IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 146 Social Movements, Digital Transformations and Changes in the MediterraneanDossier Region Journal these laws,whilealsoraising publicawareness,pro- persuading ittotakenecessary legalactionsagainst submitted totheIraniangovernmentwithaimof nated againstwomen.Thecompleted petition was requested theabolitionofseverallawsthatdiscrimi- to collectonemillionsignaturesforapetitionthat ance andwitnessrights.Thecampaigners’ goalwas - inherit criminal responsibility, blood money (diyeh), relating to, citizenship, divorce, defining the age of criminatory laws,including,butnotlimitedtothose to establishequalrightsforwomenandupenddis- Khorasani andParvinArdalan,thiscampaignaimed Launched on27August2006,byNoushinAhmadi known asthe“OneMillionSignaturesCampaign.” embarked ontheformationofagrassrootsmovement onstration, asmallgroupofIranianfeministsinTehran es violentlydisruptedapeacefulwomen’srightsdem- Movement of2009.InJune2006,whensecurityforc- lion SignaturesCampaign” of2006and(2)theGreen traced backtotwokeydevelopments:(1)the“OneMil- at best.InIran,examplesofsuchmovementscanbe to the inconsistent effectiveness of such movements, gence ofsocialmovementsintheMENAregionpoints societies intheregion.Therecentgrowth and emer- tarian andrepressivecontextsofmanyregimes and culturalcharacterdueinlargeparttotheauthori- Africa (MENA)haveassumedauniquesocial,political, Resistance movementsintheMiddleEastandNorth Lecturer, UniversityofCalifornia, Berkeley San Francisco StateUniversity Professor, DepartmentofInternationalRelations PhD Monshipouri, Mahmood MENA Region Youth Social Movements in the Social Transformation in aDigital Age: Movements, Social Dossier: Transformations Digital in the and Changes Region Mediterranean 2 1 E R b a a f iza d i , New York: Random House, 2016. House, York: Random , New Iran in Rights Human for Fight My Free: We Are Until , Shirin. , Vol. 31: 53-66, Issue 2, December 2014. December 2, Issue 31:, Vol. 53-66, d e h The Ahfad Ahfad The Iran,” of State Islamic the and Campaign’ Signature Million One ‘The Movements: Social Unrecognized “The , Majid. 1 suppressed theGreenMovement, itundeniablyfelt Although theregime’srepressive apparatusultimately ceptions oftheseevents. emerging politicalnarrativesandshapepublicper- ruling elementswithinIranstruggledtocontainthe sought broader democraticrights.The conservative members ofIran’sreformistsegmentswhohavelong testers were predominantly young but also included lenge totheexistingpoliticalorderinIran.Thepro- and YouTube, theprotestsposedaseriouschal- stant messaging and postings on , , Movement. Promotedbydigitalinteractionsviain- election fraudthatcametobeknownastheGreen and ledtoaseriesofpublicprotestsagainstalleged second termforPresidentMahmoudAhmadinejad The 2009Iranianpresidentialelectionsresultedina Iran’s Movement Green Movement affordedthemthatopportunity. nity toexpresstheirdemands.The2009Green many ofitssupporterssoughtyetanotheropportu- ment receivedscantattentionintheWestern media, the country. jailed, andbannedfromtravellinginsideoutside on, andmanyothercampaignerswereprosecuted, Ahmadi KhorasaniandArdalantothreeyearsinpris- measures tocontainit.Thejudiciarysentencedboth feminist movement,despitetheState’srepressive This campaigndemonstratedthevibrancyofIran’s nian womenhavelongendured. documenting livedandpainfulexperiencesthatIra- moting equalitybetweenmenandwomen,aswell 2 While thecampaignasasocialmove- Human Rights, and US Foreign Policy Foreign US and Rights, Human in the World: An Introductory Guide Introductory An World: the in 3 neutral–that is, theycaneithersustain the statusquo ways. Whilemoderntechnologiesarefunctionally agents ofchangebothinsymbolicandsubstantive pouring ofsocialandpoliticalactivismbybecoming verted theirdismayandrageintoanenormousout- of popularunrest.Increasingly, youngpeoplecon- traction asavehiclefordissentduringthesewaves region. Morespecifically, socialmediagainedmassive developing grassrootsactionthroughouttheMENA in social movements and tactics for mobilizing and The ensuingprotestssparkedconsiderableinterest