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Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 112:9-16 This authors' personal copy may not be publicly or systematically copied or distributed, or posted on the Open Web, except with written permission of the copyright holder(s). It may be distributed to interested individuals on request. Vol. 112: 9–16, 2014 DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS Published November 13 doi: 10.3354/dao02792 Dis Aquat Org High susceptibility of the endangered dusky gopher frog to ranavirus William B. Sutton1,2,*, Matthew J. Gray1, Rebecca H. Hardman1, Rebecca P. Wilkes3, Andrew J. Kouba4, Debra L. Miller1,3 1Center for Wildlife Health, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA 2Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209, USA 3Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, University of Tennessee Center of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA 4Memphis Zoo, Conservation and Research Department, Memphis, TN 38112, USA ABSTRACT: Amphibians are one of the most imperiled vertebrate groups, with pathogens playing a role in the decline of some species. Rare species are particularly vulnerable to extinction be - cause populations are often isolated and exist at low abundance. The potential impact of patho- gens on rare amphibian species has seldom been investigated. The dusky gopher frog Lithobates sevosus is one of the most endangered amphibian species in North America, with 100−200 indi- viduals remaining in the wild. Our goal was to determine whether adult L. sevosus were suscep- tible to ranavirus, a pathogen responsible for amphibian die-offs worldwide. We tested the rela- tive susceptibility of adult L. sevosus to ranavirus (103 plaque-forming units) isolated from a morbid bullfrog via 3 routes of exposure: intra-coelomic (IC) injection, oral (OR) inoculation, and water bath (WB) exposure. We observed 100% mortality of adult L. sevosus in the IC and WB treatments after 10 and 19 d, respectively. Ninety-five percent mortality occurred in the OR treat- ment over the 28 d evaluation period. No mortality was observed in the control treatment after 28 d. Our results indicate that L. sevosus is susceptible to ranavirus, and if adults in the wild are exposed to this pathogen, significant mortality could occur. Additionally, our study demonstrates that some adult amphibian species can be very susceptible to ranavirus, which has been often overlooked in North American studies. We recommend that conservation planners consider test- ing the susceptibility of rare amphibian species to ranavirus and that the adult age class is included in future challenge experiments. KEY WORDS: Anuran · Histopathology · Iridovirus · Ranidae Resale or republication not permitted without written consent of the publisher INTRODUCTION viruses are a group of double-stranded DNA vir - uses that are responsible for amphibian die-offs Amphibians are one of the most diverse verte- across the globe (Miller et al. 2011) and have con- brate faunas worldwide, and based on recent esti- tributed to declines of at least one species, the com- mates, possess the greatest proportion of species mon frog Rana temporaria (Teacher et al. 2010). threatened with extinction (Stuart et al. 2004, IUCN Amphibian species with limited geographic distri- 2013). It has been realized that pathogens can con- butions tend to be more susceptible to ranavirus tribute to amphibian declines and may play a role (Hoverman et al. 2011), which may be a conse- in population extirpation and species extinction quence of the effects of genetic isolation on (Teacher et al. 2010, Vredenburg et al. 2010). Rana - immune function (Pearman & Garner 2005). Thus, *Corresponding author: [email protected] © Inter-Research 2014 · www.int-res.com 10 Dis Aquat Org 112: 9–16, 2014 rare amphibian species may be particularly suscep- the L. sevosus breeding program that were destined tible to ranavirus (Gray et al. 2009). for euthanasia. Zoos commonly cull portions of breed- copy The dusky gopher frog Lithobates sevosus is one of ing programs without research application, thus our the most endangered amphibian species in North experiment made use of culled individuals and eval- America. The historical distribution of L. sevosus uated susceptibility to an emerging pathogen. Prior included southwestern Alabama, Mississippi, and to the experiment, we randomly selected 2 individu- Author southeastern Louisiana, USA, but has been reduced als and used quantitative PCR (qPCR) to verify they to only a few known populations (ca. 100−200 breed- were negative for ranavirus infection. We maintained ing adults) in southern Mississippi (Richter et al. frogs communally in 60 l plastic containers at a den- 2003, 2009). