governance in the Canadian Arctic 219 12.5. Reducing Vulnerability through Cross-Scale Governance Structures 221 12.6. The Beaufort Sea Partnership 224 12.7. Discussion 226 12.8. Conclusions 229 13 Reconciling the North: Transit Pipelines and the Pursuit of Self-Sufficient Self-Government in the Yukon 233 Nicholas Wilson 13.1. Introduction 233 13.2. Challenging the Westphalian ‘State’ System 235 viii THE NORTH AMERICAN ARCTIC 13.2.1. The Colonial Context 235 13.2.2. Borders: A Reconceptualisation 237 13.2.3. Borders in the Northern Context 238 13.3. The Incentive Model: Finding a Way 240 13.3.1. The Practice of Bordering 241 13.3.2. Market Incentives and the Provision of Public Goods 242 13.3.3. The Umbrella Final Agreement and SGYFNs 243 13.4. The Incentive Model: Funding the Right of Self-Determination 245 13.4.1. The Power to Levy Taxes: A Lawful Solution to an Enduring Problem 245 13.4.2. Historical Convention vs. Present Need 246 13.4.3. Transit Fees: An Economic Model from Developing Countries 248 13.4.4. Revisiting Border Porosity and the Strength of Incentives 251 13.5. Concluding Remarks 251 14 ‘That happens up there?’ Human Trafficking and Security in the North American Arctic 260 Mike Perry 14.1.