the fall of the regime.” and itsbroaderpeacefulslogan:“Thepeoplewant identified theuprising’sregionalinterconnectedness gave risetotheso-calledArabawakening,atermthat Shortly thereafter,themomentouseventsof2011 The Uprisings curity, sovereignty, andculturaluniqueness. claims. The regime countered by invoking Iran’s se- ing broadlybasedhumanrightsrhetorictostaketheir ers demandedbasicfreedomsandrights,whileus- among thecountry’syoungergeneration.Theprotest- spectrum ofIran’spopulation,butmostimportantly of protest in 2009, the movement galvanized a broad since Iran’s 1979 revolution. During this brief period inspire popularprotests on ascaleunprecedented ganizational skillsthatallowedopposition groups to threatened –ifnotshaken–bytheefficiencyandor- 7 6 5 4 p. 150-156; see especially p. 152. p. 150-156;p. especially see doms, andlackofgovernmentaccountability. corruption, debilitatinglivingconditions,lackoffree- the fore,mostnotablyunemployment,foodinsecurity, across thecountry, bringinganumberofissuesto chord amongTunisians, andprotestsswiftlyspread police officers.Bouazizi’sself-immolationstrucka in responsetotheconfiscationofhiswaresbylocal street vendor,MohamedBouazizi,sethimselfonfire headed byyouthsocialmovementsinTunisia a when Spring uprisings,thisbroadunrestwaslargelyspear- C A G M Several n levelan elvin ons d e r Democratic Uprisings in the New Middle East: Youth, Technology, Technology, Youth, East: Middle New the in Uprisings Democratic elsewhere, work my from taken been have essay this of arguments h son The New Middle East: What Everyone Needs to Know to Needs Everyone What East: Middle New The L. , James i p ou d Review of the Middle East Studies East Middle the of Review Movements,” Social and Spring,’ Arab ‘The W. “Youth, , Charles , William L. and and L. William r i , Mahmood. “The Green Movement and the Iranian People’s Struggle for Human Rights,” in in Rights,” Human for Struggle People’s Iranian the and Movement Green “The , Mahmood. B unton 4 Publicly known as the Arab A History of the Modern Middle East Middle Modern the of AHistory , Martin. . New York: Routledge, 2015, 195-208. p. York: Routledge, . New , Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2014. Publishers, Paradigm CO: , Boulder, 3 5 , New York: Oxford University Press, 2018, 24. p. Press, University York: Oxford , New increase inmorerepressivemechanismsofcontrol media, andpoliticalactivismhascoincidedwiththe tural barriers.Thegrowthofsocialmovements, tegic choices–haveincreasinglyencounteredstruc- tentious actions–bolsteredbybothagencyandstra- The sitesofsocialandpoliticalmobilizationcon- fear andthreat. ism inthefaceofpoliticalinstabilityandaclimate uncertainties, andacultureoftoleratingauthoritarian- rigid politicalstructures,apersistentfearofeconomic acterized by longstanding and enduring institutions, has beenlargelylimitedinrepressivecontextschar- ness ofsocialmediaintransformingthesesocieties nipulating social and political events. The effective- ly, exploited–byauthoritarianregimesbentonma- been regularlymanipulated–oreven,moreaccurate- ic regimes. Arab people’spresumedresignationtotheirautocrat- while also debunking the widely held belief about the of ordinarypeopletoremaketheirworldsfeasible, and informationaccessibilityhasmadethestruggles tential ofthedigitalageandrelatedcommunication leged thattheInternetoffers.Theemancipatorypo- new platformforthevoicelessandunderprivi- the peopleinMENAregiondemonstrates The frequentandenergeticuseofsocialmediaby into arena the political unprecedented momentum to enter given the youth movement an they have neutral functionally While modern technologies are tunities, andredefinenewtermsofaccountability. ter intothepoliticalarena,seekneweconomicoppor- youth movementanunprecedentedmomentumtoen- or altertherulesofgame–theyhavegiven , Sixth Edition, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2016, 538-539. p. Press, Westview CO: Boulder, Edition, , Sixth 7 But atthesametime,thatpotentialhas V olk The Middle East East Middle The (ed.), , Lucia, , Vol. 74, No. 2, Winter 2013, Winter 2, 74,, Vol. No. 6

