DISCUSSING WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT – Discussing Women’s Empowerment – Theory and Practice Clockwise from the upper left corner: Naila Kabeer Patricia McFadden Signe Arnfred Theory and Practice Edmé Dominguez Sherin Sadallaah “Mind the gap please”, warns a well-articulated, friend- ly although somewhat metallic sounding voice when passengers are about to leave or enter the trains on the This volume represents a search for analysis that may influence and inspire the work of practitioners and theoreticians aiming to address the core of the London Underground. The expression could be used to issue of women’s empowerment. The authors shed light on questions such as: illustrate the gap that often divides development theo- Does the conceptualisation and rhetoric concerning ‘empowerment’ signal a reticians and practitioners – a divide that can be bridged genuine and meaningful transformation? Will a real power balance be struck by a conscious dialogue. between the sexes by the way ‘empowerment’, ‘gender’ and ‘mainstreaming’ are addressed in development agencies? How do sociological, academic and economic patterns related to culture and religion exclude women from exercis- ing power – and ultimately from development? Do women seek new approach- es to politics and citizenship? Sida studies THE SIDA STUDIES-SERIES OFFERS A SELECTION OF THE REPORTS AND STUDIES COMMISSIONED BY DIFFERENT no. DEPARTMENTS AT SIDA. THE SELECTION IS MADE TO REFLECT ISSUES OF RELEVANCE TO SIDA’S POLICIES AND PRACTICES, BUT EACH REPORT EXPRESSES THE VIEWS AND FINDINGS OF ITS WRITER(S). Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency Address: SE–105 25 Stockholm, Sweden. Visiting address: Sveavägen 20, Stockholm. Tel +46 8 698 50 00, e-mail: [email protected]. Sidastudies no. www.sida.se Previous issues in the Sidastudies series: No 1 Moldova’s Transition to Destitution, Per Ronnås and Nina Orlova, Art. nr. D 0708 No 2 Beneficiary, Consumer, Citizen: Perspectives on Participation for Poverty Reduction, Andrea Cornwall, Art. nr. D 0718 Discussing Women’s Empowerment – Theory and Practice Sida studies can be ordered by visiting Sida’s website: www.sida.se Sida studies can also be ordered from Sida’s information centre. E-mail: [email protected] Tel. + The Sida Studies-series offers a selection of the reports and studies recently commissioned by different departments at Sida. The selection is made to reflect issues of relevance to Sida’s policies and practices, but each report expresses the views and findings of its writer(s). Sida studies no. Copyright: Sida and the authors, for exceptions see individual contributions (N. Kabeer). Series editor: Anne Sisask Graphic design: Johan Nilsson/Kombinera Layout: Ninni Oljemark/Kombinera Cover Photo: Thomas Raupach/Phoenix Printed by Novum Grafiska , Stockholm ISSN - ISBN --- Art. nr. Discussing Women’s Empowerment – Theory and Practice AN ANTHOLOGY Sidastudies Foreword This volume offers a selection of papers presented at the conference ‘Power, Resources and Culture in a Gender Perspective: Towards a Dia- logue Between Gender Research and Development Practice’, arranged by the Council for Development and Assistance Studies, Uppsala Universi- ty, Sweden in cooperation with Sida, October . The objective of the conference was to create a forum for dialogue, where development practitioners and researchers could meet to focus on gender and power. Recent research in the field was presented in order to introduce new theoretical points of departure, relevant to the reassessment of development cooperation. Most development cooperation today has gender equality as one of its objectives. To achieve this, a new relation- ship is needed between researchers – with their theoretical tools for un- derstanding and their empirical knowledge of local contexts – and devel- opment practitioners – with their tacit knowledge of the nature of how policies are generated, formed and implemented in developing countries. Probably, there is no linear, one-way relationship between research and implementation in policy formation. Rather, a close, ongoing dialogue between researchers and practitioners is required. It was hoped that the conference would put in place the parameters for a vital, constructive dialogue of this type. Whether this will be so re- mains to be seen. There is some hesitation on both sides. However, as the debates of the conference proved, for those who cross the line and par- ticipate in the dialogue there is little doubt as to the value and need of this kind of encounter. The papers, intended to encourage and inspire both practitioners and researchers, are a small selection from the conference, chosen for their policy and methodological implications and their variety of perspectives. Some papers represent research in progress, while others are written by theorists already well established in the international discussions on women and development. They are strongly related, in their various ways, to the issue of women’s empowerment. Birgitta Sevefjord Berit Olsson Gender Equality Adviser, Sida Director, Department for Research Cooperation, Sarec, Sida Table of Contents SUMMARY .................................................................................................................8 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................10 Gender Issues in Development Practices: Two Perspectives from a Development Coopeeration Agency Naila Kabeer: REFLECTIONS ON THE MEASUREMENT OF WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT ................17 Section 1: Conceptualising empowerment .........................................................17 Introduction............................................................................................17 Conceptualising empowerment: resources, agency and achievement. .........18 Qualifying choice: difference versus inequality ...........................................22 Qualifying choice: ‘choosing not to choose’ ...............................................23 Empowerment: dimensions, levels and processes of change ......................26 Section 2: Measuring empowerment: the problem of meaning .............................28 Measuring ‘resources’ .............................................................................28 Measuring ‘agency’ .................................................................................31 Measuring achievement...........................................................................35 Triangulation and meaning: the indivisibility of resources, agency and achievements .......................................................................40 Section 3: Measuring empowerment: the problem of values.................................44 Status, autonomy and the relevance of context..........................................44 Outsider values and women’s empowerment: between altruism and autonomy...............................................................49 Conclusion......................................................................................................52 References .....................................................................................................54 Patricia McFadden: CULTURAL PRACTICE AS GENDERED EXCLUSION: EXPERIENCES FROM SOUTHERN AFRICA............................................................58 Colonial Stereotypes – Reinforced by Researchers Today ....................................62 Restricting Women’s Rights to Property and to Mobility........................................64 ‘Customary System’ – Used as A Weapon Against Women ...................................67 References .....................................................................................................70 Signe Arnfred QUESTIONS OF POWER: WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS, FEMINIST THEORY AND DEVELOPMENT AID ..................73 Section 1: Inequalities of power.........................................................................74 Power contexts of change in terminology from women to gender ................74 Further adjustments of GAD discourse: Gender mainstreaming ...................76 De-politicising of feminist theory?..............................................................78 WID/GAD and women’s movements..........................................................79 Section 2: Critique of dominant gender policies. .................................................81 Gender mainstreaming – limitations and pitfalls..........................................81 The gender bias of market economy.........................................................83 Section 3: Challenges for the women’s movements.............................................84 Reversals of learning...............................................................................84 Taking advantage of cracks and contradictions..........................................85 References .....................................................................................................86 Edmé Dominguez CITIZENSHIP AND WOMEN IN MEXICO: SEARCHING FOR A NEW POLITICAL CULTURE? VIEWS AND EXPERIENCES OF PARTICIPANTS AND NON-PARTICIPANTS IN POLITICAL ACTION ......................88 Introduction.....................................................................................................88 Theoretical Questions ......................................................................................89 The Political Participation of Mexican Women .....................................................92 Women and Citizenship at the Urban