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Spe- sity of 7−8 frogs per container for 10 d to allow frogs cies classifies L. sevosus as Critically Endangered to acclimate to laboratory conditions. (Hammerson et al. 2004). L. sevosus and the closely We randomly assigned 18 individuals to each of 3 related gopher frog L. capito are highly terrestrial ranavirus exposure routes (intracoelomic [IC], oral species that commonly use gopher tortoise Gopherus [OR], and water bath [WB]), and a matching control polyphemus burrows and other subterranean habi- [C] group. The control group consisted of 18 total tats including stumpholes and abandoned small individuals allocated in groups of 6 individuals each mammal burrows (Humphries & Sisson 2012, Tupy to an IC, OR, and WB treatment. Control treatments 2012), which likely reduce risks associated with pre- were performed exactly the same as experimental dation or desiccation (Roznik & Johnson 2009). Peri- treatments (described below), but only administering odic disturbance events (e.g. fire and wind distur- Eagle’s minimum essential medium without virus. bances) are necessary to maintain open canopy, early Prior to experimental inoculation, we obtained mass successional habitats for gopher frog breeding habi- (g) and snout−vent length (mm) measurements of tats. These conditions are essential for larvae to each study individual. Each ranavirus treatment con- metamorphose from breeding ponds (Thurgate & sisted of a ranavirus dose (103 plaque forming units Pechmann 2007). [PFUs] ml−1) reported as the viral concentration in Primary conservation concerns for L. sevosus com- water shed by an infected salamander larvae in cap- municated in the Gopher Frog Federal Recovery Plan tivity (Rojas et al. 2005). We evaluated susceptibility include long-term impacts of limited genetic diver- of L. sevosus to a frog virus 3 (FV3)-like ranavirus iso- sity, anthropogenic habitat alteration, and the effects lated from a morbid American bullfrog (L. cates- of amphibian pathogens (USFWS 2002). Given the beianus; Miller et al. 2007). We administered IC paucity of published data on the susceptibility of L. treatments by inserting a 0.5 ml syringe in the sevosus to pathogens and the known pathogenicity coelomic cavity near the distal end of the ventral sur- of ranaviruses to amphibians (Hoverman et al. 2011), face of each experimental individual. Similarly, OR we tested whether ranavirus could cause infection treatments were administered by inserting a 5 ml and mortality. Additionally, we performed histo - pipette tip into the oral cavity of each individual to pathology on experimental individuals to obtain a ensure that the viral dose was swallowed. For the WB better understanding of how ranavirus exposure treatment, we exposed each individual singly in a 2 l causes morbidity in amphibians. Overall, our study tub with 400 ml of water to a final 103 PFUs ml−1 of provides an important case study for understanding virus for 3 d based on previous WB challenge experi- the role that amphibian pathogens may play in ments (Hoverman et al. 2010, 2011). This volume of extinction and guiding repatriation activities for rare water was enough to fully submerge the ventral and amphibian species. dorsal surface of most individuals. We treated all ani- mals on the same day, but we administered control treatments first to prevent cross-contamination from MATERIALS AND METHODS the viral treatments. After treatments were adminis- tered, each frog was placed in a covered 12 l rectan- We performed this experiment in a laboratory envi- gular clear plastic container to complete the 28 d ronment at the Johnson Animal Research and Teach- experimental exposure, similar to the methods used ing Unit at the University of Tennessee. We acquired by Schock et al. (2008). We cleaned and sanitized 74 adult, captive-bred Lithobates sevosus from an containers every 3 d using 2% Nolvasan (Fort Dodge assurance colony maintained by the Omaha Henry Animal Health; Bryan et al. 2009). After cleaning, we Doorly Zoo in Lincoln, Nebraska, USA. We should added 200 ml of aged water and provided each frog note that our study used extraneous individuals from with 2−3 adult crickets. To provide frogs with access Sutton et al.: Dusky gopher frog susceptibility to ranavirus 11 to both dry and wet environments, we elevated one al. (2007). We considered a sample infected if the end of the container to allow water to pool at the qPCR cycle threshold (CT) value was less than 30 copy lower end of the container. based on standardized optimization with known We observed animals twice daily for gross signs quantities of ranavirus. For each qPCR analysis, we of ranaviral disease (e.g. lesions, petechial hemor- ran each extracted DNA sample in duplicate along rhaging, loss of appetite, lethargy; Miller et al. with 2 positive controls (i.e. positive viral DNA and Author 2011). If an animal presented gross signs for viral DNA from a ranavirus-positive amphibian) and greater than 24 h, we declared it as a mortality 2 negative controls (i.e. DNA from a ranavirus nega- event and the individual was euthanized humanely tive amphibian and a sample containing only molec- according to University of Tennessee IACUC proto- ular grade water) and report mean (±SE) CT values col no. 2140 via WB exposure to benzocaine for each treatment. hydrochloride as described in Burton et al.
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