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 147 Social Movements, Digital Transformations and Changes in the MediterraneanDossier Region IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 148 Social Movements, Digital Transformations and Changes in the MediterraneanDossier Region Media (2011)1. Media ments aswelltoadvocateforsocialchangeand ly engageandparticipateinmobilizing civicmove- have enhancedyoungpeople’scapacitytoeffective- information andcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs) participation ininformalandformalgroups.Thenew in myriadways,includingaccesstoinformationand creased thelevelofyouthparticipationincyberspace nologies, especiallyonlinesocialnetworking,hasin- er and interact. The development of new digital tech- of thevirtualworld,wheremanymindscometogeth- are carriedovertheairwavesorthroughuniverse munications available,ideastranscendbordersand In aninterconnectedworld,withnewmodesofcom- Implications and Its Cyber-activism file andtheirresistanceeventuallyfadedaway. ed furtherprotests,astheprotesterskeptalowpro- suppression ofthisspontaneousmovementprevent- area on the edge of Taksim Square. The government cluding ashoppingmall,inGeziPark,smallgreen were triggered by government building plans, in- out andprotestagainstthegovernment.Theprotests liberals, nationalists, women, and the Kurds, to come pelled severaloppositiongroups,includingleft-leaning This event,alsoknownas“theTurkish Spring,” pro- and DevelopmentParty–alsoknownastheAKP). dogan’s governmentandhisrulingparty(theJustice test againsttheincreasinglyauthoritarianstyleofEr- across thecountrytostreetsofIstanbulpro- brought hundredsofthousandspeoplefrom On 28May2013,theGeziParkProtestsinTurkey Park Protests Gezi The main opentodebate. ing thesemovementsvs.governmentpushbacksre- ries. Thepracticalandpolicyimplicationsofbalanc- proper balance between these conflicting trajecto- exercised bygovernments.Itisnoteasytostrikea 11 10 9 8 court, 2012, 134. p. court, 26-32; see p. 29. p. see 26-32; p. S C S G m oun h h it e oni h h , c ata Pamela Ann and and Ann Pamela il m

Revolution 2.0: The Power of People Is Greater than the People in Power: AMemoir Power: in People the than Greater Is People of Power The 2.0: Revolution , Wael. , Dina. “The Fall of the Pharaoh: How ’s Reign Came to an End,” Foreign Affairs End,” an to Came Reign Mubarak’s Hosni How Pharaoh: the of Fall “The , Dina. o f

E u r o p e , “Training Course: New Media in Youth Work,” European Youth Centre, Strasbourg, Budapest, 5 July 2011, 5July DJS/TC Budapest, Strasbourg, Youth Centre, European Youth Work,” in Media New Course: , “Training F euil h e r a d e , Peter. “Now, the Media Revolution,” Revolution,” Media the “Now, , Peter. The Middle East Middle The Arabia underpressurefromhispeople. ary 2011, Tunisian President Ben Ali fled to Saudi three weekslaterandshortlythereafter,on14Janu- on fireinprotest17December2010.Hedied away inTunisia, whenMohamedBouazizisethimself 2011 uprisings in happened some 1,300 miles Egypt’s HosniMubarak.Thetriggeringeventforthe the regimesofTunisia’s ZineElAbidineBenAliand uprisings andprotestsintheMENAregion,toppling The year 2011 began with the social media-driven rooted insectarianandethnicidentities. to thoseoftraditionalparochialonessuchas tice andpursuitofmodernglobalnorms,asopposed sive rightsofanindividualasa“citizen” ofsocialjus- izenship.” Thisformofcitizenshipemphasizesinclu- ideals, and values, often known as “technological cit- a newpoliticalcultureinformedbymodernideas, access andparticipationhasledtotheemergenceof onstrate againsttheMubarakregime. come toTahrir Squareon25January, 2011, todem- Khaled SaidFacebookpageon14January2011,to tians tosimilarlymobilizebypostingontheKullena to followsuit.Wael GhonimchallengedtheEgyp- pened in Tunisia encouraged and enabled ment and were behind the creation of a popu In Egypt,membersofboththeApril6Youth Move- rights, socialjusticeandtransparency. gage inpublicdiscoursearoundnotionsofhuman islikelytoallowitscitizensfurtheren- al-Arabiyya), new satellite television channels (e.g., al-Jazeera and region and,togetherwiththeemergenceofmultiple transformed communicationsthroughouttheMENA and self-expression. configure patterns of participation, civil involvement, technologies enableoftendisconnectedyouthtore- ing feedbackbecomesthenorm,thesenew digital online content,andwheresharingideasexchang- one becomesnotonlyconsumerbutalsocreatorof By promptinginteractivityandparticipation,where gy areenablingtools. cially females, ICTs and social networking technolo- reform. Fortheregion’smanyyoungpeople,espe- p. 2011, 427, see 21, Issue November 35-38; p. 8 Accesstonewmediahas , Boston: Houghton Mifflin Har Mifflin Houghton , Boston: , Vol. 90, No. 3, May/June 2011, May/June 3, No. 90, , Vol. 9 11 This increased Thisincreased 10 What hap- 38. - - 2008. book grouptopromotetheprotestplannedfor6April faya oppositiongroup,whohelpedlaunchaFace- www.wired.com/dangerroom/tag/ahmed-maher/ Egypt atthetime. on Facebook, making it the largest youth movement in htm term. Ahmed Salah left Egypt in 2016 and now lives in exile in San Francisco. San in exile in lives 2016 now in and Egypt left Salah Ahmed term. 13 13 12 state abusesinthesummerof2010.Ghonim,Abdel focal pointforanumberoflargeprotestsagainst more thanonemillionsupportersandbecamethe police officersinAlexandria.Thispageattracted was beatentodeathon6June2010,bytwosecret images ofpoliticalbrutalityanddrugusewho memory of ayoungmanwhosecellphone contained lena KhaledSaid” (“We areallKhaledSaid”)in le executive,createdaFacebookpagecalled“Kul- In June2010,activists,ledbyWael Ghonim,aGoog- her andAhmedSalah, bring downtheMubarakregime.ItwasAhmedMa- ernment’s ubiquitoussecurityforces,and,later,help the Mubarakregime,mobilizesupport,evadegov- broadcast economicandpoliticalgrievancesagainst of activistswhousedthetoolssocialmediato April 6Youth Movement wasadecentralizednetwork Organized mostly online, especially on Facebook, the forces. violent confrontationbetweenworkersandsecurity killed, andthecitybecame,howeverbriefly, asiteof no majorprotestsensued,twoactivistworkerswere the EgyptiancityofMahallacalledastrike.Although On 6April2008,workersatAl-MahallaTextiles in fessors andstudentprotesters. groups of activists, opposition parties, lawyers, pro- Movement,” whichreferredtoaloosecoalitionofmany 2008. Hence the origin of the name: “April 6 Youth to textileworkerswhowereplanningastrikeon6April back totheKefaya Movement,whichgaveits support such socialmedia-drivenuprisingscanbetraced Agency, whoreturnedtoEgyptin2010.Therootsof the formerheadofInternationalAtomicEnergy lar FacebookgroupsupportingMohamedElBaradei, 18 18 17 16 15 14 Z Ibid., p. 36. p. Ibid., G Ahmed op. cit. of… op. Fall “The Dina. Shehata, Ibid. W h . Last accessed on 6 February, 2019. 6February, on accessed . Last h ol uo

oni m Maher was arrested by the el-Sisi regime on several occasions and on 4 January 2017, was freed after completing his three-year jail jail three-year his completing 2017, after freed 4January was on and occasions several on regime el-Sisi the by arrested was Maher , Xiaolin; , Xiaolin; 14 m an 12 , The movementattracted70,000members Wael , David. “All Posts Tagged Ahmed Maher: Did Egypt Detain a Top Facebook Activist?” Wired Activist?” aTop Facebook Detain Egypt Did Maher: Ahmed Tagged Posts “All , David. op. cit . op. W ell m 15 an ., p. 80. 80. p. ., , Barry and and Barry 13 youngmembersoftheKe Y , see especially p. 28. 28. p. especially , see u , Justine. “Egypt: The First Internet Revolt?” available at http://peacemagazine.org/archive/v27n3p06. at available Revolt?” Internet First The “Egypt: , Justine. . Last accessed on 21 June, 2001. 21 on June, accessed . Last - control andmoreindividualautonomy. “networked societies,” wherethereislessgroup newspapers –andtowardmorelooselystructured ganizations andmedia–suchasTV, radio,and societies, hastransformedawayfromtraditionalor- showed thatEgyptiansociety, muchlikeWestern ary 2011.Theseprotests,someexpertscontend, the long-reigningautocratfrompoweron11Febru- lent anti-Mubarakprotests that ledtothe removal of networks, andsocialmediatookshapeinnon-vio- es to potentially bringabout social change.” cal and social boundaries, and exploit more resourc- large anddiversifiednetworks,reachbeyondphysi- works, theInternet,andmobilephones“toaccess and womeninEgyptwereabletousesocialnet- pediting thedisseminationofinformation.Young men the costsofmobilizationandorganization,whileex- fordable accesstosocialmovementsbyreducing There is no denying that social media provides af- Effectiveness Media’s Social to Limits world action. tual andcyberactivismhadbeentransferredintoreal- evident thatthefearbarrierhadbeenbrokenandvir- out morethan8,000peopleon25June2010.Itwas These onlineactivists,includingmanybloggers,brought Facebook page. ists, while also posting on the the cornicheinCairoandAlexandriabyonlineactiv- 18 and 25 June and 9 July 2010, mainly organized at sciousness byorganizingseveral“Silent Stands” on brought theKhaledSaidcaseintopubliccon- Rahman Mansour,andmanyoftheircolleagues media tools have a catalytic role, as some observers media toolshaveacatalyticrole,assomeobservers likely togeneratesuccessfuluprisings.Whilenew networking. ThefactremainsthatTwitter aloneisun- important toguardagainsttheeuphoriaoversocial 16 The interactionoforganizedgroups, , 2 February, 2011, at available , 2February, Kullena Khaled Said 17 18 Yet it is

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 149 Social Movements, Digital Transformations and Changes in the MediterraneanDossier Region IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 150 Social Movements, Digital Transformations and Changes in the MediterraneanDossier Region Social Media,” International Studies Journal QfFAnmVOQqiBrbkWNZomfz5dMw www.hrw.org/news/2019/01/28/how-french-weapons-enable--abuses?fbclid=IwAR1XvTxqd-L8uQo-Vz0hB_rQBR1YLohTC at able Westview Press, 2015, p. 428. 2015, 428. p. Press, Westview 21 20 19 – usedtoolsofgrassrootsmobilization,including dent Morsi. –orthe“rebellion” movement a central factor contributing to the ousting of Presi- New formsofinternet-basedactivismprovedtobe how protests achieve their goals and online activism that to iscritical between off-line activity on the ground role, it isthe interdependencycatalytic While new media tools have a euphoria over networking. social to isimportant guardIt against the tably bloggersandactivists,inEgyptianjails. increasing numberofgovernmentcritics,mostno- human rightsNGOshaveraisedconcernsaboutthe nications andrestrainingsocialmovements.Many ferent surveillancesystemsforinterceptingcommu- French companiestosellEgyptianauthoritiesdif- Similarly, theFrenchgovernmenthasauthorized other regimeswithpoorhumanrightsrecords. same companyhassoldthisspyingtechnologyto dissent overtheInternetandmobilephones.The Muba­ (DPI) equipmentthatcouldhavebeenusedtohelp Internet serviceprovider]DeepPacketInspection nia– hadsoldEgypt[Telecom Egypt,thestate-run pany–Boeing-owned NarusofSunnyvale,Califor- a violentcrackdownagainstprotesters.AUScom- net andcellphonecommunications,beforestarting sorted tointernetcrackdowns,shuttingdowninter- In thecasesofIranandEgypt,governmentsre- critical tohowprotestsachievetheirgoals. line activityonthegroundandonlineactivismthatis have noted,itistheinterdependencybetweenoff- 24 24 23 22 York: Routledge, 2014, 92. p. York: Routledge, M H This C G M ou a o h ons section is based on mm os rr r rak’s regimetrack,targetandcrushpolitical y e h ett h , , Jina. “The Revolution Will be Blogged,” The Christian Science Monitor Blogged,” be Will Revolution “The , Jina. i , 28 February 2011, p. 32-37; see especially p. 34. p. 2011, especially 32-37; see p. February , 28 Time Revolution,” and Rap, “Rage, , Bobby. p Nadim and and Nadim ou , Melani; , Melani; r i Democratic Uprisings in the New Middle East: Youth, Technology, Human Rights, and US Foreign Policy Foreign US and Rights, Human Technology, Youth, East: Middle New the in Uprisings Democratic , Mahmood. D J iwan eanne , Ishac; , Ishac; M r ons o d Rights Human Abuses,” Egypt’s Enable Weapons French “How , Bénédicte. h R i p i ou ch . Accessed on 8 February, 2019. 8February, on . Accessed r a i rd , Mahmood and and Mahmood s , , Vol. 14, No. 4, Spring 2018, 37-57. p. Spring 4, 14,, Vol. No. Alan and and Alan W 19 ate P r 21 rb o mp u r i ch y 20 A Political Economy of the Middle East Middle the of Economy APolitical , John. ai

, Theodore. “Digital Activism in Perspective: Palestinian Resistance via terms withthecontradictoryeffectsofsocialmedia. sistance movementistosucceed,itshouldcome dia andnewplatforms.If,however,thePalestinianre- presence anddistributeinformationusingsocialme- ICT professionalstofurtherdevelopaninternet-based vestment, andsanctions(BDS)effortsworkwith Palestinian activistscontinuetopursueboycott,di- has alsofuelledviolenceandsectarianconflict.Pro- ternational condemnation ofIsraelioccupation but fractured thePalestinianpeople.Ithasfacilitatedin- Ironically, socialmediahassimultaneouslyunifiedand A Digital Resistance question remains:atwhatcosts? to informandfuelthe Palestinian resistance. But the ritories ofPalestine,socialmediatrendshavecome moderate majority.” that youngpeople“wereabigpartofthesilent, generation,” inreality, theseprotestshaveillustrated the formativeelementsofanewanddispossessed canism andthatthesevalueshavetherefore“become tural contextofreligiousradicalism and anti-Ameri held viewthatArabyouthareoftenraisedinacul- tion and civil disobedience. Contrary to the widely the largerstrategiesofnon-violence,non-coopera- sive regimesunderwhichtheyhavelivedthrough have cometoexpresstheiroppositiontherepres- More and more young people in the MENA region rooted withintheStateofIsrael’sstructuralandinsti- The persistenceofPalestinianresistanceisdeeply ousting byamilitarycoup. 2013 demonstrations that culminated in Morsi’s widespread campaignbecameacatalystforthe signatures werecollectedinamatterofweeks.This Created bythemembersofKefaya, nearly22 million collect signatures demanding Morsi’s resignation. the Internet,formalmedia,andstreetprotests,to , 4 July 2011, pp. 26-31; see especially p. 28. 28. p. 2011,, 4July especially 26-31; see pp. 23 Inthe case ofthe occupied ter- 22 , Fourth Edition, Boulder, CO: CO: Boulder, Edition, , Fourth , 28 January 2019. Avail January , 28 , New , New 24 - - University Press, 2016, 101-126. p. Press, University 25 25 oppression inthePalestinianterritories.Theircyberac- tactics ofIsraeliDefenseForcesoldiersandsystemic and documentationhavepresentedtheheavy-handed youth activismwithinjihadigroups,whoseactivities Increasingly, socialmediahasalso facilitatedarisein internally drivenengagementwiththeirfuture. Palestinians, awayfromexternallydrivenforcestoan aimed atdrasticallychangingthelocusofcontrolfor This shiftledtoavarietyofnewgrassrootsinitiatives on outsideactors,stakeholders,andinterestgroups. ing ownership oftheirdestinyandnotsimply relying damental changetotheirresistancestrategybytak ed Palestinian civil society groups to consider a fun- The collapseandfailure of the Oslo Accordsprompt- it servetoenhanceorconstrainthemovement? ance movement? And perhaps most importantly, does context ofsocialmedia,hadonthePalestinianresist What effecthastheArabSpringuprisings,within effect? WhatrolehasitplayedforthePalestinians? inate ideas,thoughseveralquestionsremain:To what ans a valuable tooltoeffectively organize anddissem- sion ofactivism.SocialmediaprovidedthePalestini- Israeli governmenttocounterthenew, digitaldimen- sistance movement,whilesimultaneouslyusedbythe adopted andeffectivelyutilizedbythePalestinianre- cation technology. Socialmediaplatformswere age, facilitatedbyadvancesininformationcommuni- there wasaworldwideexplosionofsocialmediaus- norm. ItwasshortlyafterthesecondIntifadathat half ofthePalestinianpeoplecouldnolongerbe tutional oppressionofitsneighbour.Passivityonbe- 29 29 28 27 26 tions Movement,” in in Movement,” tions ance for Palestine,” in in Palestine,” for ance gees worldwide. and recognitionoftheseveralmillionPalestinianrefu- estinian people,andacknowledgetherightofreturn construction, promoteequalityandequityforthePal- terminate Israelioccupationandexpandedsettlement ing internationaleffortstobreakthesiegeofGaza, establishing justiceandpeaceinPalestinebymobiliz- national campaign–and/orbetteryetinitiativefor in recentyearshasbeentheBDS,whichisaninter- such movementthathastakenongreatsignificance Macmillan, 2011, 245-261. p. Macmillan, M G N W M exel ons h ons es anna br h h S o i i even p p m c ou ou , Jess. “Health and Human Rights in Palestine: The Siege and Invasion of Gaza and the Role of the Boycott, Divestment and Sanc and Divestment Boycott, the of Role the and Gaza of Invasion and Siege The Palestine: in Rights Human and “Health , Jess. k , Shane; , Shane; r r . “My Blood is Palestinian (Dami Falasteeni) Translation.” YouTube i i , , Mahmood and and Mahmood Mahmood and and Mahmood M 26 ons M M ons ons h i p h h ou i i p p ou ou r P P i r r Human Rights in the Middle East: Frameworks, Goals, and Strategies and Goals, Frameworks, East: Middle the in Rights Human (ed.) , Mahmood r r o o i i , Mahmood (ed.) (ed.) , Mahmood , Mahmood and and , Mahmood mp mp i i ch ch ai ai , activism…, Theodore. “Digital cit op. , activism…, Theodore. “Digital cit. op. G Information Politics, Protests, and Human Rights in the Digital Age Digital the in Rights Human and Protests, Politics, Information h anna 25 m , Jess. “Grassroots Sanctions: A New Tool for Domestic and International Resist International and Domestic Tool for ANew Sanctions: “Grassroots , Jess. One One - - lence. million timesattheheightof2015Arab-Israelivio- Blood isPalestinian,” whichhadbeenviewedoverfour YouTube entitledDamiFalasteeni,translatedas“My Mohammad Assafcreatedamusicvideouploadedto over politicaloppression.Activist,musicianandrapper attracted artistsandactiviststovoicetheirconcerns some cases for better and in others for worse, it is not some casesforbetterandinothersworse,itisnot find avoice.WhiletheMENAregionhaschanged,in nology hasinfactenableddisenfranchisedgroupsto Our discussionsinthisessayhaveshownthattech- Ahead Looking nation ofoccupationandsettlements. movement andunderminingtheinternationalcondem- tinian conflicts,complicatingthePalestinianresistance certainly addednewdimensionstotheIsraeli-Pales rights. Theweaponizationofsocialmediaassuchhas by theIsraeliauthoritiestosystemicallyabusetheir ans intheoccupiedterritories,whileservingasacover threat hasadverselyaffectedthesecurityofPalestini- ficiently killthoseofJewishheritageorancestry. This and actedasaninstructionalvideoonhowtomostef- er-generated mediacontent,bothpromotedviolence Palestinian populacethankstothereadyaccessus- people. Thistypeofmedia,spreadwidelyamongthe correlated withanincreaseinviolenceagainstJewish video entitled“SlaughtertheJews” hasbeenstrongly State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and their use of a YouTube To makemattersworse,thegenesisofIslamic prompting moreaggressiveIsraelisecuritymeasures. are likely to dissuade negotiations and diplomacy while ternet-based activitiesofsuchextremistmovements platforms topushtheirownpoliticalagenda. News Agency,withinthemovementhaveusedthese tions, such astheQudsNews Network andShebab like FacebookandYouTube. darity from a grassroots level, facilitated by platforms tivities havegalvanizedthePalestiniansand builtsoli- . YouTube, 14 October 2015. Web. 27 June 2017.. YouTube, 2015. 27 June Web. 14 October 28 ., p. 50 p. ., , p. 50. , p. Itisalsoworthnotingthatseveralradicalfac- 27 Social media has also Social mediahasalso , New York: Cambridge , New York: Palgrave/ 29 The in- - - -

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 151 Social Movements, Digital Transformations and Changes in the MediterraneanDossier Region IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 152 Social Movements, Digital Transformations and Changes in the MediterraneanDossier Region and reforminthelongterm. much-needed energyandcreativitytoeffectchange that ayoungergenerationofactivistscangeneratethe against them.Manyintheregionstillremainhopeful tential tomobilizebroadersectionsofthepopulation rising erahavecometorecognizetheirabilityandpo- bleak, however,asnewrulingelitesinthepost-up outlook foryouthintheMENAregionisnotentirely led massive peaceful demonstrations in 2011, are still led massivepeacefuldemonstrations in2011,arestill in humanpoverty. wars, adecreaseinhumansecurity, andanincrease the regional level has been political instability, civil ceeded and some failed. On balance,theoutcomeat and dismaytothestreets.Somesuchprotestssuc- lations, especiallytheyouth,tooktheirfrustrations popu- totheGeziParkprotests(2013), ings (2011), “Green Revolution” (2009)tothe ArabSpringupris- of law, andconcernforhumanrights.FromIran’s comes to accountability, democratic values, the rule ures poorlyagainsttherestofworldwhenit The regionasawhole,oneexpertargues,meas- of transformation social ismoving direction the broader trajectory for worse, it isnot in which clear forin better some cases and in others region changed, While has the MENA mostly undertheguiseofcombatingterrorism. rights situationintheregion–havebeenjustified on politicalfreedoms–andtheresultantdirehuman ditions forthevastmajorityofpeople.Therestrictions and politicalrightsdeterioratingeconomiccon given waytodisillusionmentatthediminishingcivil The initialeuphoriaoftheArabSpringuprisingshas tious andcollectiveactionhaveneverbeenhigher. for thedynamicsofsustainedparticipationinconten- region looksdangerouslyunstableandyetthestakes which socialmovementsmustoperateintheMENA transformation ismoving.Thepoliticalcontextwithin clear in which direction the broader trajectory of social 31 30 book on Human Rights and the Middle East and North Africa North and East Middle the and Rights Human on book G A zza elvin m , Fateh. “Reflections on Three Decades of Human Rights Work in the Arab Region,” in in Region,” Arab the in Work Rights Human of Decades Three on “Reflections , Fateh. op. cit op. L. , James 31

Yet, youngmenandwomen,who ., p. 162-163. p. ., 30 , New York: Routledge, 2017, p. 463-473; see especially p. 465-466. p. 2017, especially see 463-473; p. York: Routledge, , New The - - Selected Bibliography Selected sharing processesandmechanisms. litical structures and the absence of new power- change isunlikelytooccurinthefaceofstagnantpo- more possiblethroughouttheMENAregion,positive tools havepotentiallymadesocialtransformation bility over the longer term. While newer technological authoritarian politicsarelikelytoleadmoreinsta- the economicillsoftheircountries,archaicand ment goodgovernancedirectedtowardaddressing On balance,unlesstheArabworld’sleadersimple- potentially harmfulconsequencesfortheircause. has been utilized by some radical groups could entail creasingly realizedthat the wayinwhichsocialmedia parts, the Palestinian resistance movements have in- view thatonlyrecentlyengulfedtheregion.Fortheir have allcasttheirdarkshadowsovertheoptimistic political tensionsinYemen, Bahrain,Libya,andSyria, led Egyptiangovernment,coupledwiththecontinuing and heavy-handedpoliciesenactedbythemilitary- a reversiontotheauthoritariantacticsofpast longing fornewpolitics.WiththeexceptionofTunisia, W S M G A n m ons h es d it oni 35-38, 2011. East Middle The Revolution,” Media Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012. Harcourt, Mifflin Houghton Boston: Power: in AMemoir People the than Greater Is sity Press, 2016,sity Press, 101-126. p. Age Digital the in Rights Human and Protests, Politics, Information Studies Social Movements,” East Middle the of Review G ies Journal ies sistance via Social Media,” International Stud “Digital Activism in Perspective: PalestinianRe for Palestine,” in in for Palestine,” Tool for Domestic and International Resistance e h br r , Pamela Ann and and Ann , Pamela h h son m o i anna p Revolution 2.0: The Power of People People of Power 2.0:The , Wael Revolution c ou k , Charles W. “Youth, ‘The Arab Spring,’ and and W. Spring,’ “Youth, Arab , Charles ‘The , Shane; , Shane; r , 74:150-156, 2013. 74:150-156, , m i , Mahmood and and , Mahmood , Jess. “Grassroots Sanctions: A New ANew Sanctions: “Grassroots , Jess. , 14: 37-57, 2018. T i r a d o , New York: Cambridge Univer York:, New Cambridge C M M h ons F ons ase euil , Anthony (ed.), Routledge (ed.), Hand , Anthony h h h i i p p P e ou ou r r a o r d r mp i e i , , , Peter. “Now, the i Mahmood (ed.), Mahmood Mahmood; and ch ai , Issue 427:, Issue , Theodore. , Theodore. - - - - ,